BUILDING SERVICES

What is/are Building Services?

Building services are the systems installed in buildings to make them comfortable, functional,
efficient and safe.
 Building should be designed in such a way to provide an environment where people can feel
comfortable, work, live and achieve.
 So, everything inside a building which makes it safe and comfortable, comes under the title of
“Building Services”
 A building must do what it was designed to do-not just provide shelter but also provide a safe,
comfortable and livable environment.
 Building services contribute largely to the sustainability and functioning of the building.
 Building services systems are essential provisions for a building, accounting for 20% to 40%
of the total construction cost.
The building should offer comfort to the occupants through the installation of the different building
services including water supply systems, electrical and telecommunication e.g. power lighting
systems and fire protection systems and HVACs. The reason why hotels charge highly is because
of the installed building services that people desire to have. Therefore in this course we shall study
the different building services like water supply, drainage and sanitation, electrical installation,
ventilation, refrigeration, Air conditioning, Heating and cooling systems.

MODULE 1. Water Supply in a Building

The water process model

1
Sources of Water supply
The water cycle - technically known as the hydrologic cycle - is the continuous circulation of water
within the Earth's hydrosphere, and is driven by solar radiation (Figure 1).This includes the
atmosphere, land, surface water and groundwater.
Surface sources; lakes, streams, rivers, reservoirs, run-off from roofs and paved areas.
Underground sources; shallow wells, deep wells, artesian wells, artesian springs, land springs.
Rainwater -collected from roofs of houses or from surface runoff areas.

As water moves through the cycle, it changes state between liquid, solid, and gas phases. Water
moves from compartment to compartment, such as from river to ocean, by the physical processes
of evaporation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and subsurface flow.
The origin of all sources of water is rainfall, Water can be collected as it falls as rain before it
reaches the ground; or as surface water when it flows over the ground or is pooled in lakes or
ponds; or as ground water when it percolates into the ground and flows or collects as ground water;
or from the sea into which it finally flows. Surface waters are physically and microbial

2
contaminated and cannot be used without treatment, on the other hand ground water sources are
chemically contaminated and treatment may be necessary in many cases.

QUALITY OF WATER
Rainwater is contaminated by suspended impurities as it falls through the air. These impurities
are principally carbon dioxide, sulphur and nitrous oxides originating from domestic flue gases
and industrial manufacturing processes. The mixture of these impurities and rainfall produces `acid
rain', an occurrence frequently blamed for the destruction of plant life.
Surface and substrata water sources is contaminated by dissolved inorganic materials such as
calcium, magnesium and sodium. These are responsible for water hardness. Organic matter from
decaying vegetation, animals and untreated waste water can also contaminate ground water
supplies. These are normally associated with ammonia compounds in the water or bacteria. Certain
types of bacteria present in water can be responsible for outbreaks of typhoid, cholera and

3
dysentery. Chlorination is applied to filtered water to destroy any remaining bacterial microbes
before general distribution through service reservoirs and mains.
The quality of water to be used for drinking shall be maintained using WHO Water Safety Plan
(WSP) and at least comply with the Bangladesh Standard (ECR, 1997) and WHO Guideline Values
(2004). For purposes other than drinking, water if supplied separately, should be absolutely safe
from bacteriological contamination so as to ensure that there is no danger to the health of the users
due to such contaminants

The raw or treated water is analyzed by testing their physical, chemical and bacteriological
characteristics

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:

 Temperature
 Colour
 Turbidity
 Taste and Odours
 Specific conductivity of water

4
Temperature:

 The temperature of water is measured by means of ordinary thermometers.

 From the temperature the MASS density (P=m/v), viscosity, vapour pressure and surface
tension of water can be determined.
 The temperature of surface water is generally same to the atmospheric temperature, while
that of ground water may be more or less than atmospheric temperature.
 The most desirable temperature for public supply is between 4.4 °C to 10 °C.
 Temperature above 28°C are undesirable and above 35°C are unfit for public supply,
Colour:
 The color of water is usually due to presence of organic matter, but sometimes it is also
due to mineral and dissolved organic and inorganic impurities.
 Before testing the color of the water, first of all total suspended matter should be removed
from the water by centrifugal force in a special apparatus.
 After this the color of water is compared with standard color solution.
 The permissible color for domestic water is 20 ppm on platinum cobalt scale.
 The color in water is not harmful but it is objectionable.

Turbidity:

 It is caused due to presence of suspended and colloidal matter in the water.

 The character and amount of turbidity depends on the type of soil over which the water has
moved ground waters are less turbid than the surface water
 Turbidity is a measure of resistance of water to the passage of light through it.
 Turbidity is expressed as NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Units) or PPM (parts per million)
or Milligrams per litre (mg/l).

Taste and Odours

Taste and odours in water may be due to the presence of dead or alive microorganisms,
dissolved gases such as hydrogen sulphide, methane, carbon dioxide or oxygen combined
with organic matter, mineral substance such as sodium chloride, iron compounds, and
carbonate and sulphates of other substances.

5
 The test of these are done by sense of smell and taste because these are present in such
small proportions that it is difficult to detect them by chemical analysis. The odour of water
also changes with temperature. The odour may be classified as fishy, mouldy, sweetish,
vegetable, greasy etc.
The odour of both cold and hot water should be determined. The water having bad smell
or odour is objectionable and should not be supplied to the public,
The intensities of the odours are measured in terms of threshold number.

Specific Conductivity of Water

The total amount of dissolved salts present in water can be easily estimated by measuring
the specific conductivity of water. The specific conductivity of water is determined by
means of portable dionic water tester and it expressed in micro-,hoes per cm at 25° C (Mho
is the unit of conductivity and equals lampr/wolt).The specific conductivity of water in
micro-mhoes per cm at 25° C is multiplied by a coefficient (generally 0.65) so as to directly
obtain the dissolved salt content in mg/litre or ppm. The exact value of this coefficient
depends upon the type of salt present in water.

CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
 pH-value  Acidity  Alkalinity  Hardness  Chlorides  Chlorine  Sulphates  Iron
and manganese  Total Solids  Lead and arsenic Dissolved gases  Nitrogen  Metals and
chemical substance

pH value
Denotes the concentration of hydrogen ions in the water and it is a measure of acidity or
alkanity of a substance.

Depending upon the nature of dissolved salts and minerals, the PH value ranges from 0 to 14. For
pure water, pH value is 7 and 0 to 7 acidic and 7 to 14 alkaline ranges. For public water supply pH

6
value may be 6.5 to 8.5. The lower value may cause tuberculation and corrosion; whereas high
value may produce incrustation, sediment deposits and other bad effects. PH value of water is
generally determined by PH papers or by using pH meter. PH can read directly on scale or by
digital display using pH meter. Measurement of PH:

PH measurement is important since it provides means of classifying and of correlating other

characteristics or behaviors such as corrosive activity or other interrelated factors controlling
biological function in a body of water. Its knowledge is also helpful in controlling softening and
coagulation processes in water treatment.

Total solids and suspended solids

Total solids

 Includes the solids in suspension colloidal and in dissolved form. The quantity of suspended
solids is determined by filtering the sample of water through fine filter, drying and weighing.
 The quantity of dissolved and colloidal solids is determined by evaporating the filtered water
obtained from the suspended solid test and weighing the residue.
 The total solids in a water sample can be directly determined by evaporating the filtered water
obtained from the suspended solid test and weighing the residue.
 The total solids in a water sample can be directly determined by evaporating the water and
weighing the residue. The residue of total solids is fused in a muffle furnace where the organic
solids will decompose whereas only inorganic solids will remain.
Hardness of water
 It is a property of water, which prevents the lathering of the soap. It is caused due to the
presence of carbonates and sulphates of calcium and magnesium in the water.
 Sometimes the presence of chlorides and nitrates of calcium and magnesium also cause
hardness in the water
Hardness is of two types.
1. Temporary hardness: It is caused due to the presence of carbonates and sulphates of
calcium and magnesium. It is removed by boiling.
2. Permanent hardness: It is caused due to the presence of chlorides and nitrates of calcium
and magnesium. It is removed by zeolite method.

7
 Nitrogen Content
The presence of nitrogen in the water indicates the presence of organic matters in the water.
The nitrogen present in the water may be in one or more of the following forms.
1. Nitrates
2. Nitrites
3. Free ammonia
4. Albuminoidal nitrogen.
Excess presence of nitrogen will cause “MATHEMOGLOBINEMIA” disease to the
children.

Dissolved gases

Oxygen and carbon dioxide are the gases mostly found in the natural water. The surface water
contain large amount of dissolved oxygen because they absorb it from the atmosphere. Algae and
other tiny plant life of water also give oxygen to the water.

The presence of oxygen in the water in dissolved form keeps it fresh and sparkling. But more
quantity of oxygen causes corrosion to the pipes material. Water absorbs carbon-dioxide from the
atmosphere. If water comes across calcium and magnesium salts, carbon-dioxide reacts with the
salts and converts them into bicarbonates, causes hardness in the water. The presence of carbon-
dioxide is easily determined by adding lime solution to water gives milky white color.

BACTERIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS/IMPURITIES –

Water may also contain bacteria, some derived from soil. These latter grow at ordinary
temperatures and do not cause diseases although their presence in water in large numbers is not
desirable, and those which normally flourish in the intestines of animals which grow at the blood
heat, these may include disease producing species. These disease producing bacteria are called
Coliform and their presence indicates pollution of animal origin.

 Bacterial examination of water is very important, since it indicates the degree of pollution.
Water polluted by sewage contains one or more species of disease producing pathogenic
bacteria.

8
 Pathogenic organisms cause water borne diseases, and many nonpathogenic bacteria such as
E.Coli, a member of coliform group, also live in the intestinal tract of human beings.
 Coliform itself is not a harmful group but it has more resistance to adverse condition than any
other group.
 So, if it is ensured to minimize the number of coliforms, the harmful species will be very less.
So, coliform group serves as indicator of contamination of water with sewage and presence of
pathogens.

The methods to estimate the bacterial quality of water are:

Standard Plate Count Test

In this method total number of bacteria present in milliliter of water is counted. The sample
of water is taken; 1 ml of sample water is diluted in 99ml of sterilized water. This mixture
is kept in incubator at 37°c for 24hrs. After it the sample will be taken out from incubator
and counted by means of microscope

Most Probable Number

There are 2 tests B-coli first is presumptive and second confirmative.
1. In the presumptive test definite amount of diluted sample of the water in standard
fermentation tubes is kept in incubator at 37°c for 24hrs. If some gas is produced in the
fermentation tube, it indicates the presence of B-coli. If not vice versa.
2. In the confirmation test same sample from the presumptive tube is taken and placed in
another fermentation tube containing “brilliant green lactose bile” as culture medium.
3. And it again kept in incubator at 37°c for 48 hrs, if there is formation of gas in the tube,
it confirms the presence of B-coli and the water is unsafe to use.
Membrane Filter Technique
Membrane contains microscopic pores which are capable of retaining bacteria
 Water is filtered through the membrane and it is then incubated for a period of 20 hours
along with nutrients.
 The colonies of bacteria can then be counted

9
WATER TREATMENT

The most important requirement drinking water must meet, is that it is free from organisms and
chemical substances, which might be injurious to health.

Why treat water;

 To remove all the pathogenic germs

 Make it free from unpleasant taste and odour
 Make it free from any objectionable color and having good appearance
 Make it suitable for domestic purposes
 To reduce the corrosive and tuberculation properties of water affect the carrying capacity and
life of the pipe conduit.

Drinking water should be of such a composition that consumers do not question its safety. This
requirement implies that turbidity, colour, taste and odour should be low, and macro-organisms
(e.g. worms, aquatic and fly nymphs) should be absent.

Drinking water should be suitable for housekeeping. For this reason:

 The iron and manganese content should be low, because these substances colour during
washing (iron causes a brown and manganese a black colour).
 Hardness should be low, because water with a high hardness causes scale formation in water
heaters by precipitation of Calcium carbonate. Moreover a high hardness of the water implies
that a high dose of detergent is required for washing.
 Drinking water should not be aggressive to materials like lead, copper, concrete, steel,
galvanized steel, cast iron (C.I), ductile iron (D.I), asbestos cement (A.C), unplasticized
polyvinyl chloride (UPVC) and polyethylene (P.E) since pipes, tubes and apparatus used in
distribution systems and p1umbing installations may consist of these materials. Pipes, tubes
and apparatus affected by water cause many problems. Mention some??
 Drinking water should be free of any disagreeable taste or odour. Consumers do not like to be
supplied with water that has a bad taste and odour. Moreover, drinking water that has any
disagreeable taste or odour, is unsuitable for making tea, coffee, soup etc.

10
Methods of water treatment may be broadly classified according to the nature of impurities to be
removed; i.e.
1. Method for removal of suspended impurities e.g. plain sedimentation and filtration
2. Methods for removal of dissolved impurities e.g. sedimentation with coagulation, filtration,
aeration etc.
Water treatment processes are selected according to the quality of the raw water and the parameters
that are to be removed. Common treatment methods are summarized in Table 4 below.

Ground and spring waters shown to be free from bacterial pollution requiring no treatment,
however as a preventive measure to avoid possible contamination due to leaks in well
casings, in suction pipes or in water mains of the distribution system laid below the
ground, it is advisable that we chlorinate water before supply.

11
A REVIEW OF THE TREATMENT PROCESS

12
Pre-treatment of Raw Water

After abstraction, raw water may undergo a pre-treatment process before it enters the plant. The
first process is usually screening.
There are three main types of screens depending on the spacing.
i. Course screens with spacing 50-150mm: These are meant to keep back large impurities like fish,
branches, logs, dead animals etc. They are usually located at the furthest point of the intake.
ii. Medium screens with spacing 20-50mm: These keep off large impurities like fish, leaves etc.
iii. Fine screens have openings of 5-20mm and keep off the finer impurities.

Section through the slow sand filter

13
14
Why coagulation and flocculation are necessary??
Coagulation is the addition of a chemical or coagulant that can destabilize the surface charges of
colloids and enhance agglomeration (flocculation). Flocculation refers to a process where a solute
comes out of solution in the form of floc. The term is also used to refer to the process by which
fine particulates are caused to clump together into floc.
 Very fine materials do not settle easily on their own due to low gravitational forces
 Colloidal particles (micrometers) have electrostatic charges on their surfaces that lead to their
repulsion and stabilization in the suspension in the water.

Typical coagulants
 Aluminum chlorohydrate
 Aluminum sulphate
 Calcium oxide
 Iron III chloride
 Iron II sulphate
 Sodium aluminates
 Sodium silicate
 Moringa Oleifera is used as a natural flocculant

Dosing - Use of Alum

Dosing is the process of adding coagulants in correct amounts. Two solution tanks, one for mixing
and the other for dosing, between them holding 48 hours of supply should be provided.
Dosage of coagulants depend on;
• Turbidity of water
– More dose for greater turbidity
• Color of water
15
 • PH value
• Temperature of water
– Amount reduces with lower temp due to slow reaction
• Time of settlement
– More dose for less time of settlement

Mixing Devices

Mixing is done after addition of coagulants to disperse the dose in water

• Firstly, the chemicals are rapidly mixed for about one minute and then the whole mixture is gently
agitated for about 30 min for the coagulants to react and coagulation starts.
Mixing can be done by
1. Baffle type basins
– Round the end baffles (horizontal)
– Over and under baffles (vertical)

16
 2. Mechanically agitated mixing basins

After coagulation and/ or flocculation, the subsequent treatment processes are sedimentation, or
direct filtration. Substances that are removed by coagulation/flocculation are those that cause
colour and turbidity.

17
DISINFECTION
It is essential that drinking water be free of pathogenic organisms. Storage, sedimentation,
coagulation, flocculation and filtration of water both individually and jointly reduce the contents
of bacteria in water to a certain extent. None of these methods can guarantee the complete removal
of germs. Disinfection is needed at the end. Water with low turbidity may even be disinfected
without any additional treatment for bacteria removal.
Groundwater abstracted from deep wells is usually free of bacteria. Surface water and water
obtained from shallow wells and open dug wells generally need to be disinfected.

Water disinfection processes are designed to destroy disease-producing organisms by means of

disinfectants. The degree or efficiency of disinfection depends on the method employed and on
the following factors influencing the process:
 Kind and concentration of microorganisms in the water,
 Other constituents of the water which may impede disinfection or render it impossible,
 Contact time provided (important for chemical disinfectants, since their effect is not
instantaneous, a time of contact is necessary),
 Temperature of the water (higher temperatures speed up chemical reactions).

A good chemical disinfectant should have the following abilities:

 Destroy all organisms present in the water within reasonable contact time, the range of water
temperature encountered, and the fluctuation in composition, concentration and condition of
the water to be treated;
 Accomplish disinfection without rendering the water toxic or carcinogenic;
 Permit simple and quick measurement of strength and concentration in the water,
 Persist in residual concentration as a safeguard against recontamination;
 Allow safe and simple handling, application and monitoring;
 Ready and dependable availability at reasonable cost.

18
CHLORINATION
Chlorination is the most widely used method for drinking water disinfection. It is effective and
economical. Its use requires some knowledge about the complex processes that take place during
chlorination.
Chlorination is known as the addition of chlorine gas or some other oxidizing chlorine compound
(sodium or calcium hypochlorite, chlorinated lime, chlorine dioxide) to the water.
Sufficient chlorine must be added to the water to make sure that there is a residual
concentration to prevent recontamination.
It is advisable to remove or reduce prior to chlorination, those substances which would impede
disinfection by means of sedimentation and/or filtration.
The dose applied is generally less than 1mg/l so as to produce residual chlorine of quantity varying
from 0.05mg/l up to 0.2mg/l the amount so required to be added depends up on the chlorine
demand of water which is the difference between the amount of chlorine added and the amount of
chlorine remaining at the end of the contact time/period of 10-20 minutes. The effect of chlorine
as a disinfectant is principally dependent on contact period ant the concentration of chlorine in
water.
How is chlorine applied to water?
As a gas drawn from the liquid chlorine cylinder. This is applied directly to the warer supply
through the sub merged diffusers. This is unsatisfactorily because of improper and resulting
corrosion in pipes.
As chlorine solution as in a solution feed colorimeter formed by mixing chlorine gas with a small
quantity of water. The solution is applied to a water injector through the discharge line.
In powder form as hypochlorite, bleaching powder or sodium hypochlorite. This method is very
commonly used in water works practice. The available chlorine varies from 25 to 30% for
bleaching powder.
CHLORINE DOSAGE
The amount of chlorine required to be added to the water supply system can be determined in the
lab by adding varying doses of chlorine to equal portions of water sample and finding the amount
of residual chlorine after a period of contact of 10-20 mins.The minimum dose giving a residual
of 0.05-0.20mg/l is generally selected.
Chlorine dosage can also be calculated with the help of the formula;

19
 𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑋 𝐷𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑔/𝑙
Dosage in Kg of chlorine = 1,000,000

Example For disinfecting water supply, it is required to treat 500,000 litres of daily supply with
0.5mg/l of chlorine. If the disinfectant is available in form of bleaching powder containing 30% of
available chlorine. Calculate the amount of bleaching required to treat the daily flow water.
500,000 𝑋 0.5
1,000,000
= 0.25𝑘𝑔
For the bleaching powder, with available chlorine of 30%, amount of bleaching powder required
100
= 0.25 𝑋 = 0.833Kg
30

Special methods
1. Chlorine is generally applied after all the other treatments have been given to water supply
and this is called post chlorination and is a standard treatment at all water works
2. Pre-chlorination. This is the application of chlorine proceeding filtration, either added in
the suction pipes of raw water pumps or to the water as it enters the mixing basin. Its
importance is to reduce bacterial load on filters resulting in increased filter runs and it also
oxidize the organic matter there by removing taste and odour
3. Double chlorination; is the addition of chlorine at two points in the treatment process. It
is essentially pre-chlorination with an added treatment to the final effluent from the filters.
Its purpose;
 Decrease the load on filters
 Greater removal of bacteria
 Greater factor of safety due to maintenance of two chlorinating plants
 Control of algae and slimy growths in coagulating basins and filters.
4. Super chlorination. This is the application to water of excess chlorine. The dose may vary
from less than 1mg/l to 2mg/l. This method is effective in destroying higher concentration
of tastes and odour and high concentration of bacteria in water. However it becomes
necessary to remove resulting tastes due to excess chlorine by using dechlorinating agents
like activated carbon, sodium thiosulphate etc.
5. Breakpoint chlorination. This is also termed as free residual chlorination which involves
the addition of sufficient chlorine to water in order to oxidize all the organic matter,

20
 reducing substances and free ammonia in raw water living behind mainly free available
chlorine which possess a strong disinfecting action against pathogens.

Chlorine compounds with ammonia like monochloroamine and dichloroamine are also good
disinfectants and when water with ammonia is chlorinated, these compounds form first,
contributing to the available free chlorine content. The reactions of chlorine with ammonia in water
are as follows:

The complete reaction where the available ammonia has been transformed into N2 via the mono
and dichloroamines is referred to as “breakpoint chlorination”

21
Between points A and B, reducing agents consume all the Cl 2. At B, some residual
chlorine is measured while some has reacted with reducing agents in the water. Between
B and D, combined chlorine (NH2Cl + NHCl2) appears. At C, all the available ammonia
in the water has reacted and a free Cl2 residual begins to form (OCl- & HOCl). Between
C and D, more free Cl2 is formed while the formed combined Cl2 is oxidised to nitrogen,
nitrous oxide and nitrogen trichloride. At D, all chloroamines are oxidized and any added
Cl2 remains as residual.
Other methods include;
 Ozonization
 Use of Ultra-Violet rays (Expensive, no residual action; so it’s restricted to small
installations like swimming pools. It has no odour, no danger of overdose)

WATER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

After water is treated, it is then distributed through the district to be served. Reservoirs store,
equalize pressures, then distribute water together with pipes, valves, and other appurtenances for
carrying water, service pipes, metres etc
General requirements of a distribution system
 Should furnish water in adequate quantities and pressures to all parts of the district served
and this include; meeting water demands for domestic, industrial and firefighting.
 Should be thoroughly reliable
 Should be economical in its design, lay out and construction
Water is usually transported from the source to the treatment plant (if there is one), and onward to
the area of distribution. Depending on the topography and local conditions, the water may be
conveyed through free flow conduits, pressure conduits or a combination of both. The transmission
of water is either by gravity or by pumping.

Gravity system. The water from upland gathering grounds is impounded in a reservoir. From this
point the water is filtered and chlorinated before serving an inhabited area at lower level, there are
no pumping costs. The system is adopted when the source of supply such as lake, impounding

22
reservoir is at a sufficient elevation with respect to the city in order to produce adequate pressures
for fire and domestic services.

System with pumping and storage; water extracted from a river is pumped into a settlement tank,
subsequently filtered and chlorinated. Pump maintenance and running costs make this process
more expensive than gravity systems. In this system; when the demand rate exceeds the rate of
pumping, flow into the distribution system is both from the pumping station as well as the elevated
reservoir and when the pumping is more than the demand, the excess of the water is stored in the
reservoir

23
System with direct pumping. In this system, water is directly pumped into the mains and consumption is
the only outlet. This method is least desirable because a failure in the power supply means break down of
the system and also the pressure in this system vary with consumption.
PIPE MATERIALS
The availability of materials for pipes and drinking water installations in a given location will
depend partly on the history. Some of the materials available for service pipes and drinking water
installations are polyvinyl chloride (PVC), medium density polyethylene, high-density
polyethylene, copper, galvanized iron and steel. In Uganda, the most commonly used pipe
materials are ductile iron (DI), steel, galvanised steel (G.S.), asbestos cement (A.C), unplasticised
polyvinyl chloride (UPVC) and Polyethylene (P.E).Pipes can be classified according to rigidity or
permissible working pressures for example class A to D pipes can withstand working pressures of
10-150 m water column (0.1 – 1.5 Mpa).
Factors considered for pipe material selection
The selection of suitable pipe materials for a project is based on technical and financial
considerations. The factors that should be considered are:
• Availability on the market in respect of lengths, sizes (diameters) and pressure classes
• Cost price and that of associated valves and fittings
• Mechanical properties of the soil and its aggressivity
• The susceptibility to corrosion, mechanical damage, ageing and other causes of material
deterioration
• Ease of delivery and maintenance
• Compatibility with the existing materials
• Local weather conditions, for example, UPVC pipes can easily crack at high temperatures
• Storage costs
Note: That the same factors apply for pipefittings.

Method of Supply
The method of supply can be intermittent i.e. for a few hours of the day say 1;00Am to 11;00Pm
or continuous i.e. for all 24hrs of the day
AS an engineer, which one do you recommend for your community?
…………………………….
Note; the available pressure in the distribution system depends upon;

24
• The class of service whether domestic or fire use
For domestic services, the pressure supplied depends on the number of storeys to which it is
intended to lift water without additional means like booster pumps, A pressure of 0.6-1.5kg/m2
is normally considered sufficient for residential areas. For fire services, the pressure required in
the mains depend on whether the fire system have to be furnished from the fire hydrants or
automobile pumpers would also be used. The fire hydrant pressure should not ordinarily be less
than 1kg/m2
• Metering facilities available
Where the supply is metered, the pressure required is a little in excess to that for unmetered
supply because of certain loss of head through the meters.
• Economic consideration
The higher the pressure required, the heavier and stronger are the required pipes and hence the
higher the costs
• Topographical consideration
The ground levels should also be checked to find out if there exist a difference in the levels,
if so it is advisable to split the system into different pressure zones (high and low) and then
feed these zones separately.
Storage and Distribution Reservoirs
These are used to;
• Store water for emergencies
• Equalize rates of flow due to variations between the rates of demand and supply
• Equalize or distribute pressures since pressure fluctuate with demand
• Reduce on the size of the pumps used due to the equalized rated of daily pumping.

Classification of reservoirs
• According to position reservoirs can be classified as surface or elevated reservoirs. The elevated
reservoirs are preferred compared to surface because they have a larger factor of safety in the event
of a temporary shutdown of pumps.
• According to material, reservoirs can be built of masonry, mass concrete, reinforce concrete and steel.
The general classification of reservoirs are ground surface reservoirs and elevated reservoirs.

25
BALANCING OR EQUALIZATION TANK
This is provided so that relatively constant rate of supply can provide for a fluctuating rate of demand. This
method involves operating an arrangement having an elevated tank, pipes and valves as shown below

When the demand exceeds the rate of supply, water flows into the distribution system both from
the elevated tank as well as through direct pumping by means of the dye pass loop (close slice
valve 1 but keep slice valves 2 and 3 open)
When the rate of supply exceeds the rate of demand, then the required demand is met by water
pumped through the dye pass loop while the balance pumping fills the tank (close now slice valve
2 but keep slice valve 1 and 3 open and control them to regulate the flow)

THE PIPE SYSTEM

The pipe system is comprised of four units i.e. the supply main, the sub-main, minor distributor
and valves
Transmission line or trunk main: This is the pipeline for the transport of treated water from the
treatment plant to the distribution reservoir or distribution pumping system or in general to the
distribution area.
2. The main pipeline or distribution main: This transports treated water from the distribution
pumping station/reservoir to the various parts of the distribution area
3. Service pipe: This is the pipe from the main pipe either to a public standpipe, to a yard
connection or to a house connection.
4. Public stand post/standpipe/Hydrant: This is a public and communal water point where a
service pipe from the distribution network terminates in one/more taps.

26
5. Yard connection: This is a connection where a service pipe terminates into one or more taps in
a private water point within a yard of a dwelling or a small number of dwellings.
House connection: This is a connection where a service pipe from the distribution network
terminates at a stop cock/meter of a private domestic installation within a dwelling.

6. Drinking water installation/Plumbing system/Domestic installation: This includes all

piping; tap points and appliances within a dwelling under the responsibility of a private
consumer. The distribution mains generally together with service pipes and drinking water
installations form a single system known as the distribution network system. Where,
however, a transmission line does not end/terminate into a distribution reservoir or
pumping system, this pipe too forms part of the distribution network system.

27
NETWORK CONFIGURATIONS/LAYOUT OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
There are four different systems of distribution depending upon the methods of layout of the pipe system.
These are; Dead end or Tree system/balanced, Grid Iron system, Ring or circle system and Radial system.
Dead end system
Dead-end water supply systems are the best choice for cities and towns without definite road patterns. In
this type of system, there is one main line that runs through the town or city with sub-mains branching off
from left and right. These sub-mains then divide into a number of branch lines that provide service
connections.

Advantages of Branched Systems

• Branched systems are simpler and cheaper to construct i.e. the length of pipe required is usually
less.
• Easy for hydraulic design and determining discharge and pressure at any point
• Can be easily expanded to provide coverage to newly developed areas
The disadvantages are
• Stagnant water, particularly at dead-ends, promotes sedimentation and water contamination,
which can occasionally result into odour problems
• The reliability of the supplies in branched systems is low
• The chances of contamination are higher since during repair works, a large section of the
network is exposed.
• Frequent blow-off or flushing is needed to keep the system clean.
28
• Future expansions are likely to cause pressure problems; therefore it is not suitable in areas
where future expansion is envisaged.
GRID SYSTEM
In grid iron systems, the main water supply line goes through the central part of the area,
while sub mains branch out perpendicular to the main line. This system has no dead-ends, as
all of the individual pipes are interconnected. This type of water supply system is great for
cities that have a rectangular layout that resembles a gridiron.

Advantages of the Grid System

• No stagnation of water, consumption of water at any point activates flow in the whole
network
• It has a higher reliability in case of breakdown in the network i.e., there is continuity of water
supply anywhere in the system despite any repair work to a main or sub-main
• The system provides very good control over flow of water.
Disadvantages of the Grid System
• The design of the grid system is complex due to inability to tell the direction of water flow.
• The system requires a relatively high initial cost

29
 • A large number of valves is needed, if control of flow in the system is desired.

RING SYSTEM

Ring main distribution; water mains supplying a town or village may be in the form of a grid.
This is preferable to radial distribution as sections can be isolated with minimal disruption to the
remaining system and there is no more opportunity for water to maintain a flow.

RADIAL SYSTEM
In radial systems, the distribution area is divided into different distribution districts or zones. Each
zone has an elevated distribution reservoir in the middle from which supply lines run in a radial
pattern towards the distribution district periphery. Radial systems offer swift distribution and allow
for simpler design calculations.

30
Advantages of Radial Distribution System:

 Generally, in high-rise buildings, a radial system is used for the water distribution system.
 In this system, water is available with higher discharge and with minimum head loss.
 Fewer numbers of the consumer are affected while repairing.

Disadvantages of Radial Distribution System:

 The design of the pipe laying system is complicated.

 More length of pipe is required as the connection is more in this system.

31
 APPURTENANCES USED IN THE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
 Sluice valves or shut-off valves
These are used to control the flow of water in the pipe lines and are frequently used in
mains and sub-mains to isolate certain sections enabling repairs to be carried out there in
without affecting supplies in the rest of the sections. They may be placed at intervals of
about 150-240m and invariably provided at every point of intersection. The direction of
closing the valve is usually clockwise.

 Check valves or non-return valves or reflex

It is an automatic type of valve which allows water to flow through in one direction and
prevents it from flowing back. It is necessary to put a check valve in every pipe line
through which water is forced by a pump so that when the pump stops, water may not
return back to the pump, start it in a reverse direction thereby damage motor connections
of the pump.

 Air valves
The water flowing through a pipe always contains some air which tends to accumulate at
high points in the pipe. The air accumulated results into a serious blockage to the flow that
may materially diminish the area of the pipes available for flow and thus reduce the effect
of flow through the pipe.

 Drain valves or scour valves or blow offs

They are provided at all dead ends in the distribution system as wells at all depressions in
the mains. These are valves that are opened occasionally to remove silt or sediments by
allowing water to run out until it is clear.

 Hydrants
A hydrant is an outlet from a water main provided chiefly for the purpose of forming a
connection to draw water through a fire hose for the purpose of fire extinguishing. They
are required to be provided at all road junctions and at intervals not exceeding about 300m

 Meters
These are used for measuring the quantities of water supplied to buildings, houses,
industrial areas etc.

32
 COLD WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

1. Direct Cold Water Supply System

For efficient operation, a high-pressure water supply is essential particularly at periods of peak
demand. Pipe work is minimal and the storage cistern supplying the hot water cylinder need only
have 115 litres capacity. The cistern may be located within the airing cupboard or be combined
with the hot water cylinder. Drinking water is available at every draw-off point and maintenance
valves should be fitted to isolate each section of pipework. With every outlet supplied from the
main, the possibility of back siphonage must be considered. Back siphonage may occur when there
is a high demand on the main. Negative pressure can then draw water back into the main from a
submerged inlet, e.g. a rubber tube attached to a tap or a shower fitting without a check valve
facility left lying in dirty bath water.

33
Advantages of the direct cold water supply system
 It’s cheap and easy to install as less pipe work is used
 Drinking water is available at all cold water outlets
 It requires small capacity storage for supply or feeding into the hot water supply system
 The cistern can easily be positioned in the building as it take a small area
Disadvantages
 There is a greater possibility of pollution of water (back siphonage)
 Water may be insufficient at periods of peak demand especially if the water main was
constructed many years back and many buildings have been constructed now
 If the mains are under repair, the premises may be without cold water for a period of time as
there are no storage facilities for cold water supply
 Any leakages occurring in the system will result in a greater waste of water
 In case of burst pipes, there is a possibility of more damage to household effects due to the
high pressures to which the pipes and fittings are subjected.
 The system tends to be noisy because of the high pressures to which the pipes and fittings are
subjected

2. The Indirect Cold Water Supply System

The indirect system of cold water supply has only one drinking water outlet, at the sink. The cold
water storage cistern has a minimum capacity of 230 litres, for location in the roof space. In
addition to its normal supply function, it provides an adequate emergency storage in the event of
water main failure. The system requires more pipework than the direct system and is therefore
more expensive to install, but uniform pressure occurs at all cistern-supplied outlets. The water
authorities prefer this system as it imposes less demand on the main. In addition, with fewer fittings
attached to the main, there is less chance of back siphonage. Other advantages of lower pressure
include less noise and wear on fittings, and the opportunity to install a balanced pressure shower
from the cistern.

34
Advantages
 The system is quick in operation
 There is less wear on fittings
 Some water is available in case of mains failure
 Provides adequate supplies of cold water
 Back siphonage is prevented thus limiting contamination of drinking water.

35
 Disadvantages
 Requires extra pipe work
 More storage is required for both hot and cold water services
 Water for drinking is obtained from only one draw off tap which is fitted directly on the
water mains
 It is more expensive to install

HOT WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

The supply of the water to domestic sanitary fittings is usually taken from a hot water tank or
cylinder. The source of heat is usually in the form of gas fired, oil fired or solid-fuel boiler,
alternatives are a back boiler to an open fire or an electric immersion heater fixed in the hot water
storage tank. When a quantity of water is drawn from the storage tank, it is immediately replaced
by cold water from the cold water storage cistern. For any hot water supply system, copper or steel
pipes are generally used.
Pipes used
For any hot water supply system, copper or steel pipes are generally used. The material is
satisfactory if used independently throughout the system. They must not be mixed or interchanged
within the system. This is due to the electrolytic attraction that different metals have in the presence
of water which eventually lead to corrosion, copper and zinc are known for this problem as zinc is
the protective plating given to steel under the name of galvanizing.

There are two main systems for hot water supply i.e. direct hot water supply and indirect hot water
supply system

The direct hot waters Supply System

This is the simplest and least expensive system of hot water installation. The cold water flows
through the water jacket in the boiler. The water is heated in the boiler and the hot water rises by
convection to the hot water storage tank or cylinder to be replaced by the cooler water from the
bottom of the storage vessel. Hot water drawn from the storage tank is replaced with cold water
from the cold water storage cistern. The hot water is drawn from the top of the cylinder by

36
horizontal pipe at 450mm long to prevent one pipe circulation being in the vent pipe. This pipe is
run vertically from the hot water distribution pipe to discharge position over the cold water storage
cistern.
The hot water from the boiler mixes directly with the water in the cylinder. If used in a `soft' water
area the boiler must be rust-proofed. This system is not suited to `hard' waters, typical of those
extracted from boreholes into chalk or limestone strata. When heated the calcium precipitates to
line the boiler and primary pipework, eventually `furring up' the system to render it ineffective and
dangerous. The storage cylinder and associated pipework should be well insulated to reduce energy
losses. If a towel rail is fitted, this may be supplied from the primary flow and return pipes.

Advantages
 Less pipe work and only one storage cistern is required making it cheaper to install
 It is the simplest system of hot water installation
Disadvantages
 The system is not suitable for supplying a central heating circuit

37
  It is only limited to soft water areas
 If the system is to be used in areas of hard water e.g. water extracted from boreholes,
primary circuit pipes could be large as 35mm
 The hot water from the boiler mixes directly with water in the cylinder

The indirect hot water supply system

This is a more complex system than the direct system but it does not overcome the problem of
furring which can occur in the direct hot water systems.
The basic difference is in the cylinder design which now becomes a heat exchanger. The cylinder
contains a coil or annulus connected to the flow and return pipes from the boiler. A transfer of heat
takes place within the cylinder and therefore after the initial precipitation of lime within the
primary circuit and boiler, there is no further furring as fresh cold water is not being constantly
introduced in the boiler circuit.
The supply circuit from the boiler follows the same pattern as the direct hot water supply but a
separate feed and expansion system is required for the boiler and primary circuit for the initial
supply and also for any necessary topping up due to evaporation.
The feed cistern is similar to the cold water storage cistern but of much smaller capacity. The water
levels in the two cisterns should be equal so that equal pressures act on the indirect cylinder.

38
Advantages
 The system is suitable for supplying a central heating circuit
 It can successfully be used in hard water areas without causing scaling furring problems in
the boiler and pipe work
 The hot water from the boiler does not mix directly with water in the hot water storage
cylinder
 Unlike the direct system, water in the boiler and primary circuit is not drawn from the draw
off points. The same water circulates continuously through the boiler, primary circuit and
heat exchange coil inside the storage cylinder.
Disadvantages
 High installation costs due to more pipes and fittings and two cold water storage tanks
 The system is more complex to set up than the direct

39
  Additional space and structural support will be required for the two cold water supply
cisterns
Read and make notes on the principles and working of taps and valves used in water supply
to include: bib, globe and stop taps, ball values, gate values, drain taps and plug corks.

40
 Sub-Module 2
DRAINAGE AND SANITATION OUT OF A BUILDING
Sanitary fittings:
The fittings or appliances used for collection and discharge of soil or waste matter/water is termed
as sanitary fittings. Different types of sanitary fittings are required in a building to perform
different functions. Fittings are normally made of ceramics, grazed fire clay, glazed china ware
etc. the different types of sanitary fittings include;

 Bathtubs
 Water closets
 Flushing cisterns
 Hand wash basins
 Sinks and showers
 Urinals
 Bidets
Factors considered when selecting or specifying sanitary fitments
Cost of out lay, fixing and maintenance
Hygiene. Inherent and ease of cleaning
Appearance. Size, color and shape
Function. Suitability, speed of operation and reliability
Weight. Support required from wall and or floor
Design. Ease with which it can be included into the general service installation

The Flushing cisterns

Bell type. This form of flushing cistern is now virtually obsolete, although some reproductions are
available for use in keeping with the refurbishment of historic premises. Cast iron originals may
still be found in use in old factories, schools and similar established buildings. It is activated by
the chain being pulled which also lifts the bell. As the chain is released the bell falls to displace
water down the stand pipe, effecting a siphon which empties the cistern. The whole process is
relatively noisy.
Disc type. Manufactured in a variety of materials including plastics and ceramics for application
to all categories of building. Depressing the lever raises the piston and water is displaced over the

41
siphon. A siphonic action is created to empty the cistern. Some cisterns incorporate an economy
or dual-flush siphon. When the lever is depressed and released promptly, air passing through the
vent pipe breaks the siphonic action to give a 4.5-litre flush. When the lever is held down a 7.5-
litre flush is obtained. Since 2001 the maximum permitted single flush to a wc pan is 6 litres.

NOTE;.The flushing cistern is normally kept 1.5-2m above the floor level
Wash Basins
There are various types of basin, ranging in size and function from hand rinsing to surgical use. A
standard basin for domestic application to bathrooms and cloakrooms consists of a bowl, soap tray,
weir overflow and holes for taps and outlet. It may be supported by cast iron brackets screwed to
the wall, a corbel which is an integral part of the basin built into the wall or a floor pedestal which
conceals the pipework. Water supply is through 13 mm (half-inch) pillar taps for both hot and cold.
A standard 32 mm nominal diameter waste outlet with a slot to receive the integral overflow
connects to a trap and waste pipe of the same diameter. A plug and chain normally controls
outflow, but some fittings have a pop-up waste facility. Most basins are made from colored ceramic
ware or glazed fireclay. There are also metal basins produced from stainless steel, porcelain
enameled sheet steel or cast iron.

42
Sinks
Sinks are designed for culinary and other domestic uses. They may be made from glazed fireclay,
enameled cast iron or steel, stainless steel or from glass fibre-reinforced polyester
A sink should be provided in any area where food is prepared or where kitchenware and utensils
are washed by hand.

43
Abidet
It is an ablutionary fitting used for washing the excretory organs, but may also be used as a foot
bath. Hot and cold water supplies are mixed to the required temperature for the ascending spray.
The modern a Bidets spray a targeted stream of water to exactly where you need it. Bidets in
domestic plumbing systems may have cold and hot water supplied through individual taps, or a
combined mixer tap.

44
Showers

A shower is more economical to use than a bath as it takes less hot water (about one-third), it is
arguably more hygienic and it takes up less space. A minimum 1 m head of water should be
allowed above the shower outlet. The shower outlet (rose) should also be at least 2 m above the
floor of the shower tray.

Traps (Q,S,S traps)

A trap is a fitting provided in the drainage to prevent entry of foul air or gases from the sewer or
drain into the building. The barrier to the passage of foul air is provided by the water seal in the
trap. In its simplest form, a trap is merely a double bend or loop in the sanitary fittings. The depth
of the water seal being the distance between the top of the first bend and the bottom of the second
bend. The deeper the seal, the more efficient is the trap, the depth may vary from 40mm to
75mm.The trap should always be fitted close to the waste or soil fitting unless the trap form an
integrated part of the fitting and therefore foul air from the drain and sewer is prevented from
penetrating buildings by applying a water trap to all sanitary appliances.

45
Loss of Trap Water Seal

The most obvious cause of water seal loss is leakage due to defective fittings or poor workmanship.
Otherwise, it may be caused by poor system design and/or installation: Other causes include;
Self-siphonage. As an appliance discharges, the water fills the waste pipe and creates a vacuum
to draw out the seal. Causes are a waste pipe that is too long, too steep or too small in diameter.
Induced siphonage. The discharge from one appliance draws out the seal in the trap of an adjacent
appliance by creating a vacuum in that appliance's branch pipe. Causes are the same as for self-

46
siphonage, but most commonly a shared waste pipe that is undersized. Discharge into inadequately
sized stacks can have the same effect on waste branch appliances.
Back pressure. Compression occurs due to resistance to flow at the base of a stack. The positive
pressure displaces water in the lowest trap. Causes are a too small radius bottom bend, an
undersized stack or the lowest branch fitting too close to the base of the stack.
Capillary action. A piece of rag, string or hair caught on the trap outlet. l wavering out † gusts of
wind blowing over the top of the stack can cause a partial vacuum to disturb water seals.

47
THE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
The type of drainage system selected for a building is determined by the local water authority's
established sewer arrangements. These are installed with regard to foul water processing and the
possibility of disposing of surface water via a sewer into a local watercourse or directly into a soak
away.
Combined system.
This uses a single drain to convey both foul water from sanitary appliances and rainwater from
roofs and other surfaces to a shared sewer. The system is economical to install, but the processing
costs at the sewage treatment plant are high.
Separate system.
This has foul water from the sanitary appliances conveyed in a foul water drain to a foul water
sewer. The rainwater from roofs and other surfaces is conveyed in a surface water drain into a
surface water sewer or a soak away. This system is relatively expensive to install, particularly if
the ground has poor drainage qualities and soak ways cannot be used. However, the benefit is
reduced volume and treatment costs at the processing plant.

48
Partially Separate System
Most of the rainwater is conveyed by the surface water drain into the surface water sewer. For
convenience and to reduce site costs, the local water authority may permit an isolated rainwater
inlet to be connected to the foul water drain. This is shown with the rainwater inlet at A connected
to the foul water inspection chamber. Also, a rodding point is shown at B. These are often used at
the head of a drain, as an alternative to a more costly inspection chamber.
A back inlet gully can be used for connecting a rainwater downpipe or a waste pipe to a drain. The
bend or trap provides a useful reservoir to trap leaves. When used with a foul water drain, the seal
prevents air contamination. A yard gully is solely for collecting surface water and connecting this
with a drain. It is similar to a road gully, but smaller. A rainwater shoe is only for connecting a
rainwater pipe to a surface water drain. The soil and vent pipe or discharge stack is connected to
the foul water drain with a rest bend at its base. This can be purpose made or produced with two
135ƒ bends. It must have a centre-line radius of at least 200 mm.

49