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Thursday, 03 March 2011 16:28 | |

A rare find from the Greek Neolithic:

A fibre from Drakaina Cave, Kephalonia, Ionian Islands*

Marie-Louise Nosch1, Bridget Murphy2, Bodil Holst3, Irene Skals4,

Georgia Stratouli5, Anaya Sarpaki 6

1
Historian, Professor, Danish National Research Foundation‟s Centre for Textile Research, Saxo
Institute, University of Copenhagen, Njalsgade 102, DK-2300 KBH-S, e-mail: nosch@hum.ku
2
Physicist, Dr., Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Institut für Experimentelle und Angewandte
Physik, Leibnizstraße 19, 24118 Kiel, e-mail:murphy@physik.uni-kiel.de
3
Nanophysicist, Professor, University of Bergen, Department of Physics and Technology, Allegt. 55,
Postboks 7800, NO-5020 Bergen, e-mail:Bodil.Holst@ift.uib.no
4
Conservator, Department of Conservation, National Museum of Denmark, I.C. Modewegsvej, Brede,
DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, e-mail:Irene.Skals@natmus.dk
5
Archaeologist-Prehistorian, Dr., Hellenic Ministry of Culture & Tourism – Ι ΄ Ephorate for
Prehistoric & Classical Antiquities, Aristotelous 16, GR – 582 00 Edessa, e-mail: 59strat@otenet.gr
6
Archaeologist-Archaeobotanist, Dr., Independent Scholar, 137 Tsikalarion Rd., Tsikalaria, Souda, GR
– 732 00 Crete, e-mail:asarpaki@otenet.gr

The site and the archaeological context of the fibre

Drakaina Cave is a small limestone cavity on the steep sloped impressive gorge of
Poros, in the immediate proximity of the shoreline of southeastern Kefalonia Island in
the Ionian Sea (Fig. 1-3).
 Fig.1. The location of Kephalonia.

Fig.2. View of Poros and the gorge from SE.

The cave has been systematically investigated since 1992 by the Ephorate of
Palaeoanthropology-Speleology of Southern Greece – Hellenic Ministry of Culture &
Tourism (cf. www.drakainacave.gr) under the direction of E.-M. Chatzioti (1992-
2002), G. Stratouli (1992-2005) & E. Kotjabopoulou (1992-1994).
 Fig. 3. The Cave on the SE slope of the Gorge.

Besides the use of the cave as a shrine during the historic period (end of the 7th to
early 2nd century BC) (Chatzioti et al 1995; Chatzioti 2007), the excavations have
revealed a substantial occupation of the site, over many generations, during the
periods Late Neolithic I and II (c. mid 6th to mid 4th millennium BC) (Fig.
4).Stratigraphic evidence and the peculiar composition of the cultural material from
the Neolithic deposits of Drakaina indicate that the cave was a place of significant
social activity, i.e. for special gatherings at intervals and for short periods of time
(Karkanas & Stratouli 2009; Stratouli 2005; Stratouli 2007; Stratouli & Melfos 2004;
Stratouli & Metaxas 2008; Stratouli et al. 1999).

Fig. 4. Current state of the excavation at the Western part of Drakaina Cave.

Among several interesting Neolithic contexts and findings from Drakaina Cave, a rare
find - at least for the Greek Neolithic - has recently been recognized. When studying,
under a stereo microscope, the fine flot from a waterfloated soil sample, a charred and
tiny fibre, 1 mm in length was identified (Fig. 5). The sorting of fine flot under a
stereo microscope is standard routine, when an environmental study is implemented
on an excavation. This sorting is done towards identifying all bio-archaeological
material [1].
This uncommon material was found in a rich archaeological unit of the eastern roofed
part of the cave, particularly in the southern part of trench 5 (unit no. 3351),
excavated in July 2004 and dated most probably to the late 6th millennium BC
(radiocarbon dating is pending). Considering the nature of the deposit of this unit, it
consisted mainly of ash and charcoal fragments alongside with burnt food
remains, i.e. bones, seeds, as well other plant substance. There is little doubt that the
unit represents, largely, the in situ remnants of a hearth. From the aforementioned
unit/deposit, a soil sample (6 litres in sum) was collected for water flotation, in which
the microscopic fibre was discovered.

Fig. 5. The neolithic fibre from Drakaina Cave.

The systematic sampling of soil for water flotation is a well-known method aiming at
collecting, amongst other archaeological data, all archaeo-biological remains. After
having sorted for all remains, in the fine flot (2008), the fibre under discussion was
collected and isolated from all other charred material, mostly charcoal. It was
tentatively identified as twisted 'thread' and submitted to the Centre for Textile
Research of the University of Copenhagen for further investigations.
The importance of this find is multifaceted. It not only displays the scientific
developments achieved in fibre identification; it also shows the amount of care that is
needed during both excavation, processing and sorting of environmental material. The
fact that this tiny fibre survived water flotation, i.e. being washed with water, and was
sorted under the microscope from all environmental and archaeological material, is a
strong example which demonstrates that even the tiniest materials may survive, when
treated and sorted with due knowledge and respect.
Archaeological evidence for early textiles
In the 7th to 5th millennium, we have archaeological evidence of textiles made of
cellulose fibres, i.e. vegetal fibres such as hemp and flax (Barber 1991, 11ff.). The
reason why only vegetal fibres have come to light from early periods is explained as a
result of the hairy, short and coarse nature of animal hairs in that period: However, a
further factor may also be that cellulose fibres survive better in temperate climates
and soil types such as exist in the Mediterranean.
There is evidence for cultivation of Linum usitatissimum (flax) from the last centuries
of the 7th millennium BC at Tell Ramad, located c. 20 km south west of Damascus
(van Zeist & Bakker-Heeres 1975), and from Çatalhöyük (Breniquet 2008, 53-97) [2].
Furthermore, Linum usitatissimum has been identified in a number of Early Neolithic
sites in the Aegean, such as Knossos in Crete (Sarpaki 2009) as well as Otzaki
Magoula and Sesklo in Thessaly (Valamoti 2009, 206: Fig. 7). The problem though
still remains as to whether the flax was cultivated for seed (oil) and/or for textiles.
Beyond doubt, the presence of this plant on a site does not preclude that textiles were
manufactured.
Clay impressions of textiles are attested from Jarmo dated ca. 7000 BC
(Braidwood & Howe 1960, 46; Barber 1991, 162). Evidence for weaving around 5500
BC is also attested on an impression from Tell Shimshara located near Jarmo
(analysis by Margrete Hald, in Mortensen 1970, 123-124; Mortensen, personal
communication 2007).
The oldest actual remains of textiles and spun threads are those from 7th millennium
Nahal Hemar in present day Israel (Bar-Yosef 1985, 4) and Çatalhöyük in present day
Turkey dated around 6000 BC (Burnham 1965, 170; Ryder 1965; Helbæk 1963). The
thread count on the Tell Shimshara impression, for example, is app. 7 threads per cm.
However, a new find from 2008 from an infant burial at Çatalhöyük seems to have
very high thread counts as well (cf. Çatalhöyük Archive Report 2008, 146).
The types of weaves attested in the 7th and 6th millennium are generally tabbies (i.e.
the warp and weft are aligned in a criss-cross pattern, where each weft thread crosses
those of the warp by going over one, then under the next, etc.). The fabric impressions
at Jarmo are tabby or basket weaves (Adovasio 1975-77, 224; Adovasio 1983, 425).
Çatalhöyük and Tell Shimshara are also plain weaves. “The Çatalhöyük fabrics, like
the Jarmo impressions, already show variation even within the basic plain weave”,
writes Elisabeth Barber (Barber 1991, 127). The Çatalhöyük fabrics include examples
of balanced plain weaves but also of weft-faced fabrics, and a variation of types of
twining techniques. Nahal Hemar fabrics are constructed with weft-twining and
netting techniques. Barber concludes that Nahal Hemar is still thoroughly pre-ceramic
at about 6500 BC, and does not yet know true weaving, but has a lively fibre industry
that included weft-twined and nettled cloths and bags as well as mats, baskets, and
caulked-twine receptacles” (Barber 1991, 132).
Furthermore, the evidence recently used to identify fibre samples found in a series of
Upper Paleolithic layers at Dzudzuana Cave in Georgia as 30,000-year-old flax, based
only on a comparison with modern flax fibres analyzed by compound microscope and
on the presence of dislocations/nodes in the fibres, is insufficient in itself to identify
the fibres as flax (Bergfjord et al. 2010). This calls for the application of a wider
arsenal of modern research methods.
Current results on the fibre from Drakaina Cave
While the exiguous and single „thread‟ find from Drakaina Cave may not strike the
general public as particularly important, in archaeological terms it is truly sensational.
Due to their highly fragile nature, textile finds are extremely rare, from periods as
remote as the Neolithic.
The find had not been treated with any chemicals during or after its excavation, but
had been washed with plain water (i.e. water floated). The sample is charred and this
might explain its exceptional preservation. The Centre for Textile Research in
Copenhagen has extensive experience in testing archaeological textiles and forms the
nucleus of a large network of scientific collaborations in state-of-the-art textile
analysis and research. The blooming state of contemporary textile research are indeed
daunting even to the specialist, since the novel methods employed, as well as their
application and interface, comprise an array of disciplines at the cutting edge of
modern research and science.
The tiny find from Drakaina, under study, was submitted to the Centre for Textile
Research in Copenhagen aiming a meticulous examination in order to determine not
only if or how it was spun, but also to establish whether it is composed of vegetal or
animal material. Given the unique nature of this sample, all involved parties agreed to
limit testing to non-destructive methods. The analyses consist in two complementary
sets of tests of which the first has been conducted and the second is currently in
preparation:
Conservator Irene Skals at the Department of Conservation of the National Museum
of Denmark, subjected the sample to a microscopy, which could, however, not
determine conclusively whether the Drakaina sample had been spun or not. There are
clearly visible parallel fibres, but the fibre bundle has a rather flat cross-section (Fig.
6), whereas one would expect a spun thread to be less flat and round in its cross-
section.

Fig. 6. The Drakaina find.

It can be concluded that the Drakaina find is made of plant fibre, but this fibre cannot
be conclusively identified. If it is possible to determine that it is a bast fibre, such as
flax, nettle or hemp, its interpretation as thread becomes much more likely. This is
why fibre identification is crucial.
The sample could be subjected to further Scanning Electron Microcope (SEM)
analysis, enabling us to determine the nature of the individual fibres more
conclusively through transmitting light imaging and even among other things to
measure their precise diameter. However, while feasible, these tests are unfortunately
certain to cause some damage to the sample, as the vacuum-chamber wherein the test
is conducted necessitates attaching the sample to adhesive material, from which it
would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to subsequently detach the sample
without damage. This line of testing is consequently not pursued at the present time.
A second method of testing, namely X-ray micro diffraction, enables us to identify
different plant and animal species with a high degree of precision, since each
individual species displays a pronounced and distinct radiation profile. We were
successful in obtaining a grant for beam-time at the European Synchrotron Radiation
Facility in Grenoble (Fig. 7). X-ray radiation can record the unique diffraction
patterns of various crystallographic structures, of both plant and animal origin.

Fig. 7. The Synchrotron Radiation Facility in Grenoble.

The Microfocus Beamline ID13 has already been successfully applied to identify
different plant fibres from the so-called Cave of Letters in the Dead Sea region among
which were cotton and ramie; the X-ray diffraction diagrams of archaeological fibre
samples of plant and animal origin gave a clear signature; comparative material of
modern plant and animal fibres were tested as well and yielded similar profiles. The
radial and azimuthal intensity profiles of the diagrams showed clear correspondence
between the types of crystalline structures and no significant difference between
modern and ancient fibres (Müller et al. 2007). This suggests that the method is very
apt for archaeological material.
The Drakaina sample will be submitted for analysis at the Synchrotron Facility in
Grenoble in 2011. In January 2010, experts in Physics and Nano-physics Dr. Bridget
Murphy and Prof. Bodil Holst were granted access to the Synchrotron on international
competitive basis with the specific aim of examining similar finds, in order to confirm
the feasibility of this method for identifying ancient fibre types.
Due to the success of the initial measurements, which have shown that Neolithic
Greece may have had spun thread and fabrics, it is now necessary to continue this
exploration in the coming years. The sample is therefore projected to undergo X-ray
tests in 2011 with the aim of achieving a conclusive analysis and possibly decisive
fibre identification.

* Acknowledgments
The excavator of Drakaina’s prehistoric layers Dr Georgia Stratouli and the
archaeologist-archaeobotanist Dr Anaya Sarpaki would both like to warmly thank
INSTAP for the financial assistance, which has funded during 2003-2010 the
archaeological excavation and research as well as the environmental work, as
implemented at Drakaina Cave.

References
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Paleorient 3, 223-230.
Adovasio, J. M., 1983. Appendix: Notes on the the Textile and Basketry Impressions
from Jarmo. In L. S. Braidwood et al. (eds)., Prehistoric Archaeology along the
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Fibers, Science 328, no. 5986, 1634.
Braidwood, R. J. & Howe, B. 1960. Prehistoric Investigations in Iraqui Kurdistan.
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communautés sédentaires au milieu du IIIe millénaire av. J.-C. Travaux de la Maison
René-Ginouvès 5, Paris : de Boccard.
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Studies 15, 169-174.
Çatalhöyük Archive Report
2008: http://www.catalhoyuk.com/downloads/Archive_Report_2008.pdf
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Kephalonia (in Greek with a summary in English). In Praktika tou Synedriou tou
Dimou Eleiou-Pronnon gia ta Grammata, tin Istoria kai ti Laografia tis periochis
Pronnon, Poros, 8-11 September 2005, 363-378. Thessaloniki: University Studio
Press.
Chatzioti, .-Μ., Stratouli, G. & . Kotjabopoulou, 1995. The Drakaina cave. Recent
investigations at Poros on Kefalonia (1992-1993) (in Greek with a summary in
English), Athens Annals of Archaeology 22, 1989 (1995), 31-60.
Helbæk, H. 1963. Textiles from Çatal Hüyük, Archaeology 16 (1), 39-46.
Karkanas, P. & G. Stratouli, 2009. Neolithic lime plastered floors in Drakaina Cave,
Kephalonia Island, Western Greece: Evidence of the significance of the site, The
Annual of the British School at Athens 103, 27-41.
Mellaart, J., 1967. Çatal Hüyük: A Neolithic Town in Anatolia. London: Thames &
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Mortensen, P., 1970. Tell Shimshara. The Hassuna period. Copenhagen: Munksgaard.
(Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab - Hist.-Filos. Skrifter, 5/2).
Müller, M., Murphy, B., Burghammer, M., Riekel, C., Pantos, E. & J. Gunneweg,
2007. Ageing of native cellulose fibres under archaeological conditions: Textiles from
the Dead Sea region studied using synchrotron X-ray microdiffraction” Applied
Physics A 89.4, 877-881.
Ryder, M. L., 1965. Report of textiles from Çatal Hüyük, Anatolian Studies 15, 175-
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Sarpaki, A., 2009. Knossos, Crete: invaders, “sea-goers”, or previously “invisible”,
the Neolithic plant economy appears fully-fledged in 9000 BP. In A. Fairburn & E.
Weiss (eds.), From Foragers to Farmers, 220-234. Oxford: Oxbow Books.
Stratouli, G., 2005. Symbolic behaviour at places of social activity beyond the Ionian
Neolithic, Documenta Praehistorica 32, 123-132.
Stratouli, G., 2007. Tracing the Ionian Neolithic: The contribution of recent exca-
vations in Drakaina Cave, Poros, Kephalonia (in Greek with a summary in English).
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December 2004, 105-126. Corfu: Hellenic Ministry of Culture.
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Further Reading
Andersson, E., Frei, K., Gleba, M., Mannering, U., Nosch, M.-L. & I. Skals, 2010.
Old textiles - new possibilities, European Journal of Archaeology 13, 149-173.
Andersson, E. & M.-L. Nosch (eds.), 2009. Tools, Textiles, and Contexts. Oxford:
Oxbow Books.
Bar-Yosef, O., Goring-Morris, A. N. & A. Gopher (eds.), (in press). Gilgal:
Excavations at Early Neolithic Sites in the Lower Jordan Valley. The Excavations of
Tamar Noy. Boston, Leiden: Brill.
Bergfjord, C. & B. Holst, (in press). A New Method for Identifying Textile Bast
Fibres Using Microscopy, Ultramicroscopy.
Gillis, C. & Nosch, M.-L. (eds.), 2007. First Aid for the Excavation of Archaeological
Textiles. Oxford. Oxbow.
Müller, M., Papiz, M.Z., Clarke, D.T., Roberts, M.A., Murphy, B.M., Burghammer,
M., Riekel, C., Pantos, E. & J. Gunneweg, 2003. Identification of the textiles from
Khirbet Qumran using microscopy and synchrotron radiation x-ray fibre diffraction.
In J.-B. Humbert & J. Gunneweg (eds.), Archaeological Excavations at Khirbet
Qumran and Ain Feshka - Studies in Archaeometry and Anthropology, vol. II, ch.
XII, 177-186. Fribourg: Presses Universitaires de Fribourg (Suisse).
Nadel, D., Danin, A., Werker, E., Schick, T., Kislev, M. E. & K. Stewart, 1994.
19,000 years-old twisted fibres from Ohalo II, Current Anthropology 35, 451-458.
von der Osten, H. H., 1937. The Alishar Hüyük. Seasons of 1930-32, parts 1-3.
Chicago: Oriental Institute Publications.
Ryder, M. L & T. Gabra-Sanders. 1985. The Application of Microscopy to Textile
History, Textile History 16(2), 123-140.
Ryder, M. L & T. Gabra-Sanders, 1987. A Microscopic Study of Remains of Textile
made form Plant Fibres, Oxford Journal of Archaeology 6(1), 91-108.
Schick, T., 1988. Nahal Hemar Cave: Cordage, basketry and fabrics. In O. Bar-Yosef
& D. Alon (eds.), Nahal Hemar Cave, Atiqot 18, 31-43. Jerusalem: Israel Department
of Antiquities and Museums.
Schick, T., & I. Shaked, 1998. The cave of the warrior: a Fourth millennium burial in
the Judean desert. Vol. 5. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority Reports 5.
Vogelsang-Eastwood, G. M., 1987. A Re-Examination of the Fibres from the
Çatalhöyük Textiles‟, Oriental Carpet and Textile Studies London 3(1), 15-19.
Walton, P. & G. Eastwood, 1988. A Brief Guide to the Cataloguing of Archaeological
Textiles. London: Institute of Archaeology Publications.
[1] Unfortunately, water flotation is not, yet, a common practice in archaeology.
Moreover, even where it is applied, the archaeologist, who coordinates this operation,
does not usually request that all the material is sorted, but focuses on sorting only the
material pertinent to their immediate study, i.e. seeds, bones, charcoal; the rest of the
pile is left unsorted for the next researcher. This is, according to our view, a very
ineffective practice for several reasons. Firstly, it is done to promote one’s own research
and neglects the whole body of other environmental data. Secondly, every time the
material is sorted by another researcher, part of it, which does not promote his/her own
research, might be neglected. Thirdly, the time involved in sorting, in the long run, is
multiplied enormously, as each individual must go through the same material to sort for
different classes of data. Fourthly, it is important that the person, who sorts, treats all
available material with the same attention, independently of his/her specialism. This
might sound like a truism, but this method has unfortunately yet to become common
practice in archaeology.

[2] See also Çatalhöyük Archive Report 2008, 146: “The textile is unstudied as it was found
towards the end of the season but 1960s textiles from the site have been identified as
linen/flax.”