IE 208 Environmental Engineering

LESSON 4:WATER TREATMENT

WATER TREATMENT
Lesson Ideas:
Situation
Objective
Characteristics
Ordinances/Policies
Process/Processes
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Safe and readily available water is important for public health, whether it is used for
drinking, domestic use, food production or recreational purposes. The United States
enjoys one of the best supplies of drinking water in the world. Water utilities across
the country have in place effective processes to remove contaminants that cause
waterborne diseases. The most commonly used processes include coagulation and
flocculation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfectation.
Meanwhile, according to water.org (2019), nearly 7 million out of 105 million
Filipinos rely on unimproved, unsafe and unsustainable water sources and more than
24 million lack access to improve sanitation. Hence, there is a need to provide clean
water for every Filipinos.
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“Potable and Palatable Water”

Product
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Objectives of Water Treatment
The principal objective of water treatment is to provide potable water that is
chemically and biologically safe for human consumption.
To produce both “potable” and “palatable” water
Potable water is a water that can be consumed in any desired amount without concern of
adverse health effects. Potable does not necessarily mean that the water taste good.
Palatable is a water that is pleasing to drink but not necessarily safe.
Water treatment aims at producing water that satisfies a set of drinking water quality
standards at a reasonable cost to the consumers.
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Water Chemistry
Physical Properties of Water
The basic physical properties of water relevant to water treatment are density
(expressed in mass density, specific weight and specific gravity) and viscosity.
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States of Solution Impurities
The substance cannot be removed from the liquid without accomplishing a phase
change such as distillation, precipitation, adsorption, extraction, or passage through
“ionic” pore-sized membranes.
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States of Solution Impurities
Distillation. Either the liquid or the
substance itself is changed from liquid
phase to a gas phase in order to
achieve separation.
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States of Solution Impurities
Precipitation. The substance in a liquid phase combines with another chemical to
form a solid phase, thus achieving separation from the water
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States of Solution Impurities
Adsorption. Involves a phase change, wherein the dissolved substance reacts with
a solid particle to form a solid particle-substance complex.
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States of Solution Impurities
Liquid extraction. It can separate a
substance from water by extracting it into
another liquid, hence a phase change from
water to a different liquid.
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States of Solution Impurities
Pore-sized membranes. A membrane with pore sizes in the ionic-size range can
separate dissolved substances from the solution by a high-pressure filtering process.
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Water Quality
Four categories to describe water quality:
1. Physical – the quality of water for domestic use
1.1 Turbidity. The presence of suspended materials such as clay, silt, finely divided
materials, plankton, and other particulate materials water. Turbidity levels can range
from 1 NTU (Nephlometric Turbidity Unit) to more than 1,000 NTU. At > 5 NTU water
is visibly cloudy.
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Water Quality
Four categories to describe water quality:
1. Physical – the quality of water for domestic use
1.2 Color. Color in water can be caused by dissolved and suspended materials
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Water Quality
Four categories to describe water quality:
1. Physical – the quality of water for domestic use
1.3 Taste and odor. Taste and odor in water can be caused by foreign matter such
as organic compounds, inorganic salts, or dissolved gases. Drinking water should be
free from any objectionable taste or odor at point of use.
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Water Quality
Four categories to describe water quality:
1. Physical – the quality of water for domestic use
1.4 Temperature. Desirable drinking waters are consistently cool and do not have
temperature fluctuations of more than a few degrees.
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Water Quality
2. Chemical – Chemical characteristics of waters are sometimes evidenced by their
observed reactions, such as the comparative performance of hard and soft waters in
laundering. Most often, differences are not visible. Any dissolved chemicals exist in
water such as: chloride, fluorides, iron, lead, manganese, sodium, sulfate, zinc, toxic
inorganic substances and toxic organic substances.
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Water Quality
3. Microbiological – microbiological agents are important in their relation to
public health and may also be significant in modifying the physical and chemical
characteristics of water. Water for drinking and cooking purposes must be made free
from disease-producing organisms (pathogens). These organisms include viruses,
bacteria, protozoa and helminths (worms).
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Water Quality
4. Radiological – Radiological factors must be considered in areas where there is a
possibility that the water may have come in contact with radioactive substances.
Water with high radioactivity is not normal and is confined in great degree to areas
where nuclear industries are situated.
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Water Quality Standards
National Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) of the United States of America signed into
law on December 16, 1974. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was directed
to establish maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) for public water systems to prevent
the occurrence of any known or anticipated adverse health effects with an adequate
margin of safety.
The Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 (Republic Act No. 9275) aims to protect the
countries water bodies from pollution from land-based sources (industries and
commercial establishments, agriculture and community/household activities.
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Water Quality Standards
Department of Health Administrative Order No. 2007-0012 or the Philippine
National Standards for Drinking Water 2007 requires waterworks officials,
developers and operators of water supply systems (government or private entities)
to ensure that drinking water is free from harmful contaminants. This includes water
refilling stations and vending machine operators, ice manufacturers, establishments
and institutions that supply or serve drinking water, drinking water laboratories, and
health sanitation authorities.
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Coagulation
During coagulation, liquid aluminum
sulfate (alum) and/or polymer is
added to untreated (raw) water.
When mixed with the water, this
causes the tiny particles of dirt in the
water to stick together or coagulate.
Next, groups of dirt particles stick
together to form larger heavier
particles called flocs which are easier
to remove by settling of filtration. A
coagulant is the substance (chemical)
that is added to the water to
accomplish coagulation.
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Coagulation
3 (three) key properties of a coagulant:
1. Trivalent cation. As indicated is the last section, the colloids most commonly
found in natural waters are negatively charged, hence a cation is required to
neutralize the charge. A trivalent cation is the most efficient cation.
2. Nontoxic. This requirement is obvious for the production of a safe water.
3. Insoluble in the neutral pH range. The coagulant that is added must
precipitate out of solution so that high concentrations of the ion are not left in the
water.
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Softening
Water softening is a process in which
the ions of calcium, magnesium and
sometimes iron are removed. These
ions in hard water that make it difficult
for products with other positively
charged ions to dissolve in the water.
By doing this, the water softening
removes the offending minerals from
the water. Softening can be
accomplished by either the lime-soda
process or by ion exchange. Both
methods are discussed in the following
sections.
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Softening
Water softening is a process in
which the ions of calcium,
magnesium and sometimes iron are
removed. These ions in hard water
that make it difficult for products
with other positively charged ions to
dissolve in the water. By doing this,
the water softening removes the
offending minerals from the water.
Softening can be accomplished by
either the lime-soda process or by
ion exchange. Both methods are
discussed in the following sections.
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Softening
Water softening is a process in
which the ions of calcium,
magnesium and sometimes iron are
removed. These ions in hard water
that make it difficult for products
with other positively charged ions to
dissolve in the water. By doing this,
the water softening removes the
offending minerals from the water.
Softening can be accomplished by
either the lime-soda process or by
ion exchange. Both methods are
discussed in the following sections.
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Softening
Lime-Soda Softening. This process
is now obsolete but was very useful for
the treatment of large volumes of hard
water. Addition of lime (CaO) and soda
(Na2CO3) to the hard water
precipitates calcium as the carbonate,
and magnesium as its hydroxide. The
amounts of the two chemicals required
are easily calculated from the analysis
of the water and stoichiometry of the
reactions. The lime soda uses lime,
Ca(OH)2 and soda ash, Na2CO3, to
precipitate hardness from solution.
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Softening
Lime-Soda Softening. This process
is now obsolete but was very useful for
the treatment of large volumes of hard
water. Addition of lime (CaO) and soda
(Na2CO3) to the hard water
precipitates calcium as the carbonate,
and magnesium as its hydroxide. The
amounts of the two chemicals required
are easily calculated from the analysis
of the water and stoichiometry of the
reactions. The lime soda uses lime,
Ca(OH)2 and soda ash, Na2CO3, to
precipitate hardness from solution.
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Softening
Ion Exchange Softening.
Household water softeners
are ion exchange devices. Ion
exchange involves removing
the hardness ions calcium and
magnesium and replacing
them with non-hardness ions,
typically sodium supplied by
dissolved sodium chloride
(salt), or brine.
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Softening
Ion Exchange Softening.
Household water softeners
are ion exchange devices. Ion
exchange involves removing
the hardness ions calcium and
magnesium and replacing
them with non-hardness ions,
typically sodium supplied by
dissolved sodium chloride
(salt), or brine.
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Softening
Ion Exchange Softening.
Household water softeners
are ion exchange devices. Ion
exchange involves removing
the hardness ions calcium and
magnesium and replacing
them with non-hardness ions,
typically sodium supplied by
dissolved sodium chloride
(salt), or brine.
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Mixing and Flocculation
Mixing, or rapid mixing as it is called, is the process whereby the chemicals are
quickly and uniformly dispersed in the water. Ideally, the chemicals would be
instantaneously dispersed throughout the water. During coagulation and softening
the chemical reactions that take place in rapid mixing form precipitates. Either
aluminum hydroxide or iron hydroxide form during coagulation, while calcium
carbonate and magnesium hydroxide from during softening. The precipitates formed
in these processes must be brought into contact with one another so that they can
agglomerate and form larger particles, called flocs. This contacting process is called
flocculation and is accomplished by slow, gentle mixing.
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Mixing and Flocculation
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Adsorption
Adsorption is a mass transfer process wherein a substance is transferred from the
liquid phase to the surface of a solid where it is bound by chemical or physical forces.
Also used to remove organic substances, in tertiary wastewater treatment, and in
groundwater remediation. It is also used in home water treatment and to treat water
used in aquariums and swimming pools.
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Membranes
A membrane is a thin layer of
material that is capable of
separating materials as a function
of their physical and chemical
properties when a driving force is
applied across the membrane. In
the membrane process, the feed
stream is divided into two
streams, the concentrate or reject
stream, and the permeate or
product stream.
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Water Plant Residuals Management
The precipitated chemicals and other materials removed from raw water to make it
potable and palatable are termed residuals. Water treatment plant and residuals
they produce can be broadly divided into the following general categories.
Treatment plants that coagulate, filter, and oxidize a surface water for removal of
turbidity, color, bacteria, algae, some organic compounds, and often iron and/or
manganese.
Those that practice softening for the removal of calcium and magnesium by the
addition of lime, sodium hydroxide, and/or soda ash.
Those that produce airphase residuals during the stripping of volatile compounds.
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Major water treatment plant residuals
Solid/Liquid Residuals
1. Alum sludges
2. Iron Sludges
3. Polymeric Sludges
4. Softening Sludges
5. SFBW
6. Spent GAC or discharge from carbon systems
7. Slow sand filter cleanings
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Major water treatment plant residuals (continuation…)
Solid/Liquid Residuals
8. Residuals from iron and manganese removal plants
9. Spent precoat filter media Liquid-Phase Residuals
10. Ion- exchange regenerant brine
11. Pregenerant from activated alumina
12. Reverse osmosis reject Gas-Phase Residuals
13. Air stripping off-gases
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Sludge Production and Characteristics
In water treatment plants, sludge is most commonly produced in the following
treatment processes: presedimentation, sedimentation, and filtration (filter
backwash). Sludge thickening normally refers to the process of reducing the free
water content of sludges: whereas, dewatering refers to the reduction of floc-bound
and capillary water content of sludges.
Presedimentation. When surface waters are withdrawn from watercourses that
contain a large quantity of suspended materials, presedimentation prior to
coagulation may be practiced. The purpose of this is to reduce the accumulation of
solids in subsequent units. The settled material generally consists of fine sand, silt,
clays, and organic decomposition products.
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Sludge Production and Characteristics
Presedimentation
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Sludge Production and Characteristics
Presedimentation
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Sludge Production and Characteristics (continuation…)
In water treatment plants, sludge is most commonly produced in the following
treatment processes: presedimentation, sedimentation, and filtration (filter
backwash). Sludge thickening normally refers to the process of reducing the free
water content of sludges: whereas, dewatering refers to the reduction of floc-bound
and capillary water content of sludges.
Softening Sedimentation Basin. The residues from softening by precipitation
with lime [Ca(OH)2] and soda ash (Na2CO3) will vary from a nearly pure chemical to
a highly variable mixture. The softening process produces a sludge containing
primarily CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2.
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Minimization of Sludge Generation for Sustainability
Minimizing sludge generation can have an advantageous effect on the requirements
and economics of handling, treating, and disposing of water treatment plant sludges.
Minimization also results in the conservation of raw materials, energy, and labor.
Three methods to minimize the quantity of metal hydroxide precipitates in the
sludge:
1. Changing the water treatment process to direct filtration.
2. Substituting other coagulants and, in particular, using polymers that are more
effective at lower dosage.
3. Conserving chemicals by determining optimum dosage at frequent intervals as
raw water characteristics change.
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Sludge Handling
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Disinfection
Water is disinfected before it enters the distribution system to ensure that any
disease-causing bacteria, viruses, and parasites are destroyed. Chlorine is used
because it is very effective disinfectant, and residual concentrations can be
maintained to guard against possible biological contamination in the water
distribution system.
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Chlorination
Practices of Water Chlorination
Early water chlorination practices (variously termed “plain chlorination,” “simple
chlorination,” and “marginal chlorination”) were applied for the purpose of
disinfection.
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Chlorination (continuation…)
Combined Residual Chlorination. Combined residual chlorination practice involves
the application of chlorine to water in order to produce, with natural or added
ammonia, a combined available chlorine residual, and to maintain that residual
through part or all of a water-treatment plant or distribution system.
When a combined available chlorine residual is desired, the characteristics of the
water will determine how it can be accomplished:
1. If the water contains sufficient ammonia to produce with added chlorine a
combined available chlorine residual of the desired magnitude, the application of
the chlorine alone suffices.
2. If the water contains too little or no ammonia, the addition of both chlorine and
ammonia is required.
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Chlorination (continuation…)
3. If the water has an existing free available chlorine residual, the addition of
ammonia will convert the residual to combined available residual chlorine. A
combined available chlorine residual should contain little or no free available
chlorine.
The practice of combined residual chlorination is especially applicable after filtration
(post treatment) for controlling certain algae and bacterial growths and for providing
and maintaining a stable residual throughout the system to the point of consumer
use.
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Chlorination (continuation…)
Free Residual Chlorination. Free residual chlorination practice involves the
application of chlorine to water to produce, either directly or through the
destruction of ammonia, a free available chlorine residual and to maintain that
residual through part or all of a water treatment plant or distribution system.
When free available chlorine residual is desired, the characteristics of the water will
determine how it can be accomplished:
1. If the water contains no ammonia (or other nitrogenous materials), the application
of chlorine will yield a free residual.
2. If the water does contain ammonia that results in the formation of a combined
available chlorine residual, it must be destroyed by applying an excess of chlorine.
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Water from the inlets located in the water supply, such as a lake, is sent to be mixed,
coagulated, and flocculated and is then sent to the waterworks for purification by
filtering and chemical treatment. After being treated it is pumped into water mains
for storage or distribution.
Retrieved from Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. (2019)
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ADDITIONAL INPUTS
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ADDITIONAL INPUTS
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ADDITIONAL INPUTS
IE 208 Environmental Engineering

LESSON 4:WATER TREATMENT