VVN Bhaskar* et al.

/ (IJITR) INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGY AND RESEARCH

Volume No. 1, Issue No. 1, December-January 2013, 046-053

HYDROGEN FUELLED IC ENGINE – AN

OVERVIEW
VVN BHASKAR Dr. R. HARI PRAKASH Dr. B. DURGA PRASAD
Associate Professor, Dept. of ME, Principal, Brahmaiaha College of Associate Professor, Dept of ME,
ACE, Madanapalle,A.P,India. Engineering, Nellore, A.P, India JNTUCE, Anantapur, A.P, India

Abstract- Hydrogen as a fuel in Internal Combustion engines is a solution for the near future to realize zero CO2 emissions for traffic
applications. The hydrogen fuelled IC engine is ready for that. The storage and production of hydrogen, and to build the necessary
infrastructure, are the real shortcomings in the general use of hydrogen in IC engines. This paper gives an overview of the development of
hydrogen fuelled IC engines by the most important car manufactures (Ford, BMW etc.). This overview indicates the evolution in the development
of hydrogen fuelled engines (different generation of engines). This evolution is also made at Ghent University. Ghent University has been
working for nearly 15 years on the development and optimization of hydrogen engines. Several test rigs are in function (all with electronic
control management systems and sequential multi-point injection).
Keywords - IC engines; hydrogen; emissions; backfire
II. HYDROGEN IC ENGINES – FOUR
I. INTRODUCTION
GENERATIONS
The incentives for a hydrogen economy are the
emissions, the potentially CO -free use, the sustainability and There are four generations in the development of
2
the energy security. In this paper the focus is on the use of hydrogen fuelled engines.
hydrogen in internal combustion engines (ICE), or more In the first generation a gas venturi is used. With a gas
precisely, hydrogen fuelled spark ignition (SI) engines. carburetor a large volume of combustible mixture is in the inlet
When talking about hydrogen as a fuel for traffic manifold. To avoid backfire (an explosion in the inlet manifold
applications, most people make the link to fuel cells. Why? before the inlet valve closes), the engine has to run lean (λ ≥ 2)
Why not a more realistic link to internal combustion engines? which results in a low power output.
At the moment the estimation of the number of motor vehicles For the second generation the same technologies are
is about 800 million. To replace them in a relatively short time used as for gasoline SI engines: multipoint sequential (port)
by fuel cells is impossible. There are several reasons for injection and electronic engine control. A possible strategy is
converting the gasoline, diesel or natural gas engines to then to use a late injection so that the admitted air will cool the
hydrogen fuelled internal combustion engines. ICEs are proven inlet manifold and the combustion chamber before the injection
technology, are simple and well-known and the adaptations can of hydrogen. These injectors are now currently commercially
be made with a low cost. During the transition period bi-fuel on the market (after a delay of introduction due to the high
solutions are possible (to run the engine either on gasoline or volume of a low density gas to inject in a short time). Even
pure hydrogen). For larger engines (buses, trucks) mixtures of with a late injection a stoichiometric mixture (λ = 1) is not
natural gas with hydrogen (about 20%) are easy to exploit. always possible and the power output is lower than a
During this transition period, experience can be gained with the corresponding gasoline engine, see e.g. Ford’s results reported
production, storage and infrastructure of hydrogen. by Tang et al. (2002).
For the third generation, at high loads, the mixture is
Currently the hydrogen production is the cheapest kept stoichiometric (λ = 1). To avoid backfire, exhaust gas
through the steam reforming of methane, but CO emissions recirculation (EGR) is used. At this stoichiometric mixture a
2
three way catalyst (TWC) can be used to decrease the NOx
cannot be avoided. Renewable energy, e.g. solar power,
emissions. And with turbo/supercharging and inter cooling the
hydroelectric, tidal etc., can give “CO -free” electricity to
2 same or a higher power output is obtained as for a gasoline
electrolyze water to hydrogen. The downside is that these engine, as demonstrated by BMW obtaining an indicated mean
electricity costs are mostly expensive. effective pressure (imep) of 18 bar – Berckmüller et al. (2003),
Interesting is also the application of peak shaving of and Ford reaching gasoline engine torque outputs with a boost
wind turbine power. Other possibilities are solar thermal, pressure of 1.85 bar – Natkin et al. (2003).
biomass, bacterial etc. Several solutions are possible for the Finally for the fourth generation, research is going on
hydrogen storage. Liquid storage gives a high mass density but into direct injection of hydrogen in SI engines, e.g. by BMW –
asks a high energy demand. Mostly used is the compressed Gerbig et al. (2004), Rottengruber et al. (2004).
storage, vessels with a compression pressure of 350 bar are
homologated and up to 700 bar are demonstrated. III. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH: LITERATURE
REVIEW

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Here, an overview is given of the design features in
which a dedicated hydrogen engine differs from traditionally
fuelled engines, following Verhelst (2005).
A. Abnormal combustion
The suppression of abnormal combustion in hydrogen
engines has proven to be quite a challenge and measures taken
to avoid abnormal combustion have important implications for
engine design, mixture formation and load control. For spark-
ignition engines, three regimes of abnormal combustion exist:
knock (auto-ignition of the end gas region), pre-ignition
(uncontrolled ignition induced by a hot spot, premature to the
spark ignition) and backfire (also referred to as backflash,
flashback and induction ignition, this is a premature ignition
during the intake stroke, which could be seen as an early form
of pre-ignition).
Backfire has been a particularly tenacious obstacle to the
development of hydrogen engines. The causes cited for
backfire are:
 Hot spots in the combustion chamber: deposits and
particulates - Bardon and Haycock (2002), MacCarley
(1981); the spark plug – Das (2002), Lucas and Morris
(1980); residual gas - Das (1996), Lucas and Morris
(1980), Berckmüller et al. (2003); exhaust valves -
Berckmüller et al. (2003) , Stockhausen et al. (2002),
Swain et al. (1988), TÜV Rheinland (1990) ; etc.
 Residual energy in the ignition circuit - Lucas and
Morris (1980), Kondo et al. (1997)
 Induction in the ignition cable - MacCarley (1981)
 Combustion in the piston top land persisting up to
inlet valve opening time and igniting the fresh charge -
Lucas and Morris (1980), Swain et al. (1996),
Koyanagi et al. (1994), Lee et al. (2000)
 Pre-ignition - Tang et al. (2002), MacCarley (1981),
Swain et al. (1988), Koyanagi et al. (1994), Lee et al.
(1995)
All causes itemized above can result in backfire and
the design of a hydrogen engine should try to avoid them, as
engine conditions different from normal operation are always a
possibility.
B. Air- Fuel Mixture formation
A range of mixture formation methods has been tested
for hydrogen engines, mostly in the pursuit of backfire-free
operation:
 External mixture formation with a gas carburetor -
Lucas and Morris (1980), Jing-Ding et al. (1986)
 External mixture formation with `parallel induction',
that is: some means of delaying the introduction of
hydrogen, e.g. a fuel line closed by a separate valve on
top of the intake valve that only opens when the intake
valve has lifted enough – Olavson et al. (1984)
 External mixture formation with a gas carburetor and
water injection - TÜV Rheinland (1990), Binder and
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Volume No. 1, Issue No. 1, December-January 2013, 046-053
Withalm (1982), sometimes with additional exhaust
gas recirculation (EGR) – Davidson et al. (1986)
 External mixture formation with timed manifold or
port fuel injection (PFI) - Tang et al. (2002),
MacCarley (1981), Berckmüller et al. (2003), Swain et
al. (1996), Lee et al. (1995), Natkin et al. (2003),
Heffel et al. (1998), sometimes also with some means
of ‘parallel induction’ – Heffel et al. (2001)
 Internal mixture formation through direct injection
(DI) – Meier et al. (1994), Furuhama (1997), Guo et
al. (1999), Kim et al. (1995)
During the last decade, only timed port injection and
direct injection (during the compression stroke or later) have
been used, as the other methods are less flexible and less
controllable. External mixture formation by means of port fuel
injection has been demonstrated to result in higher engine
efficiencies, extended lean operation, lower cyclic variation and
lower NOx production compared to direct injection – Smith et
al. (1995), Yi et al. (2000). An important advantage of DI over
PFI is the impossibility of backfire. This too increases the
maximum power output of DI compared to PFI as richer
mixtures can be used without fear of backfire. Pre-ignition can
still occur though, unless very late injection is used.
C. Load control strategies
Hydrogen is a very versatile fuel when it comes to
load control. The high flame speeds of hydrogen mixtures and
its wide flammability limits permit very lean operation and
substantial dilution. The engine efficiency and the emission of
NOx are the two main parameters used to decide the load
control strategy.
Constant equivalence ratio throttled operation has
been used but mainly for demonstration purposes – Olavson et
al. (1984), Davidson et al. (1986), as it is fairly easy to run a
lean burn throttled hydrogen engine (accepting the severe
power output penalty). Where possible, wide open throttle
(WOT) operation is used to take advantage of the associated
increase in engine efficiency – Heffel et al. (2001), Smith et al.
(1995), so regulating load with mixture richness (qualitative
control) instead of volumetric efficiency (quantitative control)
and thus avoiding pumping losses.
Across the load range of the engine, different
strategies, which try to make as much advantage as possible of
the properties of the hydrogen-air mixture, can be used. It is
important to know that NOx production is very dependent on
the mixture richness, the air-to-fuel equivalence ratio λ, as this
is the major parameter controlling the maximum combustion
temperature. At lean mixtures NOx production is very low until
a certain λ is reached, the so-called ‘NOx formation limit’. A
mixture richer than this limit, which is normally around λ = 2,
will produce high levels of NOx and a maximum will be
reached at about λ = 1.3. So, for loads below this ‘NOx
formation limit’, a quality-based mixture control will be used.
For idling and very low loads the mixture has to be very lean
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Volume No. 1, Issue No. 1, December-January 2013, 046-053
with WOT (λ > 4). At these lean mixtures the coefficient of
variation for imep (COV) is high due to the lower combustion
velocity and combustion stability. Therefore throttle control, in
order to enrich the mixture, is used at these loads. High
efficiencies of more then 40% are reported in this operating
range – Berckmüller et al. (2003). Depending on the mixture
formation, different methods can be use to control the engine at
high loads. Beyond the NOx formation limit throttled
stoichiometric operation with a reduction catalyst can be used,
as demonstrated by BMW – Rottengruber et al. (2004). This
catalyst for NOx reduction can be used with great efficiency (>
99.5%), because H , which is present in the exhaust feed gas at
2
λ = 1, is a highly efficient reducing agent. For higher
efficiency, EGR (0 – 50%) instead of throttling can be used in
this load range to control the amount of fresh air in the engine,
this has been reported by Ford – Natkin et al. (2003).
Efficiencies of 35% and 40% are reported for
respectively throttle and EGR control in this load range. If the
engine is charged, for loads above the naturally aspirated full
load limit, control is possible by regulating the charge pressure
while keeping a stoichiometric mixture. Another strategy
proposed by BMW is to use the common port injection for low
and part load, and direct injection for high loads – Rottengruber
et al. (2004). External mixture formation is advantageous
because of the better mixture preparation (mixing) and less
throttling requirements due to the lower volumetric efficiency.
NOx emissions of less than 1 ppm are reported with the use of
a normal three way catalyst in stoichiometric operation –
Natkin et al. (2003).
If a hydrogen engine is designed for single
speed/power operation, e.g. for stationary power generation or
for a series hybrid vehicle, very clean and highly efficient
operation is possible without any after treatment (of which the
effectiveness could deteriorate with time). NOx emissions
below 10 ppm or even 1 ppm, with indicated efficiencies of
perhaps 50 % are possible - Smith et al. (1995), Van Blarigan
(1996), Aceves and Smith (1997). Hydrogen is the only fuel
with which this is possible (with hydrocarbons, decreasing
NOx emission with lean burn implies increased unburned
hydrocarbon emissions).
D. Hydrogen SI engines
Here, an attempt is made to provide a comprehensive
overview of engine design features that make the most of
hydrogen's advantages and counter its disadvantages.
 Spark plugs: use cold rated spark plugs to avoid spark
plug electrode temperatures exceeding the auto-
ignition limit and causing backfire – Das (2002),
Kondo et al. (1997).
 Ignition system: avoid uncontrolled ignition due to
residual ignition energy by properly grounding the
ignition system or changing the ignition cable's
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electrical resistance - TÜV Rheinland (1990), Kondo
et al. (1997).
 Injection system: provide a timed injection, either
using port injection and programming the injection
timing such that an initial air cooling period is created
in the initial phase of the intake stroke and the end of
injection is such that all hydrogen is inducted, leaving
no hydrogen in the manifold when the intake valve
closes; or using direct injection during the
compression stroke.
 Hot spots: avoid hot spots in the combustion chamber
that could initiate pre-ignition or backfire, use cooled
exhaust valves; use multi-valve engine heads to
further lower the exhaust valve temperature –
Stockhausen et al. (2002), Swain et al. (1988), TÜV
Rheinland (1990).
 Piston rings and crevice volumes: decrease the piston
top land clearance to prevent hydrogen flames from
propagating into the top land.
 Valve seats and injectors: the very low lubricity of
hydrogen has to be taken into account, suitable valve
seat materials have to be chosen – Stockhausen et al.
(2002), TÜV Rheinland (1990), and the design of the
injectors should take this into account.
 Lubrication: an engine lubrication oil compatible with
increased water concentration in the crankcase has to
be chosen.
 Crankcase ventilation: positive crankcase ventilation
is generally recommended due to unthrottled operation
(high manifold air pressures) and to decrease
hydrogen concentrations (from blowby) in the
crankcase - Stockhausen et al. (2002), Strebig and
Waytulonis (1987).
 Compression ratio: this should be chosen as high as
possible to increase engine efficiency, with the limit
given by increased heat losses or appearance of
abnormal combustion (in the case of hydrogen
primarily pre-ignition).
 In-cylinder turbulence: because of the high flame
speeds of hydrogen, low turbulence combustion
chambers (pancake or disk chamber and axially
aligned symmetric intake port) can be used which are
beneficial for the engine efficiency – Swain et al.
(1988), Swain et al. (1996), Van Blarigan (1996).
 Electronic throttle: as stated above, hydrogen engines
should be operated at wide open throttle wherever
possible, but throttling is needed at very low loads to
maintain combustion stability and limit unburned
hydrogen emissions. At medium to high loads,
throttling might be necessary to limit NOx emissions.
This can only be realized with a drive-by-wire system
.
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Volume No. 1, Issue No. 1, December-January 2013, 046-053
IV. ADVANTAGES OF HYDROGEN FOR SPARK The very first work done was basically a proof of
IGNITION ENGINES concept. Simply put, a direct injection diesel engine was taken
(Valmet inline four, 4.4 liter), the diesel fuel injectors were
replaced by spark plugs, the compression ratio was lowered
(from 16:1 to 8.7:1) by installing different pistons and a gas
carburetor was mounted – Sierens (1992). The influence of
engine parameters on the combustion of hydrogen was studied
using heat release analysis of cylinder pressure measurements –
Sierens and Rosseel (1996). The study of the cylinder pressure
prior and during the occurrence of backfire showed a runaway
pre-ignition to lead to backfire - Sierens and Rosseel (1998).
The pre-ignition was mostly accompanied by engine knock and
a knock detection algorithm based on cylinder pressure data
was proposed to avoid knock and backfire – Rosseel and
Sierens (1997). The gas carburetor was eventually replaced by
Fig 1: Flammability limits for air with hydrogen (H ), a sequential injection system, involving the testing of gas
2
air with natural gas (CH ) and air with gasoline injectors for hydrogen (at the time not commercially available
4 and unreliable) – Sierens and Rosseel (1995).
Fig. 1 gives the flammability limits for
different fuels at normal temperature and pressure. As
can be seen the flammability limits (= possible
mixture compositions for ignition and flame
propagation) are very wide for hydrogen (between 4
and 75% hydrogen in the mixture) compared to
gasoline (between 1 and 7.6%). This means that the
load of the engine can be controlled by the air to fuel
ratio, as for diesel engines. Nearly all the time the
engine can be run with a wide open throttle, resulting
in a higher efficiency.
The second advantage of hydrogen for SI
engines is the high burning velocity. For near-
stoichiometric mixtures (near λ = 1/ φ = 1) the
combustion is almost a constant-volume combustion,
which increases the (thermodynamic) efficiency. Also
the properties of lean hydrogen flames will cause
flame acceleration due to cellularity and no turbulence Fig 2: Power output of the Valmet engine fuelled with natural
enhancing methods have to be used (swirl ports, etc.). gas or hydrogen
Again this increases the efficiency of the engine.
Furthermore, hydrogen has a high octane It is clear that the Valmet engine with the gas
number and the compression ratio of the engine can be carburetor is of the first generation. These tests have proved
increased. This, of course, increases the efficiency. that it is not difficult to run an engine on hydrogen (under lean
Finally the emissions of a hydrogen engine are very conditions). But it has shown at the same time that special
clean, only the noxious component NOx is emitted. attention is necessary for the power output, the NOx emissions
and the backfire problem. The original Valmet diesel engine
V.RESEARCH AT THE LABORATORY OF TRANSPORT has a power output of 64 kW, which can be reached also with
TECHNOLOGY, UGENT natural gas (CH ) but not at all with hydrogen (due to the lean
4

The laboratory of Transport Technology at Ghent conditions to avoid backfire), see Fig. 2 – Sierens (1992, 1993).
University is working nearly 15 years on the development and Figure 3 shows the NOx emissions again for natural gas and
optimization of hydrogen engines. Results of the hydrogen – Sierens (1992, 1993). At a certain air-fuel ratio the
experimentally work are extensively published. NOx emissions for hydrogen are higher than for natural gas

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 VVN Bhaskar* et al. / (IJITR) INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGY AND RESEARCH
(and gasoline). Only at very lean mixtures (λ ≥ 2), the level
becomes acceptably low.
Fig 3: NOx emissions of the Valmet engine
The backfire phenomenon is shown in Fig. 4 –
Sierens and Rosseel (1998). Successive pressure cycles are
shown, indicating the runaway pre-ignition till finally the pre-
ignition occurs before the inlet valve closure (IVC) (cycle 32)
resulting in the explosion of the mixture in the inlet manifold
Fig 4: Individual pressure curves of the runaway pre-ignition
This (extended) proof of concept on the Valmet
engine has indicated the focus of all further research on
hydrogen fuelled internal combustion engines:
 backfire safe operation
 increase of the power output
 decrease of the NOx emissions
Next a General Motors type 454 engine (better known
as the Chevrolet “Big Block”) was adapted for gaseous fuels.
The engine was initially equipped with a gas carburetor and
experiments were carried out with natural gas, mixtures of
natural gas and hydrogen, and pure hydrogen – Sierens and
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Volume No. 1, Issue No. 1, December-January 2013, 046-053
Rosseel (2000). Then a multipoint sequential injection system
was installed with a programmable motor management (second
generation), Fig. 5.
Fig5: GM engine: view on the multipoint sequential injection
system
Attention was given to a qualitative control of the load
(variation of the richness of the hydrogen-air mixture),
beneficial for the engine efficiency compared to a quantitative
control using a throttle valve. Also injection duration and
ignition maps were optimized, crankcase ventilation and
supercharging were applied – Sierens (1999), Sierens and
Verhelst (2000).
A single cylinder CFR engine (fixed speed of 600
rpm, variable compression ratio) has been initially equipped
with a gas carburetor (first generation), then with a sequential
injector (second generation) and is now working with a
sequential injector (and MoTeC control unit), exhaust gas
recirculation (EGR) and three way catalyst (third generation).
Detailed studies are carried out:
 Pressure measurements in the combustion chamber as a
function of load (λ-value), compression ratio, ignition
timing etc.
 Influence of the position of the injector and start of
injection on the power output and efficiency.
 NOx reduction strategies
Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is an effective means
for NOx reduction and an especially interesting option at
stoichiometric operation as the high NOx reduction efficiency
of a standard three-way catalyst (TWC) can then be exploited.
Furthermore, one could vary the engine power output by
changing the amount of recycled exhaust gas, instead of
throttling, thus avoiding engine efficiency penalties.
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Fig 6: Test rig CFR engine with EGR
Two more engines are now fully operated. A one-
cylinder research engine from the, at that time, Audi-NSU, and
further referred to as Audi engine (engine speed 1000 – 4500
rpm).The schematic arrangement of the engine test bench is
seen in Fig. 6
The engine is equipped with a high pressure
transducer and two injectors (for one cylinder). The ignition-
and injection timing are controlled by a MoTeC M4 Pro control
unit. Initial results are given by Verstraeten et al. (2004). The
same measurements and studies as for the CFR engine will be
carried out: pressure measurements, backfire studies, exhaust
gas recirculation, catalyst studies, supercharging.
The latest engine is a Volvo V40 engine, adapted for
bi-fuel operation: gasoline or hydrogen (ignition- and injection
timing also controlled by a MoTeC control unit.
VI.CONCLUSIONS
This paper has indicated the advantages of hydrogen
as a fuel for spark ignited internal combustion engines and has
shown that the hydrogen engine is growing up. An overview is
given of the development by car manufacturers and also of the
research at the laboratory of Transport Technology, Ghent
University. Finally an extended overview is given of the design
features in which a dedicated hydrogen engine differs from
traditionally fuelled engines.
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