RDDM Chapter3 Hydrology

Road Drainage Design Manual Chapter 3: Hydrology and Design Criteria
3
Chapter 3
Hydrology and
Design Criteria
June 2003
Manual Contents
3
Chapter 1
Overview
Chapter 2
Site Assessment
Chapter 3
Hydrology and Design Criteria
Chapter 4
Design
Chapter 5
Erosion and Sediment Control
Chapter 6
Maintenance and Remediation
Chapter 7
Worked Examples
Chapter 8
References
June 2003
Table of Contents
3.1 Introduction 3-1
3.1.1 Purpose 3-1
3.1.2 When to use Chapter 3 3-2
3.1.3 How to use Chapter 3 3-2
3.1.4 Inputs 3-3
3.1.5 Applying Design Criteria 3-3
3.2 General Design Criteria

3.2.1 Planning
3-3
3-3
3
3.2.1.1 Road Environment 3-4
3.2.1.2 External Environment 3-4
3.2.2 Environment 3-4
3.2.3 Maintenance 3-5
3.2.4 Safety 3-5
3.2.5 External Criteria 3-6
3.3 Design Standard 3-6

3.3.1 Introduction 3-6
3.3.2 Cross Drainage 3-7
3.3.2.1 Standard for State Controlled Roads - Urban Catchments 3-7
3.3.2.2 Standard for State Controlled Roads - Rural Catchments 3-8
3.3.2.3 Standard for National Highways 3-8
3.3.2.4 Practical Application of Standard 3-9
3.3.3 Longitudinal Drainage 3-9
3.3.4 Surface Drainage 3-9
3.3.4.1 General Standard 3-9
3.3.5 The Major / Minor System Concept 3-10
3.3.5.1 Urban Areas / Existing Minor Drainage Systems 3-10
3.3.6 Erosion and Sediment Control 3-10
3.4 Hydraulic Criteria 3-10

3.4.1 Discharge 3-10
3.4.2 Velocity 3-10
3.4.2.1 Existing Conditions 3-11
3.4.2.2 Desirable Velocity 3-11
3.4.2.3 Maximum Permissible Velocity 3-11
3.4.3 Afflux 3-12
3.4.4 Gradient 3-12
3.4.5 Tailwater Levels 3-12
3.5 Hydrology 3-12

3.5.2 Methods Available for Runoff Calculation 3-13
June 2003 iii

3.5.3 Rational Method 3-13

3.5.3.1 Catchment Area 3-14
3.5.3.2 Time of Concentration 3-14
3.5.3.3 Rainfall Intensity - Frequency - Duration 3-22
3.5.3.4 Runoff Coefficient 3-27
3.6 Tailwater Levels 3-28

3
3.6.2 Tidal Waters 3-29
3.6.2.1 Tide Levels 3-29
3.6.2.2 Storm Surge 3-29
3.6.2.3 The Greenhouse Effect 3-30
3.6.2.4 Tidal Outlets (Ocean and Bays) 3-30
3.6.2.5 Tidal Outlets (Rivers and Creeks) 3-30
3.6.2.6 Design Issues for Tidal Outlets 3-31
3.6.3 Non-Tidal Waters 3-31
3.6.3.1 Large Storage Areas 3-31
3.6.3.2 Small Storage Areas 3-31
3.6.3.3 Open Channels 3-32
3.6.3.4 Protection of Non-Tidal Outlets 3-32
3.7 Fauna Passage 3-33

3.7.2 Identifying Fauna Passage Criteria 3-33
3.8 Ambient Conditions 3-34

3.8.2 Specific Design Criteria 3-35
3.8.2.1 Arid Areas 3-35
3.8.2.2 Mountainous Terrain 3-36
3.8.2.3 Coastal Regions 3-36
3.8.2.4 Areas of Inundation 3-37
3.8.2.5 Urban Areas 3-37
3.8.2.6 Rural Areas 3-37
3.9 Selection of Drainage Infrastructure 3-37

3.9.2 Factors Affecting Selection of Drainage Infrastructure 3-38
3.9.3 Drainage Decisions 3-38
3.9.4 Culverts 3-38
3.9.4.1 Culverts or Bridge 3-38
3.9.4.2 Culvert Size 3-38
3.9.4.3 Culvert Type 3-38
3.9.5 Bank Protection and Linings 3-40
3.9.6 Longitudinal Drainage 3-40
iv June 2003
3.9.7 Location 3-40

3.9.8 Water Quality 3-41
3.10 Pollution Control 3-42

3.10.2 Selection Process 3-42
3.11 Erosion and Sediment Control 3-50

3.11.2
3.11.3
Review of Data
Select Design Standard
3-50
3-50 3
3.11.4 Select Controls 3-51
3.11.4.1 Introduction 3-51
3.11.4.2 Erodibility Rating/Soil Type 3-51
3.11.4.3 Areas of Suitability 3-52
3.11.4.4 Flow Type 3-52
3.11.4.5 Life of Controls 3-52
3.11.4.6 Hierarchy of Measures and Selection Table 3-52
3.12 Design References 3-52
Appendix 3A: Computer Models 3-54
Appendix 3B: Checklist 3-56
June 2003 v
vi June 2003
Chapter 3 Amendments - June 2003

Revision Register
Issue/ Reference Authorised

Description of Revision Date
Rev No. Section by
Steering June
1 First Issue
3
Committee 2002
3.3.2 Section 3.3.2 “Flood Deign Criteria” amended

Steering Aug
2 3.8.2.6 New section - “Rural Areas” Committee 2002
3.10.2 Table 3.16 modified
3.1.1 Amendment to 4th paragraph
3.1.2 Additional paragraph

3.4.3 Additional text
Steering Oct
3 3.6.2.4 ‘Outfall’ changed to ‘outlet’
Committee 2002
3.6.2.5 ‘Outfall’ changed to ‘outlet’
3.6.3 ‘Outfall’ changed to ‘outlet’
3.10.1 Additional text
Minor amendments and corrections throughout chapter
3.3 Expansion and clarification of Design Standard
Steering Jun
4 3.5 Restructing of Hydrology section
Committee 2003
3.5.1 Clarification of scope/intention of Hydrology section
3.11.4.6 Table 3.23 has been replaced
June 2003 vii

3 Chapter 2
Site Assessment
Chapter 4
Design Introduction
• Purpose
• When to use Chapter 3
• Inputs
• Applying Design Criteria
Selection of Erosion and
Sediment Controls
General Design Criteria
Selection of Pollution
Controls
Chapter 3
Design Standards
HYDROLOGY AND
Selection of Drainage
Infrastructure DESIGN CRITERIA
Hydraulic Criteria
Ambient Conditions
Hydrology
Fauna Passage
Tailwater Levels
viii June 2003

Chapter 3
Hydrology and Design Criteria
3.1 Introduction In Section 3.5, the Rational Method is adopted as
the Department's standard method for the
3.1.1 Purpose determination of design flows (or discharges) for
3
small catchments. A detailed description of this
Chapter 3 of the Road Drainage Design Manual method is provided. Whilst this information must
provides an important link between the collection be utilised during the design phase, its place in
of data (Chapter 2) and the design of drainage this section of the manual reflects the
infrastructure (Chapter 4). This link establishes fundamental importance of hydrology for all
the hydrological conditions and design criteria, aspects of road design.
and facilitates the selection of the most
Section 3.6 provides a discussion of the
appropriate drainage infrastructure at a particular
importance of tailwater levels in designing
location.
effective drainage infrastructure, addressing
The identification of design criteria may also be tailwaters both within a drainage path and as
thought of as the identification of constraints. backwater from tidal and non-tidal water bodies
downstream.
This chapter also provides a link between the
determination of erosion risk, and the selection of Section 3.7 (Fauna Passage) represents the first of
appropriate erosion and sediment controls the “Selection” sections. It provides an overview
(Chapter 5). as to how fauna passage issues should be
considered when assessing drainage structures. In
On this basis, Chapter 3 promotes the some circumstances, Section 3.7 may be applied
consideration of environmental and hydraulic as the primary sizing mechanism for a culvert,
criteria in an integrated manner, along with the with the structure subsequently checked for
influence of external factors. The structure of hydraulic performance.
Chapter 3 (as summarised below) reflects this
philosophy. The influence of ambient conditions on drainage
infrastructure is dealt with in Section 3.8. The
Section 3.1 provides an overview of Chapter 3, purpose of this section is to provide an
reiterating the importance of using all relevant appreciation of the significant influence different
data. conditions can exert on design.
In Section 3.2, an overview of several very broad Section 3.9 guides the user through the selection
criteria is presented, including planning, process in relation to how different types of
maintenance and safety considerations. drainage measures are chosen. Its main purpose is
to ensure that the user of the manual has
Section 3.3 discusses the selection and practical considered all relevant criteria and constraints
application of a design standard, with emphasis on before proceeding to detailed design. The section
flood immunity. also recognises that drainage design is an iterative
Section 3.4 provides a summary of the key process, with many factors influencing the final
hydraulic criteria necessary to undertake the layout of the drainage system.
design of permanent drainage measures. These Section 3.10 deals with the selection of pollution
include permissible velocity, afflux, gradient and controls, for those situations where water quality
tailwater levels. objectives have been defined, and must be
satisfied. The section provides guidance as to
June 2003 3-1

which types of controls will be suitable for the • Determine an initial design standard to aim for;
given set of conditions.
• Work out the hydrological conditions of the site
In Section 3.11, the user is guided as to the (the range of flows) for the desired standard;
selection of erosion and sediment controls, the
majority of which will be used during the • Select possible structure type and sizes that
construction phase of the project. could satisfy the hydraulic, environmental and
external criteria;
3.1.2 When to use Chapter 3 • Determine appropriate pollution controls and
3
erosion and sediment controls that may be
Use of this chapter should predominantly occur required.
during the Planning/Preliminary Design phase of
• Proceed to the design process in the following
a project. This ensures that the key factors
chapters.
influencing the hydraulic and environmental
performance of drainage infrastructure are It may be necessary to revisit this chapter to refine
identified and understood prior to detailed design. the design criteria and hydrology after the first
cycle of the design.
However, it is important to note that drainage
design, as with all aspects of road design, is Design criteria relating to road drainage may be
frequently an iterative process. Hence, whilst this grouped into three different types of criteria.
chapter of the manual would normally be applied These are:
at the Planning or Preliminary Design phase of a
project, it could also be used to reassess drainage 1. hydraulic criteria;
options after detailed design had already been
2. environmental criteria; and
completed. For example, detailed design may
result in an unacceptable cost, leading to the 3. external criteria.
subsequent specification of a reduction in the
design standard. Hydraulic criteria may be considered as
including the following:
An integral part of the design process is
knowing when specialist skills are required. • flood immunity/design standard;
The techniques provided in this chapter are
appropriate for the majority of small road • discharge;
drainage design projects. However, in many • permissible velocities; and
instances the complexities of the site may
require the services of a specialist. These • permissible afflux.
situations are highlighted in the appropriate
sections. Establishing the hydraulic criteria requires an
understanding of the hydrological conditions of
the site or project.
3.1.3 How to use Chapter 3
Environmental criteria will vary significantly
The user of this manual must ensure that the from project to project, and hence it is not
provisions of Chapter 3 are considered before practical to list all potential issues in this section.
commencing any design process in the following However, there are two types of environmental
Chapters. The procedure would generally consist criteria for which details have been provided.
of the following steps: These are provision for fauna passage, and the
improvement of water quality. In many projects,
• Determine the general design criteria that it will be important to ensure that the design of
should apply to the situation; drainage infrastructure adequately caters for the
existence of fauna, and also for the maintenance
3-2 June 2003

(or improvement) of the quality of stormwater 3.1.5 Applying Design Criteria

runoff.
In order to demonstrate how consideration of
External criteria include a range of factors (eg. design criteria may be incorporated into the
economics) which will also play a large role for selection process, an example is provided as Table
many projects. The designer must remain aware 3.1.
of these, and how they may influence the ultimate
choice of drainage controls. External criteria (as
dealt with in DMR Form F2289) are overviewed
3.2 General Design Criteria
3
in Section 3.2.5.
Finally, it is important to remember that all design 3.2.1 Planning

decisions must incorporate maintenance and
safety requirements, as outlined in Sections 3.2.3 The construction of road drainage may lead to
and 3.2.4. changes in both the natural and social
environments. Problems associated with erosion
and sedimentation, flooding or water quality are
3.1.4 Inputs often of concern to both the road developer/owner
and the local community. The occurrence of these
Data to be used in completing this section of the problems can be costly to remedy and may lead to
manual should include: reduced amenity.
• Specific environmental criteria identified Effective site planning plays a major role in
during the REF (Review of Environmental minimising the potential for adverse impacts to
Factors) process; the environment and to local communities.
Further, planning of the drainage system can assist
• A full data set (refer Chapter 2 checklist);
in achieving project objectives such as
• The results of the soil erodibility assessment compatibility with the natural and social
(refer Chapter 2); and characteristics of the immediate road environment
and its external areas.
• An appreciation of the project budget.
For most projects, planning of the drainage
system can also facilitate the production of a road
design that will minimise future maintenance
Table 3.1 Determination of Design Criteria
Required Input Process Output (Criteria)

Type of Road Application of a Standard Design Immunity (ARI)
ARI, Catchment Area, Rainfall Intensity Calculation (hydrologic) Design Discharge (Q)
Waterway geometry, stream gradient, Q Calculation (hydraulic) Predicted velocities for existing
conditions (Vmax, Vbed)
Existing velocity, REF Specialist advice Permissible velocities to allow fish
passage
Soil Type, Existing Erosion Design Tables Calculate desirable velocity to
prevent erosion or calculate velocity
that caused erosion
Existing land use Published Standards or Permissible Headwater level (HW) or
Assessment of Potential permissible afflux (H)
Damage Costs
REF (identification of sensitive receiving Water quality objectives Need for pollution control
environment)
June 2003 3-3

requirements, or will maximise the efficiency Surface Drainage incorporates all open drains,
with which specific criteria (eg. pollution control) channels, diversion drains, swales, table drains,
are incorporated into the design. catch drains and kerb and channel within the
extents of the road formation.
Piped Drainage includes all cross drainage

culverts, longitudinal piped drains, pits, manholes
and outlet structures (eg. energy dissipaters or
erosion control devices) located within the extents
3
of the road formation.
3.2.1.2 External Environment
The External Environment is that zone outside the

road reserve boundary and includes sensitive
areas such as wetland, rainforest, sand dunes,
Professional Collaboration - Planning
waterways or private property.
The principles contained in Section 1.4 shall be Surface drainage and piped drainage also exist
used to assist in planning the drainage layout. within this zone, which will either receive runoff
The two major environments potentially affected from the site or transfer runoff through the site.
by drainage, and the processes of erosion and
sedimentation, are known as the road environment
and the external environment. These are further
discussed below.
3.2.1.1 Road Environment
The Road Environment is the zone which includes

the carriageway, top/toe of batter and the general
area within the road reserve boundary.
Road Corridor - Aerial
3.2.2 Environment
Section 2.2.4 describes the role of the REF/IAS in

obtaining and analysing data for the purposes of
identifying potential environmental impacts of a
proposed project.
Road Corridor
The REF/IAS also identifies criteria and strategies
The Road Carriageway is that area of the road for managing aspects of a project which are
system that includes road pavement, bridges, predicted to cause environmental harm. Examples
furniture, surface drainage and piped drainage of issues identified in an REF/IAS, which may
within the extents of the road formation (ie. where influence drainage design, are outlined in Table
batter toes match in with natural surface). 3.2.
3-4 June 2003

This table illustrates how an REF/IAS may To enable maintenance to be properly and safely
recommend a number of management strategies undertaken during road construction and
to minimise potential environmental harm. These operation, consideration must be given to:
may be in the form of design requirements or
• the provision of adequate access;
implementation of particular construction
techniques which minimise potential • the method of maintenance;
environmental harm (ie. progressive revegetation • equipment to be used (eg. vehicles, slashers,
to reduce soil exposure). These criteria and backhoe etc.); and
techniques are generally based on the
3
requirements of relevant legislation, policy, codes, • the method of operation of maintenance
guidelines and current Best Practice equipment.
Environmental Management for the industry.
3.2.4 Safety
3.2.3 Maintenance
An integral aspect of the detailed design of all
The provision for maintenance is an integral road drainage systems is the underlying
component of the planning and design phases of consideration of safety.
road drainage. Adequate maintenance is necessary
for the proper operation of the drainage system. Some of the safety issues that require
The lack of maintenance is one of the most consideration as part of the road drainage design
common causes of failure of drainage systems process are described below:
(and erosion and sediment controls). This may be • Maintenance Access. Safe access needs to be
attributed to reasons such as a significant provided to all drainage structures that require
reduction in hydraulic or storage capacity (eg. either ongoing (ie. mowing of drains) or
blockage by debris or sediment). occasional (ie. removal of debris) maintenance.
Specific details on maintenance procedures and This access is required for vehicles and/or
requirements for road drainage systems are maintenance crews depending on the type of
provided in Chapter 6 of this manual. maintenance that will be undertaken. Safe
Table 3.2 Example of REF/IAS Recommendations Influencing Drainage Design
Potential Environmental Impact Recommended Action Responsibility

Fragmentation of fauna corridor at Ch25000. Design creek crossing at Ch25000 such Zoologist/Detailed
Known species using corridor include koala, that fauna movement is maintained. Designer
snakes and bandicoots. A suitably qualified zoologist shall be
employed to provide concepts and
environmental specifications for a
suitably adapted fauna culvert crossing.
Realignment of Sandy Creek at Ch19785 Incorporate stabilisation / hard armour / Detailed Designer
associated with proposed bridge crossing. scour protection measures to minimise
Slumping and erosion of sandy-loam banks bank slumping and erosion at bridge
may result. abutment.
Disturbance to platypus habitat located in Investigate feasibility of using a single Detailed Designer
centre island bank of Four Mile Creek at span bridge design to avoid filling of centre
Ch9500 as a result of proposed bridge island bank.
abutment location.
Discharge of bridge pavement runoff into Incorporate pollution control device(s) to Detailed Designer
Johnson Creek and subsequent impacts on trap heavy metals, oils and greases from
aquatic flora and fauna. Upgraded bridge to bridge deck runoff.
cater for AADT of 33,500 vehicles with 15%
heavy vehicle content.
June 2003 3-5

access to erosion and sediment control devices 3.2.5 External Criteria

during the construction phase should also be
allowed; The selection of road drainage infrastructure may
be influenced by criteria that are neither
• Child Safety. Where long culverts potentially environmental or hydraulic. Such criteria are
provide a hazard (particularly in urban areas) to termed external, and may include:
child safety, preventative measures should be
considered. Safety measures include fencing, • Project economics;
swing gates and/or grates at culvert inlets. Any
• Road alignment; and
3
safety device needs to ensure that it prevents
both access to the culvert and trapping of a
• Lack of available space.
child against the grate. The effect of any
proposed child safety measure on culvert The Department's Form M2289, Road
capacity and efficiency needs to be checked; Infrastructure Proposal - Project Concept Phase
also lists many other factors which need to be
• Traffic Safety. Projecting culvert ends have the
considered before a decision is made on the
potential to act as obstructions to out of control
standard of new infrastructure. These factors may
vehicles. Where there are no safety barriers
ultimately affect other aspects of road design,
culvert ends should not present an obstruction.
which may in turn affect the provision of drainage
If obstructions from projecting culverts or head
infrastructure.
walls are unavoidable then safety barriers
should be considered;
• Floodway Safety. The main issues associated 3.3 Design Standard

with safety for floodways are adequate sight
distance for drivers to ensure vehicles can stop 3.3.1 Introduction
before entering the floodway. Preferably, the
floodway longitudinal profile should be All elements of the drainage system must be
horizontal so that the same depth of water designed to meet a specified minimum standard.
exists over the entire floodway length. The
floodway length should be limited and on a For a drainage system, the standard is
straight stretch of road where possible and conventionally specified in terms of an average
adequate permanent and temporary signing recurrence interval (ARI).
must be erected; and
This is defined as the average interval in years
• Energy Dissipators. Energy dissipation is between exceedances of a specified event (ie.
necessary due to high flow velocities. rainfall or discharge).
Dissipation devices usually consist of large
The standard will vary in accordance with
obstructions to the flow and result in a high
whether the design relates to cross drainage (ie.
degree of turbulence. For these reasons, energy
the provision of a certain flood immunity), surface
dissipation structures should be avoided in
drainage, urban drainage, or construction phase
urban areas where possible; otherwise access
drainage (including erosion and sediment
should be limited by appropriate fencing.
control).
Energy dissipators are also very costly to build
and changes to the design, such as flattening of Guidance as to typical ARIs for each of these
channel gradient to reduce high velocities, are situations is provided in the following sections.
preferred. The design standard may be affected by a range of
factors, including cost, available space, existing
infrastructure, and public safety.
3-6 June 2003

For rainfall, the average recurrence interval (ARI) (static plus velocity) across a carriageway is
is defined as the average interval in years between equal to 300mm. Refer to Section 4.2.3.5.
exceedances of a specified rainfall.
• Pavement immunity - In this instance,
A similar definition may be applied for floods and immunity is defined with the upstream level
as explained in the introduction above, it is usual being below the pavement base course, which
to define the flood arising from a specified rainfall gives a higher road level. This level will be
as having the same ARI as the rainfall. defined in future as pavement immunity with
the road grade at 'x' mm above a flood of 'y'year
The AEP (annual exceedance probability) is also
3
ARI.
used in relation to flood flows. The AEP is the
probability of exceedance of a given discharge • Time of Closure - This is a measure of the
within a period of one year. It is commonly expected time of closure of a road in a major
considered as the reciprocal of the average flood such as a 50 year ARI. This may be in the
recurrence interval (ARI) in years expressed as a order of days. Time of closure is described in
percentage. detail in Section 4.2.3.5
eg. 50 years ARI = 2% AEP • Average Annual Time of Closure (AATOC) -

This is a measure of the expected time of
However, reference should be made to Section 1.3 closure of the road due to flooding over the
of AR&R (1987). course of a year. This may be in the order of a
fraction of an hour.
3.3.2 Cross Drainage
The design standard for cross drainage for a

particular project may be set either by the client or
by Departmental strategies. These may be based
on any of the following conditions:
• Flood immunity - This is the average recurrence

interval (ARI) of a flood at the point of
overtopping the crown level or highest point of
the road if superelevated. This level of flooding
is usually critical for afflux calculations and its
immunity must be calculated as part of the
design if other design criteria are given. The Cross drainage culverts under construction
flood level is also critical in the design of
culverts and bridges under floodways.
Calculated flood immunities in the Bridge

Information System (BIS) are based on this 3.3.2.1 Standard for State
definition. Controlled Roads - Urban
Catchments
• Trafficability - In some instances, it is desirable
to allow traffic to continue to use the road while Table 3.3 gives recommended design average
floodwater crosses the road surface. The design recurrence intervals for Urban Catchments.
standard therefore may be specified in terms of
the ARI of the flood at the limit of trafficability.
This limit is based on a combination of depth
and velocity of flow over the road or floodway
and is defined as occurring when the total head
June 2003 3-7

Table 3.3 Recommended Design Average Recurrence Intervals for Urban Catchments
Category ARI
(i) Major System Design ARI (years) 50
(ii) Minor System Design ARI (years)
Development Category
Central Business and Commercial 10
Industrial 2
Urban Residential High Density 2-10
3
- greater than 5 & up to 20 dwelling units/ha
Rural Residential - 2 to 5 dwelling units/ha 2
Open Space - Parks, etc. 1
Major Road Kerb & Channel 10
Flow (See Note 1)
Cross Drainage 50
(Culverts) (See Note 2)
Minor Road Kerb & Channel As for
Flow relevant,
development
category
Cross Drainage 10
(Culverts) (See Note 2)
Notes:
1. The design ARI for the minor drainage system in a major road will be 10 years for Kerb and Channel Flow and
50 years for Cross Drainage, regardless of the Development Category of the adjacent area.
2. Culverts under roads should be designed to accept the full flow for the minor system ARI shown. In addition, for
major roads the designer should aim to ensure that the 100 year ARI backwater does not enter properties
upstream. Similarly, the 50 year ARI backwater should be used as the check for cross drainage in minor roads.
If upstream properties are at a relatively low elevation it may be necessary to install culverts of capacity greater
than that for the minor system ARI design storm to ensure flooding of upstream properties is not increased. In
addition the downstream face of the causeway embankment may need protection where overtopping is likely to
occur.
3.3.2.2 Standard for State ARI flood trafficability range. However, there are
Controlled Roads - Rural older roads with lower trafficability.
Catchments
It is rare to design a new road with trafficability in
For rural catchments, the generally accepted floods less than 10 years ARI.
standard for cross drainage is a flood immunity of
50 years ARI wherever possible.
3.3.2.3 Standard for National
This standard also applies to rehabilitation/ Highways
reconstruction projects where existing structures Federal Government requirements are that the
are assessed as hydraulically or structurally probability of the Highway being closed to traffic
deficient and need to be completely replaced. by water in any particular year is to be less than:
Designers should check departmental strategies • 1 in 100 where the AADT is expected to exceed
for immunity and / or trafficability requirements 2000 in the next 20 years; or
for specific routes and individual projects.
• 1 in 50 where the AADT is not expected to
Other than in exceptional circumstances, only exceed 2000 in the next 20 years;
roads in remote areas of the State and/or with little
traffic are designed outside the 20 year to 100 year
3-8 June 2003

and the average annual time of closure by water is • The minimum grade for unlined drains,
to be less than 12 hours. including table drains, is 0.5% and for lined
drains, 0.2%. This is to ensure flow and, if
3.3.2.4 Practical Application of applicable, minimize ponding against
Standard formations and pavements.
Although highly desirable, it is not always • Limit flow velocities for longitudinal drainage
possible to meet the above requirements from the to prevent erosion. Limiting flow velocities is
funds available. Therefore, staged construction at preferred over maintaining high flow velocities
3
an initially lower standard is sometimes adopted. and providing armouring. An increase in the
number of outflow points (e.g. turnouts or level
Reference should also be made to Section 3.2.5, spreaders) from the longitudinal drainage
which lists some of the external criteria, that can should be considered.
influence the selection of immunity or design
standard • Limit flow depths to prevent erosion and
inundation of the pavement.
• Median longitudinal drainage will usually have

3.3.3 Longitudinal Drainage
a concrete lined invert to assist maintenance
The requirements for longitudinal drainage will and reduce the risk of errant vehicles rolling
vary from project to project. Site constraints and after hitting ruts caused by tractor mowing.
the adopted design standard will dictate the choice
• Consider collecting road run-off from bridge
between alternative longitudinal drainage options
scuppers and discharging run-off into a
such as kerb and channel, grassed swales, and
sediment basin, gross pollutant trap or other
lined or unlined table drains. In urban
relevant first flush containment devices. This is
environments, kerb and channel has historically
particularly important where the scupper would
been favoured for most roads, though grassed
direct bridge run-off into a base flow channel or
channels are also common on divided roads. In
upstream of a sensitive environment (e.g.
rural areas, earth drains are more common.
wetland, fish habitat reserve).
Consideration of the environmental issues (in
Reference should also be made to Standard
particular, the management of erosion risk, water
Drawing No: 1178.
quality and maintenance) is also important.
Reference should be made to Chapter 7 of the

3.3.4 Surface Drainage
Road Planning & Design Manual to determine the
cross sectional components of table drains and
The requirements for surface drainage relate to
other drains associated with the formation /
safety (eg. aquaplaning and ponding) and are dealt
carriageway.
with in Section 4.4.4.
The following requirements are to be considered
in determining the design standard for 3.3.4.1 General Standard
longitudinal drainage:
For surface drainage the allowable flow width in
• Limit the use of "'V" drains, particularly in the 10 year ARI flood is specified.
erodible soils. Parabolic or flat-bottomed drains
should be used in preference. The latter may For drainage of bridge decks, a design ARI of 20
still require armoring but in these years is recommended.
circumstances a combination of armoring and
vegetation options are more likely to succeed.
June 2003 3-9

3.3.5 The Major / Minor System 3.3.6 Erosion and Sediment

Concept Control
The major/minor drainage system or dual Guidelines for the selection of design standards
drainage system is a concept that has two distinct (average recurrence intervals) for erosion and
components: sediment controls are contained within Section
3.11.
The minor drainage system (refer glossary for
definition) shall be designed to convey the
3
discharge for a minor design storm (ARI as per
Table 3.3) with road flow limited in accordance
3.4 Hydraulic Criteria
with the requirements set out in Chapter 4,
Section 4.4.4.4. 3.4.1 Discharge
The major drainage system (refer glossary for The design discharge for a proposed structure may
definition) conveys the floodwater beyond the not be determined until sufficient hydraulic
capacity of the minor drainage system and shall be analysis is done to define flow patterns, and a
designed in accordance with the requirements set structure size is selected.
out in Chapter 4, Section 4.4.4.4.
The determination of the discharge/ARI
Note: With any proposed drainage system designed relationship is a fundamental requirement for all
adjacent to sensitive areas where flood inundation will drainage designs. Following determination of the
not be tolerated, the design of the major drainage appropriate design standard, the discharge must
system should also consider the flow conveyed in the
underground minor drainage system should this system
be calculated for each proposed structure, and for
fail due to malfunction or blockage. each flood ARI that may need to be tested as a
possible design condition. This can be undertaken
Designers should note that the design discharge manually (refer Section 3.5), or with the aid of
for the major system ARI may require that the computer software, as described in Appendix 3A.
capacity of the gully inlets and underground pipes
be increased beyond that required by the design
discharge for the minor system ARI, in order to 3.4.2 Velocity
meet the major system design criteria.
The velocity of flow (whether in a watercourse or
The minor design storm and the major design overland) is one of the most important criteria
storm correspond to the rainfall events for the ARI dictating the performance of a drainage system,
chosen for the design of the minor system and the the potential for erosion and the subsequent
major system respectively. implications for design.
The presence of high velocities can result in a

3.3.5.1 Urban Areas / Existing
number of problems, such as erosion or scour,
Minor Drainage Systems
undermining of a structure, or high afflux.
The design recurrence interval in urban areas will Similarly, in areas where fish passage occurs, high
often be influenced by existing standards for those velocities may inhibit or prevent passage from
situations where new works are being connected occurring. In each of these situations, the designer
to existing infrastructure. has a responsibility to limit velocities to
manageable magnitudes (preferably below 2 m/s).
Designers should confirm requirements of these
systems with the relevant authority. However, where high velocities are a natural
occurrence, or result from the need to confine
flows, then it may be necessary to protect a
waterway from the impacts of the high velocities.
3-10 June 2003

Velocity criteria may be specified in terms of the dictated by the types of soil and vegetation
average velocity at a location (for a nominated present. The value chosen applies to peak
design event), or in terms of the maximum velocities, but should also be linked to an
velocity at locations of interest, such as the bed of understanding of the duration of flow. For short
a watercourse. duration events, a higher velocity may be
tolerated than for long duration events.
Velocity criteria will typically fit into one of the
following three classifications: Table 3.4 provides a summary of typical
maximum velocity criteria for different
1. Existing;
3
conditions.
2. Desirable maximum; and Where the desirable maximum velocity cannot be
achieved (ie. where it is exceeded), then the
3. Maximum Permissible.
designer will need to look at the selection of
appropriate linings which can withstand the
3.4.2.1 Existing Conditions estimated peak velocities predicted to occur.
The existing velocity regime may be considered
acceptable in those circumstances where minimal 3.4.2.3 Maximum Permissible
changes to a watercourse are proposed, and that Velocity
watercourse is currently stable. However, care
In some circumstances, it will not be possible to
must be taken to ensure that where the bed or
offer bed or bank protection in order to cater for a
banks of a watercourse are disturbed, that
velocity higher than the desired maximum. For
appropriate restoration occurs. Failure to meet this
example, where fish passage is a requirement,
requirement will usually result in erosion, and
there may be specific velocity criteria that apply
possible failure of drainage infrastructure.
to normal and/or low flow. These will typically be
determined through the REF/IAS process and use
3.4.2.2 Desirable Velocity of a fish specialist.
Where works in a watercourse are required, the In these situations, the specified velocity criteria
desirable maximum velocity will typically be must be satisfied, and hence design of the cross
Table 3.4 Maximum permissible velocities (m/s) for earth channels (SCS, 1982)
Erodability Assessment
Cover Channel Low Moderate High Very High
Slope (%)
Kikuyu and other dense high- 1-5 2.6 2.4 2.3 2.2
growing, prostrate perennials 5-10 2.5 2.3 2.2 2.1
>10 2.4 2.2 2.1 2.0
Couch and other low-growing, 1-5 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.7
prostrate perennials 5-10 2.0 1.9 1.8 1.6
>10 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.5
Perennial improved pastures 1-5 1.7 1.6 1.4 1.2
5-10 1.6 1.5 1.3 1.1
>10 1.5 1.4 1.2 1.0
Native tussocky grasses, sparse 1-5 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8
legumes and annuals 5-10 1.3 1.1 0.9 0.7
Bare soil 1-10 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4
Note: Maximum permissible velocities for fish passage are detailed in Section 4.2.2.2 of Chapter 4. These velocities
are 0.3 m/s for flow depths of 0.2 to 0.5 m and up to 1.0 m/s in isolated locations (i.e. short channel lengths).
June 2003 3-11

drainage system will need to be modified • bed slope; and/or

accordingly.
• gradient of the water surface; and/or
3.4.3 Afflux • ground slope (ie. for overland flows).
In all cases, the close links between slope,

In many cases, the existence of a cross drainage
velocity and erosion require careful consideration
structure, such as a culvert, will cause flood levels
of what the governing criteria will be. Typically,
to increase on the upstream side. The increase in
these will consist of one of the following:
3
water level compared with that without the
structure is defined as afflux. The distance • stability of the watercourse;
upstream that is affected depends on the size of
the afflux, and the hydraulic gradient of the • retention of waterway characteristics
watercourse. The acceptability of this increase is (preservation of flora and fauna); and
defined by the existence of upstream property or
• protection of existing infrastructure from flood
infrastructure, as assets that cannot cope with
damage.
increased flood levels will typically necessitate a
higher capacity culvert.
Additional guidance as to acceptable afflux limits 3.4.5 Tailwater Levels

may also be obtained from local authority design
The water level at the outlet (tailwater level) of any
standards, or the QUDM (1993).
drainage or pollution control structure can exert a
For major roads the designer should aim to ensure significant effect on the functionality of the
that any afflux is limited in extent to areas not control. Hydraulic performance will often be
adversely impacted. Where the 100 year ARI controlled by tailwater levels, and these must be
flood currently enters properties upstream, the considered for all designs. Relevant issues
designer must fully consider the impacts of any pertaining to tailwater are discussed in Section 3.6.
afflux generated, and design accordingly.
The 50 year ARI afflux should be used as the

3.5 Hydrology
check for cross drainage in minor roads.
If upstream properties are at a relatively low 3.5.1 Introduction

elevation it may be necessary to install culverts of
capacity greater than that for the minor system Hydrology for road drainage design in
ARI design storm to ensure flooding of upstream Queensland conditions may be defined as the
properties is not increased. In addition the estimation of flood (rainfall) runoff from a
downstream face of the causeway embankment catchment for specified average recurrence
may need protection where overtopping is likely intervals. The standard method of runoff
to occur. calculation used by Main Roads for small
catchments is the Rational Method.
3.4.4 Gradient The Rational Method described in this manual is

generally applicable for small, single stream
The gradient (or slope) of a watercourse is a catchments up to 25 km2 in area. However, given
significant factor in determining the hydraulic the many factors which influence rainfall runoff,
regime, and in particular, the velocity of flow. it is highly recommended that a check by
This in turn affects the potential for erosion to experienced hydraulic specialists using more
occur. Thus, any consideration of drainage detailed procedures be carried out for catchments
infrastructure is heavily dependent on: of 10 km2 or more. Catchments considered as
complex and therefore beyond the scope of this
3-12 June 2003

manual, can be of any size and include: 3.5.2 Methods Available for
Runoff Calculation
• multiple stream / branched catchments,
Techniques for flood estimation in the larger
• large stream / river systems,
catchments, usually associated with major
• catchment areas consisting of several different structures such as bridges and floodways, are not
land uses, described in any detail in this manual. Such
procedures are described in such publications as
• catchments with highly varied slopes, and Australian Rainfall and Runoff (IEAust, 1987)
3
and Hydraulics Training Course (Department of
• catchments / streams with storage capacity.
Main Roads, 1996) and include unit hydrograph
Runoff calculations for these catchments should methods, runoff and storage routing and
be undertaken by or in conjunction with hydraulic frequency analysis. Appendix 3A discusses the
specialists. use of computer models for hydrological and
hydraulics calculations.
Variables such as local depressions/storages and
infiltration rates into different soil types are Other states use the Probabilistic Rational
difficult to quantify and the importance of existing Method. However, there are insufficient long term
flood information cannot be overemphasised, not gauging station records in Queensland to compile
only to calibrate theoretical calculations but also the equivalent method.
for decisions on the magnitude of the design flood
and any future legal litigation. The Department’s
3.5.3 Rational Method
Form M2759, Field Report - Bridge Waterways
gives a guide to the information which should be
The traditional Rational Method is described
sought, such as flood levels, in hydraulically
below.
sensitive locations and for the larger structures.
The Rational Method Formula is:
Calculations based on long term local recorded
flood data should be given precedence over more Qy = k x Cy x Itc,y x A
theoretical calculations, but the reasons for any
inconsistencies should be sought. Where
Actual rainfall of a given average recurrence Qy = peak flow rate (m3/s) for an average
interval (ARI) does not always lead to a flood of recurrence interval (ARI) of y years
the same ARI. Variables such as the magnitude of
Cy = runoff coefficient (dimensionless) for an ARI
antecedent rainfall (ie. wetting of the catchment
of y years
prior to the design event) can lead to significant
variation. However, it is accepted as standard A = area of catchment (km2)
design procedure to designate a calculated flood
with the same ARI as that of the design rainfall. Itc,y = average rainfall intensity (mm/h) for design
duration of tc hours and ARI of y years
The use of recorded data will allow the designer to
vary standard parameters for such factors as k = 0.278 and is merely a conversion factor to
antecedent precipitation with a degree of ensure units are consistent for A in km2
confidence.
k = 0.00278 if A is hectares (ha)
Each of the terms in the Rational Method equation

will be examined in following sections.
June 2003 3-13

3.5.3.1 Catchment Area on the surface or behind obstructions;
The catchment or watershed area ‘A’ (in hectares • Time of flow in gutters and natural channels;
or km2) can be determined from topographical and
mapping, from aerial photographs used as stereo
pairs or the basis of photogrammetric contour • Time of flow in pipes or channels.
plots or by field survey.
The type of flow will vary along the catchment,
Catchments interpreted from aerial photographs although once channelised, overland flow
in heavily timbered or flat country should be conditions do not normally recur. Overland flow
3 verified by ground inspection or survey to ensure to channel flow and pipe flow back to channel
that major errors do not result from flow can be expected to occur. There may also be
misinterpretation. overland or channel flow parallel with pipe flow
at full capacity. Several flow paths may need to be
In urban areas, catchment areas are frequently examined to determine which is the longest or
modified by roadworks, railway embankments or most critical in terms of design flows.
other earthworks, building works or fences, and
catchment boundaries should be verified by site The procedure for calculating time of
inspection. concentration varies depending on the version of
the Rational Method being used and whether the
The term ‘equivalent impervious area’ is used for catchment is urban or rural. The procedures are
the product of coefficient of runoff and catchment described later in this section.
area.
The minimum time of concentration to be used in
design is 5 minutes, as the effects of depression
3.5.3.2 Time of Concentration storage and surface detention do not permit
In the deterministic interpretation of the Rational shorter times in practice.
Method, the time of concentration, ‘tc’ for a In designing pipes for road crossings, the time of
catchment is defined as the time taken for water to concentration used should allow for development
flow from the most remote point on the catchment of the upstream catchment. Consider the
to the outlet, or the time taken from the start of following example illustrated in Figure 3.1.
rainfall until all of the catchment is
simultaneously contributing to flow at the outlet.
The significance of the time of concentration is

that peak outflow will usually (see also partial
area effect in Section 3.5.3.2) result when the
entire catchment is contributing flow from rainfall
on the catchment. The most intense rainfall that
contributes to the outflow will be that with a
duration equal to the time of concentration. If the
rainfall is more intense but of shorter duration not
all the catchment will contribute to the peak
runoff. If the rainfall is of longer duration the
average intensity over that duration will be less
and the peak runoff will be less even though the
entire catchment contributes.
The time of concentration is made up of: Figure 3.1 Hypothetical Catchment Development
• Overland flow time across natural or paved

surfaces including retardance due to pondage
3-14 June 2003

If the time of concentration to A is calculated A = catchment area (km2)

under existing conditions, it will be made up of:
Se = equal area slope (%) as defined in Figure 3.2.
• a considerable length of overland and channel
flow, and
• a short length of flow on pipes.
If the drainage system in the catchment upstream

of the road is improved, the overland flow time
3
will be reduced and the time of concentration to A
also reduced. Designers should check the full
range of possible cases.
Rural
For catchment areas larger than 5 km2 the time of

concentration is first estimated using the modified
Friend formula, assuming an estimated peak level
of the design flood. This level is usually the
maximum reported flood level or approximate
bank level. If later hydraulic calculations show
this to be in error by more than 0.3–0.6m, the
value is recalculated. The modified Friend
formula is:
8.5 L Figure 3.2 Derivation of the equal area slope of
tc = 0.1 main stream
Ch A S0e.4
Reference: IE Aust, 1987.
where
tc = time of concentration (h) For catchments less than 5 km2 in area, the time of
concentration may be calculated using the
L = length of mainstream (km) from the outlet to
velocities in Table 3.9 where there is a defined
the catchment divide
channel in most of the flowpath.
Ch = Chezy’s coefficient at the site
Where there is a significant proportion of
R 0.166 overland sheet flow, use Friend’s equation
(= )
n (directly or via Figure 3.3) for a maximum length
of 200 m, then, if longer, assume channel flow and
R = hydraulic radius velocities from Table 3.9.
= 0.75RS where slope of entire stream is fairly A special allowance is made for small catchments
uniform with a short but defined channel as shown in the
note below Table 3.9.
= 0.65RS where slope varies appreciably
along the stream
Rs = hydraulic radius at the initially assumed

flood level at the bridge/culvert site (unrestricted
channel)
n = average Manning roughness coefficient for the

entire main stream along length L
June 2003 3-15

3
Source: IE Aust, 1977.
Figure 3.3 Overland Sheet Flow Times - Shallow Sheet Flow Only
Example: A creek is 1500 metres long with a well Rainfall intensity for duration tc and the design
defined channel in the flowpath. The top 900 ARI of 50 years shall be determined in accordance
metres of its length flows through hilly country with Section 3.5.3.3.
and the rest (600 m) through flat country. From
Table 3.9 for velocities, Urban
900 600 The time of concentration calculations are

tc = + minutes
0.9 × 60 0.3 × 60 different to those for rural catchments.
tc = 16.7 + 33.3 minutes Flows can reach outlets via overland flow areas,
natural or paved surfaces or along gutters, pipes,
tc = 50 minutes channels or natural watercourses or by a
combination of means.
Table 3.9 Velocities for Calculation of tc for For single catchment situations, time of
Areas < 5 km² concentration to a structure site will be the
Type of Average Slope Approx. summation of the times of flow in the various
Country of Catchment Velocity of elements encountered along the longest drainage
Surface (%) Stream (m/s)
path. These elements include:
Flat 0 to 1.5 0.3
Rolling 1.5 to 4 0.7 (a) Overland flow;
Hilly 4 to 8 0.9
(b) Kerb and Channel Flow;
Steep 8 to 15 1.5
Very Steep > 15 3.0 (c) Delays at Inlets or Gully Pits;
Rocky
Mountainous (d) Flow in Pipes.
Source: Hee, 1983
Methods of estimating the flow times in each of
Note: For length of catchment less than or equal to these elements are given below.
1000 metres, add 10 minutes to the calculated time of
concentration for the influence of overland flow. To In more complex urban drainage networks, it is
avoid sudden changes, the minimum tc for lengths common for drainage features to be fed by several
longer than 1000m should be the tc for 1000m if this is
catchments or sub-catchments. This complicates
larger than the tc calculated for the actual length.
3-16 June 2003

the time of concentration calculations, as it from Argue (1986). This figure takes into account
becomes necessary to follow all the possible paths the length of flow and fall along the gutter only
and determine the critical time of concentration at and incorporates an assumption about roughness
each point throughout the system. A step by step and flow depth.
procedure for this, illustrated by a worked
example based on a typical catchment and (c) - Standard Inlet Times
stormwater drainage network introduced in
For small sub-catchments or where detailed
Section 4.4.6.4, is given in Appendix 4E.
overland flow and channel flow calculations are
3
(a) - Overland Flow not considered justified, the Standard Inlet Times
shown in the QUDM (1993) may be used. These
Overland sheet flow time may be obtained from are shown in this manual on Table 3.10.
Friend’s Equation or the nomograph on Figure 3.3
based on this equation. The Brisbane City Council and possibly other
Local Authorities use Standard Inlet Times rather
It should be noted that some Local Authorities than the kinematic wave equation.
may require overland flow times to be obtained by
other methods.
Table 3.10 Recommended Standard Inlet Time of
In urban residential areas, the typical length of Concentration to First Inlet
overland flow considered is 20 - 50 m with 50 m Location Time (Minutes)

the recommended maximum because of Road surface and paved areas 5
obstructions, minor channels or piped drainage. Urban and residential areas where 5
average slope of land is greater
In rural residential areas, the typical length of than 15%
overland flow considered is 50 - 200 m with 200 Urban and residential areas where 8
average slope of land is greater
m the recommended maximum.
than 10% and up to 15%
Urban and residential areas where 10
Friend’s Equation is average slope of land is greater
107 n L0.333
t= Urban and residential areas where 13
S0.2 average slope of land is greater
where Urban and residential areas where 15
average slope of land is up to 3%
t = overland sheet flow travel time (minutes)
Note: The average slopes referred to are the slopes
along the predominant flow paths for the catchment in
L = overland sheet path length (metres) its developed state.
n = Horton’s roughness value for the surface
S = slope of surface (%)
Values for Horton’s “n” are similar to those for

Manning’s “n” for similar surfaces.
(b) - Kerb and Channel Flow
The time of flow in channels depends on a number

of factors including the discharge. Usually, this
component of the total time of concentration is
relatively small and a sufficiently accurate
estimate can be obtained from Figure 3.4. This
figure has been derived by VicRoads and drawn
June 2003 3-17

Source: Argue, J, 1986.

Figure 3.4 Flow Travel Time in Gutters
3-18 June 2003

Figure 3.5 Analysis of Uniform Flow, Manning’s Formula
June 2003 3-19

0.20
nt
one
ti
mp
Equivalent Impervious Area
tc x CpAp o
sC
3
ou CpAp = 0.08 ha
rvi
ha
P Pe
0.10
(CA)full
(CA)
ent
(CA)part (CA)part =
pon
CiAi = 0.10 ha t
CiAi [ ti x CiAi]
Com
c
ed
Pav
ti = 20 tc = 20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (mins)
Figure 3.6 Time-Area Representation of Multi-land Use Drainage Unit

Source: Argue, 1986.
(d) - Flow in Pipes Figure 3.5. Having determined the velocity and
knowing the length of the pipe, the time of travel
The time of flow in pipes is calculated from can be calculated.
Manning’s formula and assumes that pipes are
flowing full and not under pressure: An approximate figure for the time of flow in a
pipe system may be determined from the values of
R 0.667 S0.5
v= velocity shown in Table 3.11. When the tentative
n pipe system has been designed, this gives an
where approximate check on calculated values.
v = velocity in pipe, metres per second
n = manning roughness coefficient for pipe Table 3.11 Velocities of Flows in Pipes
R = hydraulic radius of pipe flowing full, Type of Country Approx. Velocity for Whole
Pipe System (m/s)
metres (= Area/Wetted Perimeter)
Undulating - Hilly 2.5 to 4.0
S = slope of hydraulic gradient, metres per Flat (< 1.5%) 1.5 to 2.0
metre (= slope of pipe when pipe just runs
full)
A graphical solution of this formula is given on
3-20 June 2003

The time of concentration most commonly used is

the full area time ie. that required for the runoff to
flow by the longest available flow path to the
subcatchment outlet. However, in many cases a
“partial area” effect occurs, with the Rational
Formula giving a greater flow rate when applied
to a lower part of the catchment, with a time of
concentration less than the full-area travel time.
Partial area effects create a major uncertainty in
3
the Rational Method and increase the calculations
required. The cause may be catchment shape or Figure 3.7 Catchment Example
variations in slopes and land use within the
The areas of the components of the catchment are:
catchment. It may be necessary to check a number
of partial areas. a = area of catchment “a”, ha
The essence of the part area flow estimate is b = area of catchment “b”, ha
shown in Figure 3.6 (Argue, J, 1986). The method
involves using a time of concentration (ti) c = area of catchment “c”, ha
corresponding to flow time from the most remote,
directly connected paved area of the catchment to The flow is required at the catchment outlet ie.
the outfall. Thus, the calculated runoff is that from inlet to pipe YZ:
the impervious portion of the catchment plus that ta = time of concentration for area a
from the pervious part of the catchment which has
begun to contribute up to time ti since the storm tb = time of concentration for area b
began. So, from Figure 3.6, the equivalent
impervious area to be used in the rational formula, tc = time of concentration for area c
ie. the product of C and A is given by the formula:
tp = time of flow in pipe XY
ti If tb > tc and (tp + tb) > ta

C A = Ci A i + ( Cp A p )
tc
and It = rainfall intensity corresponding to time t,
where
then the required design flow, the peak flow in
C = overall coefficient of runoff with Ci and Cp
pipe YZ is:
being the coefficients for the impervious
and pervious areas respectively. QYZ = k × (Cb × b + Cc × c + Ca × a) × I × (tp + tb)
A = overall area with Ai and Ap being the where Ca, Cb, Cc are the runoff coefficients for
impervious and pervious areas respectively. catchments a, b, c respectively.
ti = time of concentration from impervious area. In the common case where:
tc = time of concentration for the catchment. Ca = Cb = Cc = C
For determination of the peak flow rate at the QYZ = k × (a + b + c) × C × I × (tp + tb)
point of interest in urban catchments use the
following technique:
June 2003 3-21

3.5.3.3 Rainfall Intensity - • 50i

1(50 year, 1 hr log-normal rainfall intensity)
Frequency - Duration from one of Maps 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, or 4.6;
Rainfall intensity is defined as the mean rainfall • 50i (50 year, 12 hr log-normal rainfall
12
intensity assumed to fall uniformly over a intensity) from one of Maps 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4,
catchment for a given duration and frequency 5.5 or 5.6;
(average recurrence interval).
• 50i (50 year, 72h log-normal rainfall intensity)
72
The normal units for rainfall intensity are from one of Maps 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5 or 6.6;
millimetres per hour.
3
• SKEWNESS FACTOR, G from Map 7b or 7c;
For small catchments, the duration considered
corresponds to the time of concentration or time • GEOGRAPHICAL FACTOR, F2 from Map 8;
of flow from the top of the catchment to the outlet and
of the catchment.
• GEOGRAPHICAL FACTOR, F50 from Map 9.
For the larger catchments, a temporal pattern is
A tabulation of IFD values for durations from 5
applied so that the rainfall intensity varies over
minutes to 72 hours and average recurrence
different periods of the storm duration. For these
intervals from 1 to 100 years is a standard output
catchments also, storms both shorter and longer
from the RAIN2 program but values for non
than the time of concentration are tested until that
standard times are also readily obtained.
giving the peak flow is found.
Prior to the publication of Australian Rainfall and
Also for the larger catchments, an areal factor is
Runoff (IEAust, 1987), rainfall IFD curves were
applied to point rainfall intensities obtained, to
obtained from the Bureau of Meteorology. Typical
allow for actual non-uniform rainfall over the
curves indicative of the range of rainfall
catchment.
intensities in Queensland are shown as Figures
Rainfall intensity varies with location and 3.8, 3.9 and 3.10 for Springwood (near Brisbane),
topography as well as duration and frequency, and Barcaldine and Innisfail.
this should be considered when using the Rainfall
For a fee, the Bureau of Meteorology will still
Intensity - Frequency - Duration (IFD) tabulations
give design rainfall parameters for a given
and curves for many locations in Queensland
location.
obtained from the Bureau of Meteorology.
The use of rainfall data different to that obtained
For design IFD rainfall the computer program
from the Bureau of Meteorology may be justified
RAIN2 already used in most DMR Districts or
by the calibration of actual recorded rainfall
other suitable programs are recommended.
against recorded floods over a significant period
The use of an IFD programme requires the input of time.
of 9 parameters from Maps in Australian Rainfall
The Australian Bridge Design Code, 1996
and Runoff (IEAust, 1987). These parameters and
requires that bridges will be structurally sound in
the relevant maps are:
a 2000 year ARI flood. Although for most bridges
• 2i (2 year, 1 hr log-normal rainfall intensity) in Queensland the largest flood forces occur in a
1
from one of Maps 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5 or 1.6; smaller overtopping flood, there are occasions
when the 2000 year ARI flood needs to be
• 2i
12(2 year, 12 hr log-normal rainfall intensity) calculated. Such calculations are not simple and
from one of Maps 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5 or 2.6; should be carried out by the Bureau of
Meteorology or Engineers on the Department’s
• 2i
72(2 year, 72 hr log-normal rainfall intensity) prequalification register for hydraulic
from one of Maps 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5 or 3.6; calculations.
3-22 June 2003

Figure 3.8
June 2003 3-23

Figure 3.9
3-24 June 2003

Figure 3.10
June 2003 3-25

Table 3.5 Estimation of the Runoff Coefficient for Rural Catchments
Runoff Producing Values (in brackets) as % in calculation of “C” for a 50 year average recurrence interval event
Characteristics
Rainfall 100 mm/h 75-100 mm/h 50-75 mm/h 25-50 mm/h 12-25 mm/h 12 mm/h <12 mm/h
Intensity (35) (30) (25) (15) (10) (5) (0)
Relief Very steep Steep country, Hilly, with Rolling with Flat, with
rugged country slopes 8-15% slopes of 4-8% slopes 1.5-4% slopes 0-1.5%
with average
slopes > 15%
3
(10) (5) (5) (0) (0)
Storage Negligible, few surface Well defined system Considerable surface Poorly defined and
depressions. water- of small depressions, overland meandering stream,
courses, steep and thin watercourses flow is significant, some large surface
film of overland flow farm ponds, swamps storage. Soil
and contour banks conservation plan
on 90% catchment
(10) (10) (5) (0)
Ground Rocky, clayey or Open forest or Average Heavily Sands or well

Cover non-absorbent grassed land, grassed timbered aggregated
Characteristics soil with cereal crops timbered land country, closely soil
scanty of medium soil cultivated land
herbage texture and garden
(45) (40) (35) (30) (10)
Notes:
1. For catchments > 50 km², use with extreme caution.
2. Use values below 50% with caution.
3. Use values above 80% only in very high rainfall areas (absolute maximum of 90%) where the antecedent
precipitation conditions for the design storm is a saturated catchment.
Example:
A catchment has the following characteristics:
(i) Intensity 40 mm/hr
(ii) Hilly, average slopes 4-8%
(iii) Well defined system of small watercourses
(iv) Open forest
15 + 5 + 10 + 40
C= = 0.70
100
Source: Hee (1978).
3-26 June 2003

3.5.3.4 Runoff Coefficient there is no legal obligation to try to assess and add
the extra waterways in the initial construction.
Rural
If specific development proposals are being
This (non-dimensional) coefficient ‘C’ is defined formulated or in the approval process at the time
as the ratio of the maximum rate at which water of the design of road structures, the additional
flows from a catchment area from a given storm to waterway area needed to accommodate the
the mean volume rate at which rain fell on the development would be provided at the
catchment for the duration of the storm. The developer’s cost. However, if the structures are
runoff coefficient is a function of the design ARI.
3
built before the catchment is developed and there
are no development proposals at the time, the
The value of ‘C’ depends on many features of the
additional cost of the structures is not recoverable
catchment area including:
from the future developer.
• Relief or slope of catchment;
• Ground characteristics such as vegetation Table 3.6 Fraction Impervious Vs Development

cover, soil type, and impervious areas; and Category
• Storage or other detention characteristics. Development Category Fraction Impervious

fi
The runoff coefficient for the 50 year average Central Business 1.00
recurrence interval, is determined from Table 3.5. Commercial and Industrial 0.90
Design coefficients of runoff for other design
Significant Paved Areas 0.90
average recurrence intervals should be determined eg. Roads and Carparks
using adjustment factors, see Table 3.8.
Urban Residential 0.70 to 0.90
High Density
Urban
Urban Residential Low 0.30 to 0.60
Density (Including Roads)
Typical values of runoff coefficients used in urban
catchments are given in Table 3.7 with the fraction Urban Residential Low 0.25 to 0.55
Density (Excluding Roads)
impervious parameter obtained from Table 3.6 or
Rural Residential 0.2
by calculations.
Open Space & Parks etc. 0
Where the proportion of roadway space is
unusually high or low, or where more than one Notes:
class of development, soil type, or slope exists in 1. The designer should determine the actual fraction
an area, the runoff coefficient is calculated as a impervious for the particular development under
weighted average. consideration, eg. Typically for Urban Residential
High Density developments:
In areas where land usage is changing, the value • townhouse type development fi = 0.70
• highrise residential development fi = 0.90
of the runoff coefficient which is used should
allow for future upstream development of the 2. In Urban Residential Low Density areas fi may vary
catchment. This is particularly relevant in the from 0.3 to 0.6 depending upon road width,
allotment size, house size and extent of paths,
situation where a rural catchment may develop
driveways etc. Where roads are excluded fi should
into a partially or fully urbanised catchment be adjusted accordingly.
during the service life of the works being
Reference: Queensland Urban Drainage Manual
designed.
(Neville Jones & Associates and AWE, 1993).
Where future (hypothetical) development may
require an increase to waterways under the road to
that required under existing conditions at the time
of the design of the structures, in some States
June 2003 3-27

In making the decision on whether to allow for Table 3.8 Adjustment Factors for Runoff
future development in the waterways for the new Coefficients for Other Average Recurrence
Intervals
road, the disruption to traffic when the additional
waterways are constructed in the future must be Average Rural Urban
Recurrence Coefficient Coefficient
considered. Other considerations include the Interval (years)
requirements by some Local Governments to not 1 0.8C50 0.8C10
allow any increase in water discharging into
2 0.8C50 0.85C10
culverts in the road corridor from development of
5 0.8C50 0.95C10
an upstream catchment. Detention basins are
3
therefore specified in the design, particularly in 10 0.8C50 1.0C10
small urbanised catchments. In this case there is 20 0.9C50 1.05C10
no need to consider the effect of development. 50 1.0C50 1.15C10
100 1.05C50 1.25C10
Table 3.7 C10 Values
Notes:
Intensity Fraction 1. C50 determined for rural catchments using Table
mm/hr Impervious
3.5.
Range fi
2. C10 determined for urban catchments using Table
I10 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 0.90 1.00
3.7.
39-44 0.32 0.44 0.55 0.67 0.78 0.84 0.90 3. Where runoff coefficients calculated using the
45-49 0.39 0.49 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.85 0.90 above table exceed 1.00, they should be arbitrarily
set to 1.00.
50-54 0.46 0.55 0.64 0.72 0.81 0.86 0.90
55-59 0.53 0.60 0.68 0.75 0.83 0.86 0.90
60-64 0.59 0.65 0.72 0.78 0.84 0.87 0.90
3.6 Tailwater Levels
65-69 0.66 0.71 0.76 0.80 0.85 0.88 0.90
70-90 0.70 0.74 0.78 0.82 0.86 0.88 0.90
3.6.1 Introduction
I10 = One hour rainfall intensity for a 10 year ARI
When an open channel discharges (or outlets) into
C10 = Coefficient of Runoff for a 10 year ARI
a body of stored water, or to another open
fi = Fraction Impervious
channel, the water level at this point will usually
Reference: Queensland Urban Drainage Manual act as the controlling level for channel hydraulics.
(Neville Jones & Associates and AWE, 1993).
This controlling level is called the tailwater level.
There are two types of tailwater levels: tidal and
non-tidal.
Adjustment Factors
A tailwater level is tidal when the channel
Design coefficients of runoff for other design discharges into a water body influenced by tides,
average recurrence intervals should be determined such as oceans, bays, and rivers and creeks close
using Table 3.8. to the coast. Tidal tailwater levels are subjected to
tide levels, storm surges and the rise in sea level
due to the greenhouse effect (refer Section 3.6.2).
A tailwater level is non-tidal when it discharges

into a water body that is not influenced by tides,
such as lakes, dams, basins, creeks and rivers
away from the coast. Non-tidal tail water levels
are independent of tide levels, storm surges and
greenhouse effect (refer Section 3.6.3).
3-28 June 2003

The hydraulic design of a bridge or culvert The absolute minimum survey requirements at a
requires the determination of the tailwater level road/bridge site are the times and levels for
just downstream of the structure outlet, even when successive low - high - low tides. Alternatively
it is not affected by a downstream storage or river. successive high - low - high tide information may
In such situations, provided the downstream be found. The more cycles measured the better.
channel is reasonably uniform, the tailwater level
is usually considered to be the normal depth of This information when compared with tide levels
flow in the stream. This is calculated using the at the mouth of the creek will allow experienced
Manning Formula (refer Sections 4.3.5 and 4.3.6). hydraulic engineers to predict approximate design
3
tides such as MHWS (mean high water springs)
and MLWS (mean low water springs) at the job
3.6.2 Tidal Waters site.
When designing tailwater levels for discharges 3.6.2.2 Storm Surge

into tidal waters, three factors may influence the
final design level: tide levels, storm surges, and A storm surge is the rise (or fall) of open coast
greenhouse effect. water levels relative to the normal water level and
is due to the action of wind stress and atmospheric
3.6.2.1 Tide Levels pressure on the water surface.
Annual tide tables published by the Department of Storm surges occur in major storms such as
Transport give predicted tide levels at various cyclones where there are low atmospheric
coastal locations in Queensland. pressures and the wind blows over reaches of the
ocean.
It is important to note that:
Some predicted surge heights by the James Cook
• the mean sea level given for the location may University of North Queensland (1977) are shown
be different to Australian Height Datum (AHD) in Table 3.12. The estimates are conditional and
which is the average mean sea level of 42 the notes for the table are important. The study
locations around Australia; also provides surge levels based on 50 year and
500 year cyclones.
• tide levels are given at or very close to the
coastline; and There is no correlation with tide levels, nor are
there any predictions for wave break setup and
• tide levels are often specified in terms of low wave runup on the land. These factors will need
water datum. consideration for any design with storm surge as a
factor.
It is very difficult to estimate the tide level at a
location in a stream some distance from the Storm surges would need to be considered with
coastline. The time for the tide to rise along the respect to coastal developments, the protection of
creek and to then flow back in the opposite coastal roads, route immunity for evacuation
direction is one factor. Another is the existence of purposes, and for major coastal drainage designs.
local sand bars or raised areas of the creek bed Local government may also have specific
closer to the mouth of the stream, which may requirements or data in relation to storm surge.
prevent a tide from reaching or falling below a
certain level at a particular road crossing.
Although precise tide levels are not usually

necessary at an upstream road or bridge crossing,
tide levels at the mouth of the tidal stream are not
sufficient to give tide design parameters at the
road or bridge.
June 2003 3-29

Table 3.12 Peak Surges from 100 Year Cyclones Appropriate tide levels for the design of long life
structures near the ocean are indicated in the
Region Peak Surge in 100 Year
(Location) Cyclone (m) following Sections 3.6.2.4 and 3.6.2.5.
Cooktown 0.70-1.10
Cairns (Casuarina Point) 0.80-1.85 3.6.2.4 Tidal Outlets (Ocean and
Innisfail (Flying Fish Point) 1.02-1.84 Bays)
Ingham (Crystal Creek) 1.50-3.04
Local government should be consulted for an
Townsville 2.23-3.32
appropriate design tailwater level for outlets to
3
Bowen 0.52-2.20
tidal waters in oceans and bays.
Mackay (Sarina Inlet) 2.02-3.24
Rockhampton (Emu Park) 2.12-2.80 Unless otherwise specified an appropriate level
Gold Coast (Surfers Paradise) 0.41-0.79 would be MHWS (mean high water springs) +
0.3m to allow for the greenhouse effect.
Notes:
1. These are upper bounds to tropical cyclone surge An allowance for storm surge should be added if
levels and cannot be interpreted in terms of
probability of occurrence of nominated surge required.
levels.
2 Three cyclones were tested for each location with 3.6.2.5 Tidal Outlets (Rivers and
approach directions, 0° (parallel), 75°, and 105° to
the defined coastline, giving the range of peak
Creeks)
surges shown.
The drainage outlet may be located in the tidal
reach of a river or creek.
3.6.2.3 The Greenhouse Effect As stated in Section 3.6.2.1, it is difficult to define

tide levels upstream of the mouth of a tidal creek
The greenhouse effect is a climatic phenomenon and measured tide levels at the site are required.
where part of the solar energy absorbed by the
earth and re-radiated is prevented from dissipating Also, an attempt should be made to calculate the
into space by the greenhouse gases in the effect of increase in tide levels at the site due to
troposphere. This results in a layer of warm air the greenhouse effect. Tidal effects will extend
surrounding the earth, which maintains higher further upstream. However, it is sufficiently
temperatures and evens out the extremes of accurate for calculations to be based on tidal
temperature between day and night. variations at the site, with the greenhouse effect
taken as a maximum of 0.3 m at the mouth of the
The man made gases that mainly contribute to this creek reducing with distance upstream.
effect include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous
oxide and chlorofluorocarbons. Natural Approximate tide levels upstream may be
greenhouse gases are water vapour, carbon calculated by comparing the tidal range in the
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone. upstream section to the tidal range in the ocean
outfall.
Major effects include possible increased summer
rainfall (from zero to 40% by the year 2070) Based on the tidal range/difference, MHWS -
throughout Australia, a southward movement of MLWS (mean high water springs - mean low
predominant summer rain and rise in sea level water springs), the following procedure is
(CSIRO, 1989). recommended to allow for the Greenhouse effect
at the upstream section of the tidal stream.
Sea levels could rise from 5 to 35 cm by 2030
(CSIRO, 1989). This range of possible rise in sea (1) Calculate the range MHWS - MLWS = x in
level by thermal expansion of the oceans is also the ocean outfall.
shown in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (1992).
3-30 June 2003

(2) Calculate the corresponding range, MHWS scouring downstream where required, but the
- MLWS = y at the upstream site. possibility of undermining by wave action and
longshore currents, morphological scour and
(3) Calculate the ratio, y/x. wave impact forces should be considered.
(4) Assume the rise in ocean level due to the Advice should be sought from the local
Greenhouse effect is 0.3 m. government and the Environmental Protection
Agency in regard to the local beach behaviour and
(5) Calculate the equivalent rise at the upstream
littoral processes.
site equal to 0.3 multiplied by y/x. Adopt
3
this rise as the Greenhouse effect at the site Flapgates (floodgates) will prevent the intrusion
for tidal flows. of saltwater upstream of the outlet and may help
to prevent siltation in the pipe system. The
3.6.2.6 Design Issues for Tidal flapgate should be fitted in a chamber just
Outlets upstream of the outlet to protect its operation from
vandalism, wave attack, debris and sand blockage.
This Section is based on Section 7.07 of the Special pipes are required if flapgates are to be
QUDM (Neville Jones and Associates and AWE, installed.
1993).
Areas of particular concern where work in tidal 3.6.3 Non-Tidal Waters

areas may need to comply with the requirements
of statutory authorities include: Non-tidal outlets include lakes, dams, ponds,
retardation basins, creeks or rivers and other open
• All areas below MHWS (mean high water
channels. Where the open channel being designed
spring);
has an outlet in this category, the tailwater at the
• Fish Habitat Reserves; outlet may be selected/calculated from whichever
of the following sections is appropriate.
• Tidal Wetland Reserves;
• National Parks; 3.6.3.1 Large Storage Areas
• State Marine Parks; It may be obvious that outlets into large storage
areas such as lakes and dams will not raise the
• Great Barrier Reef; water level of the storage to any significant
degree.
• Area controlled by a Port Authority; and
In this case, the storage level is taken as the
• Area controlled by a Waterway Authority.
tailwater level. This does not eliminate the need to
Tidal outlets should be sufficiently elevated to calculate the hydraulic grade line and critical
minimise the risk of sand blockage and to depth in culvert outflows.
facilitate inspection and maintenance of pipes.
3.6.3.2 Small Storage Areas
Although aesthetics may dictate that outlets be
located below low tide level, the invert level of For smaller storages there may be a significant
the outlet should preferably be somewhere rise in the water level in the storage prior to peak
between MLWS (mean low water spring) and flow in the open channel or culverts discharging
MSL (mean sea level). The obvert of the outlet into the storage.
should normally be below HAT (highest
astronomical tide). From the discharge hydrograph for the open
channel, the volume of water in the hydrograph
Not only should there be protection against prior to peak discharge should be calculated. This
June 2003 3-31

volume of outfall from the channel should be Then

added to that in the small storage and the new
water level calculated. This water level is the Qct = Qst + Qmt
tailwater level for the open channel.
where Qct is the combined discharge.
3.6.3.3 Open Channels Combination 2
The outfall may be into an open channel such as a For a given ARI, the peak discharge in the main
natural creek or river or a man made channel. channel, QmT, occurs at time T. Find the
3
corresponding discharge in the side channel, QsT,
For simplicity, say the open channel being
at time T for a storm of the same ARI as for the
designed is the side channel with discharge, Qs,
catchment for the main channel. For the Rational
and that it outfalls into a main channel with
Method for the side channel, use average rainfall
discharge, Qm.
intensity corresponding to time T.
As the two open channels have different
Then
catchment sizes, they will peak at different times.
The combined flow at their junction will give the QcT = QmT + QsT
tailwater level for the channel to be designed.
where QcT is the combined discharge.
The design tailwater should be that corresponding
to the higher of the following discharges: Adopt the higher of Qct or QcT to find the design
tailwater level at the junction (outfall).
(1) peak discharge in the side channel plus
corresponding discharge in the main
3.6.3.4 Protection of Non-Tidal
channel; or
Outlets
(2) peak discharge in the main channel plus
Particular attention should be paid to the
corresponding discharge in the side channel.
possibility of scour at non-tidal outlets of culverts
The method below assumes the same rainfall or open channels. Bridge abutments, for example,
storm on both catchments. have been badly scoured from the mixing and
turbulence from flows from different directions
Combination 1 and the channel discharging into the stream near
an abutment may even be a natural channel not
Assume that the peak discharge for the side considered in design.
(smaller) channel occurs at the time of
concentration for that catchment and the Rational Man made flow outlets have the same potential
Method is used, ie. the peak discharge in the side for erosion particularly if the bed level/soffit is
channel, Qst is obtained from a storm of duration, higher than the bed level of the stream into which
t, (for a time of concentration, tc, for the small it is discharging, or if the outlets are in an unstable
catchment). section of the stream. Liberal use of dumped rock,
rock mattresses or other scour protection is
For the same design average recurrence interval recommended.
(ARI) as for the small catchment, calculate the
hydrograph for the main channel. Find the To a lesser extent, outlets into ponds and lakes
corresponding discharge in the main channel, Qmt, have the potential to cause erosion.
at time, t, on the hydrograph. (A triangular shape
Floodgates which are normally only considered
hydrograph with the base length 2.7 times the
for outlets into tidal waters, may also be used in
time to peak may be adopted for some
non-tidal outlets to prevent back-flooding from
catchments).
the receiving waters and to control siltation from
the receiving waters.
3-32 June 2003

3.7 Fauna Passage If fauna pathways have been identified in the

study area, proceed to step 2. If not, document the
3.7.1 Introduction outcomes of the REF/ IAS review and continue
identifying other relevant drainage design criteria
Recognition of the impacts of road corridor using Chapter 3.
development on fauna populations has led to
modifications in the way that roads are now
designed.
3
In recent times, much research has been
undertaken on developing practices that help
facilitate fauna movement through the road
corridor in a way that minimises road mortalities.
Much of the research has focussed on passages
that are integral with drainage structures.
As such, the provision of fauna passage is one

of the key environmental factors which may
influence the physical dimensions of a drainage
structure. For this reason, it is considered a key Fauna corridor under bridge
drainage design criteria.
This chapter provides an overview of what steps Step 2 - Identify the Species Group
need to be taken when the project REF/IAS
process has identified a need for fauna passage to Where fauna pathways have been identified,
be incorporated into drainage design. identify the relevant species group from the list
below:
Completion of these steps may result in the
determination of additional design criteria which • macropods;
may then influence the selection of cross drainage
structures. • arboreal mammals;
Further reading on this topic is available in Fauna • ground dwelling mammals, reptiles and
Sensitive Road Design (Main Roads, 2000). amphibians;
• chiropteras (ie. bats);

3.7.2 Identifying Fauna Passage • ratites (eg. Cassowary); and/or
Criteria
• fish and other aquatic fauna.
The following steps should be undertaken when a
project REF/IAS has identified fauna passage Note: Whilst bats may not necessarily have fauna
passage requirements, any loss of habitat may result in
requirements. This should be undertaken by the the need for constructed habitat such as culverts or
District Environmental Officer. similar dark drainage areas.
Step 1 - Identify Terrestrial and Aquatic Fauna

Pathways
A review of the project REF/IAS should be

undertaken to check for the presence of any
significant terrestrial and/or aquatic fauna
movement pathways which could be potentially
affected by the proposal.
June 2003 3-33

• specific characteristics and needs of the species

(ie. movement patterns, habitat range);
• opportunities to facilitate safe passage of fauna

through the drainage system (ie. bridging
options, culvert modifications) (refer Table
3.14, the publication “Fauna Sensitive Road
Design” and to Section 4.2.2.3 of this Manual);
• the economic and engineering feasibility of
3 potential opportunities in consultation with the

Project Manager and Detailed Designer;
• the need for further preliminary design work

Rufous Bettong (ie. implications to cut and fill balance if a
different culvert size is required, revised
Step 3 - Consult with the Relevant Authority
dimensions, etc); and
The District Environmental Officer should
• specific design criteria for drainage structures
consult with the relevant authority (eg.
(ie. allowable flow velocity, minimum culvert
Environmental Protection Agency or local
height, etc).
Council) to further discuss the potential impacts
of the project on the known fauna species and its
movement patterns. The publication Fauna
Sensitive Road Design (Main Roads, 2000) 3.8 Ambient Conditions
should also be consulted.
3.8.1 Introduction
A listing of key authorities and relevant
legislation is provided in Table 3.13. Ambient conditions can play a significant role in
the determination of what type of drainage
Step 4 - Identify Criteria affecting Drainage
structure and/or controls may be adopted at a
Design
given location. Structures and controls that are
In consultation with the relevant authorities and appropriate in one part of the state may not be
from information provided in the REF/IAS (ie. suitable in other areas. This is also true for the
baseline fauna studies), determine the following: prevention of erosion.
Table 3.13 Key Environmental Authorities for Protection of Fauna
Species Type Relevant Authority Relevant Legislation

Macropods • Environmental Protection Agency • Environmental Protection Act 1994
• Nature Conservation Act 1992
• Nature Conservation (Wildlife)
Regulation 1994
Ground dwelling mammals, • Environmental Protection Agency • as above
reptiles and amphibians,
ratites, chiropteras
Fish and other aquatic • Department of Primary Industries • as above
fauna (Fisheries) • Fisheries Act 1976
• Sunfish
• Qld Fisheries Management Authority
3-34 June 2003

Table 3.14 Confirmed Use of Culverts or Underpass Types by Fauna
Fauna Type Small pipe Large pipe Small box Large box Bridge
<0.5m dia >0.5m dia culvert <1.2 m h culvert >1.2m h underpass
Small mammal 3 3 3 3 3
Medium mammal 3 3 3 7 3
Large mammal 7 3 7 3 3
Semi-arboreal mammal 7 7 7 3 3
Arboreal mammal 7 7 7 7 7
3
Microchiropteran bats 7 7 7 3 3
Reptile 7 3 7 3 3
Bird 3 7 7 3 3
Amphibian 3 7 3 3 3
Introduced predator 3 3 3 3 3
Source: Queensland Department of Main Roads, 2000.
Caution: This table is based on preliminary research only. Although not confirmed at the time, fauna should pass
through all the culverts larger than the minimum ones shown. Recommended minimum sizes for design are shown in
Section 4.2.2.3 of this Manual.
Five different types of ambient condition are success. Key considerations include soil structure
identified below. For each type, design and velocity of flow.
considerations have been provided to assist the
designer in selecting drainage controls Protection of the drainage asset may be required
appropriate for the conditions. where soils are highly mobile or erodible. That is,
if soils are mobile upstream and downstream of
Design considerations for different ambient the asset, emphasis on stabilisation of the asset
conditions (not identified here) will be added in may be required, rather than prevention of an
the future. existing phenomena.
Expansive soils are also present throughout arid

3.8.2 Specific Design Criteria regions. The Department of Main Roads
Technical Guideline WQ37 “Drainage Structures
on Expansive Soils in Western Queensland”
3.8.2.1 Arid Areas should be referenced. Options presented in this
guideline include:
Key drainage design criteria in arid areas must
focus on three issues. These are: • Replacement of foundation material where
expansive;
• A lack of reliable water;
• Use of short span bridges on piles; and
• Protection of the drainage asset; and
• Use of several banks of culverts across a
• Expansive soils. floodplain rather than a single large bank of
A lack of water will affect the ability to revegetate culverts.
an area. Hence, the retention of existing
vegetation is of paramount importance. The
establishment of new vegetation should only be
considered where there is a high probability of
June 2003 3-35

Other criteria for consideration in arid • Providing scour protection or energy

environments include: dissipation (where appropriate);
• Planning of the drainage system. For example, • Controlling runoff so as not to affect natural
where the provision of roadside drainage would stability; and
require the removal of remnant trees,
negotiations should be initiated with the • Limiting slope length.
neighbouring landholders to have the drainage
In addition, the potential for high rainfall
directed through their property and into a
(particularly in coastal regions) brings another set
3
storage dam or contour drain;
of issues for consideration, though this is
• Soil protection. This is very important given the generally covered in the rainfall erosivity section
dominance of erosive soils (eg. sodic soils) in of Chapter 2 of the manual, and in Section 3.5
arid areas. Existing groundcover must be (Hydrology).
subject to minimal disturbance;
3.8.2.3 Coastal Regions
• Outlets should be located in undisturbed areas,
or designed with appropriate erosion Coastal regions provide unique conditions and
protection. The concentration of flow onto hence require special considerations. Conditions
unprotected areas should be avoided; include regular inundation, a corrosive
environment and sandy soils (ie. soils with little
• Selection of revegetation species should focus cohesion). Coastal environments are also highly
on those types which establish and bind the sensitive to pollution.
soil, and which will grow without regular
watering; and Key criteria to consider in coastal environments
include ensuring that:
• Where revegetation is not possible, options
such as rock mulching may be required subject • Legal requirements with respect to the
to the availability of material on or close to the protection of marine environments (eg.
site. protection of fish habitats and marine plants)
are met;
3.8.2.2 Mountainous Terrain
• Natural flow systems (eg. tidal exchange) are
In mountainous terrain, the most common factor properly assessed and will therefore not be
influencing design is gradient. Issues for compromised;
consideration where topography is steep include:
• Corrosion resistant materials are used;
• Control of velocities in roadside drains;
• Potential Acid Sulphate Soils (typically below
• Limited room adjacent to the road; 5m AHD) are identified and managed
appropriately;
• Collection and discharge of water from the
upslope side of the road to the downslope side; • Designs allow for the presence of highly
erodible or mobile materials such as sand; and
• Prevention of erosion at outlets onto steep
areas; and • Consideration is given to directing drainage to
natural channels or swales rather than to hard
• Need for small scale drop structures, weirs or structures.
drop manholes.
Therefore, the key criteria to be aware of will

include:
3-36 June 2003

3.8.2.4 Areas of Inundation • Provision of adequate access for maintenance;
Locations subject to regular inundation require • Minimisation of ground disturbance during

careful consideration of how drainage construction as urban environments often have
infrastructure will operate under a range of water limited space for large control measures such as
levels. The presence of high and low water levels sediment basins; and
requires significantly different approaches.
• Consideration and control of afflux effects. In
When downstream water levels (also known as urban environments, there is often a
tailwater levels) are high, the hydraulic capacity requirement that negligible afflux be generated
of a structure may be limited.
When tailwater levels are low, high velocities can

upstream of the proposed drainage structure.
With respect to afflux, it is important that each
case is assessed fully in keeping with a risk
3
result, thereby maximising the potential for management approach.
erosion to occur.
It is therefore very important that both cases are 3.8.2.6 Rural Areas
considered during the design of drainage
infrastructure. Additional details are provided in Standard practices for the planning and design of
Section 3.9. road drainage should address most issues that will
arise in rural areas. Additional issues may include:
Regular inundation (ie. changing water levels) can
also accelerate the erosion process, through the • Awareness of local drainage plans;
saturation of banks, which may then fail as water • Ensuring crops will not be affected by an
levels reduce. increase in duration of inundation;
3.8.2.5 Urban Areas • Maintaining free drainage, and not causing

ponding of low flows; and
Urban areas often present many constraints that
need to be considered in the planning and design • Considering seasonal variations in hydraulic
of road drainage. Constraints may be present in roughness linked to changes in vegetation
the form of adjacent infrastructure (including cover.
housing) or a limit in available space. In addition,
local authorities may have prepared catchment or
stormwater management plans, which will affect 3.9 Selection of Drainage
the future management of stormwater and Infrastructure
watercourses in the area. Reference should be
made to such plans wherever they exist. 3.9.1 Introduction
Key criteria to consider in urban environments
This section provides guidance towards the
include:
application of hydraulic criteria with respect to
• Provision for higher peak flows arising from the selection of drainage measures and focuses on
uncontrolled upstream development (Most the selection process for cross drainage structures.
Councils now require flow increases to be
Information is also provided in relation to those
mitigated);
types of measures where a decision must be made
• Assessment of the requirements of any on the type of lining required. This is relevant for
catchment management plan or stormwater measures such as open channels, floodways, and
management plan prepared for the watercourse; bank protection.
• Need for pollution control measures;
June 2003 3-37

Finally, details are provided with respect to the 3.9.4 Culverts

incorporation of pollution controls into the
drainage system. 3.9.4.1 Culverts or Bridge
The selection of drainage infrastructure requires For the majority of designs, it will be obvious as
the user to follow a particular process, in order to to whether a bridge or culvert is required at a
ensure that all relevant criteria have been given location. This decision will be made on the
considered in making a selection. This process is basis of serviceability, existing bank height,
discussed in the following sections. potential for debris, and in some cases, the need to
3
allow for the passage of large fauna and on
whether the stream is active or not. In the case of
3.9.2 Factors Affecting an active stream, building a bridge will be easier
Selection of Drainage and will have less impact on the environment.
Infrastructure
In highly reactive or expansive soil conditions or
A summary of those factors used in selecting the where large differential settlements are expected
appropriate size and type of drainage structure is to occur, culverts should be limited to base slabs
provided below. Relevant factors include: not greater than 10 metres long. This may in some
instances lead to a decision to provide a bridge
• The desired level of serviceability or immunity structure, provided a clearance of at least 1.2
(this defines the relevant ARI); metres is available to the underside of the bridge
deck. Specialist advice should be sort in these
• Discharge (for the nominated recurrence
instances.
interval);
• Alignment of the road (influences the location 3.9.4.2 Culvert Size

of both longitudinal and cross drainage);
The size of culvert required will be dependent on
• Topography (including stream geometry); a range of criteria, as discussed previously in this
chapter. The choice of culvert size is heavily
• Allowable headwater levels (or afflux);
influenced by the permissible afflux (or headwater
• Soil types (potential for scour); level), the likely depth of flow, watercourse shape
(ie. channel or floodplain) and, in some cases, the
• Incidence and nature of debris (influences need to cater for fauna passage, pedestrian or
decisions relating to size and structural bikeway access, or cattle creeps.
configuration);
Additional details for sizing culverts are provided
• Environmental factors (as identified in the site in Section 4.2.2 of Chapter 4.
assessment and REF); and
• Provision for maintenance. 3.9.4.3 Culvert Type
The selection of culvert type is closely linked to

3.9.3 Drainage Decisions the determination of size, and hence both must be
considered jointly. In many cases, a number of
The following sections of the manual contain iterations will be required before culvert
specific advice in relation to the selection of dimensions can be finalised. For the preliminary
certain types of drainage structure. design phase of a project, initial size estimates can
be determined on the basis of permissible velocity
Descriptions provided in the section are supported and afflux/headwater level.
by Table 3.15, which is provided at the end of the
section.
3-38 June 2003

Table 3.15 Preliminary Selection of Drainage Infrastructure
Selection Issue Factors Decision
Culvert Type • waterway geometry Box culverts may be favoured:

• flat topography • where there is minimal available waterway area.
• fauna passage • where insufficient headroom or cover exists to allow pipes.
• for floodplains, or where depths of flow will be low.
• where a culvert is to be utilised for the passage of people or large
animals.
Culvert Location • road alignment • Desirable skew is 0° (ie. no skew).
3
• geomorphology • Skew of culvert should not be any more than 45°.
• Do not locate culverts on the bends of actively moving
watercourses.
Environmental • sensitive flora or fauna • Consider a bridge rather than culverts.

Sensitivity • permanent stream • Control pollutant runoff.
• Maintain a natural stream bed.
• Minimise disturbance of bed and banks.
• Control runoff during construction.
Need for • soil type • Where dispersive soils are present, a barrier must be
Channel Lining • limited available width placed between flowing water and the soil. The barrier can
• steep gradient consist of topsoil and vegetation, blankets, or a permanent
• velocity lining such as rock with filter cloth.
• Velocity reductions will often allow a cheaper or more natural
lining to be utilised. Velocity reductions may be achieved through
a flattening of channel gradient where there is sufficient room
available to compensate for the larger flow width. A flattening of
gradient can be achieved through the incorporation of check
dams, drop structures, or a change in alignment.
Type of Bank • soil types • Revegetation. Planting of riparian vegetation is favoured,

Protection • flow velocity but there must be a sufficiently high proportion of the bank
(where velocities covered to ensure stability during flows.
are considered • Erosion Mats. Long term stability will need to be addressed.
excessive) • Rock Riprap. Must be properly designed, to ensure diameter and
thickness of rock can cope with design velocity.
• Gabions. Can be used on steep banks, but can fail if water gets
between gabion and bank.
• Grout Mats. Flexible but will not provide good habitat.
• Concrete. Usually a last resort, and would normally only be
utilised where sustained high velocities are likely, and space is
constrained.
Use of Swales • space Swales may be used where:

(vs lined table • rainfall • There is sufficient space, and where grade is sufficient to prevent
drains or kerb & • water quality permanent ponding of water.
channel) • Regular rainfall or watering will occur.
• Water quality benefits are desired.
Need for Outlet • outlet velocities Outlet protection may be required where outlet velocities are
Protection • soil type sufficient to cause erosion. Management options include:
• erosion risk rating • reduce gradient;
• replace or cover dispersive soils;
• reduce velocities through dissipation (subject to safety
considerations);
• provide protection.
June 2003 3-39

In addition, ambient conditions can dictate the 5. Will the proposed type of longitudinal drainage
suitability of certain culvert types. For example, require regular maintenance?
in corrosive environments (eg. coastal regions),
some types of culverts will not be appropriate. Responses to the above questions will dictate the
(Refer Section 3.8.) feasibility of the available choices, as discussed
below.
Additional details for selecting culvert types are
provided in Section 4.2.2 of Chapter 4. 1. Steep gradients will allow narrower drainage
channels to be used, but can lead to high
velocities, which in turn may require linings
3 3.9.5 Bank Protection and

Linings
with higher resistance to erosion.
2. The flow width for any option must be

The choice of bank protection or channel lining compared to the available width for
(whether natural of artificial) is relevant to the longitudinal drainage. Flow width is dictated
design of open channels, chutes, floodways and by gradient, shape of the drainage path, and
swales. The decision as to which type of lining is Manning’s roughness of the flowpath.
the most appropriate for the site is dependent on 3. Where water quality improvement is required,
factors such as soil type, potential for vegetation use could be made of grass swales, rather than
growth, available space and velocity. an impervious lining. For grass swales to be a
Table 3.3 and Chapter 4 Tables 4.5 and 4.9 all viable option, there must be sufficient room to
provide indications of permissible velocities for cater for shallow flow (refer Section 4.6), and
different types of materials. the designer must consider issues relating to the
survival and maintenance of the proposed
vegetation (see below).
3.9.6 Longitudinal Drainage
4. In arid areas, it is often not practical to design a
Site constraints and design standards dictate that it flowpath that is reliant on the existence of
is not always possible to choose between vegetation to provide protection to soils. Only
alternative longitudinal drainage options such as vegetation suited to the climate of the region
kerb and channel, grassed swales, and lined or should be considered.
unlined table drains. 5. As with all types of drainage and pollution
In urban environments, kerb and channel has controls, a lack of maintenance will lead to
historically been favoured for most roads, though failure of the design. In those locations where
grassed channels are also common on divided maintenance may not be readily available, it
roads. may be necessary to propose a low
maintenance solution.
In rural areas, earth drains are more common.
In all cases, there is an increasing trend in urban
However, in some cases it will be possible to areas, to adopt a ‘water sensitive’ approach, to
choose between the above alternatives. When a drainage design.
choice is available, the designer will need to
consider the following questions:
3.9.7 Location
1. What is the gradient of the channel?
For major drainage infrastructure, such as culverts
2. What is the available flow width? or bridges, the location of a structure can have a
significant bearing on both environmental impacts
3. Is there a need to improve water quality?
and stability. This is also true of several other
4. Will vegetation survive in this area?
3-40 June 2003

types of drainage infrastructure, including open 3. Consider realignment of the creek away from
channels and drop structures. the proposed crossing.
Location should be a key design criteria in those Option 1 would be favoured wherever possible,
areas where: with Option 2 (and the use of a “soft” engineering
approach) another alternative. The use of “hard”
• the watercourse is not stable; solutions (eg. riprap lining) or creek realignment
is often not favoured, as changes to the creek at
• bed or bank erosion may result from the
one location will often transfer problems to other
presence of new infrastructure;
3
nearby locations.
• soils are highly erodible;
AUSTROADS (1994) provides additional
• the area has high environmental sensitivity; guidelines in relation to the siting of drainage
infrastructure. These guidelines, which will also
• bed slopes are steep; and minimise the potential for damage to the
infrastructure, are reproduced below.
• the face of a structure is not perpendicular to
the watercourse. To minimise environmental impacts the culverts
should be located:
Where potential problems have been identified, it
is important that: • Where satisfactory geological and soil
conditions exist;
(a) an alternative location or alignment is
identified; or • Away from reaches of highly unstable channel;
(b) appropriate protective measures are put in • Where possible adverse effects on other
place to prevent or mitigate the potential existing bridges and hydraulic structures can be
impacts. avoided;
Option (a) should be the first preference, but will • Where it is possible to minimise the hazards
not always be possible in areas where the from floods, landslide, cyclones, earthquake
alignment is fixed. and subsidence;
In those instances where a river or creek is • Where river banks are stable;
obviously active (eroding or accreting), a
geomorphic analysis may be required. • Where ecological impact is acceptable; and
Reference may also be made to Table 3.15. • Where aesthetic considerations are favourable.
Example:
3.9.8 Water Quality
A proposed new road will cross Sandy Creek at a
point where the creek has active bank erosion When water quality (pollution) control devices
owing to the existence of a meander. A series of are required as part of the road drainage system,
box culverts are proposed at this location. The additional considerations must be taken into
following courses of action could be considered: account.
1. Propose a local realignment of the road such For example, the hydraulics of the drainage
that the crossing of Sandy Creek will occur at a system may not be conducive to efficient pollutant
stable location; or removal, or conversely, the proposed pollution
control device may compromise the hydraulic
2. Stabilise the meander if constrained for space;
efficiency of the system.
or
June 2003 3-41

Questions that must therefore be addressed when

incorporating water quality controls into a
drainage system include:
• Does the device require a large hydraulic

headloss to operate?
• Will the device lead to upstream flooding in flat

areas?
3
• Is the gradient of the system too steep (resulting
in high velocities) to allow effective pollutant Wetland area
removal?
• Can the device be accessed for maintenance For a given project, the significance of pollutant
purposes? export will depend upon the relative sensitivity of
the receiving environment, the type and level of
Examples of design implications are offered vehicle use and climatic factors experienced in the
below: locality. The identification of appropriate
receiving water quality objectives from the
• Wetlands or sediment basins may not operate
REF/IAS can influence design criteria for the
effectively if subject to high velocities during
selection of appropriate drainage infrastructure to
flood events. A high flow bypass is often
maintain or enhance downstream waterways. This
required.
in turn may determine the need for pollution
• When trash racks are installed, provision must control.
be made for high headlosses associated with
An overview of the steps to be taken, when
blockage of the racks. In this case,
pollution control is required, is provided in the
consideration of the potential for flooding of
following section. Completion of these steps will
upstream property must also be assessed.
result in determination of additional design
• Pollution control devices placed in areas with criteria that will then influence the selection of
high tailwater levels may not operate, appropriate drainage infrastructure.
particularly where there is reliance on a floating
boom to trap litter.
3.10.2 Selection Process
Reference should also be made to Section 3.10.
The selection and implementation of stormwater
treatment measures involves six major steps.
These are:
3.10 Pollution Control
1. Ascertain environmental issues and water
3.10.1 Introduction quality objectives - Identify the sensitivity of
the receiving environment, appropriate water
A key environmental consideration in relation to quality objectives for the receiving waters and
road runoff is pollutant export and the resultant establish the key design criteria; (eg. to reduce
impact on water quality. Runoff from road the impact of sediments and heavy metals).
corridors has the potential to adversely effect the
water quality and aquatic biota of receiving 2. Identification of Pollutant Sources and
waters. Impacts may be short or long term. Estimation of Pollutant Loads - Identify
pollutant sources and determine pollutant loads
from the road corridor to resolve the type and
amount of pollutant to be removed (if any).
3-42 June 2003

3. Identify pollutant transport processes - The updated guidelines published in 2001 provide
Identify pollutant transport mechanisms to water quality trigger values for slightly disturbed
assist in identifying appropriate capture and Australian ecosystems, as a function of the
control devices. ecosystem location and the ecosystem type. If a
pollutant concentration exceeds its trigger value,
4. Assess potential pollutant control devices - it will have the potential to cause environmental
Identify all applicable treatments on the basis harm, and a management response will be set off,
of key site selection criteria. Each stormwater or “triggered”. Table 3.16 provides examples of
treatment measure can be accepted or rejected water quality trigger values for typical pollutants
3
on the basis of each screening criteria. (nutrients, suspended solids and salts) for various
locations within Australia and various types of
5. Assess potential pollutant removal - Compare
slightly disturbed ecosystems.
all potential treatments on the basis of
achieving key treatment objectives. Step 2 - Identify Pollutants and Pollutant
Loads
6. Optimise Potential Treatments - Identify and
evaluate tradeoffs between desired treatment Common sources of pollutants in road runoff that
objectives and key site selection criteria. may adversely effect the downstream
Determine the most appropriate stormwater environment have been identified in the
treatment method(s) for achieving objectives. California Storm Water Best Management
Practice Handbook (CDM, 1993). Table 3.17 has
Step 1 - Identify Environmental Issues and
been adapted from this reference to represent
Water Quality Objectives
typical pollutant loads from road corridors.
From the REF/IAS the sensitivity of the receiving
A review of the project REF/IAS should be
environment and the potential impact of the road
undertaken to identify relevant runoff pollutants
corridor will have been identified.
from the project corridor.
Traffic volumes and heavy vehicle content will
Road pollutant loads can be estimated by:
have been identified in the planning report. This
information, in conjunction with the water quality • analysis of data from a good storm-event
requirements documented within the EMP monitoring program;
(Planning), will assist in identifying and selecting • simple computations; and
appropriate key water quality objectives and
design criteria. These may include objectives such • an appropriate water quality model.
as:
The method selected will depend on the
• capture of gross pollutants upstream of a management objective and data availability.
sensitive waterbody; and Average long-term pollutant loads can be
estimated from rainfall data and from simple
• discharges from sediment basin to achieve information about the catchment and road
ANZECC water quality levels owing to the corridor. These estimates provide an indication of
sensitivity of downstream aquatic ecology. the long-term inputs.
Most environmental protection agencies tend to Typical errors in estimating long term pollutant
rely on the Australian Water Quality Guidelines loads are as follows:
for Freshwater and Marine Waters (ANZECC,
• no monitoring - 100 to more than 1,000
2001) developed by the Australian and New
percent;
Zealand Environment and Conservation Council.
These guidelines generally are used as the default • some periodic monitoring - 50 to more than 500
framework for setting water policy objectives for percent; and
managing water resources on a sustainable basis. • detailed event monitoring - 20 to 100 percent.
June 2003 3-43

Table 3.16 Examples of water quality trigger values for typical pollutants (nutrients, suspended solids and
salts) for various locations within Australia and various types of slightly disturbed ecosystems
Pollutants
Location and TN TP Turbidity Salinity
Ecosystem Type (µg/l) (µg/l) (NTU) (µS/cm)
South East Australia
Upland river 250 20 2-25 30-350
Lowland river 500 50 6-50 125-2200
3
Freshwater lakes and reservoirs 350 10 1-20 20-30
Wetlands no data no data no data no data
Estuaries 300 30 0.5-10 n/a
Marine 120 25 0.5-10 n/a
Tropical Australia
Upland river 150 10 2-15 20-250
Lowland river 200-300 10 2-15 20-250
Wetlands 350-1200 10-50 2-200 90-900
Estuaries 250 20 1-20 n/a
Marine 100 10-15 1-20 n/a
South West Australia
Upland river 450 20 10-20 120-300
Lowland river 1200 65 10-20 120-300
Wetlands 1500 60 10-100 300-1500
Estuaries 750 30 1-2 n/a
Marine 230 20 1-2 n/a
South Central Australia
Upland river no data no data 1-50 100-5000
Lowland river 1000 100 1-50 100-5001
Wetlands no data no data no data no data
Estuaries 1000 100 0.5-10 n/a
Marine 1000 100 0.5-10 n/a
TN = Total Nitrogen
TP = Total Phosphorus
NTU = Notional Turbidity Units
µS/cm = Conductivity of water in micro siemens per centimetre
3-44 June 2003

Table 3.17 Common Sources of Pollutants in Road • characterising peak, mean and average annual
Runoff (Chiew et al, 1997) pollutant loads;
Pollutant Sources
• determining seasonal and spatial
Sediment/ Bitumen wear, vehicles
Particulates
characteristics;
Nutrients Roadside fertiliser and herbicide
• study land use change;
Bacteria and Source not common
Viruses • provide inputs to water quality management
Oxygen Demand Road litter, organic debris models.
3
Oil and Grease Lubricants and motor fluids (spills,
leaks etc) However, in the absence of reliable data, water
Heavy Metals Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, Fe, Cd, Ni, Mn - quality models are potentially no better than
emissions, lubricants, corrosion, estimates calculated using simple analysis
wear of tyres (filler), bearings,
brakes, asphalt, clutch. techniques.
Toxic Materials Fuels, herbicides, pesticides, fuel
combustion
Drapper (2001) has evaluated the FHWA
Floatables Gross Pollutants (eg. paper,
prediction model from the USA and has
plastics, bottles) disregarded the use as a tool for predicting runoff
pollutant concentrations. A prediction program is
currently being developed that may assist in
determining appropriate pollutant loads.
Event Based Monitoring
Step 3 - Identify Pollutant Transport
Event mean concentration (EMC) can be
Mechanism
estimated by monitoring pollutant concentration
and discharge over a storm event. EMC within The determination of additional design criteria to
one catchment can however differ significantly enhance or maintain the downstream water
from storm to storm. The EMC depends on quality will require the knowledge of relevant
catchment and climate characteristics, and can pollutant transport mechanisms.
vary by more than one order of magnitude
between catchments. A good event-monitoring Pollutant runoff from a roadway will be generally
program is essential where accurate estimates of transported by the roadway drainage
pollutant loads are required. infrastructure and will concentrate in gutters,
pipes and channels. The pollutants associated with
Simple Computations the stormwater runoff will be transported as
coarse or bottom sediments, suspended particles
In absence of reliable field data, the range of
or in solution. The rate of pollutant transport is
values presented by Mudgway (1997), Drapper
dependent on water velocity, depth and the degree
(2001) and McRobert (1997) can be used as a
of turbulence.
guide to calculate approximate estimates of
pollutant loads. Fine particulates and dissolved pollutants can
become attached to sediments, or flocculate to
The average long-term pollutant load of an area
form larger particles. Most of the pollutants in
can be estimated using:
sediments are found attached to smaller particles
pollutant load = runoff × EMC owing to their greater surface area relative to
larger particles. Pollutants attached to fine
where EMC = event mean concentration. particles are easily transported because small
Water Quality Modelling flows (and hence low velocities) are sufficient to
mobilise and keep them in suspension.
Computer models may be used to estimate runoff
quantity and quality from a road corridor to Heavy metals from motor vehicles either directly
provide estimates for: fall onto road surfaces or become entrained in air
June 2003 3-45

flows and deposited some distance away achieve the appropriate water quality objectives.
depending on their particle size. Particulate The treatment measures may include primary,
material on the road surface such as bituminous secondary and tertiary treatment measures using
products, rubber from tyre wear and particles an ‘outlet’ or ‘distributed approach’.
coated with oils, actively absorb heavy metals.
The particulates and the associated heavy metals The outlet approach involves a single treatment
temporarily bind themselves to the road surface at the road corridor catchment outlet that
until they are transported by rainfall runoff events. discharges directly into the downstream
environment. The distributed approach requires
3
Heavy metals contained in road runoff will be a number of smaller and potentially different
distributed in either bound or soluble forms. treatments throughout the road corridor catchment
Chromium, iron nickel, lead and hydrocarbons are before discharge to the downstream environment.
predominantly absorbed to particulate matter
providing an opportunity for removal by The selection of the treatment controls for a road
deposition of sediments. Cadmium, copper and corridor catchment under consideration will
zinc appear at higher percentages in the soluble depend on a wide range of key selection criteria to
phase and thus are required to be removed by enable achievement of the water quality objective.
storage and/or uptake by aquatic biota. (Peterson
The selection of the most appropriate stormwater
and Batley, 1992).
treatment methods should be assessed against a
Step 4 - Identify Required Pollutant Treatment number of key selection criteria (eg. catchment
Processes area, slope etc). Common key site and operation
selection criteria are defined as follows:
Stormwater quality improvement measures rely
on a range of mechanisms for reducing pollutant • Slope: Treatment devices that do not store flow
levels within stormwater. The mechanisms may require small velocities and hence gentle
employed may be either or a combination of slopes;
physical, chemical or biological process and their
• Hydraulic Head: Head losses in treatment
effectiveness may be dependent on the site
devices can exert a minor to large impact upon
conditions and stormwater characteristics.
the hydraulic grade line. As a result head losses
Stormwater improvement devices can be grouped
from a treatment device may adversely impact
into three different categories based on their
upon upstream flood levels particularly when
dominant treatment processes. These categories
retrofitting a device into an area;
are:
• Soil Type: Differing treatment devices may be
Primary Treatment - Physical screening or rapid
reliant upon either infiltration or storage of
sedimentation techniques (eg. typically retained
stormwater runoff. For instance, stormwater
contaminants include gross pollutants and course
infiltration will yield better results on highly
sediments).
permeable soils, whilst the storage of
Secondary Treatment - Sedimentation of finer stormwater will require soils with very low
particles and filtration/chemical techniques (eg. permeability.
Typically retained contaminants consist of fine
• Land Availability: The availability of
particles and attached pollutants).
sufficient appropriate land within a sub-
Tertiary Treatment - Enhanced sedimentation and catchment that can be used for a treatment
filtration, biological up-take adsorption onto device may be restricted, thereby reducing the
sediments (eg. typically retained contaminants are size and effectiveness of the device;
nutrients and heavy metals) (Vic EPA, 1998).
• Habitat Enhancement: Treatment devices that
In many circumstances a combination of are able to offer either a wildlife and/or aquatic
treatment mechanisms is required to optimise and habitat enhancement may improve aesthetics;
3-46 June 2003

• Water Table: A high water table depth may achieved by comparing all potential treatments as
reduce the effectiveness for a treatment device follows:
relying on infiltration;
1. Determine the pollutant removal of each short-
• Safety Hazard: Treatment devices may listed control device based on relevant
introduce new safety hazards that may have not performance data or Tables 3.19 to 3.21 (eg.
been present before installation; target 90% reduction of Pb through pollutant
control device).
• Water Supply: Treatment devices such as
wetlands or ponds may require a permanent 2. Determine the area of the catchment for which
water supply to ensure the long term
effectiveness of the device;
the device(s) can treat runoff.
3. Factor the mean removal rate of each pollutant

3
• Pests: Treatment devices such as wetlands or parameter by the ratio of area treatable by the
ponds may increase the potential for nuisance device to total catchment area. ie. if a pollution
from pests such as mosquitos and weeds; and control device has a 60% removal efficiency
and will treat 50% of the catchment area then
• Maintenance: Treatment devices will vary the overall pollutant removal efficiency will be
significantly with regard to their maintenance 30%.
cost, accessibility, equipment and scheduling to
ensure the desired effectiveness is consistently Step 7 - Optimise Potential Treatments
maintained.
Determine the most appropriate stormwater
Step 5 - Assess Potential Pollutant Control treatment control devices(s) for achieving key
Devices performance objectives. Repeat steps 4 and 5 until
an appropriate system of treatment control
Assess each potential pollutant control device to devices has been proposed that will achieve the
meet key site conditions. Each pollutant control corresponding performance objective. Identify
device can be accepted or rejected on the basis of and evaluate tradeoffs between desired treatment
screening criteria to provide a short-list. Table objectives and key site selection criteria to
3.18 provides the suitability of common treatment optimise the use of treatment control devices.
control devices based on common key site
selection criteria.
Trash Rack and Pollutants
Step 6 - Assess Potential Pollutant Removal
Conduct final selection of potential pollutant

control devices on the basis of achieving key
treatment objectives. The final screening can be
June 2003 3-47

Table 3.18 Site and Operation Selection Criteria Associated with Treatment Device
Pollutant Area Slope Head Soil Capital Maintenance General

Control Served Require- Type Costs Cost Configuration
Device (ha) ments
Oil Grit <1 Note 1 Low NA Moderate Moderate

Separators
Open Gross >2 Note 1 High NA High Moderate-

Pollutant Trap <40 High
3
Closed Gross <15 Low NA High Moderate
Pollutant Traps
Trash Rack <20 Note 1 Low- NA Moderate Low-

40 Moderate Moderate
Downwardly Note 1 High NA Moderate- Low-

inclined Screen High Moderate
Extended >5 Note 1 Low All High Moderate- Outlet structures

Detention High include weirs or
outlet pipes. Energy
dissipater at both
basin inlet and outlet
to control velocities.
Sand Filter <2 Note 1 High Generally High Moderate- Min filtration depth of
can be housed in High 400mm dependent
designed concrete on recommended
larger filtration time. Energy
dissipater at inlet.
Filter Strips <2 Note 1 Low All Moderate Low Requires

Considerable Land.
Length of strip
generally>6m.
Buffer Zones Note 1 Low All Moderate Low
Grassed <2 <5% Low Sand to Moderate Low Recommended min

Swales clay loam length of 30m.
feasible Bottom width
Can be used between 0.6m to
in clay 2.5m recommended.
Constructed Note 1 Low- Loam to High Moderate

wetlands Moderate clay
Feasible in
sand to
sandy loam
Water quality >5 Note 1 Low- High Moderate

Ponds Moderate
Note:
1. From 0 - 5% slope preferred but the range can be extended beyond 5%. Buffer zones should only be extended
beyond 5% with careful design.
3-48 June 2003

Table 3.19 Pollutant Removal Performance of Typical Primary Treatment Devices
Treatment Pollutant Removal Efficiency (%)

Control Coarse Fine Phosphorous Nitrogen Oil & Bacteria Litter
Sediment Sediment TP TN Grease
Oil Grit 50-75 10-50 0-10 0-10 50-75 0-10 10-50
Separators
Gross 60-100 20-30 20 20 10-20 0-10 50-75
Pollutant Trap
Trash Rack 10-50 0-10 0-10 0-10 0-10 0-10 10-50
3
Derived from: NSW EPA (1997) and Mudgeway et al (1997).
Table 3.20 Pollutant Removal Performance of Typical Secondary Treatment Devices
Pollutant Removal Efficiency (%)

Treatment SS Phosphorous Nitrogen Pb Zn Cu Cd Fe BOD COD Bacteria Sample
Control Size
TP org.P sol.P TN org.N sol.N
Extended 50-75 10-66 10-35 70-90 24-62 20-41 50-90 6

Detention 64 18 19 83 45 30 70 studies
Sand 60-90 35-80 40-70 -110-0 65-90 10-80 20-60 60-80 35-70 3
Filter 80 57 55 <0 74 53 40 70 53 studies
Filter 5-95 50-79 50-73 10

Strips 74 66 62 62 studies
Buffer 100 95 1
Strips study
Grassed 4-25 8-24 -4-11 -4-13 -5-22 0-91 34-90 14-60 20-50 3-67 7
Swales 80 15 16 4 5 9 80 70 50 29 35 25 studies
Legend: SS = Suspended Solids.

Shading denotes median value.
From Mudgeway et al (1997).
Table 3.21 Pollutant Removal Performance of Typical Tertiary Treatment Devices
Pollutant Removal Efficiency (%)

Treatment SS Phosphorous Nitrogen Pb Zn Cu Cd Fe BOD COD Bacteria Sample
Control Size
TP org.P sol.P TN org.N sol.N
Constructed 40-98 -33-97 0-75 -9-43 13-90 6-94 -29-97 40-99 33-99 12-62 18-34 28
Wetlands 81 50 59 25 32 50 72 50 66 66 37 26 studies
Water 39-98 0-80 70-80 30-85 14-20 24-60 9-95 0-71 0-69 20-70 90-95 13
Quality 69 51 20 75 60 17 42 68 51 40 17 44 30 93 studies
Ponds
Legend: SS = Suspended Solids.

Shading denotes median value.
From Mudgeway et al (1997).
June 2003 3-49

3.11 Erosion and Sediment • proposed changes to the site topography for
Control each stage of the project including extent of cut
and fill batters;
3.11.1 Introduction • a map of existing vegetation identifying areas
to be retained;
This section provides the user with guidance and
tools to facilitate the selection of appropriate • details of areas of cleared land at each stage of
erosion and sediment control measures. Reference the development, and the period of time that
to soil types and erosion risk from Chapter 2 will each area will be exposed for;
3 be required.
The primary tool to be used is a selection matrix

• calculation of stormwater flows within micro-
catchments within the site, for each stage of the
showing the types of permanent and temporary project; and
controls that can be used to minimise damage to
the environment during runoff events. • nature and location of works that will occur in
close proximity to natural waterways or other
The matrix may be used to provide a preliminary sensitive environmental areas (eg. wetlands).
indication of which controls will be most suitable
for a given location, in accordance with the results
of the site and erosion risk assessments. 3.11.3 Select Design Standard
Detailed design can then be undertaken using the In many cases, erosion and sediment controls are
respective guidelines provided in Chapters 4 and not designed to a specific standard. Instead, they
5. are located on site in keeping with the size of the
contributing catchment, available materials, the
physical constraints of the site and a maintenance
3.11.2 Review of Data schedule.
The need for erosion and sediment control will However, in particular circumstances, such as
have been identified in the REF/IAS and when a site is considered highly erodible, or when
subsequent erosion risk assessment process works are being proposed in an area of high
outlined in Chapter 2. The information which environmental sensitivity, a specific design
should be available will include details of areas of standard may be required.
the environment considered vulnerable to
environmental harm and information pertaining to Factors dictating the required standard will
the nature of potential erosion and sedimentation include:
related impacts.
• erosion risk rating;
Depending on the scale of the project, required
• environmental sensitivity; and
input from Chapter 2 and the project REF/IAS
should include: • duration of construction.
• a map of soil types and their erosion potential; Selection of the appropriate design standard can
be made by:
• an erosion risk rating for specific areas within
the site; • referring to Table 3.22, or
• climate and stream flows;
• topography and natural geographical features

(eg. is the site within a floodplain);
3-50 June 2003

Table 3.22 Suggested Design Average Recurrence Intervals for Various Erosion and Sediment Control
Measures on Construction Sites (Hunt, 1992)
Estimated Design Life (during construction phase)

Design ARI (years)
Control Measure 0 - 12 mths 12 - 48 mths > 48 mths
Diversion Bank 1-10 10-20 *
Level Spreader 1-10 10-50 *
Waterway 1-10 10-50 *
Sediment Basin
3
• primary outlet 1-5 5-10 *
• emergency outlet 10-20 20-100 *
Sediment Trap 1-5 5-20 *
Outlet Protection 1-20 20-100 *
Grade Stabilising Structure 1-20 20-100 *
Detention Basin
• primary outlet 1-5 5-10 *
• emergency outlet 10-20 20-100 *
* Full design required in accordance with Major/Minor concept (see ARR, 1987 - Section 14.5).
• use of the following equation (Hunt 1992). It should be noted, however, that this tool is a
guide only and the most appropriate control
L measures may not be fully identified until
ARI = construction commences and measures are
[-ln (1 - P)]
implemented.
where:
The user should identify each of the following for
ARI = design average recurrence interval (yr) the project site:
L = design life (yr) • erodibility rating/soil type;
P = acceptable probability of exceedance • areas of suitability;

(fraction)
• flow type; and
ln denotes natural logarithm
• life of control.
For selection of a design standard for sediment
With an indication of the measures most suitable
basins, reference should be made to Section 4.7 of
for the site conditions, detailed design may then
the manual.
proceed.
3.11.4 Select Controls 3.11.4.2 Erodibility Rating/Soil Type
3.11.4.1 Introduction Erodibility ratings and general soil types of the

project site should have been determined during
A selection matrix has been prepared to assist the the Chapter 2 site assessment process. These
designer in selecting erosion and sediment should be reviewed as well as soil/erodibility
controls appropriate to the environmental maps for the site.
conditions of the site and the proposed
construction program.
June 2003 3-51

A review of this information will provide the user post construction. They often require formal
with an understanding of the major soil types and design (refer Chapter 4) and are normally more
erodibility of the site and thus application to the costly.
selection matrix.
Maintenance of all temporary and permanent
measures is required to ensure they function to
3.11.4.3 Areas of Suitability maximum capability.
A description of the different types of
environments that can affect the selection of In many cases, the most effective (and
3
erosion and sediment control measures was practical) approach will involve the siting
provided in Section 3.8, Ambient Conditions. and design of temporary controls to allow
conversion to a permanent measure. This
The user should assess the control measures
should be investigated as part of the design
against the constraints imposed by the
process for all permanent measures.
surrounding environment to gain an
understanding of the most suitable measures for
the site conditions.
3.11.4.6 Hierarchy of Measures and

3.11.4.4 Flow Type Selection Table
The type of flow present will influence both the Erosion and sediment control measures listed in
potential for erosion and the type of measure to Table 3.23 have been grouped into four
prevent erosion. categories. These are:
Sheet flow occurs as a relatively uniform depth of • drainage control;
water in the form of a surface ‘sheet’. This type of
flow is often characteristic of flat to gently • velocity control;
sloping sites where flow would not tend to
concentrate. • erosion control; and
Concentrated flow occurs where depressions are • sediment control.

eroded and flow concentrates. It often forms after
Where practical, the selection of controls should
sheet flow has travelled some distance. Steep sites
focus primarily on prevention (ie. control of
will tend to feature concentrated flow at most
drainage, velocity and erosion) prior to
locations.
consideration of sediment controls.
3.11.4.5 Life of Controls
Erosion and sediment control measures may be 3.12 Design References

temporary or permanent. The selection of controls
Additional design information may be obtained
will therefore be dependent on site conditions,
from IEAust Australian Rainfall and Runoff
duration of construction and available materials.
(1987), QUDM(1993), Department of Main
Temporary measures are often designed, Roads Hydraulics Training Course (1996),
implemented and maintained during construction. EPANSW Treatment Techniques (1997),
They provide temporary protection whilst the site Mudgeway et al. (1997).
is exposed to erosive elements, until more
permanent protection is constructed.
Permanent measures provide permanent drainage,

velocity, erosion and/or sedimentation control
3-52 June 2003

Table 3.23 Erosion and Sediment Control - Summary Matrix
Control Type Inundated Coastal Arid Mountainous (1) Concentrated Flow Sheet Flow Permanent Temporary
June 2003
Drainage Control
Catch Drains 3 3 3 3 3 3
Diversion Channels 3 (2) 3 3 3 ?
Chutes 3 3 3 3 3 3 ?
Drop Pipes 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Unlined (earth) Channels 3 3 3 3
Road Drainage Design Manual
Lined Channels 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Grass Channels 3 3 3 3 3
Velocity Control
Check Dams 3 3 3 3 3
Drop Structure 3 3 3 3 3 3
Erosion Control
Chemical Surface Stabilisers (3) 3 3 3 3
Erosion Control Blankets 3 3 3 3 3
Mulching 3 3 (4) 3 3
Outlet Protection 3 3 3 3 3
Revegetation 3 3 3 3 3 3
Surface Roughening 3 3 3 3 3
Sediment Control
Buffer Zones 3 3 3 ? 3 3 3
Grassed Filter Strips 3 3 3 3 3
Construction Exits 3 3 3 3
Sediment Fences 3 3 3 3 3
Rock Sediment Trap 3 3 3 ? 3 3 3
Sediment Basins 3 3 3 (5) 3 3 3
Sediment Weirs 3 3 3 3 3 3
Portable Sediment Tanks 3 3 3 3 3 3
Drop/Pipe Inlet Protection 3 3 3 3 3
(1) All control measures, when installed in mountainous areas, might require linings where soils are exposed - Refer to appropriate Fact Sheet in Chapter 5.
(2) Diversion may not be beneficial in large expanses of arid land.
(3) Potential for pollutant generation in runoff to be investigated.
(4) Not suitable in steep areas without application of a binder, if at all.
(5) Dependent on available room and gradient.
? Requires more investigation, refer to Fact Sheet in Chapter 5.
3-53
Chapter 3: Hydrology and Design Criteria
3
Appendix 3A: 2. Where there are significant natural or man

Computer Models made storage areas.
3. Where there are complex flooding patterns.
3A.1 Introduction 4. Where a proposed road may lead to the creation

of higher water levels on the upstream side of
Computer models are extensively used in all areas the roadway, and in particular where existing
of hydrology and hydraulics. These models have property is considered flood prone.
3
the capacity to allow the design or assessment of
5. For significant pipe systems.
complex systems in a much shorter time than
manual methods. Areas for which mathematical
models are routinely used include: 3A.3 Responsibilities of the
• the estimation of design rainfall; Project Manager
• the estimation of discharge; The use of models for the above types of projects
usually requires significant time at a computer,
• the sizing and assessment of culverts; and therefore the work is often carried out by
junior staff. Because the nature of many programs
• the design and assessment of pipe networks;
makes it more difficult for a reviewer/checker to
• the design and assessment of open channels; pick up errors than if a manual analysis had been
made, the use of computer programs therefore
• the estimation of afflux; brings enhanced responsibilities to the designer,
the reviewer/checker, and the technical
• prediction of flood heights; and supervisor. The term project manager below
includes the checker/reviewer.
• assessment of the impacts or capacity of
proposed hydraulic structures. Some of these responsibilities are discussed
below. Project managers must:
3A.2 When to Use Computer • Ensure that the use of the computer model is
Models appropriate and within the limitations of the
model;
For many road projects which are small in scope,
the use of mathematical models will not be • Ensure that the user has a knowledge of the
required. Manual methods (such as the Rational basic theory and especially how each parameter
Method - refer Section 3.5.3) are available for the is selected or calculated; and
prediction of design discharges, and culvert
nomographs may be used to size cross drainage • Ensure that an adequate check is made of the
structures. It should be recognised however that use of the program and that the final results are
environmental issues should also be considered acceptable. This may involve review of the
when determining the size of cross drainage input data, comparison with other results and
structures. perhaps, approximate manual calculations.
When projects become large in scale, computer

models are often considered essential. 3A.4 Responsibilities of the
Circumstances where a model is recommended Designer
include the following:
Designers for whom mathematical modelling is
1. Where a bridge is proposed in larger being undertaken must:
catchments requiring more sophisticated
methodology.
3-54 June 2003

• Ensure that the theoretical basis and limitations • Flood level hydrographs (ie. 1D, 2D, & 3D
of the program are known and that such hydrodynamic models);
limitations are not exceeded;
• Sediment transport processes;
• Ensure the program is calibrated against known
flood data whenever possible; • Pollutant export; and
• Check the input data progressively as it is put • Water quality.

into the computer program in the knowledge
that it would be very difficult and time
consuming for a checker/reviewer to find a
single error in perhaps, hundreds or thousands
of numbers put into the program;
3
• Be fully aware that a single error could give an
erroneous answer to a design or a number of
designs in an iterative process;
• Ensure that it is clear how a parameter was

selected or calculated even if it is necessary to
put this data on a separate design sheet; and
• Summarise key findings and results so that

such data can readily be placed in a formal
report, if required or not.
3A.5 Computer Programs
A significant number of different computer

programs are available to assist in the assessment
of all aspects of hydrology and hydraulics.
In all instances, computer software should only be

used by those who are suitably qualified and
supervised, as the inappropriate use of software
can lead to poor design.
Models may be divided into a number of different

categories. These include models capable of
analysing or predicting:
• Rainfall (IFD data);
• Flood frequency;
• Hydrology (runoff-routing);
• Stormwater pipe networks (HGL);
• Culverts;
• Backwater;
June 2003 3-55

Appendix 3B: Checklist
Design Criteria CHECKLIST
District:
Project Name:
3 Contract/Project Number:
ü Conforms, no action required
û Non Conformance, requires action
N/A Not applicable
Preliminary Design Criteria
Item Check Action Required

Has initial site planning considered the
drainage layout within the road environment
and the external environment?
Has the project REF/IAS been reviewed and
the key environmental influences affecting
drainage design identified?
Has Form M2290 Road Infrastructure –
Project Proposal, been reviewed and
relevant factors influencing drainage design
identified?
Design Standards

What requirements have dictated the design
standard?
Has an Annual Recurrence Interval (ARI)
been specified and/or is it influenced by
standards of existing infrastructure?
Hydraulic Criteria

Has the design discharge been calculated for
each proposed drainage structure?
Do the combined set of drainage structures
cater for flow from the entire catchment?
Have velocity criteria been specified in terms
of existing, desirable, or maximum
permissible velocities?
Do the calculated velocities comply with the
criteria specified above?
3-56 June 2003

Are culverts flowing full or part full at the

outlet? Have velocities been determined
accordingly?
Has the potential for erosion due to velocity
been determined?
Has the impact of cross drainage structures
on flood levels (afflux) been quantified?
Has the afflux been compared with
acceptable afflux limits set out by the local
authority design standards?
3
Have watercourse stability, preservation of
flora and fauna, and protection of existing
infrastructure from flood damage been
considered?
Hydrology

Has Form F2759 Field Report – Bridge
Waterways been used in relation to the
collection of flood data?
• For urban catchment, has the Average
Recurrence Interval (ARI) been set for both
the minor and major drainage systems?
• For rural catchment, has the Average
Recurrence Interval (ARI) been set in
accordance with the required flood immunity
and available funds?
Has the Rainfall Intensity-Frequency-
Duration (IFD) data been calculated using
Australian Rainfall and Runoff (IEAust,
1987)?
Has the catchment area been determined
and checked by site inspection?
Has the coefficient of runoff been set
according to the characteristics of the
catchment?
Has the method for calculating the time of
concentration been chosen in accordance
with the catchment characteristics?
Has the design discharge been calculated by
Rational or other method (specify)?
Tailwater Levels

Is the tailwater level tidal or non-tidal?
For outfalls to tidal waters, does the local
authority have any storm surge prediction?
Have tide levels been measured at the point
of interest?
Has an allowance for the greenhouse effect
been added?
Has an allowance for storm surge been
added?
June 2003 3-57

If tidal, is the area protected and does it need

to comply with the requirements of statutory
authorities?
For outfalls to non-tidal waters, has the
possibility of scour at the outlets of culverts
or open channels been minimised?
3
Fauna Passage

Has the identification and assessment of
fauna passage criteria been undertaken by
the District Environmental Officer?
Has the project REF/IAS been reviewed to
identify whether there is a need for fauna
passage to be incorporated in to the project
design?
Have fauna pathways been identified in the
REF/IAS?
Have the relevant species group(s) been
identified?
Has the District Environmental Officer liaised
with the relevant local or state authority to
discuss the potential impacts of the project
on fauna and management strategies?
Has the Project Manager/Detailed Designer
been consulted regarding fauna passage
requirements?
Have drainage design criteria (ie.
Specifications for culvert size and layout)
been determined that will accommodate
fauna passage?
Ambient Conditions

If the project site lies within an arid,
mountainous, coastal, urban or inundated
area, have the recommended criteria been
considered (Refer Section 3.8)?
Selection Criteria

Have all relevant factors used in selecting the
appropriate size and type of drainage
structure been considered? (Factors include
ARI, discharge, road alignment, topography,
afflux, soil type, nature of debris,
environmental factors, provision for
maintenance.)
3-58 June 2003

Pollution Control

Has the REF/IAS/EMP (Planning) been
reviewed to identify requirements and
objectives for water quality management and
3
the described the sensitivity of the receiving
environment?
Have pollutant sources and types been
identified for the project?
Has the estimation of pollutant loads been
required?
Have the processes for pollutant transport
(e.g. pollutant attached to fine sediment)
been identified for the project?
Have the required pollutant treatment
processes been identified (ie, primary,
secondary or tertiary treatment)?
Have the potential pollutant control device(s)
been assessed and short-listed?
Have the pollutant control device(s) been
assessed for potential pollutant removal?
Have the preferred treatment device(s) been
selected based on an assessment for
achieving key performance objectives?
Erosion and Sediment Control

Has soils and erosion risk information and
data from the REF/IAS and Chapter 2
assessment process been reviewed to
identify sensitivities and risks associated with
the site?
If considered necessary, has a design
standard been selected for erosion and
sediment control measures?
Has the erosion and sediment control matrix
been used to identify the most appropriate
control measures based on the site
conditions and the construction program?
Other

Has the provision of access for maintenance
been planned for?
Have relevant safety considerations been
identified (e.g. floodway length and potential
traffic hazard)?
June 2003 3-59

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Road Drainage Design Manual Chapter 3: Hydrology and Design Criteria

3.2 General Design Criteria

3.3 Design Standard 3-6

3.4 Hydraulic Criteria 3-10

3.5 Hydrology 3-12

June 2003 iii

3.5.3 Rational Method 3-13

3.6 Tailwater Levels 3-28

3.7 Fauna Passage 3-33

3.8 Ambient Conditions 3-34

3.9 Selection of Drainage Infrastructure 3-37

3.9.7 Location 3-40

3.10 Pollution Control 3-42

3.11 Erosion and Sediment Control 3-50

3.12 Design References 3-52

Appendix 3A: Computer Models 3-54

Appendix 3B: Checklist 3-56

Chapter 3 Amendments - June 2003

Issue/ Reference Authorised

3.3.2 Section 3.3.2 “Flood Deign Criteria” amended

3.1.1 Amendment to 4th paragraph

3.1.2 Additional paragraph

June 2003 vii

General Design Criteria

viii June 2003

June 2003 3-1

3.1.2 When to use Chapter 3 • Determine appropriate pollution controls and

3-2 June 2003

(or improvement) of the quality of stormwater 3.1.5 Applying Design Criteria

Finally, it is important to remember that all design 3.2.1 Planning

Table 3.1 Determination of Design Criteria

Required Input Process Output (Criteria)

June 2003 3-3

Piped Drainage includes all cross drainage

3.2.1.2 External Environment

The External Environment is that zone outside the

3.2.1.1 Road Environment

The Road Environment is the zone which includes

Road Corridor - Aerial

Section 2.2.4 describes the role of the REF/IAS in

3-4 June 2003

Table 3.2 Example of REF/IAS Recommendations Influencing Drainage Design

Potential Environmental Impact Recommended Action Responsibility

June 2003 3-5

access to erosion and sediment control devices 3.2.5 External Criteria

• Floodway Safety. The main issues associated 3.3 Design Standard

3-6 June 2003

eg. 50 years ARI = 2% AEP • Average Annual Time of Closure (AATOC) -

The design standard for cross drainage for a

• Flood immunity - This is the average recurrence

Calculated flood immunities in the Bridge

June 2003 3-7

3-8 June 2003

• Median longitudinal drainage will usually have

Reference should be made to Chapter 7 of the

June 2003 3-9

3.3.5 The Major / Minor System 3.3.6 Erosion and Sediment

The presence of high velocities can result in a

3-10 June 2003

June 2003 3-11

drainage system will need to be modified • bed slope; and/or

3.4.3 Afflux • ground slope (ie. for overland flows).

In all cases, the close links between slope,

Additional guidance as to acceptable afflux limits 3.4.5 Tailwater Levels