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McShane Glinow 0078112648 9780078112645

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Chapter 06
Applied Performance Practices
True / False Questions
1. People with a high power distance tend to have a high respect and priority for
money.
True False
2. The largest portion of most paychecks is based on a person's membership and

seniority in an organization.
True False
3. Competency-based rewards are consistent with the concept of employability.
True False
4. An advantage of competency-based rewards is that measuring employee

competencies is mostly done through objective measurement methods.
True False
5. A problem with seniority-based rewards is that they cause higher turnover.
True False
6. Job evaluations systematically evaluate the worth of each job within the
organization by measuring its required skill, effort, responsibility and working
conditions.
True False
7. Job evaluation mainly supports the competency approach to rewards.
True False
8. Job status-based rewards potentially motivate employees to compete with each

other.
True False
9. Job status-based rewards discourage employees from hoarding resources.
True False
10. Competency-based rewards pay employees based on their seniority in the

organization.
True False
11. Skill-based pay plans give an employee a higher pay rate for those days that he
or she performs two or more jobs at the same time.
True False
12. Competency-based rewards tend to improve levels of product and service

quality.
True False
13. Gainsharing plans focus on cost reductions and increased labor efficiency.
True False
14. Gainsharing plans apply to production jobs, not to services such as medical
operations.
True False
15. Employee stock ownership plans and stock options are two types of
organizational-level performance-based rewards.
True False
16. Employee stock ownership plans and stock options tend to create an "ownership
culture" in which employees feel aligned with the organization's success.
True False
17. Employee stock ownership plans give employees the right to purchase company
stock at a predetermined price up to a fixed expiration date.
True False
18. Companies should use individual-level performance-based pay when jobs are
highly interdependent.
True False
19. Team rewards increase employee preferences for team-based work

arrangements.
True False
20. Job specialization increases training costs and makes it more difficult for
companies to match employee aptitudes to jobs for which they are best suited.
True False
21. Scientific management is the process of systematically dividing work into its
smallest possible elements and standardizing work activities to achieve maximum
efficiency.
True False
22. Scientific management is mainly associated with high levels of job specialization.
True False
23. Adam Smith introduced the principles of scientific management.
True False
24. Job specialization increases work efficiency, but it tends to reduce employee
motivation.
True False
25. According to Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory, only characteristics of the job

(and not the work environment) motivate employees.
True False
26. According to the motivator-hygiene theory, people are mainly motivated by

characteristics of the job itself, not by working conditions or other factors external
to the job.
True False
27. Motivator-hygiene theory highlights the idea that job content is an important
source of employee motivation.
True False
28. The job characteristics model identifies five core job characteristics and three
psychological states.
True False
29. Task identity is the degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the
organization and/or larger society.
True False
30. Employees assembling complete computer modems would have higher task
identity than those assembling only one component and passing it along to others
for further assembly.
True False
31. Task significance is the degree to which the job affects the organization and/or
larger society.
True False
32. According to the job characteristics model, experienced meaningfulness

increases with the level of job feedback.
True False
33. Increasing the core job characteristics will not increase employee motivation for
those who lack the required skills.
True False
34. All employees feel more motivated to perform their jobs when the core job
characteristics are increased.
True False
35. Job enlargement increases skill variety.
True False
36. A video journalist is someone who performs all jobs previously done by a
traditional news team—from operating the camera to reporting the story. Thus, a
video journalist is an example of job enlargement and job enrichment.
True False
37. Research suggests that increasing job enlargement increases employee

motivation almost as much as job enrichment.
True False
38. Two ways to enrich jobs are by clustering jobs into natural groups and by
establishing client relationships.
True False
39. Forming natural work units tends to increase task identity and task significance.
True False
40. Job enrichment tends to increase the quality of products or services.
True False
41. Companies are applying job specialization when employees are made directly
responsible for specific customers and having them communicate directly with
those customers.
True False
42. People are empowered when they feel self-determination, meaning, competence,
and impact regarding their role in the organization.
True False
43. Employees are more likely to feel empowered in jobs with a high degree of
autonomy, task identity, and task significance.
True False
44. Employees experience more meaningfulness when working in jobs that allow
them to receive feedback about their performance and accomplishments.
True False
45. Empowerment flourishes in organizations with a learning orientation.
True False
46. Empowerment tends to decrease personal initiative among employees.
True False
47. Self-leadership borrows ideas from social learning theory and research in sports
psychology on constructive thought processes.
True False
48. Self-leadership suggests that goals should be set by the employee's supervisor
with or without the employee's involvement.
True False
49. Positive self-talk motivates employees by increasing their effort-to-performance

expectancy.
True False
50. Mental imagery helps us to anticipate and work out solutions to potential
obstacles in our work.
True False
51. Mental imagery excludes visualizing completion of a task.
True False
52. An element of self-leadership involves keeping track of our progress toward

goals.
True False
53. Self-leadership includes the practice of self-reinforcement.
True False
54. People with a high level of conscientiousness have difficulty applying self-
leadership strategies.
True False
55. Self-leadership is dependent solely on the individual.
True False
56. Employees with a high degree of autonomy engage in self-leadership.
True False
57. Employees engage in self-monitoring in companies that emphasize less frequent

measurement of performance.
True False
Multiple Choice Questions
58. Which of the following rewards represent the largest part of most paychecks?
A. Membership-based rewards
B. Job status-based rewards
C. Individual job performance-based rewards
D. Competency-based rewards
E. Performance-based rewards
59. Which reward system tends to discourage poor performers from voluntarily
leaving the organization?
A. Performance-based pay
B. Skill-based pay
C. Piece-rate rewards
D. Competency-based pay
E. Membership and seniority-based pay
60. The problem with membership and seniority-based rewards is that they:
A. discourage people from remaining with the organization.

B. are difficult to use in organizational settings.
C. do not directly motivate job performance.
D. increase turnover.
E. discourage people from remaining with the organization and they do not
directly motivate job performance.
61. Which of the following are "golden handcuffs" that potentially increase
continuance commitment?
A. Performance-based rewards
C. Team-based rewards
E. Membership/seniority-based rewards
62. Which of the following reward systems uses job evaluations?
A. Competency-based reward system

B. Job status reward system
C. Individual performance reward system
D. Seniority-based reward system
E. Task performance-based reward system
63. Which of the following awards motivate employees to compete for promotions?
B. Competency-based rewards
D. Job status-based rewards
64. Steelweld, a car parts manufacturer, pays employees a higher hourly rate as they
learn to master more parts of the work process. Employees earn $10 per hour
when they are hired and they can earn up to $20 per hour if they master all 12
work units in the production process. Which of these reward systems is being
applied by Steelweld?
A. Skill-based pay
B. Piece-rate pay
C. Job evaluation system
D. Seniority-based pay
E. Membership-based pay
65. Which of the following is most consistent with employability—namely, that

employees are expected to continuously learn skills that will keep them
employed?
A. Job evaluation systems

B. Job status rewards
C. Competency-based rewards
D. Individual performance-based rewards
E. Membership-based rewards
66. Which of the following is true about skill-based pay plans?
A. They discourage employees from learning new jobs.

B. They create a psychological distance between employees and managers.
C. They discourage poor performers from leaving the organization.
D. They can be expensive because they motivate employees to spend more time
learning new jobs.
E. They motivate employees to compete for promotions.
67. Which of the following is an individual incentive?
A. Gainsharing plan
B. Piece rate plan
C. Share option
D. Share ownership
E. Employee stock ownership plan
68. Which of these performance-based rewards tends to create a connection

between the employee's work effort and the reward received?
A. Profit-sharing plan
B. Employee stock ownership plan
C. Gainsharing plan
D. Employee stock option plan
E. Stock option
69. A mid-sized city introduced a reward system whereby employees would find ways
to reduce costs and increase work efficiency. Every employee would receive a
portion of the surplus budget resulting from these cost savings. Which of the
following reward systems is this city using?
A. Gainsharing plan
B. Commission system
C. Piece rate plan
D. Share option plan
E. Commission plan
70. Gainsharing plans tend to:
A. increase efficiency without paying employees any financial reward.

B. distribute a portion of company profits to employees in the form of company
stock.
C. create a reasonably strong effort-to-performance expectancy.
D. reward individuals for their own personal performance rather than team or
organizational performance.
E. increase efficiency without paying employees any financial reward creating a
reasonably strong effort-to-performance expectancy.
71. Which of the following is true about stock option plans?
A. They refer to bonuses from the work unit's cost savings and productivity
improvement.
B. They give employees the right to purchase company stock at a predetermined
price up to a fixed expiration date.
C. They directly award bonuses to employees based on cost savings and
increased labor productivity.
D. They tend to weaken employee commitment to the organization.
E. They encourage employees to buy company stock, usually at a discounted
price or through a no-interest loan.
72. Which of the following tend to create an ownership culture and align employee
behaviors more closely to organizational objectives?
A. Job evaluations
B. Commissions
C. Piece rate plans
D. Employee share ownership plans
E. Stock option plans and employee stock ownership plans
73. When applied to non-management employees, which of the following has a weak
connection between the reward and individual effort?
A. Piece rate pay

B. Commission
C. Profit-sharing bonus
D. Gainsharing plan
E. Job evaluation
74. Which of the following is an advantage of job specialization?
A. The quality of work increases.

B. Jobs can be mastered quickly.
C. Employees are more involved with their jobs.
D. The work is less repetitive.
E. Task specialization has no clear advantages to the organization.
75. Which of the following refers to the result of the division of labor in which work is
subdivided into separate jobs assigned to different people?
A. Piece rate system

B. Job rotation
C. Job specialization
D. Profit-sharing bonus
E. Gainsharing plan
76. Which of the following does scientific management include?
A. Assigning employees to fixed hourly wages.

B. Systematically dividing a job into its smallest possible elements and assigning
these divided tasks to employees who are best qualified to perform them.
C. Combining tasks so employees perform an entire work process from beginning
to end.
D. Encouraging employees to set their own goals and have positive thoughts
about their work performance.
E. Encouraging employees to complete an entire task single handedly.
77. Which of these contemporary organizational behavior practices was popularized

by Fredrick Taylor in his work on scientific management?
A. Goal setting
B. Job enrichment
C. Membership-based reward system
E. Competency-based reward system
78. According to Herzberg, which of the following is a hygiene factor?
A. Autonomy
B. Job security
C. Responsibility
D. Personal growth
E. Esteem need
79. A unique feature of Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory is that it:
A. states that improving motivators increases job satisfaction but does not
decrease job dissatisfaction.
B. states that employees can be satisfied with their jobs but not motivated to
perform their jobs.
C. identifies job specialization as the main source of higher need fulfillment.
D. views job satisfaction and dissatisfaction as opposites.
E. recognizes money as the primary motivator in organizational settings.
80. _____ is the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole or identifiable
piece of work, such as assembling an entire broadband modem rather than just
soldering in the circuitry.
A. Skill variety
B. Task significance
C. Job feedback
D. Job rotation
E. Task identity
81. _____ is the degree to which the job affects the organization and/or larger
society.
A. Skill variety
C. Job feedback
D. Job rotation
E. Task identity
82. Which core job characteristic(s) affect(s) experienced responsibility for work
outcomes?
A. Feedback from job and skill variety

B. Autonomy
C. Skill variety, task identity and task significance
D. Task identity
E. Task significance
83. _____ is the degree to which employees can tell how well they are doing on the
basis of direct sensory information from the job itself.
A. Job feedback
B. Job evaluation
C. Task identity
D. Task significance
E. Job rotation
84. Which of the following directly contributes to a feeling of experienced

responsibility among employees?
A. Job feedback
B. Skill variety
C. Autonomy
D. Task identity
85. Which of the following minimizes health risks from repetitive strain and heavy
lifting because employees use different muscles and physical positions in the
various jobs?
A. Job feedback
B. Job enlargement
C. Job rotation
D. Job enrichment
E. Task identity
86. Employees at CyberTech perform repetitive jobs that have resulted in boredom as
well as repetitive strain injury. Technology makes it difficult to combine existing
jobs, but the company wants to make employees more multiskilled. Which of the
following would best help CyberTech to improve this situation?
A. Encourage employees to engage in mental imagery.

B. Introduce job specialization.
C. Introduce a gainsharing plan for all production employees.
D. Introduce job rotation.
E. Introduce job enrichment by having each employee produce the entire product
rather than a small part of it.
87. Which of these job design actions is a form of job enlargement?
A. Increasing the number of tasks within the job.

B. Establishing client relationships.
C. Empowering employees.
D. Forming natural work units.
E. Establishing client relationships and forming natural work units.
88. Which of the following is the primary aspect of job enlargement?
A. Autonomy
B. Affiliation
C. Job feedback
D. Growth need strength
E. Skill variety
89. A video journalist's job consists of operating the camera, reporting the story, and
often editing the work, whereas these three tasks are traditionally performed by
three people. Video journalism is an example of:
A. self-leadership and job enlargement.

B. job enrichment and self-leadership.
C. job enlargement and job specialization.
D. job specialization and self-leadership.
E. job enrichment and job enlargement.
90. A large retail organization previously divided work among its four employee
benefits staff into distinct specializations. One person answered all questions
about superannuation (pension plans), another answered all questions about
various forms of paid time off (e.g. vacations), and so on. These jobs were
recently restructured so that each employee benefits person answers all
questions for people in a particular geographic area. For example, one staff
member is responsible for all employee benefits inquiries from anyone in a
particular geographic region. This job restructuring is an example of:
A. self-leadership.
B. job enrichment.
C. job rotation.
D. scientific management.
E. self-monitoring.
91. A cable TV company redesigned jobs so that one employee interacts directly with
customers, connects and disconnects their cable service, installs their special
services and collects overdue accounts in an assigned area. Previously, each
task was performed by a different person and the customer interacted only with
someone at the head office. This change is an example of:
A. increasing job enrichment by establishing client relationships.

B. encouraging self-reinforcement.
C. introducing job rotation.
D. increasing job specialization.
E. introducing job feedback.
92. Which of the following is a concept that is represented by four dimensions: self-
determination, meaning, competence, and impact of the individual's role in the
organization?
A. Specialization
B. Job enlargement
C. Empowerment
E. E: Job rotation
93. When are employees said to be empowered?
A. When employees practice job specialization

B. When employees experience self-reinforcement
C. When employees engage in positive self-talk
D. When employees experience freedom and discretion
E. When employees work in a centralized system
94. Which of the following is a component of empowerment?
A. Overconfidence
B. Fate
C. Mental imagery
D. Meaning
E. Dependence
95. A high degree of autonomy, task identity, and task significance are important
conditions for:
A. job specialization.
B. competency-based pay.
C. empowerment.
E. piece rate system.
96. Which of the following dimensions is possessed by employees, when they feel
empowered, care about their work, and believe that what they do is important?
A. Meaning
B. Self-determination
C. Competence
D. Impact
E. Freedom
97. Which of the following is the first step in self-leadership?
A. Establishing client relationships

B. Practicing gainsharing
C. Personal goal setting
D. Constructive thought patterns
E. Self-reinforcement
98. Which of the following steps occurs in self-leadership immediately after identifying
goals that are specific, relevant, and challenging?
A. Designing natural rewards

B. Self-monitoring
C. Self-reinforcement
E. Track keeping
99. Which of these statements about self-leadership is true?
A. Employees with a low degree of conscientiousness have a more natural

tendency to apply self-leadership.
B. Some elements of self-leadership come from sports psychology.
C. Self-leadership is practiced by people with particular personality characteristics
and cannot be learned.
D. External locus of control helps in applying self-help strategies.
E. Self-leadership behaviors are more frequently found in people with lower levels
of extroversion.
100.Before meeting a new client, a salesperson visualizes the experience of meeting

the person and effectively answering some of the challenging questions the
client might ask. This activity is an example of:
A. poor performance.
B. constructive thought patterns.
C. rewarding competencies.
D. job rotation.
E. empowerment.
101.Which of the following are included under constructive thought patterns in self-
leadership?
A. Self-talk and mental imagery

B. Gainsharing and employee stock ownership plans
C. Personal goal setting and self-monitoring
D. Job rotation and job enrichment
E. Task identity and task significance
102.According to the self-leadership model, which of the following is true about

positive self-talk?
A. It should never be practiced on the job.

B. It represents the most important way to monitor our own performance.
C. It occurs when employees are unable to control their own behavior on the job.
D. It improves self-efficacy and employee motivation.
E. It must occur only after the task has been accomplished.
103.Which of the following elements does self-leadership include?
A. Job specialization
B. Task identity
C. Mental imagery
D. Job evaluation
104._____ is the process of keeping track at regular intervals of one's progress

toward a goal by using naturally occurring feedback.
A. Job feedback
B. Self-monitoring
C. Natural grouping
D. Job specialization
105.Katie decided to do a more enjoyable task after completing a task that she
disliked. This instance is an example of:
A. self-reinforcement.
B. job enrichment.
C. job specialization.
D. self-monitoring.
E. job feedback.
Essay Questions
106.Briefly describe how organizations reward people for job status. Discuss three
potential problems with rewarding employees for their job status.
107.ClamCo, a large energy company, was once a bureaucratic organization that
valued long service and promotions through a steep hierarchy. After several
years of difficult change, it is now a much flatter organization that places more
responsibility with self-directed work teams. Explain what changes ClamCo
probably would have made to align its reward system with this new corporate
philosophy.
108.Describe a reward system that would best motivate employees to learn several
jobs. Identify potential disadvantages of this reward system.
109.Compare and contrast gainsharing with employee stock ownership plans.

110.Briefly describe some of the important strategies for improving reward
effectiveness.
111.Briefly explain the benefits and problems of job specialization.
112.Explain the three critical psychological states that affect employee motivation
and satisfaction in the context of the job characteristics model.
113.The chief executive officer of a mid-sized manufacturing company has hired you
to design the work site and to make any other changes necessary for employees
to feel more empowered. Briefly define empowerment and describe three
important conditions you would ensure to improve empowerment among the
employees.
114.Self-leadership provides a different way of thinking about motivating employees.

Identify and fully describe three of the elements of the self-leadership model and
briefly explain how self-leadership differs from other applied motivation
practices.
115.Your supervisor is intrigued by the concept of self-leadership and wants to know

more about it. Discuss how she can encourage self-leadership and which
conditions would encourage self-leadership to be more likely to occur.
Chapter 06 Applied Performance Practices Answer Key
True / False Questions
1. People with a high power distance tend to have a high respect and priority for
(p. 164) money.
FALSE
People in countries with high power distance (such as China and Japan) tend
to have a high respect and priority for money.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Learning Objective: 06-01 Discuss the meaning of money and identify several individual; team; and organizational-level
performance-based rewards.
Learning Objective: 06-02 Describe five ways to improve reward effectiveness.
Level of Difficulty: 1 Easy
Topic: The Meaning of Money in the Workplace
2. The largest portion of most paychecks is based on a person's membership and

(p. 165) seniority in an organization.
TRUE
Membership-based and seniority-based rewards (sometimes called "pay for

pulse") represent the largest part of most paychecks. Some employee benefits,
such as free or discounted meals in the company cafeteria, remain the same
for everyone, whereas others increase with seniority.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Topic: Membership and Seniority-Based Rewards
3. Competency-based rewards are consistent with the concept of employability.
(p. 165)
TRUE
Competency-based rewards improve workforce flexibility and are consistent

with the emerging idea of employability.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Level of Difficulty: 2 Medium
Topic: Financial Reward Practices
4. An advantage of competency-based rewards is that measuring employee

(p. 165) competencies is mostly done through objective measurement methods.
FALSE
Competency-based reward system has a disadvantage that it relies on

subjective measurement of competencies.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
5. A problem with seniority-based rewards is that they cause higher turnover.

(p. 166)
FALSE
Membership- and seniority-based rewards potentially attract job applicants

(particularly those who desire predictable income) and reduce turnover.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
6. Job evaluations systematically evaluate the worth of each job within the
(p. 166) organization by measuring its required skill, effort, responsibility and working
conditions.
TRUE
Job evaluations systematically evaluate the worth of each job within the
organization by measuring its required skill, effort, responsibility, and working
conditions.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
7. Job evaluation mainly supports the competency approach to rewards.

(p. 166)
FALSE
Many organizations reward employees to some extent on the basis of the

status or worth of the jobs they occupy. In some parts of the world, companies
measure job worth through job evaluations.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
Topic: Job Status-Based Rewards
8. Job status-based rewards potentially motivate employees to compete with each
(p. 166) other.
TRUE
Job status-based rewards try to improve feelings of fairness, such that people
in higher-valued jobs should get higher pay. These rewards also motivate
employees to compete for promotions.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
9. Job status-based rewards discourage employees from hoarding resources.

(p. 166)
FALSE
Job status-based pay potentially motivates employees to compete with one

another for higher-status jobs and to raise the value of their own jobs by
exaggerating job duties and hoarding resources.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
10. Competency-based rewards pay employees based on their seniority in the
(p. 166) organization.
FALSE
Competency-based rewards pay employees based on how well they

demonstrate each of those competencies.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Topic: Competency-Based Rewards
11. Skill-based pay plans give an employee a higher pay rate for those days that
(p. 166) he or she performs two or more jobs at the same time.
FALSE
Skill-based pay plans are a specific variation of competency-based rewards in

which people receive higher pay based on their mastery of measurable skills.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
12. Competency-based rewards tend to improve levels of product and service
(p. 166) quality.
TRUE
Product or service quality tends to improve with competency-based rewards,

because employees with multiple skills are more likely to understand the work
process and know how to improve it.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
13. Gainsharing plans focus on cost reductions and increased labor efficiency.
(p. 168)
TRUE
Gainsharing plan calculates bonuses from the work unit's cost savings and
productivity improvement. They also create a reasonably strong link between
effort and performance, because much of the cost reduction and labor
efficiency is within the team's control.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
Topic: Performance-Based Rewards
14. Gainsharing plans apply to production jobs, not to services such as medical
(p. 168) operations.
FALSE
Gainsharing plan calculates bonuses from the work unit's cost savings and
productivity improvement. Several hospitals have cautiously introduced a form
of gainsharing, whereby physicians and medical staff in a particular medical
unit (cardiology, orthopedics, etc.) are collectively rewarded for cost reductions
in surgery and patient care.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
15. Employee stock ownership plans and stock options are two types of
(p. 168) organizational-level performance-based rewards.
TRUE
Employee stock ownership plans and stock options are two types of
organizational-level performance-based rewards. Employee stock ownership
plans (ESOPs) encourage employees to buy company stock, usually at a
discounted price or through a no-interest loan. Stock options give employees
the right to purchase company stock at a predetermined price up to a fixed
expiration date.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
16. Employee stock ownership plans and stock options tend to create an
(p. 168) "ownership culture" in which employees feel aligned with the organization's
success.
TRUE
Research indicates that employee stock ownership plans and stock options
tend to create an ownership culture in which employees feel aligned with the
organization's success.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
17. Employee stock ownership plans give employees the right to purchase
(p. 168) company stock at a predetermined price up to a fixed expiration date.
FALSE
Employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs) encourage employees to buy

company stock, usually at a discounted price or through a no-interest loan.
Stock options give employees the right to purchase company stock at a
predetermined price up to a fixed expiration date.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
18. Companies should use individual-level performance-based pay when jobs are
(p. 170) highly interdependent.
FALSE
Team rewards are better than individual rewards when employees work in
highly interdependent jobs, because it is difficult to measure individual
performance in these situations.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Topic: Improving Reward Effectiveness
19. Team rewards increase employee preferences for team-based work

(p. 170) arrangements.
TRUE
Team rewards encourage cooperation, which is very important when work is

highly interdependent. They also tend to support employee preferences for
team-based work.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
20. Job specialization increases training costs and makes it more difficult for
(p. 172) companies to match employee aptitudes to jobs for which they are best suited.
FALSE
Specialized jobs require fewer physical and mental skills to accomplish the
assigned work, so less time and fewer resources are needed for training. It also
tends to increase work efficiency as employees with specific aptitudes or skills
can be matched more precisely to the jobs for which they are best suited.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
Learning Objective: 06-03 List the advantages and disadvantages of job specialization.
Learning Objective: 06-04 Diagram the job characteristics model and describe three ways to improve employee motivation
through job design.
Topic: Job Design and Work Efficiency
21. Scientific management is the process of systematically dividing work into its
(p. 173) smallest possible elements and standardizing work activities to achieve
maximum efficiency.
TRUE
Scientific management is the practice of systematically partitioning work into its

smallest elements and standardizing tasks to achieve maximum efficiency.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
through job design.
22. Scientific management is mainly associated with high levels of job
(p. 173) specialization.
TRUE
Scientific management is the practice of systematically partitioning work into its

smallest elements and standardizing tasks to achieve maximum efficiency. It is
mainly associated with high levels of job specialization and standardization of
tasks to achieve maximum efficiency.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
through job design.
23. Adam Smith introduced the principles of scientific management.

(p. 173)
FALSE
Frederick Winslow Taylor, an American industrial engineer introduced the

principles of scientific management in the early 1900s.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
through job design.
24. Job specialization increases work efficiency, but it tends to reduce employee
(p. 174) motivation.
TRUE
Job specialization increases work efficiency. However, extreme job

specialization adversely affects employee attitudes and motivation. Job
specialization can undermine the motivational potential of jobs. As work
becomes specialized, it tends to become easier to perform but less interesting.
Work motivation increases (to a point) as jobs become more complex, but
increasingly complexity results in a long time and probability of mastering the
job.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
through job design.
25. According to Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory, only characteristics of the

(p. 174) job (and not the work environment) motivate employees.
TRUE
Frederick Herzberg argued that only characteristics of the job itself motivate
employees, whereas the hygiene factors merely prevent dissatisfaction.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
through job design.
Topic: Job Design and Work Motivation
26. According to the motivator-hygiene theory, people are mainly motivated by
(p. 174) characteristics of the job itself, not by working conditions or other factors
external to the job.
TRUE
Motivator-hygiene theory proposes that employees experience job satisfaction

when they fulfill growth and esteem needs (called motivators ), and they
experience dissatisfaction when they have poor working conditions, job
security, and other factors categorized as lower-order needs (called hygienes).
Frederick Herzberg argued that only characteristics of the job itself motivate
employees, whereas the hygiene factors merely prevent dissatisfaction.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
through job design.
27. Motivator-hygiene theory highlights the idea that job content is an important
(p. 174) source of employee motivation.
TRUE
Motivator-hygiene theory argued that only characteristics of the job itself

motivate employees, whereas the hygiene factors merely prevent
dissatisfaction.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
through job design.
28. The job characteristics model identifies five core job characteristics and three
(p. 174) psychological states.
TRUE
The job characteristics model identifies five core job dimensions that produce
three psychological states. Employees who experience these psychological
states tend to have higher levels of internal work motivation (motivation from
the work itself), job satisfaction (particularly satisfaction with the work itself),
and work effectiveness.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
through job design.
29. Task identity is the degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the
(p. 175) organization and/or larger society.
FALSE
Task identity is the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole or

identifiable piece of work.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
through job design.
30. Employees assembling complete computer modems would have higher task
(p. 175) identity than those assembling only one component and passing it along to
others for further assembly.
TRUE
Task identity is the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole or

identifiable piece of work. Employees assembling complete computer modems
would have higher task identity than those assembling only one component
and passing it along to others for further assembly.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
through job design.
31. Task significance is the degree to which the job affects the organization and/or
(p. 175) larger society.
TRUE
Task significance is the degree to which the job affects the organization and/or
larger society. It is an observable characteristic of the job as well as a
perceptual awareness.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
through job design.
32. According to the job characteristics model, experienced meaningfulness
(p. 177) increases with the level of job feedback.
FALSE
Experienced meaningfulness refers to the belief that one's work is worthwhile

or important. Skill variety, task identity, and task significance directly contribute
to the job's meaningfulness. If the job has high levels of all three
characteristics, employees are likely to feel that their jobs are highly
meaningful. Knowledge of results increases with feedback from the job.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
through job design.
33. Increasing the core job characteristics will not increase employee motivation for
(p. 177) those who lack the required skills.
TRUE
Job design doesn't increase work motivation for everyone in every situation.
Employees must have the required skills and knowledge to master the more
challenging work.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
through job design.
34. All employees feel more motivated to perform their jobs when the core job
(p. 177) characteristics are increased.
FALSE
Job design doesn't increase work motivation for everyone in every situation.
Employees must have the required skills and knowledge to master the more
challenging work. The job characteristics model suggests that increasing the
motivational potential of jobs will not motivate employees who are dissatisfied
with their work context (e.g., working conditions, job security) or who have low
growth-need strength.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
through job design.
35. Job enlargement increases skill variety.

(p. 178,179)
TRUE
Job enlargement adds tasks to an existing job. It might involve combining two
or more complete jobs into one or just adding one or two more tasks to an
existing job. Either way, skill variety increases because there are more tasks
to perform.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
through job design.
Topic: Job Design Practices that Motivate
36. A video journalist is someone who performs all jobs previously done by a
(p. 179) traditional news team—from operating the camera to reporting the story. Thus,
a video journalist is an example of job enlargement and job enrichment.
TRUE
One way to increase job enrichment is by combining highly interdependent

tasks into one job. This natural grouping approach is reflected in the video
journalist job. Video journalist was earlier described as an enlarged job, but it is
also an example of job enrichment because it naturally groups tasks together to
complete an entire product (i.e., a news story). A video journalist does all jobs,
from operating the camera to reporting the story.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Apply
through job design.
37. Research suggests that increasing job enlargement increases employee

(p. 179) motivation almost as much as job enrichment.
FALSE
Job enlargement significantly improves work efficiency and flexibility. However,

research suggests that simply giving employees more tasks won't affect
motivation, performance, or job satisfaction. Employees are motivated when
they perform a variety of tasks and have the freedom and knowledge to
structure their work to achieve the highest satisfaction and performance. These
job characteristics are at the heart of job enrichment.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
through job design.
38. Two ways to enrich jobs are by clustering jobs into natural groups and by
(p. 179,180)establishing
client relationships.
TRUE

tasks into one job. This is known as the natural grouping approach. A second
job enrichment strategy, called establishing client relationships, involves
putting employees in direct contact with their clients rather than using the
supervisor as a go-between.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
through job design.
39. Forming natural work units tends to increase task identity and task
(p. 179,180)significance.
TRUE

tasks into one job. This is known as the natural grouping approach. Forming
natural work units increases task identity and task significance because
employees perform a complete product or service and can more readily see
how their work affects others.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
through job design.
40. Job enrichment tends to increase the quality of products or services.
(p. 179)
TRUE
Product and service quality tend to improve with job enrichment because it
increases the jobholder's felt responsibility and sense of ownership over the
product or service.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
through job design.
41. Companies are applying job specialization when employees are made directly
(p. 180) responsible for specific customers and having them communicate directly with
those customers.
FALSE
Establishing client relationships is a job enrichment strategy, which involves

supervisor as a go-between.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
through job design.
42. People are empowered when they feel self-determination, meaning,
(p. 181) competence, and impact regarding their role in the organization.
TRUE
Empowerment is a psychological concept represented by four dimensions: self-

organization.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
Learning Objective: 06-05 Define empowerment and identify strategies that support empowerment.
Topic: Empowerment Practices
43. Employees are more likely to feel empowered in jobs with a high degree of
(p. 181) autonomy, task identity, and task significance.
TRUE
Employees are more likely to experience self-determination when working in

jobs with a high degree of autonomy and minimal bureaucratic control. They
experience more meaningfulness when working in jobs with high levels of task
identity and task significance. They experience more self-confidence when
working in jobs that allow them to receive feedback about their performance
and accomplishments.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Topic: Supporting Empowerment
44. Employees experience more meaningfulness when working in jobs that allow
(p. 181) them to receive feedback about their performance and accomplishments.
FALSE
Employees experience more meaningfulness when working in jobs with high

levels of task identity and task significance. They experience more self-
confidence when working in jobs that allow them to receive feedback about
their performance and accomplishments.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
45. Empowerment flourishes in organizations with a learning orientation.

(p. 181)
TRUE
Empowerment requires a learning orientation culture. In other words,

empowerment flourishes in organizations that appreciate the value of employee
learning and that accept reasonable mistakes as a natural part of the learning
process.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
46. Empowerment tends to decrease personal initiative among employees.

(p. 181)
FALSE
Empowerment tends to increase personal initiative because employees identify

with and assume more psychological ownership of their work.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
47. Self-leadership borrows ideas from social learning theory and research in
(p. 182) sports psychology on constructive thought processes.
TRUE
Self-leadership includes a toolkit of behavioral activities borrowed from social

cognitive theory and goal setting. It also includes constructive thought
processes that have been extensively studied in sports psychology.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Learning Objective: 06-06 Describe the five elements of self-leadership and identify specific personal and work environment
influences on self-leadership.
Topic: Self-Leadership Practices
48. Self-leadership suggests that goals should be set by the employee's supervisor
(p. 182) with or without the employee's involvement.
FALSE
Self-leadership involves setting goals alone, rather than having them assigned
by or jointly decided with a supervisor. Research suggests that employees are
more focused and perform better when they set their own goals, particularly in
combination with other self-leadership practices.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Topic: Self-Leadership Strategies
49. Positive self-talk motivates employees by increasing their effort-to-
(p. 182,183)performance expectancy.
TRUE
Self-talk refers to any situation in which we talk to ourselves about our own
thoughts or actions. Positive self-talk creates a "can-do" belief and thereby
increases motivation by raising our self-efficacy and reducing anxiety about
challenging tasks. This way, it increases the effort-to-performance
expectancy of employees.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
50. Mental imagery helps us to anticipate and work out solutions to potential
(p. 183) obstacles in our work.
TRUE
Mental imagery involves mentally practicing the task, anticipating obstacles to

goal accomplishment, and working out solutions to those obstacles before they
occur. By mentally walking through the activities required to accomplish the
task, we begin to see problems that may occur. We can then imagine what
responses would be best for each contingency.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
51. Mental imagery excludes visualizing completion of a task.
(p. 183)
FALSE
One part of mental imagery helps us anticipate things that could go wrong; the
other part involves visualizing successful completion of the task. This
visualization increases goal commitment and motivates people to complete the
task effectively.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
52. An element of self-leadership involves keeping track of our progress toward

(p. 184) goals.
TRUE
An element of self-leadership, called self-monitoring is the process of keeping

track at regular intervals of one's progress toward a goal by using naturally
occurring feedback.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
53. Self-leadership includes the practice of self-reinforcement.
(p. 184)
TRUE
Self-leadership includes engaging in self-reinforcement, which is part of social

cognitive theory. Self-reinforcement occurs whenever an employee has control
over a reinforcer but doesn't "take" the reinforcer until completing a self-set
goal.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
54. People with a high level of conscientiousness have difficulty applying self-
(p. 184) leadership strategies.
FALSE
Research suggests that self-leadership behaviors are more frequently found in

people with higher levels of conscientiousness and extroversion.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Topic: Self-Leadership Contingencies
55. Self-leadership is dependent solely on the individual.

(p. 184)
FALSE
Self-leadership is more or less likely to occur depending on the person and the
situation.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
56. Employees with a high degree of autonomy engage in self-leadership.
(p. 184,185)
TRUE
Employees require some degree of autonomy to engage in some or most

aspects of self-leadership. They probably also feel more confident with self-
leadership when their boss is empowering rather than controlling and where
there is a high degree of trust between them.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
57. Employees engage in self-monitoring in companies that emphasize less

(p. 185) frequent measurement of performance.
FALSE
Employees are more likely to engage in self-monitoring in companies that

emphasize continuous measurement of performance.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Multiple Choice Questions

58. Which of the following rewards represent the largest part of most paychecks?
(p. 165)
A. Membership-based rewards
C. Individual job performance-based rewards
E. Performance-based rewards
Membership-based and seniority-based rewards (sometimes called "pay for

pulse") represent the largest part of most paychecks. Some employee benefits,
such as free or discounted meals in the company cafeteria, remain the same
for everyone, whereas others increase with seniority.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
59. Which reward system tends to discourage poor performers from voluntarily
(p. 166) leaving the organization?
A. Performance-based pay
B. Skill-based pay
C. Piece-rate rewards
D. Competency-based pay
E. Membership and seniority-based pay
Membership and seniority-based rewards potentially attract job applicants

(particularly those who desire predictable income) and reduce turnover.
However, they do not directly motivate job performance; on the contrary, they
discourage poor performers from seeking work better suited to their abilities.
Instead, the good performers are lured to better-paying jobs.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
60. The problem with membership and seniority-based rewards is that they:
(p. 166)
A. discourage people from remaining with the organization.

B. are difficult to use in organizational settings.
C. do not directly motivate job performance.
D. increase turnover.
E. discourage people from remaining with the organization and they do not
directly motivate job performance.
Membership-based rewards do not directly motivate job performance; on the

contrary, they discourage poor performers from seeking work better suited to
their abilities. Instead, the good performers are lured to better-paying jobs.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
61. Which of the following are "golden handcuffs" that potentially increase
(p. 166) continuance commitment?
Some of the membership/seniority-based rewards are "golden handcuffs"—

they discourage employees from quitting because the deferred bonuses or
generous benefits are not available elsewhere. However, golden handcuffs
potentially weaken job performance because they generate continuance rather
than affective commitment.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
62. Which of the following reward systems uses job evaluations?

(p. 166)
A. Competency-based reward system

B. Job status reward system
C. Individual performance reward system
E. Task performance-based reward system
Job status reward system uses job evaluations to measure job worth.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
63. Which of the following awards motivate employees to compete for promotions?
(p. 166)
B. Competency-based rewards
D. Job status-based rewards
Job status-based rewards try to improve feelings of fairness, such that people
in higher-valued jobs should get higher pay. These rewards also motivate
employees to compete for promotions.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
64. Steelweld, a car parts manufacturer, pays employees a higher hourly rate as
(p. 166) they learn to master more parts of the work process. Employees earn $10 per
hour when they are hired and they can earn up to $20 per hour if they master
all 12 work units in the production process. Which of these reward systems is
being applied by Steelweld?
A. Skill-based pay
B. Piece-rate pay
C. Job evaluation system
D. Seniority-based pay
E. Membership-based pay

At Steelweld, as employees learn to master more parts of the work process,
they are paid a higher hourly rate.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Apply
Level of Difficulty: 3 Hard
65. Which of the following is most consistent with employability—namely, that
(p. 166) employees are expected to continuously learn skills that will keep them
employed?
A. Job evaluation systems

B. Job status rewards
C. Competency-based rewards
D. Individual performance-based rewards
E. Membership-based rewards
Competency-based rewards motivate employees to learn new skills. This tends

to improve organizational effectiveness by creating a more flexible workforce;
more employees are multiskilled and can perform a variety of jobs, and they
are more adaptive to embracing new practices in a dynamic environment.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
66. Which of the following is true about skill-based pay plans?
(p. 166)
A. They discourage employees from learning new jobs.

B. They create a psychological distance between employees and managers.
C. They discourage poor performers from leaving the organization.
D. They can be expensive because they motivate employees to spend more
time learning new jobs.
E. They motivate employees to compete for promotions.

Skill-based pay systems measure specific skills, so they are usually more
objective. However, they are expensive because employees spend more time
learning new tasks.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
67. Which of the following is an individual incentive?
(p. 167)
A. Gainsharing plan
B. Piece rate plan
C. Share option
D. Share ownership
E. Employee stock ownership plan
Piece rate plan is a system in which employees earn money for each product
they complete.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
68. Which of these performance-based rewards tends to create a connection

(p. 168) between the employee's work effort and the reward received?
A. Profit-sharing plan
B. Employee stock ownership plan
C. Gainsharing plan
D. Employee stock option plan
E. Stock option
Gainsharing plan creates a reasonably strong link between effort and

performance, because much of the cost reduction and labor efficiency is within
the team's control.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
69. A mid-sized city introduced a reward system whereby employees would find
(p. 168) ways to reduce costs and increase work efficiency. Every employee would
receive a portion of the surplus budget resulting from these cost savings.
Which of the following reward systems is this city using?
A. Gainsharing plan
B. Commission system
C. Piece rate plan
D. Share option plan
E. Commission plan
Gainsharing calculates bonuses from the work unit's cost savings and
productivity improvement. Gainsharing plans also create a reasonably strong
link between effort and performance, because much of the cost reduction and
labor efficiency is within the team's control. The city is encouraging employees
to find ways to reduce costs and increase work efficiency.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Apply
70. Gainsharing plans tend to:
(p. 168)
A. increase efficiency without paying employees any financial reward.

B. distribute a portion of company profits to employees in the form of company
stock.
C. create a reasonably strong effort-to-performance expectancy.
D. reward individuals for their own personal performance rather than team or
organizational performance.
E. increase efficiency without paying employees any financial reward creating a
reasonably strong effort-to-performance expectancy.
Gainsharing plan creates a reasonably strong link between effort and

performance, because much of the cost reduction and labor efficiency is within
the team's control.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
71. Which of the following is true about stock option plans?
(p. 168)
A. They refer to bonuses from the work unit's cost savings and productivity
improvement.
B. They give employees the right to purchase company stock at a
C. They directly award bonuses to employees based on cost savings and
increased labor productivity.
D. They tend to weaken employee commitment to the organization.
E. They encourage employees to buy company stock, usually at a discounted
price or through a no-interest loan.
Stock options give employees the right to purchase company stock at a

AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
72. Which of the following tend to create an ownership culture and align employee
(p. 168) behaviors more closely to organizational objectives?
A. Job evaluations
B. Commissions
C. Piece rate plans
D. Employee share ownership plans
E. Stock option plans and employee stock ownership plans
Research indicates that employee stock ownership plans and stock options
tend to create an ownership culture in which employees feel aligned with the
organization's success.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
73. When applied to non-management employees, which of the following has a
(p. 168,169)weak connection between the reward and individual effort?
A. Piece rate pay

B. Commission
C. Profit-sharing bonus
D. Gainsharing plan
E. Job evaluation
The main problem with ESOPs, stock options, and profit sharing is that
employees often perceive a weak connection between their individual effort
and corporate profits or the value of company shares.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
74. Which of the following is an advantage of job specialization?

(p. 172)
A. The quality of work increases.

B. Jobs can be mastered quickly.
C. Employees are more involved with their jobs.
D. The work is less repetitive.
E. Task specialization has no clear advantages to the organization.
Job specialization leads to shorter work cycles that give employees more
frequent practice with the task, so jobs are mastered more quickly.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
through job design.
75. Which of the following refers to the result of the division of labor in which
(p. 172,173)workis subdivided into separate jobs assigned to different people?
A. Piece rate system

B. Job rotation
C. Job specialization
D. Profit-sharing bonus
E. Gainsharing plan
Job specialization refers to the result of the division of labor in which work is
subdivided into separate jobs assigned to different people.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
through job design.
76. Which of the following does scientific management include?
(p. 173)
A. Assigning employees to fixed hourly wages.

B. Systematically dividing a job into its smallest possible elements and
assigning these divided tasks to employees who are best qualified to
perform them.
C. Combining tasks so employees perform an entire work process from
beginning to end.
D. Encouraging employees to set their own goals and have positive thoughts
about their work performance.
E. Encouraging employees to complete an entire task single handedly.
The practice of systematically partitioning work into its smallest elements and
standardizing tasks to achieve maximum efficiency is known as scientific
management.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
through job design.
77. Which of these contemporary organizational behavior practices was
(p. 173) popularized by Fredrick Taylor in his work on scientific management?
A. Goal setting
B. Job enrichment
C. Membership-based reward system
E. Competency-based reward system
Scientific management consists of a toolkit of activities. Some of these

interventions—employee selection, training, goal setting, and work incentives—
are common today but were rare until Taylor popularized them.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
through job design.
78. According to Herzberg, which of the following is a hygiene factor?
(p. 174)
A. Autonomy
B. Job security
C. Responsibility
D. Personal growth
E. Esteem need

AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
through job design.
79. A unique feature of Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory is that it:
(p. 174)
A. states that improving motivators increases job satisfaction but does not
decrease job dissatisfaction.
B. states that employees can be satisfied with their jobs but not motivated to
perform their jobs.
C. identifies job specialization as the main source of higher need fulfillment.
D. views job satisfaction and dissatisfaction as opposites.
E. recognizes money as the primary motivator in organizational settings.

Herzberg argued that only characteristics of the job itself motivate employees,
whereas the hygiene factors merely prevent dissatisfaction.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
through job design.
80. _____ is the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole or
(p. 175) identifiable piece of work, such as assembling an entire broadband modem
rather than just soldering in the circuitry.
A. Skill variety
C. Job feedback
D. Job rotation
E. Task identity
Task identity is the degree, to which a job requires completion of a whole or

identifiable piece of work.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
through job design.
81. _____ is the degree to which the job affects the organization and/or larger
(p. 175) society.
A. Skill variety
C. Job feedback
D. Job rotation
E. Task identity
Task significance is the degree to which the job affects the organization and/or
larger society.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
through job design.
82. Which core job characteristic(s) affect(s) experienced responsibility for work
(p. 175,176)outcomes?
A. Feedback from job and skill variety

B. Autonomy
C. Skill variety, task identity and task significance
D. Task identity
Jobs with high levels of autonomy provide freedom, independence, and

discretion in scheduling the work and determining the procedures to be used
to complete the work. In autonomous jobs, employees make their own
decisions rather than relying on detailed instructions from supervisors or
procedure manuals.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
through job design.
83. _____ is the degree to which employees can tell how well they are doing on the
(p. 176) basis of direct sensory information from the job itself.
A. Job feedback
B. Job evaluation
C. Task identity
E. Job rotation
Job feedback is the degree to which employees can tell how well they are
doing on the basis of direct sensory information from the job itself.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
through job design.
84. Which of the following directly contributes to a feeling of experienced
(p. 176,177)responsibilityamong employees?
A. Job feedback
B. Skill variety
C. Autonomy
D. Task identity
Work motivation and performance increase when employees feel personally

accountable for the outcomes of their efforts. Autonomy directly contributes
to this feeling of experienced responsibility. Employees must be assigned
control of their work environment to feel responsible for their successes and
failures.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
through job design.
85. Which of the following minimizes health risks from repetitive strain and heavy
(p. 178, lifting because employees use different muscles and physical positions in the
179)
various jobs?
A. Job feedback
B. Job enlargement
C. Job rotation
D. Job enrichment
E. Task identity
Job rotation is the practice of moving employees from one job to another. It
minimizes health risks from repetitive strain and heavy lifting because
employees use different muscles and physical positions in the various jobs.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
through job design.
86. Employees at CyberTech perform repetitive jobs that have resulted in boredom
(p. 178, as well as repetitive strain injury. Technology makes it difficult to combine
179)
existing jobs, but the company wants to make employees more multiskilled.
Which of the following would best help CyberTech to improve this situation?
A. Encourage employees to engage in mental imagery.

B. Introduce job specialization.
C. Introduce a gainsharing plan for all production employees.
D. Introduce job rotation.
E. Introduce job enrichment by having each employee produce the entire
product rather than a small part of it.
Job rotation is the practice of moving employees from one job to another. It
supports multi-skilling (employees learn several jobs), which increases
workforce flexibility in staffing the production process and in finding
replacements for employees on vacation.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Apply
through job design.
87. Which of these job design actions is a form of job enlargement?
(p. 178)
A. Increasing the number of tasks within the job.

B. Establishing client relationships.
C. Empowering employees.
D. Forming natural work units.
E. Establishing client relationships and forming natural work units.
existing job.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
through job design.
88. Which of the following is the primary aspect of job enlargement?
(p. 178,179)
A. Autonomy
B. Affiliation
C. Job feedback
D. Growth need strength
E. Skill variety
existing job. Either way, skill variety increases because there are more tasks
to perform. Research suggests that simply giving employees more tasks
won't affect motivation, performance, or job satisfaction. These benefits
result only when skill variety is combined with more autonomy and job
knowledge.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
through job design.
89. A video journalist's job consists of operating the camera, reporting the story,
(p. 179) and often editing the work, whereas these three tasks are traditionally
performed by three people. Video journalism is an example of:
A. self-leadership and job enlargement.

B. job enrichment and self-leadership.
C. job enlargement and job specialization.
D. job specialization and self-leadership.
E. job enrichment and job enlargement.

tasks into one job. This natural grouping approach is reflected in the video
journalist job. Video journalist was earlier described as an enlarged job, but it is
also an example of job enrichment because it naturally groups tasks together to
complete an entire product (i.e., a news story).
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Apply
through job design.
90. A large retail organization previously divided work among its four employee
(p. 179) benefits staff into distinct specializations. One person answered all questions
about superannuation (pension plans), another answered all questions about
various forms of paid time off (e.g. vacations), and so on. These jobs were
recently restructured so that each employee benefits person answers all
questions for people in a particular geographic area. For example, one staff
member is responsible for all employee benefits inquiries from anyone in a
particular geographic region. This job restructuring is an example of:
A. self-leadership.
B. job enrichment.
C. job rotation.
E. self-monitoring.

tasks into one job. This is known as a natural grouping approach. By forming
natural work units, jobholders have stronger feelings of responsibility for an
identifiable body of work. They feel a sense of ownership and therefore tend to
increase job quality. In this case, a staff member is responsible for all employee
benefits inquiries from anyone in a particular geographic region.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Apply
through job design.
91. A cable TV company redesigned jobs so that one employee interacts directly
(p. 180) with customers, connects and disconnects their cable service, installs their
special services and collects overdue accounts in an assigned area.
Previously, each task was performed by a different person and the customer
interacted only with someone at the head office. This change is an example of:
A. increasing job enrichment by establishing client relationships.

B. encouraging self-reinforcement.
C. introducing job rotation.
D. increasing job specialization.
E. introducing job feedback.
A job enrichment strategy, called establishing client relationships, involves

supervisor as a go between. By being directly responsible for specific clients,
employees have more information and can make decisions affecting those
clients.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Apply
through job design.
92. Which of the following is a concept that is represented by four dimensions: self-
(p. 181) determination, meaning, competence, and impact of the individual's role in the
organization?
A. Specialization
B. Job enlargement
C. Empowerment
E. E: Job rotation

organization.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
93. When are employees said to be empowered?

(p. 181)
A. When employees practice job specialization

B. When employees experience self-reinforcement
C. When employees engage in positive self-talk
D. When employees experience freedom and discretion
E. When employees work in a centralized system
Empowered employees feel that they have freedom, independence, and

discretion over their work activities.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
94. Which of the following is a component of empowerment?
(p. 181)
A. Overconfidence
B. Fate
C. Mental imagery
D. Meaning
E. Dependence

organization. Employees who feel empowered care about their work and
believe that what they do is important. This is referred to as meaning.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
95. A high degree of autonomy, task identity, and task significance are important
(p. 181) conditions for:
A. job specialization.
B. competency-based pay.
C. empowerment.
E. piece rate system.
Employees are much more likely to experience self-determination when

working in jobs with a high degree of autonomy and minimal bureaucratic
control. They experience more meaningfulness when working in jobs with high
levels of task identity and task significance. They experience more self-
confidence when working in jobs that allow them to receive feedback about
their performance and accomplishments.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
96. Which of the following dimensions is possessed by employees, when they feel
(p. 181) empowered, care about their work, and believe that what they do is important?
A. Meaning
B. Self-determination
C. Competence
D. Impact
E. Freedom
Employees who feel empowered care about their work and believe that what
they do is important. This is referred to as meaning.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
97. Which of the following is the first step in self-leadership?
(p. 182)
A. Establishing client relationships

B. Practicing gainsharing
C. Personal goal setting
E. Self-reinforcement
The first step in self-leadership is to set goals for your own work effort. This
step applies ideas such as identifying goals that are specific, relevant, and
challenging.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
98. Which of the following steps occurs in self-leadership immediately after

(p. 182) identifying goals that are specific, relevant, and challenging?
A. Designing natural rewards

B. Self-monitoring
C. Self-reinforcement
E. Track keeping
Before beginning a task and while performing it, employees should engage in
positive (constructive) thoughts about that work and its accomplishment. This
step occurs immediately after personal goal setting.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
99. Which of these statements about self-leadership is true?
(p. 182)
A. Employees with a low degree of conscientiousness have a more natural

tendency to apply self-leadership.
B. Some elements of self-leadership come from sports psychology.
C. Self-leadership is practiced by people with particular personality
characteristics and cannot be learned.
D. External locus of control helps in applying self-help strategies.
E. Self-leadership behaviors are more frequently found in people with lower
levels of extroversion.
Self-leadership includes constructive thought processes that have been

extensively studied in sports psychology.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
Topic: Self-Leadership Practices
100. Before meeting a new client, a salesperson visualizes the experience of

(p. 182) meeting the person and effectively answering some of the challenging
questions the client might ask. This activity is an example of:
A. poor performance.
B. constructive thought patterns.
C. rewarding competencies.
D. job rotation.
E. empowerment.
Before beginning a task and while performing it, employees should engage in
positive (constructive) thoughts about that work and its accomplishment.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
101. Which of the following are included under constructive thought patterns in
(p. 182,183)self-leadership?
A. Self-talk and mental imagery

B. Gainsharing and employee stock ownership plans
C. Personal goal setting and self-monitoring
D. Job rotation and job enrichment
E. Task identity and task significance
Self-talk refers to any situation in which we talk to ourselves about our own
thoughts or actions. Positive self-talk creates a "can-do" belief and thereby
increases motivation by raising our self-efficacy and reducing anxiety about
challenging tasks. Mental imagery refers to mentally practicing a task and
imagining successfully performing it beforehand.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
102. According to the self-leadership model, which of the following is true about
(p. 182,183)positive self-talk?
A. It should never be practiced on the job.

B. It represents the most important way to monitor our own performance.
C. It occurs when employees are unable to control their own behavior on the
job.
D. It improves self-efficacy and employee motivation.
E. It must occur only after the task has been accomplished.
Positive self-talk creates a "can-do" belief and thereby increases motivation

by raising our self-efficacy and reducing anxiety about challenging tasks.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
103. Which of the following elements does self-leadership include?

(p. 183)
A. Job specialization
B. Task identity
C. Mental imagery
D. Job evaluation
Self-leadership suggests that we need to mentally practice a task and imagine

successfully performing it beforehand. This process is known as mental
imagery.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
104. _____ is the process of keeping track at regular intervals of one's progress
(p. 184) toward a goal by using naturally occurring feedback.
A. Job feedback
B. Self-monitoring
C. Natural grouping
D. Job specialization
Self-monitoring is the process of keeping track at regular intervals of one's

progress toward a goal by using naturally occurring feedback.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
105. Katie decided to do a more enjoyable task after completing a task that she
(p. 184) disliked. This instance is an example of:
A. self-reinforcement.
B. job enrichment.
C. job specialization.
D. self-monitoring.
E. job feedback.
Self-reinforcement occurs whenever an employee has control over a reinforcer

but doesn't "take" the reinforcer until completing a self-set goal. It also occurs
when one decides to do a more enjoyable task after completing a task that one
dislikes.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Apply
Essay Questions
106. Briefly describe how organizations reward people for job status. Discuss three
(p. 166) potential problems with rewarding employees for their job status.
Students answers will vary. Almost every organization rewards employees to

some extent on the basis of the status worth of the jobs they occupy. In some
parts of the world, companies measure job worth through job evaluations. Most
job evaluation methods give higher value to jobs that require more skill and
effort, have more responsibility, and have more difficult working conditions.
Along with receiving higher pay, employees with more valued jobs sometimes
receive larger offices, company-paid vehicles, and other perks. Job status-
based rewards try to improve feelings of fairness, such that people in higher
valued jobs should get higher pay. These rewards also motivate employees to
compete for promotions. However, job-status based rewards can result in three
potential problems. First, job status-based rewards potentially encourage
bureaucratic hierarchy rather than market responsiveness. Second, these
rewards reinforce a status mentality, whereas Generation-X and Generation-Y
employees expect a more egalitarian workplace. Third, status-based pay
potentially motivates employees to compete with each other for higher-status
jobs and to raise the value of their own jobs by exaggerating job duties and
hoarding resources.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
107. ClamCo, a large energy company, was once a bureaucratic organization that
(p. 165,166)valued
long service and promotions through a steep hierarchy. After several
years of difficult change, it is now a much flatter organization that places
more responsibility with self-directed work teams. Explain what changes
ClamCo probably would have made to align its reward system with this new
corporate philosophy.
Earlier, ClamCo relied on seniority and job status-based rewards. It rewarded

people with longer service, possibly with higher pay, larger pensions and
longer vacations. It relied on status-based rewards so that employees were
motivated to rise through the hierarchy. For example, ClamCo probably
defined each job narrowly and carefully measured its worth using quantitative
job evaluation techniques. The company probably also rewarded job status
through perquisites such as larger offices and preferred parking. In its
reformation as a leaner, flatter organization, ClamCo would ideally move
away from a status-based reward system toward a competency-based
reward system. It would identify competencies for each broadly defined job
group and reward people who excel on these competencies. It would use a
pay structure with wide ranges so that employees move within the band,
rather than expecting pay increases through promotions. Competency
rewards would also include skill-based pay for members of self-directed work
teams. This increases employee flexibility through multi-skilling.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Apply
Level of Difficulty: 3 Hard
108. Describe a reward system that would best motivate employees to learn several
(p. 166) jobs. Identify potential disadvantages of this reward system.
The best type of reward system to motivate employees to learn more jobs is a
competency-based reward system and, in particular, a skill-based pay (SBP)
plan. In a skill-based pay plan, employees earn higher pay rates with the
number of skill modules they have mastered, even though they perform only
one job at a particular time. Competency-based rewards motivate employees to
learn new skills. This tends to improve organizational effectiveness by creating
a more flexible workforce; more employees are multiskilled and can perform a
variety of jobs, and they are more adaptive to embracing new practices in a
dynamic environment.
However, competency-based pay plans have not always worked out as well as
promised by their advocates. They are often over-designed, making it difficult
to communicate these plans to employees. Skill-based pay systems measure
specific skills, so they are usually more objective. However, they are expensive
because employees spend more time learning new tasks.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
109. Compare and contrast gainsharing with employee stock ownership plans.
(p. 168)
Employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs) include any arrangement where

employees are encouraged to buy shares of the company. The financial
incentive occurs as dividends and market appreciation of the stock.
Gainsharing, on the other hand, more directly rewards employees for reducing
costs and increasing efficiency. Thus, gainsharing rewards employees for
specific accomplishments (reducing waste), whereas ESOPs reward
employees for holding shares in the company. ESOPs are similar to
gainsharing to the extent that they encourage employees to minimize waste,
but the reward (share values and dividends) is much less direct.
ESOPs are organizational-level rewards because share values and dividends
are based on corporate-wide performance. Gainsharing, on the other hand, is
typically a team-based reward (although it can be applied across the entire
organization). Employees in each work unit receive a bonus based on
productivity improvements within the entire unit.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
110. Briefly describe some of the important strategies for improving reward
(p. 169- effectiveness.
172)
Some of the important strategies for improving reward effectiveness are:

Link rewards to performance: Inconsistencies and bias can be minimized
through gainsharing, ESOPs, and other plans that use objective performance
measures. Where subjective measures of performance are necessary,
companies should rely on multiple sources of information. Companies also
need to apply rewards soon after the performance occurs, and in a large-
enough dose (such as a bonus rather than a pay increase), so that employees
experience positive emotions when they receive the reward.
Ensure that rewards are relevant: Companies need to align rewards with
performance within the employee's control. The more employees see a "line of
sight" between their daily actions and the reward, the more they are motivated
to improve performance. Reward systems also need to correct for situational
factors. Salespeople in one region may have higher sales because the
economy is stronger there than elsewhere, so sales bonuses need to be
adjusted for such economic factors.
Use team rewards for interdependent jobs: Team rewards are better than
individual rewards when employees work in highly interdependent jobs,
because it is difficult to measure individual performance in these situations.
Team rewards also encourage cooperation, which is more important when
work is highly interdependent. They also tend to support employee preferences
for team-based work.
Ensure that rewards are valued: It seems obvious that rewards work best when
they are valued. Yet companies sometimes make false assumptions about
what employees want, with unfortunate consequences. The solution, of course,
is to ask employees what they value.
Watch Out for Unintended Consequences: Performance-based reward systems
sometimes have an unexpected—and undesirable—effect on employee
behaviors. The solution here is to carefully think through the consequences of
rewards and, where possible, test incentives in a pilot project before applying
them across the organization.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
111. Briefly explain the benefits and problems of job specialization.

(p. 172,174)
Job specialization potentially improves work efficiency. One reason for this
higher efficiency is that employees spend less time changing activities
because they have fewer tasks to juggle. Even when people can change
tasks quickly, their mental attention lingers on the previous task, which slows
down performance on the new task. A second reason for increased work
efficiency is that specialized jobs require fewer physical and mental skills to
accomplish the assigned work, so less time and fewer resources are needed
for training. A third reason is that shorter work cycles give employees more
frequent practice with the task, so jobs are mastered more quickly. A fourth
reason specialization tends to increase work efficiency is that employees with
specific aptitudes or skills can be matched more precisely to the jobs for
which they are best suited. On the other hand, too much specialization will
reduce employee performance because it begins to have a negative effect on
employee motivation. Job specialization often reduces work quality because
employees see only a small part of the process. At extreme levels of
specialization, employees are bored with their work, are more likely to quit or
be absent from their jobs and are less likely to care about product/service
quality. The company may have more difficulty hiring people for the job or
may face unionization, both of which may increase wage rates. These
problems offset the efficiency gains from specialization.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
through job design.
112. Explain the three critical psychological states that affect employee motivation
(p. 177) and satisfaction in the context of the job characteristics model.
The first critical psychological state is experienced meaningfulness —the belief

that one's work is worthwhile or important. Skill variety, task identity, and task
significance directly contribute to the job's meaningfulness. If the job has high
levels of all three characteristics, employees are likely to feel that their jobs are
highly meaningful. The meaningfulness of a job drops as one or more of these
characteristics declines. The second psychological state is experienced
responsibility. Work motivation and performance increase when employees feel
personally accountable for the outcomes of their efforts. Autonomy directly
contributes to this feeling of experienced responsibility. Employees must be
assigned control of their work environment to feel responsible for their
successes and failures. The third critical psychological state is knowledge of
results. Employees want information about the consequences of their work
effort. Knowledge of results can originate from coworkers, supervisors, or
clients. However, job design focuses on knowledge of results from the work
itself.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
through job design.
113. The chief executive officer of a mid-sized manufacturing company has hired
(p. 181) you to design the work site and to make any other changes necessary for
employees to feel more empowered. Briefly define empowerment and describe

three important conditions you would ensure to improve empowerment among
the employees.
Empowerment is defined as a psychological concept represented by four

dimensions: self-determination, meaning, competence, and impact of the
individual's role in the organization. The textbook describes several factors that
support empowerment. Students can describe any three of these, preferably
the most important factors.
Autonomy: To generate beliefs about self-determination, employees must work

in jobs with a high degree of autonomy with minimal bureaucratic control.
Task identity: To maintain a sense of meaningfulness, jobs must have high
levels of task identity.
Task significance: This is needed to maintain a sense of meaningfulness.
Job feedback: To maintain a sense of self-confidence, jobs must provide
sufficient feedback.
Information and resources: Employees experience more empowerment in
organizations where information and other resources are easily accessible.
Learning orientation culture: Empowerment also requires a learning orientation
culture. In other words, empowerment flourishes in organizations that
appreciate the value of the employee learning, and that accept reasonable
mistakes as a natural part of the learning process.
Trust in employees: Empowerment requires corporate leaders who trust
employees and are willing to take the risks that empowerment creates.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
114. Self-leadership provides a different way of thinking about motivating
(p. 182- employees. Identify and fully describe three of the elements of the self-
184)
leadership model and briefly explain how self-leadership differs from other
applied motivation practices.
Self-leadership refers to the process of influencing oneself to establish the self-

direction and self-motivation needed to perform a task. This differs from other
applied motivation practices because it recognizes that employees motivate
themselves, whereas the other concepts assume that companies must do
things to motivate employees. There are five elements in the self-leadership
model. Students can fully describe any three of these.
Personal goal setting: Effective organizations establish norms whereby

employees have a natural tendency to set their own goals to motivate
themselves. This applies to the ideas on goal setting, such as identifying goals
that are specific, relevant, and challenging. Goals are set alone, rather than
being assigned by or jointly decided with a supervisor.
Constructive thought patterns: This includes both self-talk and mental imagery.
Self-talk refers to any situation in which a person talks to him- or herself about
his or her own thoughts or actions. The statements that we make to ourselves
affect our self-efficacy which, in turn, can influence our behavior and
performance in a particular situation. Self-talk also affects how well we figure
out the best way to accomplish new or complex tasks. Mental imagery involves
mentally practicing a task and imagining successfully performing it beforehand.
By mentally walking through the activities required to accomplish the task, we
begin to see problems that may occur. Imagining successful performance of
the task beforehand increases goal commitment and motivates us to complete
the task effectively.
Designing natural rewards: Employees can find ways to make the job itself
more motivating. One way to build natural rewards into the job is to alter the
way a task is accomplished. People often have enough discretion in their jobs
to make slight changes to suit their needs and preferences.
Self-monitoring: This is the process of keeping track of one's progress towards
a goal. It includes the notion of consciously checking naturally occurring
feedback at regular intervals. Self-monitoring also includes designing artificial
feedback (e.g. computer printouts, instrument dials, etc.) where natural
feedback does not occur.
Self-reinforcement: Self-reinforcement occurs whenever an employee has
control over a reinforcer but doesn't "take" the reinforcer until completing a self-
set goal. This might involve taking a break after completing a task to a preset
goal or it may involve changing to a more interesting task after completing a
boring task.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
115. Your supervisor is intrigued by the concept of self-leadership and wants to

(p. 184,185)know
more about it. Discuss how she can encourage self-leadership and
which conditions would encourage self-leadership to be more likely to occur.
Students should distinguish between personal and situational factors that

facilitate self-leadership.
Personal factors: As with other initiatives, behavior begins with the individual
himself/herself. For example people who have higher levels of
conscientiousness and extroversion are more likely to engage in self-
leadership. This is also the case with individuals who have a positive self-
concept and internal locus of control.
Situational factors: Employees who are given a high degree of autonomy
tend to engage in self-leadership. Bosses can encourage their staff to
engage in self-leadership when they empower rather than control them.
Moreover, companies that emphasize continuous measurement of
performance may lead staff to engage in more self-monitoring, which is an
important component of self-leadership.
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand

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Applied Performance Practices

True / False Questions

2. The largest portion of most paychecks is based on a person's membership and

3. Competency-based rewards are consistent with the concept of employability.

4. An advantage of competency-based rewards is that measuring employee

7. Job evaluation mainly supports the competency approach to rewards.

8. Job status-based rewards potentially motivate employees to compete with each

9. Job status-based rewards discourage employees from hoarding resources.

10. Competency-based rewards pay employees based on their seniority in the

12. Competency-based rewards tend to improve levels of product and service

19. Team rewards increase employee preferences for team-based work

23. Adam Smith introduced the principles of scientific management.

25. According to Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory, only characteristics of the job

26. According to the motivator-hygiene theory, people are mainly motivated by

32. According to the job characteristics model, experienced meaningfulness

35. Job enlargement increases skill variety.

37. Research suggests that increasing job enlargement increases employee

40. Job enrichment tends to increase the quality of products or services.

45. Empowerment flourishes in organizations with a learning orientation.

46. Empowerment tends to decrease personal initiative among employees.

49. Positive self-talk motivates employees by increasing their effort-to-performance

51. Mental imagery excludes visualizing completion of a task.

52. An element of self-leadership involves keeping track of our progress toward

53. Self-leadership includes the practice of self-reinforcement.

55. Self-leadership is dependent solely on the individual.

57. Employees engage in self-monitoring in companies that emphasize less frequent

Multiple Choice Questions

A. discourage people from remaining with the organization.

62. Which of the following reward systems uses job evaluations?

A. Competency-based reward system

65. Which of the following is most consistent with employability—namely, that

A. Job evaluation systems

66. Which of the following is true about skill-based pay plans?

A. They discourage employees from learning new jobs.

68. Which of these performance-based rewards tends to create a connection

A. increase efficiency without paying employees any financial reward.

71. Which of the following is true about stock option plans?

A. Piece rate pay

74. Which of the following is an advantage of job specialization?

A. The quality of work increases.

A. Piece rate system

A. Assigning employees to fixed hourly wages.

77. Which of these contemporary organizational behavior practices was popularized

78. According to Herzberg, which of the following is a hygiene factor?

A. Feedback from job and skill variety

84. Which of the following directly contributes to a feeling of experienced

A. Encourage employees to engage in mental imagery.

87. Which of these job design actions is a form of job enlargement?

A. Increasing the number of tasks within the job.

A. self-leadership and job enlargement.

A. increasing job enrichment by establishing client relationships.

93. When are employees said to be empowered?

A. When employees practice job specialization

97. Which of the following is the first step in self-leadership?

A. Establishing client relationships

A. Designing natural rewards

99. Which of these statements about self-leadership is true?

A. Employees with a low degree of conscientiousness have a more natural

100.Before meeting a new client, a salesperson visualizes the experience of meeting

A. Self-talk and mental imagery