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Tomasz KALICKI , Waldemar ZIOMEK

Hydro One Networks Inc (1), CG Power Systems Canada Inc (2)

Moisture in high voltage power transformers in service

Abstract: Hydro One fleet of 500kV, 750 MVA autotransformers was experiencing problems in service due to the high moisture content in the
transformer insulation system. Failure rate was unacceptably high with the record of one failure per two years. The purpose of this investigation was
the assessment of the moisture content in the transformers solid insulation based on (i) moisture content in transformer oil, (ii) direct moisture
measurements in insulation samples and (iii) statistical analysis of moisture activity over long period of time. As a result, on site dry-out plan was
established and close monitoring of the critical units took place.

Keywords: high voltage insulation, power transformers, moisture in cellulose-oil insulation

Introduction
The high moisture content significantly reduces
transformer life expectance and limits transformers loading
capability, e.g. it reduces duration and level of short and
long term overloads due to possible bubble generation, or
damage to cellulose insulation. These limitations have
significant impact on the transformers’ operation.
Hydro One delivers electricity across Canadian province
Ontario and is interconnected with other Canadian and USA
utilities. Hydro One fleet of 500kV, 750 MVA
autotransformers – the backbone of power grid in Ontario -
was experiencing problems in service due to the high
moisture content in the transformer insulation system.
Failure rate was unacceptably high (one failure per two
years) and overloading became unsafe. It prompted the
investigation into measuring and control of moisture content
in the transformer insulation. The purpose of this
investigation was the assessment of the moisture content in
the transformers solid insulation based on (i) moisture
content in transformer oil, (ii) direct moisture measurements
in insulation samples and (iii) statistical analysis of moisture
activity over long period of time. As a result of the
investigation, on site dry-out plan was established and close
monitoring of the suspected units took place.

Fig.1. Partial water pressure vs. temperature for cellulose insulation

Factory drying of transformer insulation
In order to reduce ageing, the drying in vacuum is
preferable (no oxygen present), typically performed in a
vapour-phase oven. Firstly, moisture is converted in vapour;
it flows toward the surface under the pressure gradient; to
accelerate this process the pressboard must be heated to
provide the energy for evaporation – it is achieved by
circulation of hot air or kerosene vapour. When insulation is
o
evenly heated (within 10-15 C spread), the moist air/vapour
mixture can be gradually extracted by reducing the pressure
in the chamber. Pressure reduction must be slow to avoid
the excessive pressure within the pressboard and risk of
bursting. The pressure lowering should be maintained
without dropping temperature. The cycle heating – pressure
lowering is repeated a few times at gradually higher
temperatures and lower pressure values (Fig.1). The final
vacuum (min. 24 hrs) is a critical stage, removing residual
moisture at much longer exposure at low pressure.
Drying process at the transformer plant continues till
moisture content in pressboard drops below 0.5% (typically
around 0.3%).
(Piper curves)
Moisture ingress in transformers in the field
Water contamination in transformers in service comes
from three main sources: (i) residual moisture in the “thick
structure elements”, (ii) ingress from the atmosphere, (iii)
the aging decomposition of cellulose and oil.
Atmospheric water is the main source of transformer
contamination through: (i) the absorption of water from the
direct exposure of the insulation to the air during
installation and repair works, (ii) the ingress of moisture in
the form of molecular flow due to the difference in the water
concentration in the atmosphere and in the oil in the tank –
it is a negligible source, and (iii) the viscous flow of wet air
into the transformer caused by the difference between the
atmospheric pressure and the pressure in the tank. The
main mechanism of water penetration from atmosphere is
then the flow of wet air through “poor sealing”, i.e. through
the sealing points of bushings, the pressure relieve device
and the cooling piping, open breather, etc., due to the
pressure gradient.
Moisture fluctuations occur on daily bases, driven by the
load changes, as well as on seasonal bases, driven by the
ambient temperature changes. For this reason, on-line
monitoring is the best way to establish alarm levels for
critical units in the grid.
It has to be emphasized that it is extremely difficult,
practically impossible, to establish, with acceptable
accuracy, the moisture levels in solid insulation based on
the water in oil level measured for a transformer in the field.
The curves showing the relationship between moisture in
cellulose insulation and in the oil at given temperatures in
thermal equilibrium are available, but there are several
limitations connected with the use of such curves [1,2,3].
The most important of these constraints are listed below:
internal failure followed with explosion, tank rupture and oil
spill of 150,000L of transformer oil.
Post-failure analysis indicated that the breakdown
developed partly along the pressboard lead support with
total distance around 0.5 m. At the voltage 230/v3 to
ground, average stress was 0.27 kV/mm only – the creep
withstand stress for dry insulation is 0.9kV/mm at 500mm.
The average moisture level was estimated at 1.5-2% only.
Oil was not changed for 20 years, dried on-line only.

Thermal equilibrium is rather unlikely for a

transformer in service due to continuous changes
in load and ambient temperature.
Moisture distribution in the cellulose is not
uniform, i.e. different parts will have different
moisture content as well as the moisture
distribution within the large parts is non
homogeneous.
Solubility of water in oil changes with oil type,
grade and age and depends heavily on
temperature.
Absorption and desorption of water to and from
paper is different due to the hysteresis effect.
Sorption isotherms are different for different
insulation material such as paper, pressboard,
transformer-wood etc.
Fig.2. Load (MVA), primary winding temperature and secondary
winding temperature for failed autotransformer
Effects of insulation aging
Over the life of a transformer the cellulose insulation will
be subjected to thermal cycles under mechanical stress The reduction in the oil-cellulose insulation withstand
which will cause aging of the cellulose material. As cellulose can be described as follows (see Fig.3.): the oil at higher
ages its polymer structure degrades into smaller chains temperature can accept more moisture, the moisture
which result in the loss of mechanical strength. The saturation level is higher and also the breakdown voltage is
byproducts of aging are: (i) moisture, (ii) gas in oil kept at higher value for relatively higher moisture levels;
(CO/CO2), (iii) acids, (iv) furans. sudden decrease in the temperature reduces significantly
Measure of the degradation can be estimated by: the breakdown voltage; e.g. at 25 ppm moisture content at
the average degree of polymerization, DP, 35oC the oil withstand stays around 70kV, when the
the aging’s impact on the mechanical o
temperature is reduced to 20 C the withstand drops to
properties of cellulose, such as the tensile around 30kV only.
strength and burst strength properties of the
cellulose, 80

the aging’s effect on the thickness of material 70

under pressure. The effect of aging is more Breakdown voltage at 20degC[kV]

Breakdown voltage at 35degC[kV]
pronounced due to the dual effect of material 60
Breakdown voltage [kV]

decomposition due to degradation of the

50
cellulose polymer (depolymerization) but also
to the settling of the material due to pressure 40

Looseness of insulation results in adequate clamping

pressure which can lead to increased vibration and 30

progressing damage of coil/lead insulation, or movement 20

Emulsion
under short circuit and internal breakdown. Solution
at 35oC
Emulsion
Moreover, moisture alone can lead to catastrophic 10
Solution at 20oC
breakdown. 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Water content [ppm]

Catastrophic field failure on HONI 500kV system
Two 500kV, 750 MVA , 3-phase autotransformers
operated in parallel and one unit was switched off for oil
dry-out. The unit remaining on-line took over the whole load Fig.3. Change of oil breakdown characteristics as a function of
o
water content at 20 and 35 C. The transition of water form in
of the pair (see Fig.2). The winding temperature gradient
oil from solution to emulsion (free water) at the moisture
over oil and the oil temperature over ambient increased, the saturation point corresponds to significant reduction in the
moisture was forced from winding and from lead insulation breakdown voltage.
into the oil. After a few hours of this loading, the ambient
temperature dropped in the evening by around 30oC (from
o
+5 to -30 C). It resulted in sudden lowering of the oil
temperature, reduction of the insulation withstand and
On-line measurement of moisture in transformer Based on this results there was still not clear if
insulation the “wet” transformer is safe to operate. There
The field failures prompted the action to identify the was a need for direct measurements of
units under highest risk of failure due to high moisture moisture in insulation parts.
content in insulation.

In order to establish behavior of so called “wet” and so Direct moisture measurements on insulation samples
called “dry” transformer, comparison was made between
two units connected to the same 500 kV bus. Both Two independent laboratories were contacted to
transformers were subjected to the same load fluctuation. perform the direct measurements of moisture content in
The same location ensured identical ambient temperature insulation parts which were using two different Karl-Fischer
conditions. titration methods:

Unit Cherrywood T16 (red) was built by a Canadian (i) Heating (Weidmann lab)
transformer manufacturer and put in service in 1980. This The sample is heated in an external oven and gas with
unit is equipped with “free breathing system” - which water vapour is led into the reaction vessel. The results can
means that atmospheric air has direct contact with the be obtained by the measured content of the water vapour in
transformer oil. the released gases. This laboratory tests two different parts
of insulation – so called “outer” and “inner” layers of the
Unit Cherrywood T17 (blue) was built by another sample - thus surface and sample core moisture is
Canadian manufacturer in late 90’s but put in service in measured.
2003, after catastrophic failure of its predecessor unit built
by same manufacturer. Unit T17 is equipped with a (ii) Extraction with alcohol (Morgan-Schaffer lab)
maintenance free dehydrating breather, which prevents The sample is immersed in methanol to extract the
atmospheric moisture penetration into the transformer oil. water. The solution is then separated to extract the water.
Usually this is done in reaction vessel by evaporation of the
40 40
methanol. The procedure is based on single measurement
35
of the insulation pieces taking from the sample by drilling a
30 little hole across the insulation and the average water
30 content of the pressboard sample can be measured.
The results from both labs for samples taken from three
High Temperature (Deg Celsius)

20
25 T17 Water ppm units are presented in the Table I. The unit 13 and unit 14
T16 Water ppm
Water (PPM)

Temperature Celsius were subjected to filed dry-out by hot oil circulation and
20 10
Avg T16 Water ppm
Avg T17 Water ppm
vacuum application.
Avg temperature Celsius
15
0

10
Table I Direct moisture measurements in insulation samples
-10 for three units before and after dry-out
5

0 -20
2/1/2005

3/12/2005

8/27/2005
11/26/2004
12/12/2004
12/25/2004
1/7/2005
1/19/2005

2/14/2005
2/27/2005

3/24/2005
4/6/2005
4/19/2005
5/3/2005
5/16/2005
5/29/2005
6/11/2005
6/23/2005
7/6/2005
7/19/2005
8/1/2005
8/14/2005

9/8/2005
9/21/2005
10/4/2005
10/17/2005
10/29/2005

Time

Fig.4. Water in oil content [ppm] during a year in service for unit
T16 (red) and T17 (blue); average ambient temperature also
shown;

The water in oil levels for free-breathing unit T16 (red) The moisture content results from insulation samples
are much higher than compared to those in the unit T17 indicated that drying method used by Hydro One (heating
(blue), especially in summertime, when the unit T16 and vacuum) seems to remove surface moisture from the
reaches 25-30ppm of moisture, while moisture level in the transformer solid insulation.
unit T17 remains around 5ppm only.

Based on these level one may estimate using the Field dry-out
relationship between the moisture in cellulose and the
relative saturation of oil/cellulose system.
There are three mainstream methods that are used
currently, which can be employed on-line or off-line with
The following can be concluded:
application of (i) heat and vacuum, (ii) cooling and (iii)
filtration.
During winter months amounts of moisture in At HONI on-site dry-outs for initial drying program were
transformer oil is relatively low and readings of performed using a Hot Oil Circulation plus Vacuum (HOV)
“wet” and “dry” units are identical. method, which is standard practice for smaller units.
During summer month a “wet’ transformer Extreme size of these units and deep penetration of the
shows significant increase in moisture activity moisture in the cellulose parts required numerous hot
in opposite to a “dry” transformer which only oil/vacuum cycles which resulted in long-lasting transformer
slightly releases moisture in to the oil
outages. To improve moisture removal effectiveness, a
diffusion pump was used to achieve a very deep vacuum -
50 microns (0.067mBar). This process requires long
outages lasting approximately 8 weeks.
A new method - Low Frequency Heating (LFH) was
used on two 750 MVA, 500 kV autotransformer with much
better results [4]. With the LFH method, ac current is
applied to the windings in order to heat the transformer
more effectively at a higher temperature. The current is
applied at frequency 1 - 50 mHz that has two critical
advantages: (i) the impedance voltage is much reduced
with low frequency meaning the required applied voltage is
low; the LFH is applied when the oil is removed from the
unit but the applied voltage is thus low enough to eliminate
any risk of flashover; (ii) the leakage flux is negligible so the
temperature across the winding is uniform (under normal ac
operation, leakage flux causes uneven winding heating).
Drying outage can be as short as 2 weeks.
The results for the unit subjected to dry-out process are
shown in Fig.5. One may see that after dry-out in the spring
2006 the moisture in oil for 3 years does not increase above
5-6 ppm, indicating vey low moisture level in cellulose
insulation, however most recent results (2009) are not as
optimistic as these obtained right after dryout in 2006.
It can be compared to the results for the unit T16 which
did not undergo drying in the field (see Fig.6). In the unit
T16 the relative saturation in summertime is reaching 20-
25% which corresponds to moisture in cellulose higher than
1.5%. According to Hydro One experience this level of
moisture is already alarming for 500 kV voltage class
equipment. This particular unit was removed from service
and replaced by a new one, in order to maintain emergency
overload beyond nameplate ratings without risk of failure.
Conclusions
• Even relatively low average moisture levels,
around 1.5-2%, in large high voltage transformer
can lead to catastrophic field failure;
• Dry-out using heat (hot oil circulation) and vacuum
method removes effectively surface moisture, but
some moisture remains trapped within thick
insulation parts. It requires also long outages,
approximately 8 weeks;
• Low frequency heating (LFH) allows for more
effective field drying. Drying outage can be as
short as 2 weeks;
• In order to successfully operate 500kV class large
units, including overloads up to 2 p.u. for 15 min,
the moisture level in solid cellulose insulation
should remain below 1%

References

[1.] T . V . O o m m e n , J . T h o m p s o n , B . W a r d ,. Moisture
Estimation in Transformer Insulation, Panel session IEEE
Fig.5. Trafalgar T14, dry-out in May-June 2006 Transformer Committee, March 2004

[2.] IEEE Std. C57.106, Guide for Acceptance and Maintenance of

Insulating Oil Equipment

Cherrywood T16 [3.] J. A u b i n , B . D . S p a r l i n g , Moisture in Paper Assessment

from Continuous Monitoring of Moisture in Oil, GE Energy.,
25 EPRI Substation equipment diagnostics conference, New
Orleans, 2004
20
15 [4.] E . F i g u e r o a , T . K a l i c k i , E d t e N y e n h u i s , Low
10 2007 frequency heating field dry-out of a 750MVA 500 kV
2006 autotransformer, Electricity Today, January/February 2009
Water (Relative 5
Saturation %)
2005
0
Jan
Feb
Mar

2005
Apr
May
Jun
Jul

______________________________
Aug

2007
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec

Month Authors:

Dr. Tomasz Kalicki, Hydro One Inc, 843 Bay Street,

Toronto Ontario M5G 2P5
Fig.6. Cherrywood T16, no dry out performed