1.

WATER QUALITY THEORETICAL ASPECTS

Water quality refers to the chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of water that determine its
suitability for specific uses. Based on its source, water can be divided into ground water and surface water.
Both types of water can be exposed to contamination risks from agricultural, industrial, and domestic
activities, which may include many types of pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, fertilizers,
hazardous chemicals, and oils. Safeguarding water quality in distribution systems involves addressing these
potential chemical and biological threats to ensure the provision of safe and healthy drinking water

Water can be classified into three types based on its quality:

1. Potable water: It is safe to drink, pleasant to taste, and usable for domestic purposes
2. Contaminated (polluted) water: is water containing unwanted physical, chemical, biological, or
radiological substances that is unfit for drinking or domestic use.
3. Infected water: is water contaminated with pathogenic organism

2 WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS

Water can be contaminated by natural processes (e.g., weathering of rocks, microbial activity) and human
activities (e.g., industrial discharges, agricultural runoff, sewage discharge).

There are three types of water quality parameters physical, chemical, and biological. They are summarized
in the table below.
 2.1 Physical Parameters

 Turbidity

Turbidity refers to the cloudiness of water caused by suspended materials such as organic matter, clay, silt,
and particulate matter. High turbidity affects aesthetics, water treatment costs, and can provide hiding places
for harmful microorganisms.

 Temperature

Water temperature indirectly affects water quality by influencing factors such as palatability, viscosity,
solubility, odor, disinfection processes, biological oxygen demand, and the behaviour of heavy metals in
water.

 Taste and Odor

Taste and odor affect the aesthetic qualities of water and can be caused by the presence of natural,
domestic, or agricultural foreign matter.

 Total Solids (TS) and Electrical Conductivity (EC):

Electrical conductivity and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) are closely related parameters used in water quality
analysis to assess the concentration of dissolved substances in water.

Solids in water quality refer to various suspended or dissolved particles present in water. These solids can
originate from natural sources or result from human activities. Here are different types of solids commonly
encountered in water quality analysis:

a. Suspended Solids

Suspended solids are solid particles that are not dissolved in water but remain suspended in the water
column. They can include sediment, silt, clay, organic matter, and other particles. High levels of suspended
solids can cause water turbidity, reduce light penetration, and negatively impact aquatic ecosystems.
Suspended solids can also carry pollutants and affect water treatment processes.

b. Total Suspended Solids (TSS)

Total Suspended Solids refers to the measurement of all suspended particles, both organic and inorganic, in
a water sample. TSS is an essential parameter for assessing water quality, especially in terms of sediment
runoff, pollution levels, and the effectiveness of water treatment processes.

c. Dissolved Solids

Dissolved solids are substances that have completely dissolved in water and are not visible to the naked
eye. They can include minerals, salts, metals, organic compounds, and other dissolved substances. High
levels of dissolved solids can affect the taste, odor, and overall palatability of drinking water. Additionally,
certain dissolved solids such as heavy metals may pose health risks if present above recommended levels.

d. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

Total Dissolved Solids is a measurement of all dissolved substances in water, including minerals, salts, and
other dissolved compounds. TDS can impact water quality, particularly in terms of its suitability for drinking,
irrigation, and industrial processes. Excessive TDS can lead to issues such as scaling in pipes and reduced
water quality for specific uses. Water can be classified by the amount of TDS per litre as follows:
Electrical conductivity (EC) measures the ability of water to conduct an electric current and is influenced by
the concentration of dissolved ions and minerals. It provides an indication of the overall dissolved ion
content in water. Higher concentrations of dissolved ions result in higher electrical conductivity.

Electrical conductivity and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) are closely related in water quality assessment.
They have a linear relationship, where higher electrical conductivity indicates higher TDS levels. Both
parameters provide valuable information about dissolved substance concentrations, salinity, and potential
contamination in water. Elevated electrical conductivity and TDS levels can indicate increased mineral
content, pollution, or salt presence, impacting water usability, taste, and aquatic life.

2.2 Chemical Parameters

 pH

pH is a fundamental water quality parameter that measures the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. It quantifies
the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in water. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, where pH 7 is
considered neutral. Values below 7 indicate acidity, while values above 7 indicate alkalinity.

The pH of water is influenced by various factors, including dissolved minerals, gases, organic matter, and
human activities. It is an important indicator of water quality as it affects the behaviour and availability of
chemicals and nutrients, the effectiveness of disinfection processes, and the potential for corrosion in water
distribution systems.

 Hardness

Hardness is a term used to express the properties of highly mineralized waters. The dissolved minerals in
water cause problems such as scale deposits in hot water pipes. Calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+)
ions cause the greatest portion of hard-ness in naturally occurring waters that enter water mainly from
contact with soil and rock, particularly limestone deposits. These ions are present as bicarbonates,
sulphates, and sometimes as chlorides and nitrates.

 Chlorine Residual

Chlorine (Cl2) does not occur naturally in water but is added to water and waste water for disinfection. While
chlorine itself is a toxic gas, in dilute aqueous solution, it is not harmful to human health. In drinking water, a
residual of about 0.2 mg/L is optimal. The residual concentration which is maintained in the water
distribution system ensures good sanitary quality of water. Chlorine can react with organics in water forming
toxic compounds called trihalomethanes or THMs, which are carcinogens such as chloroform CHCl3.
  Dissolved Oxygen (DO):

Dissolved Oxygen (DO) is a critical water quality parameter that measures the amount of oxygen gas
dissolved in water. It is essential for the survival of aquatic organisms and plays a significant role in various
ecological processes. DO levels in water are influenced by factors such as temperature, pressure, salinity,
and the presence of photosynthetic organisms.

 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) are important water quality
parameters used to assess organic pollution and the oxygen-consuming capacity of water bodies.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD):

BOD measures the amount of dissolved oxygen required by microorganisms to decompose organic matter
in water through biological processes. It indicates the level of organic pollution and the potential for oxygen
depletion in aquatic ecosystems. High BOD levels suggest a significant presence of organic pollutants,
such as untreated sewage or industrial effluents, which can degrade water quality and harm aquatic life.
BOD is typically measured over a specific period (e.g., 5 days) and is expressed as BOD5.

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):

COD measures the amount of oxygen required to chemically oxidize both biodegradable and non-
biodegradable organic compounds in water. It provides a broader assessment of organic pollution,
including substances that may not be degraded by biological processes. COD is a useful parameter for
industrial wastewater analysis and can indicate the presence of toxic or non-biodegradable pollutants.
Unlike BOD, COD is not limited to a specific time frame and provides a more comprehensive estimation of
organic pollution in water.

 Toxic Inorganic and Organic Substances

Toxic substances in water can be categorized as toxic organic and toxic inorganic substances. Toxic organic
substances include carbon-containing compounds like pesticides, herbicides, solvents, PCBs, dioxins, and
VOCs. They can pose health risks and harm the environment. Toxic inorganic substances, such as heavy
metals (lead, mercury, etc.), cyanide, fluoride, and nitrate/nitrite, do not contain carbon atoms in their
structure. These substances can enter water sources through industrial activities, mining, and improper
waste disposal. They can have adverse effects on human health and ecosystems. Monitoring, control
measures, and responsible waste management are essential for ensuring safe water quality.

 Radioactive Substances

Radioactive substances in water can come from sources such as nuclear power plants, industries, medical
research, and mining of radioactive materials. These substances decay and emit beta, alpha, and gamma
radiation, which can cause genetic and somatic damage to living tissues. Radon gas, a major concern,
occurs naturally in groundwater and can be inhaled during activities like showering. Drinking water standards
address alpha particles, beta particles, photon emitters, radium-226 and -228, and uranium.

2.3 Biological Parameters

Biological indicators are organisms used to assess water quality. They include macroinvertebrates, fish,
algae, phytoplankton, benthic macroinvertebrates, and microorganisms. These indicators reflect the health of
aquatic ecosystems and provide insights into pollution levels, habitat quality, nutrient enrichment, and fecal
contamination. Monitoring these indicators helps identify pollution sources, evaluate the effectiveness of
control measures, and make informed decisions to protect water quality.
3 WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT

3.1 Water Quality Assessment Methods

Regular assessments enable authorities to detect and mitigate risks, ensure compliance, and make
informed decisions about water allocation and conservation. Water quality can be assessed through in-situ
measurements directly at the sampling location or through laboratory analysis.

3.1.1 Physical assessment

 Colour and Turbidity

The colour of a water sample can be reported as apparent colour or true colour which is measured after
filtering the water sample to remove all suspended material, Colour is graded on scale of 0 (clear) to 70
colour units. Pure water is colourless, which is equivalent to 0 colour units.

Turbidity is measured by quantifying the amount of light scattered or absorbed by suspended particles. High
turbidity levels can impact water clarity, interfere with light-dependent processes, and indicate potential
pollution or sediment runoff.

 Solids

Solids can be identified by using a glass fibre filter that the water sample passes through. By definition, the
suspended solids are retained on the top of the filter and the dissolved solids pass through the filter with the
water. The figure below summarizes the interrelationship of solids found in water.
 3.1.2 Chemical Assessment

 Chlorine Residual

Chlorine residual is normally measured by a colour comparator test kit or spectrophotometer which is a
method to measure how much a chemical substance absorbs light by measuring the intensity of light as a
beam of light passes through sample solution

 Dissolved Oxygen

Regular monitoring of DO levels helps identify areas of concern, assess the effectiveness of management
strategies, and inform decision-making to protect water resources and the organisms that depend on them.

There are three main methods used for measuring dissolved oxygen concentrations:  basic chemical
analysis method (titration method), an electrochemical analysis method (diaphragm electrode method), and
a photochemical analysis method (fluorescence method).

 Dissolved Ions

Assessing the levels of dissolved ions in water is an important aspect of water quality analysis. The
presence and concentration of certain ions can indicate the suitability of water for various purposes, such as
drinking, irrigation, or industrial use. Here are some commonly assessed dissolved ions and their
significance in water quality assessment:

Water quality parameters can be measured using various techniques:

1. pH: Measured using a pH meter or pH indicator strips.

2. Calcium and Magnesium: measured using calorimetric titration methods or chelating agents.
3. Nitrate and Nitrite: Measured using colorimetric, titrimetric, or electrometric methods
4. Carbonate and Bicarbonate: Determined by acid-base titration methods.
5. Iron and manganese: measured by many instrumental methods such as atomic absorption
spectrometry, flame atomic absorption spectrometry, cold vapour atomic absorption
spectrometry, and electro thermal atomic absorption spectrometry.
6. Heavy Metals: measured using techniques such as atomic absorption photometers,
spectrophotometer, or inductively coupled plasma (ICP) for very low concentration

These methods provide valuable information about water quality and help assess its suitability for various
purposes. It’s important to note that acceptable levels of these ions vary depending on the intended use of
the water and local regulations. Water quality testing and analysis laboratories can provide detailed
assessments and comparisons against relevant guidelines to determine the suitability of water for specific
purposes.

3.2 Instrumentation Response time

Water quality instrumentation response time refers to the duration it takes for an instrument to provide a
measurement after a sample is taken or the analysis process is initiated. The response time of water quality
instruments can vary significantly depending on the specific parameter being measured and the instrument's
design and capabilities. Instruments designed for instantaneous measurements, such as pH meters or
temperature sensors, can provide results within seconds, allowing for real-time monitoring and immediate
data collection. These instruments are particularly valuable in situations that require quick decision-making
or when rapid changes in water quality need to be detected. However, certain measurements, especially
those involving complex chemical analyses or sample preparation, may have longer response times. For
instance, nutrient analysis or comprehensive chemical assessments may require hours or even days to
complete. These measurements often involve additional steps such as sample processing, filtration,
digestion, or chemical reactions before the final measurement can be obtained. It is important for
researchers and practitioners to consider the response time of water quality instruments when selecting the
appropriate tools for their monitoring needs, as it can impact the timeliness and reliability of the data
obtained.
4 Water Quality Improvement Methods

Improving water quality involves implementing various strategies and technologies to mitigate pollution and
maintain or restore the desired water quality standards. Here are some common methods for water quality
improvement:

4.1 Source Control:

- Managing industrial discharges: Industries can implement measures such as installing treatment systems,
implementing cleaner production techniques, and adhering to strict discharge regulations to minimize the
release of pollutants into water bodies.

- Best management practices in agriculture: Farmers can use precision agriculture techniques, proper
nutrient management plans, and conservation practices like cover cropping and crop rotation to reduce the
runoff of fertilizers and pesticides into nearby waterways.

- Controlling urban storm water runoff: Green infrastructure practices, such as green roofs, rain gardens,
and bioswales, can be employed to capture and treat storm water runoff on-site, reducing the amount of
pollutants entering water bodies.

4.2 Wastewater Treatment

- Physical treatment: Physical processes like screening, sedimentation, and filtration are used to remove
larger solids, suspended particles, and debris from wastewater.

- Chemical treatment: Chemical processes, such as coagulation and disinfection, are employed to remove
or neutralize contaminants like heavy metals and pathogens.

- Biological treatment: Biological processes, such as activated sludge treatment and constructed wetlands,
utilize microorganisms to break down organic matter and remove nutrients from wastewater.

4.3 Watershed Management

A watershed is an area of land where all the water, including rainfall and runoff, drains into a common outlet
such as a river, lake, or ocean. Here are some key aspects of watershed management:

- Land use practices: Implementing measures like contour plowing, terracing, and strip cropping can
minimize soil erosion, reducing the sediment and nutrient load in runoff.

- Riparian zone protection: Riparian zones are the areas along rivers, streams, and other water bodies.
Protecting and restoring these zones is vital for maintaining water quality. Planting and maintaining
vegetated buffer zones along water bodies help filter runoff, reduce erosion, and provide habitat for wildlife.
They also promote the infiltration of water, preventing excess runoff and reducing the transport of pollutants
into waterways.

- Erosion control measures: Techniques like sediment traps, silt fences, and erosion control blankets can be
employed to prevent soil erosion and the transport of sediment into water bodies.

- Sustainable agriculture: Encouraging practices like precision irrigation, agroforestry, and integrated pest
management can minimize the use of fertilizers and pesticides, reducing their runoff into waterways.
 4.4 Wetland Restoration

- Wetland creation: Constructing new wetlands or restoring degraded wetlands can help improve water
quality by providing a natural environment for sedimentation, nutrient uptake, and the removal of pollutants.

- Hydrological management: Adjusting water flow and management practices in restored wetlands can
optimize their pollutant removal capacity and enhance their overall effectiveness.

- Conservation and preservation: Protecting existing wetlands from development and pollution ensures their
continued contribution to water quality improvement.

4.5 Storm water Management:

- Retention ponds: Constructing ponds that capture and temporarily store stormwater runoff allows
sediments to settle, and pollutants to be filtered out before the water is discharged.

- Infiltration basins: These shallow depressions allow stormwater to infiltrate into the soil, promoting natural
filtration and groundwater recharge.

- Permeable pavements: Using permeable materials for roads, sidewalks, and parking lots allows
stormwater to infiltrate through the pavement, reducing runoff and facilitating pollutant removal.

- Vegetated swales: These shallow, vegetated channels help slow down and filter stormwater runoff,
promoting sediment and pollutant removal before reaching water bodies.

Implementing these strategies requires collaboration among various stakeholders, including government
agencies, industries, farmers, and communities. By integrating these measures into water management
plans and policies, we can work towards a sustainable and pollution-free water future.

5 Water Quality Modeling and Calibration for Planning Purposes

5.1 Water Quality Models

Water quality models play a crucial role in understanding and predicting the variations of chemical
substances in water distribution networks. These models combine reaction kinetics, which describe how
chemicals react and transform in water, with the hydraulic behaviour of the network.

Here are some key points about water quality models and their applications:

1. Simulating Spatial and Temporal Variations

Water quality models consider the spatial distribution of the network, including pipes, tanks, and reservoirs,
and simulate the movement and transformation of chemical substances within the system. By accounting for
the hydraulic behaviour and the reactions occurring within the water, these models can predict the
concentrations of substances at different locations and times.

2. Designing Sampling and Monitoring Programs

Water quality models assist in designing effective sampling and monitoring programs. By simulating the
distribution of chemical substances, they can identify critical sampling locations and frequencies, helping to
optimize the collection of data for water quality assessment. This information is valuable for monitoring
compliance with regulations, detecting potential contamination events, and identifying areas of concern.
 3. Optimizing the Disinfection Process

Water disinfection is a crucial step in ensuring safe drinking water. Water quality models can be used to
optimize the disinfection process by simulating the reactions between disinfectants and pathogens or other
contaminants. By understanding how different disinfection strategies affect water quality, such as the use of
chlorine or UV treatment, models can help determine the most efficient and effective disinfection approach.

4. Calibration of Hydraulic Simulation Models

Water quality models can improve the calibration of hydraulic simulation models by incorporating water
quality data. By comparing simulated concentrations with measured values, the model parameters can be
adjusted to better represent the real system. This calibration process ensures that the hydraulic and water
quality models work together to provide accurate predictions of water quality dynamics.

5. Predicting Deterioration of Water Quality

Water quality models can assist in predicting the deterioration of water quality over time. By considering
factors such as water age, temperature, and chemical reactions, these models can forecast the long-term
impacts on water quality, including the accumulation of disinfection by-products, nutrient enrichment, or
changes in pH. This information can guide proactive measures to maintain and improve water quality.

5.2 EPANET MSX

EPANET-MSX, which stands for Multi-Species Extension, is a water quality model that operates within the
EPANET 2 software. EPANET is a widely used hydraulic simulation model for analysing and simulating
water distribution networks. EPANET-MSX extends the capabilities of EPANET by incorporating the
analysis of multiple chemical substances simultaneously. The model allows for the simulation of various
chemical and biological constituents in water, accommodating the complexities associated with different
water sources and quality variations.

The application of multi-species water quality models, such as EPANET-MSX, is particularly relevant for
addressing real-world water quality problems that involve intricate scenarios. For instance, the model can
simulate the reactions of chlorine in distribution networks, which is crucial for understanding disinfection
processes. It can also assess chloramine decay, providing insights into the stability of chloramine as a
disinfectant. Furthermore, EPANET-MSX enables predictions of the reactivity of water supplied from
different points, aiding in the analysis of water quality variations within a distribution network.

5.3 Maintenance of the Calibrated Water Quality Model

Maintaining a calibrated water quality model, such as EPANET-MSX, involves several important
considerations to ensure its ongoing accuracy and reliability. One key aspect is effective data management,
which includes updating and managing input data related to the network layout, pipe characteristics, water
demand patterns, and water quality parameters. Any changes in the network or system operation should be
reflected in the model to maintain its accuracy.

Regularly reviewing the calibration of the model is crucial. This involves comparing the model predictions
with field measurements or historical data to identify any discrepancies. If necessary, recalibrating the model
parameters can improve its accuracy. Additionally, collecting new field data at different locations within the
distribution network helps validate the model and identify areas for improvement. Keeping the model up to
date is essential.

Incorporating system changes into the model is also vital for maintaining its relevance. Any modifications in
the pipe networks, pump configurations, tank operations, or other system components should be reflected in
the model to ensure accurate simulation and prediction of water quality.
Additionally, detailed documentation of the model, including the calibration process, data sources,
assumptions, and any modifications made, is crucial. This documentation helps understand the model's
history, facilitates knowledge transfer, and ensures consistency when working with the model.

By following these maintenance practices, a calibrated water quality model can remain accurate and
reliable over time, providing valuable insights into the behaviour of the water distribution system and its
water quality dynamics.
References

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2012. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/aduniv-ebooks/detail.action?
docID=932831.

2. AWWA, Staff. Water Quality, American Water Works Association, 2009.  ProQuest Ebook Central,
https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/aduniv-ebooks/detail.action?docID=3116743.

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4. Hassan Omer, Nayla. ‘Water Quality Parameters’. Water Quality - Science, Assessments and Policy,
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5. Wu X, Tong R, Wang Y, Mei C, Li Q. Study on an Online Detection Method for Ground Water Quality
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