Introduction

The incidence of building failures and collapses has become major issues of concern in
the development of Nigeria as the frequencies of their occurrence and the magnitude of the
losses in terms of lives and properties are now becoming very alarming. In fact, building collapse
has now become a familiar occurrence, even to layman on the street in Nigeria (Fagbenle &
Oluwunmi, 2010). Natural forces outside the control of man can also be responsible for failures
and collapse such as earthquakes and tremors, landslide, flooding, high wind velocities like
hurricane, etc. Alamu & Gana (2014) added that the menace has casts a slur on the competence
of the nation’s building community of professionals responsible for designing and monitoring
construction works at building sites. Experts have also suggested that professionals should not
bear the blame alone. This is because, firstly, it has been proved that owners of building under
construction derail from their approved plans relying more on imagination and fantasy.
Secondly, the approving authorities are also known to fail to monitor compliance with approved
plans. Thirdly, some building owners shun professionals in order to cut costs. Fourthly, the high
cost of building materials has led greedy contractors with eyes on profits, to patronize
substandard materials.
These short-cut measures have contributed immensely to the occurrence of failed
buildings in the country. Fadamiro (2002) opined that the concentration of population in cities
due to migration created the specific problems of providing adequate building structure. The
resultant effect of this is the upsurge of various building projects from various contracting firms
of doubtful competencies. Nnaedozie (2005) also added that the Development Control units
(DCU) in most states play a limited role as they lack the requisite number of staff with expertise
to supervise the many developments in progress concurrently across their areas of jurisdiction.
Ede (2010) carried out analysis and evaluation of the death rate involved in the 47 reported cases
of building collapses verified between 2000 and 2010 and over 300 deaths were recorded for
Lagos, Abuja and Port Harcourt which are the three major areas with high rate of casualties

The Meaning of Building Collapse or Failure

Collapse is a state of complete failure, when the structure has literally given way and
most members have caved-in, crumbled or buckled; the building can no longer stand as
originally built (Ayininuola & Olalusi 2004). It can be seen therefore, that collapse is the very
extreme state of failure occurring in a component when that component can no longer be relied
upon to fulfill its principal functions. According to Obiechina (2005), the term failure can
manifest in three forms in the structure, namely: Ultimate limit state, which results in collapse;
Serviceability limit state, which has to do with deflections and cracks, and finally; Durability,
which has to do with deterioration of the elements. Failure is an unaccepted difference between
expected and observed performance. Limited deflection in a floor which causes a certain amount
of cracking/distortion in partitions could reasonably be considered as defect but not a failure,
whereas excessive deflection resulting in serious damage to partitions, ceilings and floor finishes
could be classed as a failure. The design of any structure must guard against the structure
attaining any of these states. Furthermore, failure can occur in the sub or superstructures or both
and can result from: poor design, use of substandard materials and poor quality control and
supervision.

Causes of Building Collapse or Failure

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 Olagunju & Ogundele, 2013, highlighted several causes of building collapse which
include the following:
1. Types and quality of building materials and equipment
i.The use of substandard building materials: The use of inferior materials is said to be up to 10%
Contributory factor to building collapse cases in Nigeria. Materials such as blocks, steel for
reinforcement in some cases are substandard and some dubious contractors who like to cut
corners use inferior materials.
ii.Poor concrete mix ratio: concrete of different qualities can be obtained by using its constituents
namely, cement, water, fine and coarse aggregates, and mineral additives, in different and right
proportions. A mix ratio that does not meet approved standard will have
negative effect on the structure. The result of poor concrete works is building collapse.
iii.Poor construction equipment: Items of builders’ plant ranging from small hand held power
tool to larger pieces of plant such as mechanical excavators and tower cranes can be considered
for use to maintain the high standards required in any building project. Sad enough, the use of
manual labour is still a common practice in most of the construction sites in Nigeria.
2. Operation Problem
i.Non enforcement of building codes or construction regulations: the building code and sub-
division regulations have been adopted as design and construction tools to guide the
development of properties and for the growth of cities. The contravention of these regulations
and standards has continued unabated as reported in many parts of the country thereby resulting
in building failure and disasters.
ii.Wrong construction methods: it has been discovered that most local building contractor does
not follow international best practices in the execution of building project. They use untested
local building construction methods which often lead to structural failure and eventual building
collapse.
iii.No structural drawing/design available: the structural function of a building is to transfer both
the dead and live loads, including its own weight safely down to the foundations and
subsequently into the ground. Hence, failure occurs when a building is not able to perform the
above function. On the other hand, the purpose of structural design is to ensure that the building
performs the above function effectively. It is imperative to note here that the structural function
of a building mentioned above will be compromised once there is no structural drawing to work
with on site.
iv.Illegal conversion or change of use: Building owners in order to make more money from their
property often change the use for which the building was initially approved by the town planning
authority, adequate provisions are not often made for subsequent conversion/modification.
Structures approved as office complex are illegally turned to place of worships. The resultant
effect is that the structure is eventually overloaded.
v.Hasty construction: Tyler (1981) noted that the growth of strength with age is an important
factor in concrete works. Testing is usually done at 7 days and at 28 days, and concrete is
regarded as more or less mature at 28 days. Sometimes the project owner is ill advised on the
consequence of loading premature concrete, especially when he is in hast to get his project
completed before the record time.

3. Personnel Problem

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i.Poor workmanship and ineffective supervision: supervision involves the intricate knowledge of
workmanship and to ensure adherence to contract documents, especially the drawings. The
objective of supervision is primarily to ensure that employer’s requirement as expressed in the
contract documents are correctly interpreted and the problems which are bound to arise are
satisfactorily resolved.
ii.The use of quacks instead of professionals: the activities of unqualified persons in the building
industry have done a lot of harm. Building owners in most cases will engage the services of
quacks in order to ‘save cost’ of engaging professionals. A professional in practice is basically
responsible for providing solutions to problems in the field in the context of scope, functionality,
quality and cost, stability, time of production, safety and durability.
.iii.Poor enforcement of relevant laws: According to Taiwo (2011) the Town Planning Authority
is saddled with the responsibilities of monitoring and regulating all land developments,
undertaking of plan approval processes and preparing layout plans. The existing building codes,
laws and regulations meant to guide builders were rendered ineffective because of lack of
political will to enforce them.
Problem of the Sub-Structure and Super- Structure
The foundation of a structure can fail from wrong estimation of the bearing capacity of
the soil resulting from wrong interpretation of geotechnical investigation or assumption. It may
also arise from under-estimation of the load imposed on the soil. Similarly, failure may result
from the quality of the material used for the foundation, which may be of low quality or sub-
standard. On the other hand, the superstructure concerns all the parts of the structure above
ground and includes columns, beams, slabs, and roofs. These components may fail because of
the following: Poor design; Use of wrong construction methods and procedures; use of
substandard materials and the absence of proper supervision that will ensure total quality
management. Oloyede, Omoogun & Akinjare (2010) pointed out that different soil types pose
varying problems for building foundations and the structural integrity of an entire building.
Therefore to design a foundation, it is necessary to calculate the loads on the foundation and
determine the nature of the sub-soil, its bearing capacity, likely behaviour under seasonal and
ground water level changes and the possibility of ground movement. Similarly, the components
of the structure should be able to resist deformation under loading conditions. Deformation
implies a change in size and shape when a body is subjected to stress. This means that the
component should possess adequate stiffness. Thus; the stiffness of a beam or column is a
measure of its resistance to bending or buckling.
The Nigerian National Building Code and Its Provisions
The Nigerian National Building Code contains rules, regulations, specifications and
ethics concerning the design, construction and maintenance of buildings in Nigeria. This code
contains standards and specifications that must be enforced in the practice of building works in
Nigeria. However, the code is yet to have a full legal backing nationwide because it is presently a
bill before the Nigerian National Assembly. However, the Code is receiving acceptance by some
states of the Federation. Most of the Construction Regulations presently guiding the practice of
construction in the country are from our colonial master, Britain, in form of British Standards
(BS) and British Codes of Practice. (Adebowale & Akinyemi 2011)

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Effects of Building Collapse
Each collapse carries along with it tremendous effect that cannot be easily forgotten by
any of its victims. The consequences are usually in the form of economic and social implications
which include: Loss of human life: loss of live is a common report from most of the collapsed
building incidents in Nigeria. It is an irreparable loss to both the victim’s relatives and the nation
at large. Loss of materials: when a building collapse, most of its structural components and
materials will be damaged often beyond re-use. Loss of capital investments: Capital investments
in most cases are not recoverable. The situation is worse if the developer has taken a bank loan
for the building project. Physical damage and psychological trauma: to the survivor of a
collapsed building, the situation may include injury and pain to the body.
Corruption in Building Industries
Corruption is a vice and it is wide when it comes to dfining it. Whenever you are suppose
to do what is right and you do the opposite, somewhere down the line there is corruption. So if a
building is suppose to stand and it is not, there is corruption somewhere and we can now start to
pinpoint where and how. When the right materials are not used to build, obviously that is
corruption. If the design is done by someone who is not suppose to do it, it is corruption
(Akinioye 2016) The incidence of buildings collapse caused as a result of irregularities usually
played up by site operatives and in most cases in collaboration with land developers during
construction exercises. They sell construction materials like cement, sand, concrete blocks and
reinforcement rods meant for construction. They subsequently under-
reinforce the concrete and put inadequate quantity of cement in the blocks as well as the
concrete, thus making it brittle and eventually building collapse. Corrupt practices refers to acts
of abuse of diverse forms whereby persons take advantage of their position to engage in illegal,
dishonest, unwholesome act while rendering services. It refers to those behavior or action that
work towards breaking certain moral codes of conduct or administrative rules.( Lawan, 2006).
Construction Sector Transparency(COST,2016) identified 5 features that make building
construction prone to corruption. These includes:
1. Uniqueness: No two construction projects are the same making comparisons difficult and
providing opportunities to inflate costs and conceal bribes.
2. Complex transaction chains: The delivery of infrastructure involves many professional
disciplines and trades people and numerous contractual relationships that make control measures
difficult to implement.
3. Work is concealed: Materials and workmanship are often hidden, e.g. steel reinforcing is cast
in concrete, masonry is covered with plaster and cables and pipes enclosed in service ducts.
4. Official bureaucracy: Numerous approvals are required from government in the form of
licenses and permits at various stages of the delivery cycle, each one providing an opportunity
for bribery.
5. The scale of infrastructure investments: Investments in economic infrastructure such as dams,
airports and railways can cost tens of billions of dollars making it easier to conceal bribes and
inflate claims.

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Remedial Measures

Adewolabi 2015 highlighted remedial measures to building collapse that the incessant
collapse of building in Nigeria can be curbed or eradicated through adherence to some of the
following measures, namely:

i. All stakeholders in the construction industry should adhere strictly to the provisions of the

building code
ii. The SON (Standard Organisation of Nigeria) should ensure that only certified building
materials are allowed in the market. A collapsed Six-storey building at 11 Aderibigbe street,
Maryland, Lagos, investigation revealed the following as the causes of its collapse: Improper
sizing of the column members; Improper bonding; Lack of adequate stability ties for a structure
of such height; Inadequate shear reinforcement; Improper calculation of the load carrying
capacity of the structure as well as extra added load on the life of the structure (the big billboard
and the mast on the roof top).
iii. The Nigerian National Building Code contains rules, regulations, specifications and ethics
concerning the design, construction and maintenance of buildings in Nigeria. This code contains
standards and specifications that must be enforced in the practice of building works in Nigeria.
However, the code is yet to have a full legal backing nationwide because it is presently a bill
before the Nigerian National Assembly. However, the Code is receiving acceptance by some
states of the Federation. Most of the Construction Regulations presently guiding the practice of
construction in the country are from our colonial master, Britain, in form of British Standards
(BS) and British Codes of Practice. These are publications issued by the British Standards
Institution which gives recommended minimum standards of quality and testing for materials,
components, design and construction practices.
iv.Codes of Practice: these give recommendations for good practice relative to design,
manufacture, construction, installation and maintenance with the main objectives of safety,
quality, economy and fitness for the intended purpose. (Adebowale & Philip 2005)
According to National Building Code 2006 (NNBC) of the Federal Republic of Nigeria,
which stated that: The need to evolve a National Building Code arose from the following
existing conditions of our cities and environment: The absence of planning of our towns and
cities; Incessant collapse of building, fire infernos, building environment abuse and other
disasters; v.Dearth of referenced design standards for professionals; Use of non-professionals
and quacks; Use of untested products and materials; Lack of maintenance culture.
Recommendations
If all things are done accordingly, the chances of collapse occurring are very minimal and rather
the few cases of collapse will afford the opportunity to study and understand the phenomenon
better. It is therefore recommended that:
i. All the stakeholders in the building industry should take the following into consideration to
achieve a lasting solution to the associated problems of the ceaseless incidence of building
collapse in Nigeria:
ii.Governments: at the Federal Government level, Standard Organisation of Nigeria should
vigorously pursue all those involved in the production or importation of sub-standard goods
especially building materials. It should rid the society of sub-standard construction materials.

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Penalties and sanctions should be developed and enacted by the state governments and
assemblies. The consequences of developing a failed structure shall be well publicised.
iii.: Monitoring bodies should be established to monitor the activities of their members, make
random visits to project sites where those found wanting in the discharge of their duties should
be sanctioned.
iv.Training of new generation professionals and re-training of the practising professionals in
building industry about new developments in building industry should be jointly encouraged by
all the professional bodies.

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