Liquid Propellant Rocket Combustion Inst

This is a reproduction of a library book that was digitized
by Google as part of an ongoing effort to preserve the

information in books and make it universally accessible.
https://books.google.com
NASA AMES RESEARCH CENTER
NASA SP-194
3 1769 00065 3819
to be removed
from Library
LIQUID
PROPELLANT
ROCKET
S
COMBUSTION
IC
UT
ADMI
NA
SP
AC
RO
AND
NIS
E
AE
TRAT
INSTABILITY
ION
L A
ON I
AT N
U.S.A
NASA IRDARY
EXTE
AMES RESEA
MOEFETY FIELD , CALIF
-
COPY
NO.
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

SC
AMES RESEARCH CAT 3
MOF FET T FIE LD , CAL IF
JAN 17 1973
NASA SP-194
LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET
COMBUSTION INSTABILITY
Editor
DAVID T. HARRJE
Princeton University
Associate Editor
FREDERICK H. REARDON
Sacramento State College
CS E
TI AC
U SP
ADMINI
NA ND
RO A
AE
STRATI
AL
ON
ION
NAT
Scientific and Technical Information Office 1972

U.S.A
Washington, D.C.
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents,
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402
Price$5.50
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 70–170324
Stock number 3300-0450
PREFACE
This reference book originated in the concern of a number of engineers engaged

in the solution of problems of combustion instability for more effective communi-
cation between the various workers in this field . In December 1962 an ad hoc
working group was formed by the JANNAF Interagency Propulsion Committee
(then the Interagency Chemical Rocket Propulsion Group, ICRPG) to study the
extent of combustion instability problems in liquid propellant rocket engines and
to make recommendations as to their solution . This ad hoc group urged that a
more permanent working group be established to promote an integrated research
and technology plan , which could provide stability design criteria , and to promote
a better exchange of technical information among scientists and engineers inter-
ested in combustion instability in liquid propellant rockets. The ICRPG formed
a Working Group on Liquid Propellant Combustion Instability in January 1964.
Beginning that year, annual conferences have been held by the Working Group.
These conferences , the proceedings of which are published promptly in the form of
expanded abstracts (with illustrations) , have proven to be extremely effective in
enhancing the exchange of up-to-date information .
It was recognized from the beginning, however, that much of the theoretical
and experimental combustion instability information was scattered in numerous
progress reports and technical papers in various journals and conference proceed-
ings . In its first year, the Working Group recommended the preparation of a book
that would help to train new workers in the field , as well as providing a reference
for others. In 1964 a reference book committee was appointed by the Working
Group to outline the content . At the 1965 Working Group meeting, the committee
presented its recommended reference book outline, and means of implementing
the writing and publication of the book were discussed . Further deliberations by
the committee during 1966 resulted in the recommendation that a prime contract
be given to a general editor, someone well acquainted with the combustion in-
stability field , who could subcontract the variety of subject matter to a number of
specialized authors . This recommendation was adopted by the Working Group ;
work was initiated in 1967 under a NASA contract with Princeton University,
with Richard J. Priem, of the NASA-Lewis Research Center, as contract monitor .
Funds for the contract were provided by NASA, the Air Force , the Army, and
the Navy. The excellence of the work done by the Reference Book Committee is
evidenced by the fact that their suggested outline has been rather closely followed.
It is hoped that this reference book will prove to be useful to all workers in the
liquid propellant combustion instability field , whether they are engaged in re-
search, design, or development . The philosophy followed in compiling this book is
that the prime importance is to provide the main outline of the most significant
developments, both theoretical and experimental, with emphasis on fundamental
principles and relationships between alternative approaches. For detailed informa-
tion, the reader is supplied with an extensive list of references, which should help
guard against rapid obsolescence of the reference book, a danger faced by any
text in a fast-developing field .
1
iii
iv LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET COMBUSTION INSTABILITY
There are four main parts to the book : ( 1) background information , including
an introduction to the phenomenon of combustion instability and a discussion of
pertinent aspects of the combustion and flow processes that take place in a liquid
propellant rocket engine (Chs . 1 to 3) , (2) analytical models of both low and high
frequency instability , with the theoretical basis of each model given first and the
use of the models in design and development following in a separate chapter (Chs.
4 to 6) , (3) a practical guide for designers , including aspects of excitation and
damping, with experiential information integrated as much as possible with the
results of theoretical studies (Chs. 7 and 8) , and (4) experimental aspects of the
study of combustion instability, that is, techniques used to identify and investigate
oscillatory processes in both research and developmental hardware , and methods
of rating the stability of a given engine (Chs . 9 and 10) .
The reference book is designed to allow the reader to quickly look up information
on combustion instability and related topics . The detailed index provided by the
authors and editors as well as the extensive table of contents should greatly aid
the reader in this respect. The General Nomenclature, supplemented by specialized
nomenclature when required , should provide the required information to interpret
the equations accurately. Each equation , figure , and table is uniquely numbered
by section to avoid confusion .
We are greatly indebted to the many authors and reviewers (whose names are
listed elsewhere in the book) for the generally high quality of their manuscripts
and their cooperativeness during the editorial process . Special thanks go to Robert
J. Hefner and L. Paul Combs , who took responsibility for compiling Chapters 9
and 10, respectively, and to Owen W. Dykema , who edited Section 7.4.
The Editors
David T. Harrje
Frederick H. Reardon
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
PREFACE. iii
LIST OF EDITORS, AUTHORS, AND REVIEWERS. xvii
1 INTRODUCTION ... 1
1.1 LIQUID ROCKET ENGINE SYSTEMS . 1
1.1.1 Conventional Engines .. 1
1.1.1.1 Pressure-fed engines . 2
1.1.1.2 Pump-fed engines . 3
1.1.2 Advanced Engines .. 5
1.1.2.1 Aerospike engine .. 5
1.1.2.2 Staged combustion engine . 6
1.1.3 Performance Parameters ... 7
1.1.3.1 External performance parameters ... 8
1.1.3.2 Internal processes in rocket thrust chambers . 8
1.1.3.3 Real rocket performance calculations .. 14
1.2 COMBUSTION INSTABILITY ……. 14
1.2.1 Physical Manifestations .. 15
1.2.1.1 Damage.. 15
1.2.1.2 Effect on combustion efficiency . 16
1.2.2 Classification ... 16
1.2.2.1 Low frequency, chug.. 17
1.2.2.2 High frequency instability . 17
1.2.2.3 Intermediate frequency , buzz . 19
1.2.3 Initiation of Combustion Instability . 20
55888
1.2.3.1 Spontaneously initiated linear instability . 21
228
1.2.3.2 Induced or nonlinear combustion instability . 22
1.2.4 Dynamic Stability . ... . . 23
1.2.4.1 Dynamic versus statistical stability . 24
1.2.4.2 Dynamic stability in engine development programs . 26
1.2.4.3 Demonstrating dynamic stability in engine development programs . 27
1.3 HISTORICAL SURVEY .. 30
1.4 CURRENT STATUS ... 34
2 STEADY-STATE PROCESSES . 37
2.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF COMBUSTION AND FLOW
PROCESSES . 37
2.1.1 Overall Description... 37
2.1.2 Conversion Time and Residence Time ... 38
2.1.3 Characteristic Length and Characteristic Velocity . 39
2.1.4 Gas-Phase Processes ... 39
2.1.5 Condensed-Phase and Gasification Processes . 40
2.1.6 Spray Combustion ....
2.1.7 Experimental Observations .. 42
2.1.8 Elaboration on Description of Spray-Combustion Models .. 42
2.2 INJECTION AND ATOMIZATION . 45
2.2.1 Manifold Flow .... 45
2.2.2 Jet Properties . . 46
2.2.3 Mechanisms of Atomization . 49
2.2.3.1 Liquid surface instability . 49
2.2.3.2 Liquid jet breakup, low velocity . 50
2.2.3.3 Liquid jet breakup, high velocity . 51
2.2.3.4 Summary of jet breakup results . 52
V
vi LIQUI PROP ROCK COMB INSTA
D ELLA ET USTI BILIT
NT ON Y
CHAPTER PAGE
2.2.3.5 Surface breakup .. 52

2.2.3.6 Liquid sheet breakup . 54
2.2.3.7 Secondary drop breakup . 55
2.2.4 Spray Description . ... . 55
2.3 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF PROPELLANTS . 59
2.3.1 Mass Flux Distribution . 59
2.3.2 Mixture Ratio Distribution . 60
2.3.3 Mixing Processes... 63
2.3.3.1 Liquid phase mixing . 65
2.3.3.2 Droplet transport . 69
2.3.3.3 Vapor mixing . 70
2.3.4 Recirculation ... 72
2.4 LIQUID DROPLET VAPORIZATION AND COMBUSTION . 74
2.4.1 Droplet Heat-Up and Vaporization .. 77
2.4.2 Bipropellant Droplet Combustion .. 83
2.4.2.1 Envelope flame model for subcritical pressures-theory and experiment ... 84
2.4.2.2 Envelope flame model for supercritical pressures-theory and experiment . 91
2.4.3 Monopropellant Droplet Combustion ... 94
2.4.3.1 Monopropellant droplet decomposition in an atmosphere comprised
solely of inert gases or decomposition products-theory and experiment . 95
2.4.3.2 Monopropellant droplet fuel decomposition in an oxidizing atmosphere-
theory and experiment . 99
2.5 FLOW PROCESSES . 100
2.5.1 Core Flow .... 100
2.5.1.1 Effects of injector design . 100
2.5.1.2 Mechanical turbulence generation . 102
2.5.2 Boundary Flow ..... 102
2.5.2.1 Film or boundary coolant . 102
2.5.2.2 Wall effects .. 103
2.5.2.3 Off-design operation .. 103
2.5.3 Energy Release Distribution . 103
2.5.3.1 Element design ……….. 103
2.5.3.2 Combustion volume and length effects . 104
3 DYNAMICS OF COMBUSTION AND FLOW PROCESSES . 105

3.1 INTRODUCTION .... 105
3.2 FLOW IN PROPELLANT FEED SYSTEMS . 106
3.2.1 Feed System Acoustics .. 107
3.2.2 Component Dynamics .. 107
3.2.2.1 Lumped-parameter approach ... 107
3.2.2.2 Continuous-parameter approach . 110
3.2.2.3 Modal techniques.. 111
3.2.3 System Response... 112
3.2.4 Comparison of Analysis and Experiment . 114
3.3 INJECTION PROCESSES ... 115
3.3.1 Effects of Upstream Conditions . 117
3.3.1.1 Flow rate oscillations .. 117
3.3.1.2 Hydraulic flip .. 119
3.3.1.3 Injector vibration . 119
3.3.2 Effects of Small Perturbations in Chamber Conditions . 120
3.3.2.1 Atomization and jet breakup ..... 120
3.3.2.2 Mixing .. 120
3.3.3 Stream and Droplet Breakup by Shock Waves .. 126
3.4 COMBUSTION PROCESSES .. 128
3.4.1 Controlling Processes . . 128
3.4.2 Linear, Nonsteady Drop and Spray Burning. 129
3.4.2.1 The frequency spectrum.. 129
3.4.2.2 Response functions .. 130
CONTENTS vii
CHAPTER PAGE
3.4.3 Nonlinear Drop and Spray Burning .. 136

3.4.3.1 Vaporization . . . .. 136
3.4.3.2 Effects of shock waves . 137
3.4.4 Special Effects ... 138
3.4.4.1 Monopropellant fuel . 138
3.4.4.2 Supercritical chamber pressure . 138
3.4.4.3 Liquid films on surfaces ... 138
3.5 WAVE PROPAGATION IN COMBUSTION CHAMBERS . 138
3.5.1 Linear Wave Motion . 139
3.5.1.1 General considerations .. 139
3.5.1.2 Application to specific combustor geometries . 141
3.5.2 Nonlinear Wave Motion . 147
3.5.2.1 Introduction .... 147
3.5.2.2 Longitudinal modes . 147
3.5.2.3 Transverse modes .. 150
3.5.2.4 Nonlinear transverse gas displacement . 151
3.5.3 Damping Effects .. 154
3.5.3.1 Liquid and solid particle drag . 154
3.5.3.2 Acoustic liners and nonrigid walls .. 155
3.5.3.3 Injector-face baffles .. 156
3.6 UNSTEADY FLOW IN EXHAUST NOZZLES . 159
3.6.1 Linear Nozzle Admittance Equation ... 160
3.6.2 Calculation of Admittance Coefficients . 162
3.6.3 Experimental Verification ... 165
3.6.4 Nonlinear Effects .. 165
3.6.5 Other Effects .. 166
4 ANALYTICAL MODELS OF HIGH FREQUENCY

COMBUSTION INSTABILITY. 167
4.1 INTRODUCTION ... 167
4.1.1 Scope of Current Analytical Models . 167
4.1.2 General Conservation Equations .. 168
4.2 THE SENSITIVE TIME LAG THEORY . 170
4.2.1 Basic Concepts . . . . 170
4.2.1.1 The sensitive time lag. 170
4.2.1.2 Theoretical approach ... 172
4.2.2 Linear Theory . ... 175
4.2.2.1 Governing equations . 176
4.2.2.2 Method of solution .. 176
4.2.2.3 Longitudinal mode solution . 178
4.2.2.4 Transverse mode solution.. 182
4.2.3 Nonlinear Theory . ... 187
4.2.3.1 Nonlinear combustion response . 190
4.2.3.2 Nonlinear wave motion ... 191
4.3 NUMERICAL INTEGRATION METHODS .. 194
4.3.1 Basic Concepts . . . .. 195
4.3.1.1 Approach and assumptions . 195
4.3.1.2 Governing equations .. 197
4.3.1.3 Burning rate models . 197
4.3.2 One-Dimensional Analysis .. 200
4.3.2.1 Simplification of equations . 200
4.3.2.2 Method of solution . 201
4.3.2.3 Typical results .. 202
4.3.3 Two-Dimensional Analysis .. 205
4.3.3.1 Circumferential surface (0 - x) model . 205
4.3.3.2 Transverse plane (r − 0) model ...... 207
4.3.3.3 Comparison with one-dimensional model .. 207
viii LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET COMBUSTION INSTABILITY
CHAPTER PAGE
4.4 SIMILITUDES AND OTHER MODELS . 208

4.4.1 Response Factor Approach .. 208
4.4.1.1 Basic principles .. 208
4.4.1.2 Heidmann-Feiler analysis . 209
4.4.1.3 Dykema analysis . 214
4.4.1.4 Modal energy analysis .. 217
4.4.2 Similarity Approach .... 221
4.4.2.1 Similarity techniques .. 221
4.4.2.2 Analytical similitudes . 221
4.4.2.3 Empirical similitudes .. 222
4.5 COMPARISON OF ANALYTICAL MODELS . 226
4.5.1 Linear Models ..... 226
4.5.1.1 Characteristics of linear stability models .. 227
4.5.1.2 Comparison of linear calculations . . 228
4.5.2 Nonlinear Models ... 229
4.5.3 Concluding Remarks .. 231
5 ANALYTICAL MODELS OF LOW AND INTERMEDIATE

FREQUENCY INSTABILITY. 233
5.1 INTRODUCTION .. 233
5.2 CONSTANT COMBUSTION TIME LAG MODELS . 234
5.2.1 General Approach.... 234
5.2.2 Single Time Lag Model . 236
5.2.3 Double Time Lag Model . 236
5.3 VARIABLE COMBUSTION TIME LAG MODELS . 237
5.3.1 Low Frequency Instability . . .. 238
5.3.2 Intermediate Frequency Instability . 240
5.4 FEED SYSTEM RESPONSE . 241
5.4.1 Calculation of Injection Admittance . 242
5.4.1.1 Constant-area feed line .. 242
5.4.1.2 Line with area change .. 243
5.4.1.3 Orifice or valve .. 243
5.4.1.4 Pump ... 243
5.4.1.5 Manifold .. 243
5.4.2 Injection Admittance for Simple Feed Systems . 244
5.4.2.1 Pressurized-tank feed system.... 244
5.4.2.2 Constant-rate feed system . 246
5.4.2.3 Centrifugal-pump feed system.. 247
5.4.3 Stabilizing Effect of the Feed System . 249
5.5 ANALYTICAL METHODS OF SOLUTION . 249
5.5.1 Nyquist and Satche Methods .... 251
5.5.1.1 Example : single time lag model .. 253
5.5.1.2 Application to other engine systems .. 253
5.5.2 Stability Limit Approach .. 254
5.5.3 Other Analysis Methods . 257
5.6 ANALOG METHODS OF SOLUTION . 258
5.6.1 Mechanization of the Engine Model . 259
5.6.2 Representation of a Time Lag.. 260
5.6.3 Obtaining the Solution.. 260
6 USE OF ANALYTICAL MODELS IN DESIGN AND

DEVELOPMENT .... 265
6.2 LOW AND INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY MODELS . 265
6.2.1 Approach ... 266
6.2.2 Combustion Time Lag Modification . 267
6.2.3 Feed System Changes .. 270
CONTENTS ix
CHAPTER PAGE
6.2.3.1 Injector impedance .. 270

6.2.3.2 Manifold capacitance . 271
6.2.3.3 Resonators .. 273
6.2.3.4 Feed line losses ... 273
6.2.4 Combustion Chamber Response.. 275
6.3 HIGH FREQUENCY : SENSITIVE TIME LAG MODEL . 277
6.3.1 General Approach... 277
6.3.2 Calculations Required . 278
6.3.3 Empirical Correlations of Combustion Response.. 280
6.3.4 Stability Prediction.... 284
6.4 HIGH FREQUENCY : NUMERICAL INTEGRATION METHODS .. 286
6.4.1 General Approach…….. 287
6.4.2 Calculations Required .. 288
6.4.2.1 Steady-state calculations . 288
6.4.2.2 Stability analysis .. 289
6.4.3 Correlation with Test Data.. 291
6.5 HIGH FREQUENCY : RESPONSE FACTOR ANALYSIS . 293
6.5.1 Heidmann-Feiler Approach .. 293
6.5.1.1 Process selection .... 293
6.5.1.2 Hydrogen-oxygen combustors . 294
6.5.2 Dykema Analysis . . . 297
6.5.3 Design Application of Modal Energy Analysis . 298
6.5.3.1 Design procedure . 298
6.5.3.2 Special considerations . 301
6.6 HIGH FREQUENCY : SIMILARITY RULES . 302
6.6.1 Stability Prediction Equations in Decision Making . 302
6.6.2 The Role of Pulsing in Stability Determination . 305
6.6.3 Stability and Efficiency . . 305
6.7 USE OF COMBINATIONS OF MODELS .. 306
7 DESIGN FACTORS AFFECTING EXCITATION... 309

7.2 OVERALL COMBUSTION DESIGN CONDITIONS . 310
7.2.1 Chamber Pressure .... 310
7.2.1.1 General statement of the problem.. 310
7.2.1.2 Low frequency instability . 310
7.2.1.3 High frequency instability . 312
7.2.2 Contraction Ratio .. 314
7.2.3 Injection Density . 317
7.2.4 Axial Energy Release. 318
7.2.5 Transverse Energy Release Distribution . 322
7.2.6 Boundary Effects . 325
7.2.6.1 The boundary region ... 325
7.2.6.2 Boundary control factors . 329
7.3 EFFECT OF PROPELLANT COMBINATION ON STABILITY . 330
7.3.1 Cryogenic Propellants ... 331
7.3.1.1 Oxygen/hydrogen (LOX/LH₂) . 332
7.3.1.2 FLOX/light hydrocarbons .. 332
7.3.2 Storable Propellants . 333
7.3.2.1 Nitrogen tetroxide/50 % hydrazine-50% UDMH (N₂O./A-50) . 333
7.3.2.2 Other storable propellants .... 334
7.3.3 Cryogenic-Storable Combinations . 335
7.4 INJECTOR PATTERN .. 336
7.4.1 General Considerations .. 337
7.4.2 Unlike Impinging Jets . 339
7.4.3 Like-Impinging Jets .. 349
7.4.4 Coaxial Jets .. 357
X LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET COMBUSTION INSTABILITY
CHAPTER PAGE
7.4.5 Other Injector Element Types .. 366
7.4.6 Summary of Conclusions .. 371
7.5 FEED SYSTEM COUPLING . 373
7.5.1 Injector Impedance.... 373
7.5.2 Coupled Resonances . 376
7.5.2.1 Lumped parameters . 376
7.5.2.2 Distributed parameters .. 377
7.5.3 Imposed Oscillations .. 378
7.5.3.1 Structural vibrations . 378
7.5.3.2 Pump blade wakes .. 378
7.6 POPPING AND SPIKING . 379
8 DESIGN FACTORS AFFECTING DAMPING. 385

8.2 INJECTOR FACE BAFFLES . 386
8.2.1 Available Theory . 386
8.2.2 Blade Arrangement .. 389
8.2.2.1 Number of blades . 390
8.2.2.2 Symmetry . 394
8.2.3 Blade Design . 395
8.2.3.1 Baffle length . 395
8.2.3.2 Blade shape . 397
8.2.3.3 Blade cooling . 397
8.3 ACOUSTIC LINERS . 399
8.3.1 Liner Damping Theory . 400
8.3.1.1 Nonlinear analysis . 402
8.3.1.2 Flow effects ... 405
8.3.1.3 Parameters to evaluate liner designs .. 407
8.3.2 The Effects of the Environment on Resonator Behavior. 410
8.3.3 The Sizing of Resonators ..... 415
8.3.4 Number and Placement of Resonators . 417
8.3.5 Thermal Design Considerations .. 420
8.3.6 Further Acoustic Absorber Applications . 426
8.4 THRUST CHAMBER SHAPE .. 429
8.4.1 General Considerations . 429
8.4.2 Combustion Chamber. 430
8.4.3 Nozzle Convergent Section . 432
8.4.4 Injector Shape .... 434
8.4.5 Annular Combustion Chamber . 435
8.5 OTHER DAMPING EFFECTS . 438
8.5.1 Chamber Wall Materials . ... 438
8.5.2 Acoustic Damping by Condensed Phases . 441
8.5.2.1 Theory of particulate acoustic damping . 441
8.5.2.2 Role of particle size distribution. 445
8.5.2.3 Particulate damping in rocket stability analyses .. 445
8.5.2.4 Experimental studies of particulate damping in rocket motors . 446
8.5.3 Corner Effects ... 446
8.5.3.1 Stability considerations . 447
8.5.3.2 Radial winds ... 447
9 EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF STABILITY BEHAVIOR.. 451

9.2 SPECIALIZED RESEARCH COMBUSTORS . 451
9.2.1 Full-Scale Simulators . 452
9.2.2 Sub-Scale Simulators . 452
9.2.2.1 Pulse motor ... 453
9.2.2.2 Annular combustion chamber . 454
9.2.2.3 Wedge motor .. 454
9.2.2.4 Square motor . 454
CONTENTS xi
CHAPTER PAGE
9.2.2.5 Two-dimensional motor ... 454

9.2.3 Basic Combustion Process Apparatus . 457
9.3 PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS . 459
9.3.1 Transducer Requirements ... 459
9.3.1.1 Hardware considerations . 459
9.3.1.2 Response characteristics . 460
9.3.1.3 Environmental exposures . 460
9.3.1.4 Range selection ... 460
9.3.2 Available Instruments .. 461
9.3.2.1 Transducers for combustion zone pressure measurements . 461
9.3.2.2 Pressure transducers for propellant systems .. 464
9.3.3 Location and Mounting .. 467
9.3.3.1 Transducer locations . 467
9.3.3.2 Mounting considerations .. 468
9.3.3.3 Special mounting techniques . 474
9.3.4 Signal Conditioning and Recording . 475
9.3.4.1 Signal conditioning .. 475
9.3.4.2 Recording of dynamic data . 477
9.3.5 Display Techniques . . . 478
9.3.5.1 Analog playback.. 478
9.3.5.2 Analog spectrum analysis . 480
9.3.5.3 Hybrid spectrum analysis . 481
9.3.5.4 Digital analysis ..... 483
9.4 OPTICAL MEASUREMENTS .. 484
9.4.1 Cinematography . . .. 485
9.4.1.1 Combustion zone photography 485
9.4.1.2 Exhaust plume photography . 486
9.4.1.3 Photographic techniques ... 487
9.4.2 Streak Photography .. 489
9.4.2.1 General principles . 489
9.4.2.2 Steady-state combustion distribution . 490
9.4.2.3 Application to combustion instability . 491
9.4.3 Electro-Optical Techniques .. 492
9.4.3.1 Fiber optics .. 493
9.4.3.2 AC radiometry . 495
9.4.3.3 Shock cone radiation .. 496
9.4.4 Shadow and Schlieren Methods . 497
9.4.4.1 Schlieren applications ... 497
9.4.4.2 Shadowgraph techniques .. 498
9.4.4.3 Silhouette photography ... 503
9.4.5 Holography of Liquid Rocket Engine Combustion . 503
9.4.5.1 Holography reviewed ... 504
9.4.5.2 Application of holography to rocket combustion .. 505
9.5 ACCELEROMETERS AND ACCELERATION DATA . 510
9.5.1 Selection of Appropriate Instrument . 510
9.5.2 Instrument Mounting .. 511
9.5.3 Acquisition of Data . 512
9.5.4 Typical Applications . 512
9.5.4.1 Detection and characterization of combustion instability .. 512
9.5.4.2 Determination of hardware resonance effects ..... 513
9.5.4.3 Estimation of hardware distortion during instability . 513
9.5.4.4 Detection of short-duration combustion perturbations . 514
9.6 OTHER MEASUREMENTS ... 514
9.6.1 Propellant Flow Rate ..... 515
9.6.2 Injection Characteristics . 516
9.6.3 Thrust and Other Performance Data .. 518
9.6.3.1 Measurable quantities related to performance and stability . 518
9.6.3.2 Effects of instability on measured quantities .. 519
xii LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET COMBUSTION INSTABILITY
CHAPTER PAGE
9.6.3.3 Post shutdown observations ... 520

9.6.4 Sampling of Combustion Gases . 520
9.6.5 Thermal Measurements . 521
9.6.6 Acoustic Modeling . . . 523
9.6.6.1 Introduction and scope . 523
9.6.6.2 Acoustic damping coefficient . 523
9.6.6.3 Driving techniques ... 525
9.6.6.4 Applications . . .. 525
9.7 INTERPRETATION OF TEST DATA . 526
9.7.1 Resonant Combustion .. 526
9.7.1.1 Analog data reduction techniques .. 526
9.7.1.2 Resonant instability mode identification . 528
9.7.2 Low Frequency Instability .. 535
9.7.3 Combustion Disturbances . 536
10 STABILITY RATING... 539

10.1 INTRODUCTION .. 539
10.1.1 Purposes of Stability Rating Tests . 539
10.1.2 Experimental Approaches ... 540
10.1.2.1 Spontaneous instability methods . 540
10.1.2.2 Artificial initiation methods .. 541
10.2 EXPLOSIVE BOMBS . 542
10.2.1 Typical Designs .... 543
10.2.2 Effects of Design on Blast Amplitude . 546
10.2.2.1 Effect of explosive .. 546
10.2.2.2 Case design effects .. 547
10.2.2.3 Ambient medium effects .. 548
10.2.2.4 An empirical scaled blast correlation .. 548
10.2.2.5 Bomb case erosion and explosive heating . 550
10.2.3 Control of Shrapnel Damage. 552
10.2.4 Application to Combustors .. 555
10.2.4.1 Possibility of overbombing . 556
10.3 PULSE GUNS .. 557
10.3.1 Typical Designs . 557
10.3.1.1 Pulse guns with gun powder charges .. 558
10.3.1.2 Pulse guns with high explosive charges . 559
10.3.2 Effects of Design on Pulse Amplitude .. 559
10.3.2.1 Breech pressurization .... 559
10.3.2.2 Shock propagation in the gun barrel . 561
10.3.2.3 Shock expansion into the combustion chamber . 563
10.3.3 Effects of Combustor Operating Conditions ... 565
10.3.4 Application to Combustors .. 570
10.4 DIRECTED GAS FLOWS . 572
10.4.1 Typical Designs .... 572
10.4.2 Effects of Design Variables . 574
10.4.3 Applications . . .. 575
10.5 FEED SYSTEM PERTURBATION . 577
10.5.1 Siren (Continuous Oscillations) . 578
10.5.2 Pulser (Single Pulse Generator) . 580
10.6 OTHER RATING TECHNIQUES . 583
10.6.1 Liquid Hydrogen Temperature Ramping . 583
10.6.2 Variable Frequency Testing .. 586
10.6.3 Combustion Alterations .. 587
10.6.4 Pressure Level Changes . 588
10.7 COMPARISON OF RATING TECHNIQUES .. 588
10.7.1 Correlations Between Techniques ... 588
10.7.2 Limitations of Available Techniques . 589
10.7.2.1 Disturbance profile effects . . . 589
CONTENTS xiii
CHAPTER PAGE
10.7.2.2 Access ports through chamber walls .. 589

10.7.2.3 Shrapnel damage . 591
10.7.2.4 Multiple pulses ... 591
10.7.2.5 Thermal initiation of detonation . 591
10.7.2.6 Acoustic interaction .... 591
10.7.2.7 External engine access . 591
10.7.2.8 Handling characteristics .. 592
10.7.3 Criteria for Selection of a Rating Technique .. 592
10.7.3.1 Program considerations ... 593
10.7.3.2 Engine design and operational considerations . 593
GENERAL NOMENCLATURE . 597
REFERENCES. 599
INDEX.. 629
EDITORS , AUTHORS , AND REVIEWERS
Abbe, Charles J. Contributor, Sects. 6.4.3, 7.4.2,

Captain , USAF and 7.4.3
Formerly: Reviewer, Chapter 4
Senior Project Engineer
Air Force Rocket Propulsion Lab.
Agosta , Vito D. Author, Sects. 3.5.2.1 to 3.5.2.3

Professor of Aerospace Engineering
Aerospace Engineering and Applied Mechanics
Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn
Bastress, E. Karl Author, Sects. 4.4.2 and 6.6

Director, Applied Sciences Group
.
Northern Research and Engineering Corp.
Bickford , Landis L. Author, Sects . 5.5.3, 6.2.3.4 , 7.5.2,

Supervisor, Control Dynamics and 7.5.3
Aerojet Liquid Rocket Company
Bloomer, Harry E. Author, Sect. 10.3

Aerospace Engineer
V/STOL and Noise Division
NASA-Lewis Research Center
Bracco , Frediano V. Author, Sect. 7.2.4

Member of the Research Staff Reviewer, Chapter 4
Dept. of Aerospace and Mechanical Sciences
Breen, Ben P. Contributor, Sect . 6.4.3

Vice President
KVB Engineering
Burge, Harland L. Contributor, Sect . 7.4.5

Manager, Applied Technology Dept.
TRW Systems
Campbell, David T. Contributor, Sects . 4.3.1 and 6.4.1

Manager, Propulsion Technology to 6.4.3
Advanced Programs Reviewer, Chapter 2
Rocketdyne
Campbell, John , Jr. Contributor, Sect . 7.4.4

Manager, Production Thrust Chamber Unit
Engineering Dept.
Rocketdyne
XV
xvi LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET COMBUSTION INSTABILITY
Carpenter, Thomas W. Reviewer, Chapter 2

Assistant Professor
Aeronautical Dept.
California State Polytechnic College
Chew, Thomas J. C. Reviewer, Chapter 10

Senior Project Engineer
Air Force Rocket Propulsion Laboratory
Clayton, Richard M. Author, Sect. 7.2.6

Member of the Technical Staff Contributor, Sect . 7.6
Liquid Propulsion Section Reviewer, Chapter 10
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Clinger, Eugene C. Contributor, Sect. 7.4.3

Engineering Manager
Liquid Rocket Division
Rocketdyne
Combs, L. Paul Editor, Chapter 10

Member of the Technical Staff Author, Sects. 10.1 to 10.4 and
Advanced Programs 10.7
Rocketdyne Reviewer, Chapter 9
Coultas, Thomas A. Author, Sects. 1.2.1 to 1.2.3 , 7.2.3,

Program Manager 8.3.6, 8.5.3, 9.2.2 , 9.4.1 , 9.4.2,
Combustion and Materials Technology and 9.4.3.2
Advanced Programs
Rocketdyne
Crocco, Luigi Author, Sects. 4.2 and 5.3.2

Robert H. Goddard Professor of Aerospace Propulsion
Aerospace and Mechanical Sciences Dept.
Culick, Fred E. C. Author, Sect. 4.5

Associate Professor of Engineering
Mechanical Engineering Dept.
California Institute of Technology
Dobbins, Richard A. Author, Sect. 8.5.2

Professor of Engineering
Division of Engineering
Brown University
Dykema , Owen W. Editor, Section 7.4

Member of the Technical Staff Author, Sects. 1.2.4, 4.4.1.3 , 6.5.2,
Applied Mechanics Division 7.4, 7.4.1 , and 7.4.6
The Aerospace Corporation Reviewer, Chapter 3
Erbs, Joseph E. Reviewer, Chapter 7

Project Engineer, Lance
Rocketdyne
EDITORS, AUTHORS , AND REVIEWERS xvii
Faeth, Gerard M. Reviewer, Chapter 2

Associate Professor
Mechanical Engineering Dept.
Pennsylvania State University
Fairchild, David A. Author, Sect. 10.5

Engineering Manager, Mechanical Design
Aerojet Liquid Rocket Co.
Feiler, Charles E. Author, Sects . 4.4.1.2 and 6.5.1

Head, Acoustics Section
V /STOL and Noise Division
Fenwick, James R. Author, Sects . 3.2, 5.4.3, and 7.5.1

Member of the Technical Staff Contributor, Sect . 3.3.1
Rocketdyne
Ford, Wayne M. Author, Sects . 9.4.1 and 9.6.4

Member of the Technical Staff
Advanced Programs
Rocketdyne
Garrison, Gary D. Author, Sects . 8.3.4 and 8.3.5

Assistant Project Engineer
Florida Research and Development Center
Pratt and Whitney Aircraft Co.
Goelz, Ralph R. Contributor, Sect . 8.5.1

Aerospace Engineer
Chemical Rocket Division
Groeneweg, John F. Author, Sect . 2.2.4

Aerospace Engineer
Hammer, Sandford S. Reviewer, Chapter 4

Associate Professor
Engineering Sciences Dept.
Hofstra University
Harris , George H. Author, Sects. 4.4.2 and 6.6

Operations Research Analyst
Management Sciences Division
Arthur D. Little , Inc.
Harrje, David T. Editor, Reference Book

Senior Research Engineer and Lecturer Editor, Chapters 1 , 2, 7 , and 8
Dept. of Aerospace and Mechanical Sciences Author, Sects. 1.3 , 1.4 , 3.3.1 , 3.3.2,
Princeton University 7.1 , 7.2.4, 8.5.1 , 10.3 , and 10.6.2
to 10.6.4
Contributor, Sects. 7.4.2 and 7.4.3
xviii LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET COMBUSTION INSTABILITY
Hefner, Robert J. Editor, Chapter 9

Director of Engineering Consumer Products Group Author, Sects. 9.1 , 9.2.1 , 9.2.3 ,
Bell and Howell Company 9.3.3 , 9.3.5 , 9.4.1 , 9.6.1 , 9.6.2,
Formerly: 9.7.1 , 10.2 , 10.3 , and 10.7
Manager, Combustion Dynamics Dept. Contributor, Sect . 8.5.1
Liquid Rocket Operations Reviewer, Chapter 10
Aerojet-General Corp.
Heidmann, Marcus F. Author, Sects. 4.4.1.2, 6.5.1 , and

Research Scientist 10.4
Chemical Rocket Division Reviewer, Chapter 7
Hewitt, Ross A. Reviewer, Chapter 3

Engineering Specialist
Combustion Dynamics Dept.
Howells , Edgar Author, Sect . 9.5

Senior Engineer
Research and Development
McGraw-Edison Power Systems Division
Formerly :
Member of the Combustion Devices Group
Bell Aerospace Company
Kesselring, Robert C. Author, Sects. 9.2.2, 9.4.2, 9.4.4.1 ,

Member of the Technical Staff and 9.4.4.3
Advanced Programs
Rocketdyne
Kosvic , Thomas C. Contributor, Sect . 4.3.2

Test Engineer
KVB Engineering
Lazar, Robert S. Reviewer, Chapter 1

Project Engineer
Naval Underwater Systems Center
Leeper, Charles K. Author, Sects . 4.4.1.4 and 6.5.3

Assistant General Manager
Research and Engineering
Aerojet Nuclear Company
Levine, Robert S. Reviewer, Chapter 1

Staff Scientist
Space Technology Division
NASA- Langley Research Center
Lewis, J. Dudley Author, Sects. 2.3.3 and 2.3.4

Superintendent , Liquid Engines Division
Rocket Propulsion Establishment
Great Britain
EDITORS, AUTHORS , AND REVIEWERS xix
Lovingham , Joseph J. Contributor, Sect . 7.4.5

Director of Engineering
The McIntire Company
Formerly :
Chief, Systems Engineering
Reaction Motors Division
Thiokol Chemical Corporation
Lytle , Archie D. Author, Sect. 5.6

Principal Engineer
Masters, Arthur I. Contributor, Sect. 7.4.4

Senior Assistant Project Engineer
Florida Research and Development Center
Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Company
Matthews, Birch J. Author, Sect. 9.4.5

TRW Systems
McBride, James M. Author, Sects . 8.2.2 and 8.2.3

Supervisor Combustion Dynamics Contributor, Sect. 7.4.2
Miller, Irwin Author, Sects. 4.4.2 and 6.6

Senior Staff Manager
Management Sciences Division
A. D. Little Co.
Miller, Joseph Reviewer, Chapter 5

Manager, Propulsion Systems Engineering Dept.
TRW Systems
Mitchell, Charles E. Reviewer, Chapter 7

Assistant Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
Colorado State University
Monteil, Vernon H. Author, Sect. 1.2.4

Manager, Booster Propulsion
Applied Mechanics Division
The Aerospace Corporation
Morgan, C. Joe Reviewer, Chapter 8

Aerospace Engineer
Nestlerode , James A. Author, Sects . 3.2, 5.4.3 , and 7.5.1

Member of the Technical Staff Contributor, Sect. 3.3.1
Liquid Rocket Division Reviewer, Chapter 6
Rocketdyne
XX LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET COMBUSTION INSTABILITY
Nicholls, J. A. Author, Sects. 3.3.3, 3.4.3.2, and

Professor 3.4.4.3
Dept. of Aerospace Engineering
The University of Michigan
Oberg, Carl L. Author, Sects . 8.3.6 and 8.5.3

Manager, Combustion
Advanced Programs
Rocketdyne
Osborn, John R. Author, Sect. 7.2.5

Professor of Mechanical Engineering Reviewer , Chapter 9
Purdue University
Phillips , Bert R. Author, Sects. 8.3.2 and 8.3.3

Aerospace Engineer
Powell, Walter B. Author, Sect. 1.1.3

Liquid Propulsion Section
Priem, Richard J. Contract Monitor on Reference

Head, Rocket Combustion Section Book
Chemical Rocket Division Author, Sects. 4.3 , 6.4, and 6.7
Proffitt, Robert L. Author, Sect. 9.4.3.2

Principal Scientist , Mechanics and Optics
Research Division
Rocketdyne
Ranger, Arthur A. Reviewer, Chapter 3

Assistant Professor
School of Aeronautics , Astronautics , and Engineering
Sciences
Purdue University
Reardon , Frederick H. Associate Editor, Reference Book

Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering Editor, Chapters 3 , 4, 5, 6
Sacramento State College Author, Sects. 3.3.1 , 3.3.2, 3.4.4.1 ,
3.4.4.2 , 3.5.3.3 , 5.1 , 5.2 , 5.3.1 ,
5.4.1 , 5.4.2 , 5.5.1 , 5.5.2 , 6.1 , 6.3,
6.7, 7.3 , and 8.2.1
Rice , Edward J. Author, Sect. 2.2.3

Aerospace Engineer
EDITORS, AUTHORS , AND REVIEWERS xxi
Richmond, Robert J. Author, Sects. 1.1.1 and 1.1.2

Technical Assistant
Propulsion and Power Branch
Astronautics Laboratory
Marshall Space Flight Center
Rogero , Steve Author, Sect . 9.3.3

Senior Research Engineer
Instrumentation Section
Rosner, Daniel E. Author, Sect. 2.4

Associate Professor
Dept. of Engineering and Applied Science
Yale University and Consultant to Aerochem
Research Laboratories
Rupe, Jack H. Author, Sects . 2.2.1 , 2.3.1 , and

Research Group Supervisor 2.3.2
Liquid Propulsion Section
Sack, Larry E. Author, Sects . 3.2, 5.4.3, and 7.5.1

Member of the Technical Staff Contributor, Sect. 3.3.1
Rocketdyne
Sanscrainte, Willard A. Reviewer, Chapter 9

Technical Director of Advanced Agena Rocket Engines
Senneff, John M. Author, Sects . 8.3.6 and 10.2

Assistant Chief Engineer Contributor, Sects . 7.4.2 and 8.5.1
Combustion Devices Reviewer, Chapter 8
Sirignano , William A. Author, Sects . 3.5.1 , 3.5.2.4,

Associate Professor 3.5.3.1 , 3.5.3.2, 3.6, 4.1 , 8.1 ,
Dept. of Aerospace and Mechanical Sciences and 8.4.1
Princeton University Reviewer, Chapter 8
Smith, Allan J. Jr. Author, Sects. 7.2.1 and 8.4.4

Research Engineer Contributor, Sects. 7.4.2 and 7.6
Georgia Institute of Technology Reviewer, Chapter 6
Formerly:
Design Engineer
Aerojet-General Corp.
Sokolowski, Daniel E. Author, Sect. 10.6.1

Aerospace Engineer Reviewer, Chapter 5
NASA- Lewis Research Center
xxii LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET COMBUSTION INSTABILITY
Strahle, Warren C. Author, Sects . 3.1 , 3.4.1 , 3.4.2,

Associate Professor of Aerospace Engineering and 3.4.3.1
Georgia Institute of Technology Reviewer, Chapter 4
Formerly :
Member of the Professional Staff
Science and Technology Division
Institute for Defense Analyses
Szuch , John R. Author, Sects . 5.2, 5.5.1 , 5.5.2 ,

Project Engineer 5.6 , 6.2.1 , 6.2.2, 6.2.3.1 to
Advanced Systems Division 6.2.3.3, and 6.2.4
Thibodaux, Joseph G. Jr. Reviewer, Chapter 1

Chief, Propulsion and Power Division
NASA-Manned Spacecraft Center
Tonon, Thomas S. Author, Sects . 8.3.1.2 and 8.3.1.3

NASA Fellow
Valentine, Ralph S. Author, Sects . 2.5 and 9.6.3

Director, Engineering Research Dept.
Atlantic Research Corporation
Van Huff, Norman E. Author, Sect. 9.6.5

Manager, Design and Analysis Dept.
Engineering
Van Wyk, Rod Contributor, Sect . 4.3.2

Manager, System Analysis Section
Winchester Group Research
Olin Corporation
Varma, Ashok K. Author, Sect . 8.4.5

Guggenheim Fellow Reviewer, Chapter 6
Vincent, Joseph Author, Sect. 10.5

Rocketdyne
Wanhainen, John P. Author, Sect. 8.4.2

Aerospace Engineer Contributor, Sect . 7.4.4
Waugh, Richard C. Reviewer, Chapter 5

Engineering Specialist
Combustion Dynamics Dept.
Aerojet Liquid Rocket Co.
EDITORS, AUTHORS , AND REVIEWERS xxiii
Wesley, Robert D. Author, Sects. 9.3.1 to 9.3.5,

Section Supervisor , Experimental Instrumentation 9.4.3.1 , 9.4.3.3, and 9.6.1
Aerojet Nuclear Company
Wieber, Paul R. Author, Sect. 9.6.6

Aerospace Research Engineer
Physics and Chemistry Division.
Williams, Forman A. Author, Sect . 2.1

Professor of Aerospace Engineering
Dept. of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering Sciences
University of California, San Diego
Wood, Leroy M. Author, Sect. 9.4.4.2

Research Engineer
Propellants and Combustion Technology
Wuerker, Ralph F. Author, Sect. 9.4.5

TRW Systems
Zinn, Ben T. Author, Sects. 7.2.2, 8.3.1 , 8.3.1.1,

Professor of Aerospace Engineering and 8.4.3
Georgia Institute of Technology
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
The subject of this reference book is combus- interchangeably for the same application . Pres-
tion instability as associated with liquid propel- sure-fed designs are preferred for reaction control
lant rocket engines. Before the details of unstable and space propulsion systems where thrust and
combustion can be properly discussed, however, chamber pressure are low and where emphasis
the reader should have some knowledge of the is on simplicity for multiple restart capability.
liquid rocket engine systems involved, and the Pump-fed engines are used for high thrust , high
associated performance parameters, as well as chamber pressure applications typical of the
the combustion instability phenomenon itself. booster and upper stages of launch vehicles where
An understanding and knowledge of the past long durations are common . The propellant tanks,
accomplishments and the present status of the although large, can be kept light because their
problem should also prove helpful . It is the pur- strength must provide only for structural rigidity
pose of this introductory chapter to meet these and a pressure sufficient to provide the proper
needs. net positive suction head (NPSH) to the pump .
Subsequent chapters will treat much of this The more complex start transient can be tolerated
introductory material in far greater detail- because of a limited necessity for restarting the
exploring the mechanisms of instability, mathe- engine.
matical approaches for solutions of specific Although there are numerous possible pro-
problems, application of solutions to actual pellant combinations ,4483 three are basic to con-
engines , experimental measurements, and sta- ventional engines in current use. They are
bility rating techniques to name only a few of classified as earth storable, cryogenic and cryo-
the subject areas discussed at length. However, genic-storable. Earth storable implies that the
other portions of this chapter, such as the engine propellant is in the liquid state at standard
systems and performance parameters, will not conditions of temperature and pressure. Pro-
be treated again but will be only referenced . Even pellants which are gases at standard conditions,
with the material that is discussed later, the but through chilling have been liquified , are
emphasis given by each author to what he deems known as cryogenic propellants. Insulated con-
to be the most important aspects of the subject tainers are required for their storage and unless
most likely will receive a somewhat different cooling is provided , boiloff losses are inevitable .
emphasis in the chapters that follow. For this Cryogenic-storable combinations consist of one
reason, the reader with a particular need should cryogenic and one storable propellant.
evaluate the overall assessments discussed here The common storable combination consists
with the more specific information that follows of nitrogen tetroxide for the oxidizer and a
in the subsequent chapters . blend of 50 percent hydrazine and 50 percent
unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) for
1.1 LIQUID ROCKET ENGINE SYSTEMS the fuel (the blended fuel is known as 50-50,
or Aerozine 50 and will be referred to as A-50) .
1.1.1 Conventional Engines *
Monomethylhydrazine (MMH) is sometimes
substituted for the A-50. These storable com-
Liquid rocket engine systems can be classified
into two broad categories, pressure-fed and
pump-fed . In general, these systems are not used * R. J. Richmond , Author.
1
2 LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET COMBUSTION INSTABILITY
binations are hypergolic (i.e. , combustion occurs Oxidizer manifold

from a spontaneous reaction as the propellants
come in contact) and thus find wide application
in space propulsion systems where restarts are
necessary. Apollo spacecraft use a number of Fuel manifold
rocket engines that employ these propellant
combinations in pressure-fed systems. Military Injector
pump-fed systems also use storables based on
"instant readiness " (no last minute tank filling Baffle
as would be required with cryogenics because of
boiloff losses) .
Currently, the most widely used cryogenic
combination consists of liquid oxygen for the
oxidizer and liquid hydrogen for the fuel . This
combination requires an ignition source such as
a spark arrangement. The performance of this
propellant combination is the highest of those Acoustic liner
under discussion . A typical engine using these Combustion

propellants is the pump-fed J-2 engine on the chamber
Nozzle
Apollo V system. Long term storage of liquid
hydrogen requires special insulation and careful
design because of the low temperatures involved Throat
(-423.3° F) .
The cryogenic-storable combination in wide FIGURE 1.1.1a.-Typical components of a thrust chamber
use is liquid oxygen and RP-1 (a fine cut of assembly.
kerosene) . This combination is used in a number
of booster engines-typical is the pump-fed F-1 propellants are reacted and which extends to the
engine of the Apollo V launch vehicle. The pro- inlet of the de Laval nozzle (combustion insta-
pellant combination provides good performance bility occurs within the combustion chamber) ,
combined with extremely low cost . Ignition is combustion instability damping devices such as
accomplished by igniter fluids such as triethyl- the baffle and acoustic liner, and the de Laval
aluminum (TEA or TEAL) , triethylborane nozzle which converts the thermal energy of the
(TEB), or mixtures (TEA/TEB) which are heated combustion products to kinetic energy
hypergolic with the oxygen. of the exhaust jet.
In future space engines another propellant
classification is becoming more prominent. Known 1.1.1.1 Pressure-fed engines.-The thrust levels
as space-storables, these propellants are cryo- of pressure-fed engines in current use range from
genics which under the space environment may about 5 to 22,000 pounds. Their propellant flow
be stored for sufficient periods to fill the role of systems are extremely simple. Basic components
current earth storables but with added per- consist of a propellant valve, injector, combustion
formance potential. Some typical examples are chamber, and nozzle. The propellant valve ad-
the light hydrocarbon fuels such as methane used mits the propellant to the combustion chamber
with fluorinated oxidizers (FLOX or OF2). through the injector which mixes and atomizes
Common to conventional engines in current use the propellant prior to reaction . The shape of the
is a thrust chamber assembly (TCA) as shown in combustion chamber is normally a right circular
Fig . 1.1.1a . The typical components are labeled cylinder to which is attached a converging-
and include the injector (which contains fuel diverging nozzle (de Laval type) . A typical
and oxidizer orifices to introduce the propellants schematic of a pressure-fed engine is shown in
into the chamber) , the manifolds for the pro- Fig. 1.1.1b . This represents the Apollo Service
pellants, the combustion chamber where the Propulsion System (SPS) which is used to propel
INTRODUCTION $ 1.1 3
Fuel Oxidizer valves . Since the thrust level is directly propor-

tional to the ullage pressure for pressure-fed
systems, sophisticated pressure control is re-
Too
quired to achieve and maintain the desired thrust.
In contrast, the thrust level of pump-fed systems
Redundant Redundant is insensitive to normal tolerances in tank pres-
fuel ball oxidizer ball
valves valves sure . (See Ref. 593, pp. 173-263 for a detailed
discussion of pressurization systems .)
Since the propellant tanks must contain pres-
sure equal to the chamber pressure, the total
pressure losses in the flow system and the dy-
namic head associated with the propellant in-
jection velocity, they must be of rather heavy
construction compared to tanks for pump-fed
Ablative combustion systems. Therefore, pressure-fed systems are
chamber and nozzle
attractive for low chamber pressure applications .
Typical of such chamber pressures is the current
range from about 100 to 120 psia. With respect
to weight, as chamber pressure is increased be-
Fuel yond this range, pump-fed systems become more
Oxidizer attractive. In order to minimize tank weight,
great emphasis is placed on minimizing the
pressure drop across the feed line, propellant
valve, and injector . A further reduction in tank
pressure is realized by substituting ablative com-
bustion chambers and nozzles for regeneratively
cooled components , thereby avoiding the pres-
sure drop associated with the regenerative cooling
FIGURE 1.1.1b .-Service propulsion system propellant passages .
flow schematic.
Pressure-fed systems, as any other rocket
engine system, are susceptible to combustion
the command and lunar modules into lunar instability of the low, intermediate or high fre-
orbit and the command module back to earth. quency types . The various forms of instability
The feed system for supplying propellant to are discussed in Sect. 1.2. It is sufficient to re-
the engine consists of the propellant tanks, feed mark here that if pressure-fed systems seek to
lines, and prevalves in the propellant lines (the minimize tank weight via reductions of pressure
latter are usually located at the base of the tank drop , specifically, the injector pressure drop,
for positive containment of the propellant prior then low frequency instability becomes a par-
to engine start) . It is common for the inlet of the ticular problem. Here the coupling is between
main propellant valve to be considered the feed the feed system and the combustion process in
system-engine interface . The propellants are the engine. More will be said on this subject in
forced from the propellant tanks into the com- subsequent chapters.
bustion chamber by means of gas pressure in the
tank ullage space above the liquid propellant 1.1.1.2 Pump-fed engines.- Pump-fed engines
surface. There are several methods for providing are used for high thrust, high chamber pressure
this pressurizing gas ; however , the most common applications. Those in current use have thrust
is the stored gas technique using helium in high levels ranging from about 16,000 to 1,500,000
pressure vessels. Pressurizing gas is admitted to pounds at chamber pressures from about 300 to
the propellant tank ullage space through a line 1000 psia. The systems contain the same com-
containing a number of pressure regulators and ponents as the pressure-fed designs plus turbo-
pump and gas generator subsystems for pumping has no throat ; however, the turbine nozzles
the propellant into the combustion chamber. The through which the gas is injected into the turbine
typical pump-fed system operates on the high normally operate in a choked condition . There-
pressure ratio, low mass flow parallel* turbine fore, the gas generator, turbine manifold , and
cycle. The engine-feed system interface is at the nozzle assembly can be treated by the same
turbopump inlet flanges . analytical methods as the main combustion
In the feed system portion of the design , one chamber.
important consideration is to minimize the tank Ideally, the gas generator should supply a
weight. The tank must be strong enough to pro- completely reacted gas of uniform temperature
vide only structural rigidity and pressure suf- to the turbine . Combustion must be stable to
ficient to maintain the required NPSH ; the avoid vibration and pressure oscillations . Uni-
latter factor is important in pump design and form temperature is necessary to avoid local hot
considerable effort is devoted to minimizing spots which could overheat regions of the com-
NPSH during engine development. In some cases bustor body or the turbine manifold. A completely
effort has been so successful in this regard that reacted gas at the turbine manifold inlet is neces-
structural, rather than pressure considerations , sary for efficient turbine operation . If the gas is
govern the tank weight. not completely reacted at that point , the reaction
The turbopump subsystem (which is con- continues with rising temperatures as the gas
sidered part of the engine) consists of two pumps travels through the manifold . This is known as
(usually centrifugal) , a turbine, and in some cases gas generator "afterburning ." The gas that
a gearbox (now considered obsolete) mated travels the farthest before entering the nozzles
together to form a complete unit. The energy to is usually the hottest while that which enters the
drive the turbine is supplied by the gas generator nozzles almost immediately is the coolest . This
subsystem consisting of a propellant valve , in- results in the turbine operating at a lower average
jector and combustion chamber. Propellant is temperature than necessary. The injector has
tapped from the turbopump discharge lines, in- the largest effect on the uniformity and degree of
jected into the combustor through the gas gen- reaction attained, but the configuration of the
erator injector , chemically reacted and converted combustor body also is influential. The volume of
to gas. The gas is expanded through the turbine . the combustor body must be large enough to pro-
which drives the pumps . Since the operating vide adequate stay-time for the reaction to be
temperature limit of current turbine materials completed. In order to minimize the stay-time
is about 1500 ° F, the gas generator is operated and hence combustor size, mixing is enhanced
with excess fuel to avoid exceeding this limit . A mechanically by using L-shaped combustor bodies
schematic of the F-1 engine, a typical pump-fed along with choke rings and screens. Afterburning
system is shown in Fig. 1.1.1c. problems have been experienced primarily with
Since the gas generator is a combustion device , the LOX/RP-1 propellant combination. (See
similar in some respects to the main combustor Ref. 593 , pp . 273-304 for a more detailed dis-
and with many of the same inherent combustion cussion of pump-fed systems.)
problems, a brief discussion is warranted here. The main chamber and gas generator are sus-
The valve which controls the flow to the com- ceptible to the same types of combustion in-
bustor is normally mounted on the injector which stability mentioned in connection with the pres-
in turn is mounted on the combustor body. This sure-fed systems. Low frequency instability or
assembly is mounted directly on the turbine mani- chugging can occur when the combustion dy-
fold by means of a short duct. Since the gas namics are in resonance with the engine-feed
generator must provide gases at low temperature system dynamics. Normally the feed system up-
to be compatible with the turbine, cooling of the stream of the pumps is not considered in the
combustor body is not required . The gas generator analysis of chugging because of the isolation due
to the pumps. However, recent evidence has be-
* The word "parallel" refers to the fact that in this
cycle the turbine is in parallel with the main combustion come available which shows that this is not neces-
chamber. sarily the case. Consequently, pump-fed engines
INTRODUCTION §1.1 5
Oxidizer
Fuel Fuel
Oxidizer turbopump Gas,generator
Main oxidizer
Fuel valve
Main oxidizer valve
turbopump
Turbine
J
Main fuel valve Main fuel
valve
Regeneratively cooled combustion

chamber and nozzle
Oxidizer
Fuel Gas cooled
skirt extention
Hot gas
FIGURE 1.1.1c.-F- 1 engine propellant schematic.
as well as pressure-fed engines must be considered turbine and the low pressure ratio, high mass flow,
in combination with their ultimate feed systems series* turbine cycles. There are several variations
before their low frequency stability can be as- of these two cycles.395 The conventional pump-
sessed . The combustion process could also couple fed system discussed previously is an example of
with the blade wake frequency of the turbopumps. a high pressure ratio, low mass flow, parallel
However, this rarely occurs because the blade turbine cycle. A variation of this is the so called
wake frequency usually is not matched to either tap-off cycle which taps gas from the main com-
the low or high frequency dynamics of the combustion chamber to drive the turbine, thus
bustion process. The blade wake frequency refers eliminating the gas generator subsystem .
to the pressure pulses present in the engine feed
lines due to the turbopump impellers and is de- 1.1.2.1 Aerospike engine. -One advanced en-
fined as the product of the pump speed and the gine concept under investigation is the toroidal
number of impeller blades. High frequency or aerodynamic spike or simply aerospike engine.³
acoustic instability can also occur. A schematic of a possible system designed to
operate at 1500 psia chamber pressure is shown
1.1.2 Advanced Engines in Fig. 1.1.2a . Gas tapped from the main com-
The preceding section discussed the two basic bustion chamber drives high pressure ratio, low
conventional engine systems. This section pre- mass flow, parallel turbines which puts this en-
sents two advanced systems being considered for gine in the same general cycle class as the con-
future applications. These are the aerospike and ventional engine. The aerospike differs from the
staged combustion systems. These systems, as conventional engine in the configuration of the
well as the conventional pump-fed systems, nozzle and combustion chamber. The combustion
operate on two basic power cycles which can be
categorized in terms of the turbine used . These * The series turbine cycle uses a turbine in series with
are the high pressure ratio, low mass flow, parallel the main combustion chamber.
Main oxidizer valve Liquid hydrogen inlet Hot gas control valve
Liquid LH2 Annular

Loxygen combustion
LO₂ inlet chamber
Hot gas Fuel

contol valve turbopump
Oxidizer
turbopump Regeneratively
cooled plug
4 Liquid oxygen
Liquid hydrogen
Turbine exhaust gas
FIGURE 1.1.2a.-Aerodynamic spike engine propellant flow schematic.
chamber is toroidal in shape, rather than cylin- ments probably will result in circumferential
drical, and instead of a conventional bell nozzle , partitioning of the combustion chamber. There-
the combustion chamber discharges the exhaust fore, each partitioned section might act as an
gases onto a regeneratively cooled, truncated plug individual combustion chamber whose dimensions
nozzle. The turbine drive gases, after expanding would not permit acoustic frequencies low enough
through the turbine, are discharged through the to couple with the feed system.
base of the plug to increase the base pressure and
nozzle performance. 1.1.2.2 Staged combustion engine. Another
The advantages of the aerospike engine are advanced engine concept being investigated for
that the nozzle provides continuous optimum future application is the staged-combustion
expansion to the local ambient pressure through- system68,69 employing a conventional bell nozzle
out its trajectory . The outer boundary of the with an extendible skirt. The skirt is extended at
exhaust jet is a freely expanding jet which upper altitude to improve the nozzle performance.
adjusts to the ambient pressure field . This re- This engine operates on the cycle which uses the
sults in a higher total integrated impulse over the low pressure ratio, high mass flow series turbine .
vehicle flight path . In addition , the combination
. This is sometimes called the staged- combustion
of the toroidal combustor and the aerodynamic topping cycle. A schematic of a proposed system
spike nozzle results in a compact short-length is shown in Fig. 1.1.2b . This system differs from
engine. Additional discussion of the aerospike the conventional system in both cycle and con-
engine is presented in Ref. 368 , pp . 10–15 . figuration. The engine consists of a primary com-
The aerospike engine is susceptible to the same bustion chamber, turbopump and turbine as-
types of combustion instability as the engines sembly, secondary combustion chamber and bell
previously discussed . In addition to the low and nozzle with skirt. The total fuel used by the en-
high frequency instability encountered in con- gine is pumped into the primary combustion
ventional systems, the aerospike engine by virtue chamber where it is combined with a small frac-
of the long path around its annular combustion tion of the oxidizer to produce a low temperature
chamber can encounter acoustic instability at (1500° F) fuel-rich gas. This gas is then expanded
frequencies low enough to couple with the feed through a low pressure ratio , high mass flow tur-
system. This is sometimes referred to as the "race- bine which drives the turbopumps. It leaves the
track" mode. It is similar to the coupling of turbine and enters the secondary combustor
acoustic modes with the feed system of large where it is combined with the remaining oxidizer
conventional engines. In practice this may not at the optimum mixture ratio prior to expansion
be a serious problem because structural require- through the bell nozzle.
Low- speed inducer

Oxidizer turbopump
Oxidizer
Fixed nozzle
Main chamber
Preburner
Fuel
Extendible skirt
Low- speed inducer Fuel turbopump
FIGURE 1.1.2b .-Staged combustion engine propellant flow schematic .
Staged combustion systems currently under ratio and expanded through the nozzle. The high
consideration operate at chamber pressures up chamber pressure permits increased specific im-
to 6000 psi for the primary combustor and at pulse because larger nozzle expansion ratios can
3000 psi and above for the secondary combustor. be used without corresponding increases in the
Due to these high pressures , regenerative cooling physical size of the nozzle exit . The extendible
of the secondary combustion chamber and throat skirt improves the performance further (at al-
requires special consideration . To accomplish this , titude) by providing additional expansion ratio.
combustion chambers must be constructed from Combustion instability can also occur in
materials with thermal conductivities much staged combustion systems. Both the primary
higher than those in current use. Transpiration
. and secondary combustors can encounter high
cooling, a technique of passing a controlled and low frequency combustion instability. In
amount of fuel through the chamber walls, is an addition, complex interactions can occur between
alternate cooling technique. It is not as desirable the primary and secondary combustors, the
as regenerative cooling because of the performance primary combustor and the feed system, and the
loss associated with poor combustion of the cool- secondary combustor and the oxidizer feed system.
ing fuel after it enters the combustion chamber.
Transpiration cooling, therefore, would be used 1.1.3 Performance Parameters *
only in the critical areas of the throat and com-
The following nomenclature pertains to Sect.
bustion chamber. The major portion of the nozzle 1.1.3:
downstream of the throat where the heat flux is
lower would be regeneratively cooled as is the cur- F Thrust
rent practice. ge Gravitational constant
The advantages of the staged combustion r Nozzle radius (perpendicular to axis)
system are that its cycle is more efficient than the α Streamline angle, measured from axis
high pressure ratio, low mass flow parallel turbine 8* Boundary-layer displacement thickness
cycle because all the propellant which drives the
turbines is ultimately burned at optimum mixture * W. B. Powell, Author .
VER Energy-release efficiency, in the characteristic velocity by simple me-

chanical means , and without any change in the
Isp with actual energy release
characteristic velocity or the vacuum specific
Isp with 100 % energy release
impulse.
0* Boundary-layer momentum thickness The external characteristics and performance
parameters of the rocket motor are illustrated
Subscripts :
and defined in Fig. 1.1.3a , along with an indica-
a Ambient tion of the accuracy which is acceptable in each.
e Nozzle exit Typical values of the vacuum specific impulse
Stagnation and the characteristic velocity can be seen in
vac Vacuum Table 1.1.3a.
1, 2, i Stream tube indexes
1.1.3.2 Internal processes in rocket thrust cham-
Superscript :
bers. If the performance of a real rocket motor
() Potential flow nozzle contour is to be analyzed and predicted, it is necessary at
the start to have a complete inventory of the
1.1.3.1 External performance parameters .-A processes and parameters which influence the
rocket motor is characterized to a great extent performance. Next it is necessary to have realistic
by the propellant mass flow which it consumes and workable analytical models for these proc-
and the thrust which it produces, and , to a lesser esses, and the requisite physical data as input .
extent, by the size, shape, and area ratio of the Finally, it is necessary to combine the treatment
exhaust nozzle, and by the pressure in the com- of the separate processes so as to consider all the
bustion chamber. processes and their interactions concurrently.
The fundamental rocket motor performance It is not sufficient to calculate the performance
parameter is the vacuum specific impulse (Ispvac) , or of an idealized reference model and then to sub-
pounds-force thrust, in a vacuum environment, tract supposedly linearly independent increments
per pound-mass per second of propellant flow . of performance corresponding to the separate
Vacuum specific impulse completely determines recognized sources of loss. It is not sufficient
vehicle performance in space flight applications . because there are important interactions between
Further, for a given propellant and nozzle shape ,
vacuum specific impulse is quite insensitive to
small changes in combustion chamber pressure,
the size of the rocket motor, the propellant mass
m
flow rate, or the thrust level.
A second rocket thrust chamber parameter,
the characteristic velocity (c*) , correlates propel-
lant mass flow. Experimental evaluation and Fpa
correlation of the characteristic velocity requires. Jhey
use of the stagnation pressure in the combustion
chamber; this is a quantity which cannot be Fvac = F + PA
measured directly , and which in many cases has
no single unique value . Thus the characteristic IsPvac= Fvac Measured data
(± 1/2 %)
velocity cannot be defined or measured as ac- m Fpa
ṁ
curately as can the vacuum specific impulse . How-
= PoA9
19c0,(±4%) Pa
ever, the characteristic velocity, even with an
A.
uncertainty of several percent , can be a useful
A+
parameter for sizing propulsion system com-
PPo Approx.
ponents . To achieve the required thrust the
propellant mass flow rate can typically be ad- FIGURE 1.1.3a .- External performance characteristics of
justed over a larger range than the uncertainty rocket motor (where the vacuum thrust is Fvac) .
TABLE 1.1.3a .-EXAMPLES OF PERFORMANCE CORRELATION AND PREDICTION
Low area ratio High area ratio
System é Ispvacy VER € Ispvac O/F c*,

(lbf-sec)/lbm (lbf- sec)/lbm ft/sec
Experimental Experimental Predicted
F2/H2 a1.9 343 1.00 a60 417 428.7 12.0 7850

P. = 50 psia
F = 1200 lbf
N2O4/A - 50 1.0 209.6 .98 $60 307 311.6 1.8 5550
P. = 100 psia
F = 1000 lbf
N2O4/A - 50 1.0 211.1 .99 b40 313.2 316.1 2.0 5310
P. = 105 psia
F = 8000 lbf
N2O4/A - 50 1.5 231.3 .97 b62.5 313.5 318.4 1.6 5490
P. = 97 psia
F = 20,000 lbf
a 15° Conical nozzle.

b Contoured nozzle (or bell nozzle) .
the several processes which occur in a real rocket A description of the listed liquid propellant
motor. rocket motor internal processes and a discussion
The internal processes which accompany the of their principal interactions follow:
production of thrust by a rocket motor are not as NONUNIFORM MIXTURE RATIO DIS-
evident as are the external characteristics, nor TRIBUTION : Propellant is injected into the
are they as yet completely understood . The motor at the upstream end of the combustion
.
principal internal processes in a conventional chamber. Often a low mixture ratio region is
rocket motor are shown on Fig . 1.1.3b and are
deliberately produced near the wall of the thrust
listed on Table 1.1.3b . Each of these processes
chamber in order to reduce the severity of the
has associated with it a loss in performance (com-
environment to which the thrust chamber is ex-
pared to the ideal one-dimensional isentropic
posed . Additionally, the injector propellant mani-
equilibrium performance) ; approximate percen-
tage magnitudes of the loss in specific impulse folding and the orifice pattern may be such that
there are variations in both local mixture ratio
corresponding to each of the processes are also
shown on Table 1.1.3b . While these identified and local density of mass injection across the
processes are of primary importance in the face of the injector, superimposed on any de-
analysis of steady-state performance of rocket liberately created distribution (see Sect. 2.3) .
motors, some of them are also known to be im- These propellant mass and mixture ratio dis-
portant in the analysis and prediction of com- tributions are best identified by non-reactive
bustion instability . fluid simulant flow tests, wherein the spray down-
Chamber wall
Equivalent inviscid flow boundary
Boundary layer TURA

AVEN
(friction and
heat transfer)
m2, (0/F)2 V₁, P, P

At
Arbritrary
exit surface
m₁, (0/F), Stream tubes
Droplet vaporization Supersonic flow region

combustion
(Energy release ) Transonic flow region
Additional energy release,

Injection , primary atomization , chemical kinetic rate limited
distribution of droplets equilibrium shift during
(stream tube formation) expansion through nozzle
Frac =" ↓ m₁Vicos αi + Sp₁ dA
FIGURE 1.1.3b .-Internal processes in the real rocket motor.
stream of the injector face is sampled . * Alter- of the stream tube rocket motor is the mass-
natively, a careful analysis based on the hydraulic averaged performance of each of its stream tubes,
flow characteristics of the injector propellant each presumed to expand through a nozzle having
passages and orifices can give a useful indication the shape and exit area ratio of the overall
of the delivered distributions. nozzle . The net effect of the variation in mixture
It has been found that regions of identifiable ratio from stream tube to stream tube is a de-
mass and mixture ratio which are larger than a crease in performance compared to the perfor-
typical molecular mixing distance (about inch) mance that would have been obtained at a uni-
tend to maintain their separate identity as they form average mixture ratio .
react and progress through the thrust chamber TWO-DIMENSIONAL NOZZLE FLOW :
and nozzle. The two-dimensional shape of the de Laval
Thus the rocket motor can be idealized as a nozzle affects the flow in two ways. Near the
group of separate, non-mixing , rocket motors throat, curving of the flow distorts the pressure
(stream tubes) operating in parallel, and con- distribution , leading to curved constant- pressure
strained to coexist within the overall chamber surfaces. This causes a decrease in the mass flow
and nozzle contour. through the nozzle, compared to one-dimensional
As a first order approximation, the performance sonic flow through the geometrical throat area ;
and the divergence of the exit flow results in a
* However, it is recognized that the chemical loss of axial momentum, and thus a loss in specific
reaction
can alter the non-reactive-fluid spray distributions. impulse.
TABLE 1.1.3b. -REAL ROCKET MOTOR PROCESSES stream of the throat. The supersonic flow for an
AND LOSSES
inviscid fluid can be developed by a method-of-
characteristics calculation, using as a starting
Process Typical loss point a transonic solution such as that mentioned
percent above. Such a calculation gives the pressure on
the surface of the nozzle downstream of the
Nonuniform mixture ratio distribution 0 to 5 starting line, and/or the pressure, density, ve-
(stream tubes) locity, and direction of flow through any chosen
Incomplete energy release 1 to 5 nozzle exit surface. The total thrust of the nozzle
Multi-phase flow (solid particles) Not treated here determined from either the starting line pressure
Two-dimensional flow (curvature and 0.1 to 3
and axial momentum flux plus the axial com-
divergence)
Finite reaction rates (kinetics) 0.1 to 10 ponent of the surface pressure forces in the super-
Boundary layer (friction and heat 0.5 to 5 sonic region of the nozzle, or from the exit sur-
transfer) face pressure and axial momentum flux, is the
same, and reflects the loss in axial momentum
due to divergence of the exit flow.
FINITE REACTION RATES : The gases
Various approaches to determining the effect in the combustion chamber of a rocket motor
of throat curvature on the pressure distribution are generally at a high enough temperature that
in the transonic flow field and on the mass flow some dissociation of molecular species has taken
through the nozzle are given in the literature. place. As the hot gases expand through the noz-
When two or more stream tubes coexist in a given zle, the pressure and temperature decrease. At
nozzle flow, additional constraints, beyond the the reduced pressure and temperature, the dis-
fundamental assumption that the static pressure sociated species tend to recombine , and to liberate
is everywhere continuous, are needed to define energy as they do so. However, these recombina-
the sonic surface and to determine the relative tion reactions are rate-limited , and are only
flow areas occupied by the stream tubes in the partly completed during transit through a typical
region of the nozzle throat. rocket nozzle . With a knowledge of the rate con-
Kliegel and Quan409 have presented an analysis stants for the particular reactions involved , and
of the flow of two concentric stream tubes within a specific nozzle size or time scale, the kinetic
a rocket nozzle. Propellant injection conditions effects can be incorporated in the nozzle flow and
were not specified . They concluded that the sonic performance calculation . The effect is always a
surfaces of the stream tubes must lie on a com- decrease in the otherwise attainable performance .
mon constant-pressure surface, since this condi- MULTI-PHASE FLOW: Some propellants
tion maximizes the total mass flow through the yield combustion products which contain solid
throat. particles in the combustion chamber, or which
Norton5196 studied the flow of multiple stream form condensed species during expansion through
tubes through a nozzle with the injection con- the nozzle. The magnitude of the effect of solid
ditions (mass , momentum, energy) specified for particle flow on the rocket motor performance
each stream tube, and found that the sonic sur- depends on the state and number of the particles
face was, in general, discontinuous. as well as on their drag and heat transfer coeffi-
In either case, if the properties of the gases in cients . The two-phase flow process effects on
two stream tubes differ, then the stagnation performance are complex, and the basic data.
pressures of the two stream tubes differ. This needed to analyze the process is difficult to ob-
causes the difficulty, which was mentioned earlier, tain . Some existing computer programs approxi-
in the definition and evaluation of the charac- mate the effect of two-phase flow in one-dimen-
teristic velocity. sional nozzles , but no two-dimensional treatment
The development of the supersonic flow field is available at the present time. For these reasons
and the divergence of the exit flow are determined no estimate of the magnitude of the two-phase
by the shape of the two-dimensional nozzle down- flow loss is given in Table 1.1.3b .
INCOMPLETE ENERGY RELEASE : formance is reduced as a result of the lower energy

Atomization , mixing , evaporation , and reaction available to the expansion process. The reduced
of the injected propellant do not occur instan- enthalpy also provides a different base condi-
taneously or completely in a rocket motor . Typi- tion from which the kinetic loss is reckoned . This
cally, most of the combustion is completed within empirical single-parameter model was selected
the combustion chamber, before the products of for interim use because it is simple and unam-
combustion enter the nozzle convergence section . biguous .
Some droplets may evaporate and some reaction While this simplified energy release model
may occur during transit through the nozzle. * cannot exactly duplicate the effect of the real
However, some propellant droplets may not distributed energy release process, it has proven,
evaporate within the confines of the thrust cham- empirically, to give useful overall performance
ber, and some evaporated molecules may not correlations and extrapolations when used with
find "partners" with which they can react. The several conventional propellant systems.
result in either case is an energy deficiency and a BOUNDARY LAYER FRICTION AND
small change in the composition and properties HEAT TRANSFER : The effect of surface.
of the combustion products, with a reduction in friction and of heat transfer from the combustion
the realized performance. gases to the wall is confined to a relatively thin
A distinction should be made between the layer of gases next to the wall. The core of the
stream tube process and the incomplete energy gas flow can be considered to be remote from
release process . A stream tube is a macroscopic viscous or heat transfer effects.
region of uniform mixture ratio, distinguishable The influence of the boundary layer on rocket
from other macroscopic regions having other motor performance is given by a model which
uniform mixture ratios. Energy release efficiency replaces the real flow with an equivalent com-
is a measure of the completeness of the reaction. pletely inviscid and isentropic potential flow. A
within a stream tube ; it is related to the degree displacement thickness, 8 *, is evaluated which
of mixing and vaporization of the drops pro- defines the size and shape of the potential flow
duced by the individual injector elements and to nozzle with respect to the real nozzle, so that the
the microscale processes by which molecules mix. mass flow through the potential flow nozzle is
and react. the same as that through the real nozzle. This is
The real distributed energy release process has shown in Fig. 1.1.3c . The excess momentum flux
not been completely described and modeled as through the equivalent potential flow nozzle
yet, although some analytical and experimental over the momentum flux of the real flow is given
investigations are under way and others have by a momentum thickness, 0, of the potential
been proposed . flow, such that an annular layer of the potential
In the absence of a capability of analytically flow of thickness @ has this amount of momentum .
describing the energy release process and pre- Then, as shown on Fig. 1.1.3c, the thrust of the
dicting its effect on performance, an empirical real motor is obtained by correcting the thrust
interim model and procedure23 has been found of the equivalent potential flow motor for the
useful. Incomplete energy release is modeled excess momentum flux and for the exit pressure
analytically by reducing the total energy of the acting on the displacement thickness. The pro-
system through a reduction in the stagnation . pellant mass flow as computed for the throat of
enthalpy. Prior to expansion , 100% of the pro- the equivalent potential flow motor is used with
pellant is presumed to be in thermodynamic the calculated real motor thrust to obtain the
equilibrium at the reduced enthalpy level. The specific impulse . The derivation of the expres-
chemical and fluid dynamic calculations are then sions for the displacement and momentum thick-
made in their usual manner . The calculated per- nesses from the basic heat transfer, friction , and
fluid flow relationships is given by Elliott, Bartz,
and Silver241 and by Alber6º¸
* A study by Mitchell491 has shown that combustion in
the supersonic portion of the nozzle flow, even at high A unique feature of the treatment by Elliott,
area ratio, can still contribute to performance. Bartz, and Silver is the simultaneous solution
Surface of real nozzle-
ré
Surface of potential flow nozzle
having equal mass flow
*
mreal =mpotential flow 8 Displacement thickness
nozzle 8 = Momentum excess thickness
21
DFB
L= |+
[+ 2 π r 8 e* p − 2 π r; Q₂ pé Vé cosx.
- -
Freal =Fpotential flow [2 Tr₂O₂ cos de Pévér
pél
nozzle E
FIGURE 1.1.3c . - Boundary layer model and performance correction .
of the integral momentum and energy equations plete energy release and kinetics is a decrease in
for the thin boundary layer. This results in the the vacuum specific impulse. Further, due to the
losses due to heat transfer to the wall appearing thermodynamic nature of the nozzle expansion
indirectly, as part of the total boundary layer process, the percentage performance loss for a
loss, rather than appearing separately, as in given energy deficiency increases with the nozzle
earlier boundary layer treatments. Thus all area ratio, and the magnitude of this effect in-
interactions between shear drag and heat loss creases with increasing energy loss .
from the gases are taken care of within the boun- (2) The effect of two-dimensional flow on kinetic
dary layer model . Alber60 takes an overall look and other losses. Two-dimensional flow affects the
at this approach to the evaluation of the boundary magnitude and rate of change of the properties
layer losses and shows that the displacement of the expanding gas. Small nozzles and nozzles
thickness-momentum thickness approach is ex- having small radius of curvature throats and/or
actly equivalent to a correct accounting of the high expansion angles just downstream of the
axial component of the pressure forces acting throat may expand the combustion gases so
on the interior of the nozzle. rapidly that there is not enough time for rate-
INTERACTIONS BETWEEN PRO- limited equilibrium shifts to occur. Nozzle contour
CESSES : In principle, each process occurring curvature , located near the exit of a "bell " noz-
in the real thrust chamber interacts with each zle, can cause local changes in pressure, density,
other process. These interactions must be ac- velocity, and direction which enter into calcu-
counted for in a valid performance calculation lation of the boundary layer loss and the di-
procedure. Some of the more important of these vergence loss .
interactions are discussed here in general terms : (3) The effect of nonuniform mass and mixture
(1) The effect of incomplete energy release on ratio distribution on kinetic losses. Stream tubes
kinetic losses and on the nozzle expansion process. having different mixture ratios will produce com-
Incomplete evaporation , mixing, and reaction. bustion gases having different properties and
result in a loss of energy and a change in the temperatures, and thus the kinetic losses will be
composition of the combustion products, com- different in each stream tube.
pared to complete reaction . The temperature of (4) The effects of incomplete energy release,
the gases entering the expansion nozzle is reduced , kinetics, stream tube flow, and two-dimensional
and associated with this is a reduction in the flow on the boundary layer loss. The properties
fraction of dissociated species present. While used in calculating the boundary layer corrections
that part of the total loss directly ascribable to are those of the stream tube closest to the wall.
kinetics may decrease, the net effect of incom- The properties of the gases in this stream tube
are determined by the local mixture ratio and C. Have conventional de Laval nozzles
by the energy release, kinetics, and two-dimen- d. Have conventional upstream-end propel-
sional interaction effects . lant injection techniques ; no mass addition
in the supersonic region
1.1.3.3 Real rocket performance calculations.- e. Are in steady-state operation
Calculation of the performance of a real rocket These restrictions correspond to the capabilities
motor must be based on an integrated physical of existing computer programs, and to processes
model that is a composite of models describing which are relatively well understood . Despite
each of the physical processes or effects occurring these seeming limitations, there is a wide and
in the real rocket motor . Separate inputs should important field of applicability for the developed
define each effect, and the calculated performance performance calculation capability ; i.e., most
should reflect the result of all interactions. rocket motors used for space propulsion appli-
If all of the real rocket motor processes are cations use propellants composed of the six listed
identified and appropriately modeled , and if the elements, produce more than 100 lbf thrust,
input information is available to accurately specify and have de Laval nozzles .
each process or loss , then the computed perfor- The rocket motor performance calculation
mance will be identical to the performance of capability developed by the Performance Stan-
the real rocket motor as measured on a test stand dardization Working Group is based on two com-
(presuming accuracy of the test data) . puter programs and on the use of the empirical
In practice , this degree of perfection has not model for the incomplete energy release process,
yet been achieved . Some processes have still not (discussed under Sect. 1.1.3.2) . The two computer
been adequately modeled , some needed physical programs were selected by the Working Group
data are not as yet known with sufficient ac- from among all those that were available to it
curacy, and present computational procedures in June 1967. These computer programs , selected
are limited . on the basis of technical validity, computation
Because of these present limitations, the capa- time, documentation , and other factors60, have
bility to predict the performance of the general since been modified and improved to meet the
case of a real rocket motor does not now exist . needs of a standardized performance calculation
However, a practical methodology for correlating and prediction procedure and to be compatible
and predicting the performance of a useful class with each other, and have been made available
of rocket motors has been developed by the as reference programs . 17,22,23,44,45 (These and other
Performance Standardization Working Group* related computer programs can be obtained
of the ICRPG23 , 555b. This class of rocket motors through CPIA (Chemical Propulsion Information
is limited to those that Agency) , The Johns Hopkins University, 8621
a. Use propellants whose combustion products Georgia Avenue, Silver Springs Maryland
are entirely gas phase, with no solid par- 20910. )
ticles . (Currently only the chemical ele- 1.2 COMBUSTION INSTABILITY *
ments C, H, O, Cl , F, and N can be han-
dled . ) Combustion instability problems have been
b. Are large enough so that the flow is not experienced during nearly every rocket engine
dominated by viscous effects (i.e. , above. development program . Since these problems
about 100 lbf thrust) severely impair the operation of the engine and
vehicle system, there is considerable incentive
* The Performance Standardization Working Group to seek an understanding of this undesirable
of the Interagency Chemical Rocket Propulsion Group phenomenon. Combustion instability results from
was organized in 1965 and has functioned through its coupling between the combustion and the fluid
three committees ; Overall Concepts, Theoretical Methods ,
dynamics of the system. Through this coupling,
and Experimental Measurements. The ICRPG Perform-
ance Evaluation Manual for Liquid Propellant Rocket oscillatory energy is supplied by the combustion
Engines23 is the product of joint efforts of the Overall
Concepts and the Theoretical Methods committees . * T. A. Coultas, Author, Sects . 1.2.1 to 1.2.3.
to sustain the oscillations. Only if the damping bration measurements often do not correlate
processes present in the system are sufficiently well with the corresponding chamber pressure
large to dissipate the oscillatory energy more measurements. Frequently, however, there will
rapidly than it is supplied, will the oscillations. be similarities in frequency as well as in severity
decay. Thus, combustion instability may be or amplitude (see Sect . 9.5) .
prevented by either increasing the damping or Temperature and heat transfer monitoring has
decreasing the coupling with the driving forces . also been successful in indicating the onset of
Several distinct types of instability have been combustion instability. Thermocouples buried in
observed and their physical manifestations have the chamber wall respond to the rapid increase
caused a variety of picturesque names to be in wall temperature . Faster response is afforded
generated for each of them. A common trait is by measuring the transducer coolant or the local
that all types of combustion instability are regenerative coolant temperature changes (see
characterized by chamber pressure oscillations , Sect. 9.6.5).
although the frequency and amplitude of these Combustion instability also causes oscillations
oscillations and their external manifestations of the axial position of the Mach diamonds in the
normally vary with the type of instability . exhaust plume and this can be detected by high
Oscillatory operation of a rocket engine is un- speed photography . The oscillations of the Mach
desirable for many reasons . One of the most im- diamonds will usually correspond in frequency
portant of these effects is the severe vibration . to the chamber pressure oscillations . Monitoring
Vibration levels in excess of 1000 g have been of the luminosity variations from the exhaust
experienced . Such vibration levels can impair the plume is another optical technique sometimes
operation of sensitive guidance components and used . These variations in luminosity may be
have severe effects upon payloads and even rela- very weak. For instance, it has been estimated
tively massive structural members . Another for one case that the relative amplitude of bright-
severe effect is the grossly increased heat transfer ness oscillations in the plume would be only 0.1
due to the oscillatory operation . This increase is percent of the relative oscillations in chamber
often sufficient to melt and destroy portions of pressure (optical measurements are discussed in
the rocket system. Other less drastic effects in- Sect . 9.4) . Flow rate variations and thrust varia-
clude decreased performance, uncontrolled im- tions have also been observed as an indication
pulse, variation in thrust vector, and the effects of combustion instability.
of oscillatory propellant flow rates.
1.2.1.1 Damage. In addition to the destruc-
1.2.1 Physical Manifestations
tive vibration, thrust magnitude and direction.
Combustion instability is manifested in many vibrations, and uncontrolled impulse caused by
ways. The most satisfactory method of detection an oscillating system, combustion instabilities.
and study of combustion instability is the mea- may result in extensive damage to the thrust
surement of chamber pressure (see Sect . 9.3) . chamber and injector itself. High frequency in-
Pressure measurements made in the propellant stabilities result in grossly increased convective
feed system show similar oscillations, and in some heat transfer coefficients in the chamber walls.
cases the amplitude measured here may be greater With the prevalent tangential mode instabilities
than that measured in the combustion chamber. this increase occurs at all axial positions in the
In the combustion chamber, frequencies from less chamber. Since the heat transfer rate is normally
than 100 to over 15,000 hertz have been measured highest near the nozzle throat, this is a very
at amplitudes of from 10 to 1000 percent of sensitive location. In one rocket engine develop-
steady-state chamber pressure. In addition to ment program it was found that combustion in-
pressure measurements, instabilities are often stability caused the nozzle to be neatly severed
shown by means of vibration measurements . The at the throat and dropped into the exhaust flame
very high vibration levels often measured have deflector. In another program, where considerable
given rise to the term "rough combustion ,' unreacted oxidizer was present near the injector ,
meaning in that case unstable combustion . Vi- together with the maximum tangential mode.
amplitude , increased heat transfer rates resulted Effort is also expended to assure that the
in chemically burning the thrust chamber at that propellants will be atomized into droplets suf-
location . This can become a chain reaction, burn- ficiently small that they will be completely
ing not only the chamber and the injector, but vaporized in the chamber prior to expansion
propellant lines and thrust stand structure as well . through the nozzle . Propellant vaporization is
Combustion instability is not always so dra- governed by heat and mass transfer between the
matically destructive. Lower frequency modes propellant droplets and the hot combustion gases.
of instability may do no damage at all . Even some Additional convective effects generated by the
high frequency instabilities are nondestructive acoustic or oscillatory pressure field will enhance
if the injector and thrust chamber are satis- the combustion efficiency by accelerating the
factorily cooled and sufficiently strong . In fact, at vaporization of the propellants. In spite of these
high frequencies, a quite sophisticated set of factors, which sometimes increase the combus-
instrumentation is often required to determine if tion efficiency, other effects of combustion in-
the combustion is unstable. At very high fre- stability may override them and decrease the
quencies, the amplitude of the oscillations may apparent or overall combustion efficiency.
be quite low and the damage incurred negligible The presence of low frequency or longitudinal
over the short periods of times (3 to 4 seconds) mode high frequency oscillations may result in
typically used to obtain performance data. a decided increase in the axial mixture ratio varia-
tions . This is particularly true with injectors
1.2.1.2 Effect on combustion efficiency. The having unequal injection pressure drops across
apparent performance of a particular rocket the two propellant systems. Here, a temporarily
system may either increase or decrease during a lowered chamber pressure will cause a much
combustion instability. At high frequencies, the larger quantity of one propellant to be injected
high transverse pressure and velocity gradients during the low pressure portion of the cycle than
enhance both factors which control the steady- of the other propellant. Thus, alternatively high
state rocket engine performance . These factors and low mixture ratio injection rates will result
are mixing (distribution) , and vaporization of the in wide variations in mixture ratio along the
propellants. In engines where either of these length of the chamber, resulting in poor per-
factors has not been very thoroughly optimized formance. Further, the grossly increased injection
for steady-state operation , it might be expected rates during the low pressure part of the cycle
that the performance would increase during an can result in a portion of both propellants being
instability. In contrast, for the case of an opti- exhausted from the chamber unburned . Thus ,
mally designed injector configuration displace- even though the mixing and vaporization may be
ment of the propellants may actually result in a very complete during one portion of the cycle ,
performance loss . Considerable design efforts (high chamber pressure and low injection rate)
are usually put forth to assure that the propellant the chamber is flooded during the low chamber
mixture ratio is made as uniform as possible at pressure portion of the cycle. Other less important
each point on the injector face. In spite of these losses occurring during combustion instability
efforts , however, combustion may occur locally include increased heat transfer and friction .
at mixture ratios considerably off design or As a rule of thumb, it may be stated that high
optimum value, particularly for propellants frequency instabilities tend to increase the com-
which vaporize at grossly different rates. It has bustion efficiency if the combustor is not initially
been found that if the propellants have not been a high performer, while low frequency oscillations
properly distributed within about an inch down- tend to decrease performance.
stream of the injector, any transverse mixture
1.2.2 Classification
ratio variations tend to persist, since gas phase
mixing is exceedingly slow. In the presence of a Several different classes of instability have been
strong acoustic field, however, the gas-phase identified and studied experimentally. Usually
mixing is considerably enhanced, minimizing the instability driving mechanisms differ among
this source of inefficiency. the classes such that different methods are re-
quired to control or eliminate the instability. time delay have met with mixed success . These
Historically, instabilities have been classified changes, even if successful in eliminating chug,
by their frequency range, but there is not a may decrease the system performance or bring
sharp dividing line between the so-called low, about a high frequency instability.
intermediate and high frequency classes. Classi- Other low frequency instabilities have been
fication of combustion instability, merely by its caused by coupling of the combustion process
frequency, has led to much confusion . It would with the injector structure. The injector may act
appear that a better method would relate the as a diaphragm and oscillate in an "oil can"
classes of instability to their effects, the most mode. This can cause nonuniform propellant
important coupling mechanisms, and to the injection and atomization which results in a low
devices used to eliminate them. frequency instability . Still other cases can allow
coupling between the combustion , or chamber
1.2.2.1 Low frequency, chug.- Of the various pressure, and the structural system. One instance.
types of combustion instability the low-frequency was found where pressure oscillations in the
type, or chug, also called putt-putt, groaning, propellant contained in the regenerative cooling
and motor-boating, is perhaps the easiest to jacket were being caused by chamber pressure
handle both from an analytical and experimental perturbations flexing the jacket wall structure
or developmental standpoint (see Chapters 5 with the resultant coupling causing a low fre-
and 6) . It is generally accepted that the frequency instability. Another rocket system in-
quency range which might be encountered in stability, of very low frequency (order of a few
the chugging mode is less than several hundred hertz) , is caused by propellant flow rate oscilla-
hertz . In this frequency range, the wavelength tions which result from pump amplification of
is usually much larger than characteristic di- the fluctuations of the pump inlet pressure (the
mensions of either the chamber or the feed sys- pump inlet pressure variations are due to the
tem . In some cases, however, there may be wave g-loading of the liquid column extending back
motion in the propellant feed lines. This insta- to the tank) . Although this "pogo " instability
bility usually begins with a low amplitude, si- is driven by thrust modulations that are trans-
nusoidal wave shape, growing in a linear fashion ferred to the structure, the combustion is per-
to higher amplitude . turbed so slowly as to remain essentially steady
Analytically, the chamber may be simulated and hence this is not generally considered a com-
by a lumped volume element, the combustion. bustion instability .
represented by a simple, constant time delay
and the propellant feed system resistance ne- 1.2.2.2 High frequency instability The most
glected, although feed system inertance and destructive type of instability is referred to as
capacitance may become important in the analy- high frequency instability, resonant combustion ,
sis. The combustion time delay is defined as the or acoustic instability . The latter is a generic term
time required for the liquid propellant to enter the derived from the observed correspondence in
chamber, travel at injection velocity to an im- frequency and phase between experimentally
pingement point, then be totally vaporized and observed chamber pressure oscillations and those
burned . Usually an empirical average can be calculated for the acoustic resonances of the
found for each propellant. A value which has chamber (see Chapters 4 and 6 ) . Both axial
often been used is simply the liquid flight time (longitudinal) and transverse (radial and tan-
from injector face to impingement point , usually gential) modes are included in this terminology .
for the least volatile of the propellants since this High frequency instability has also been called
constitutes a major portion of the total time lag. by such names as " screaming," "squealing,"
Methods of elimination of chug instabilities "organing," "screeching," and just plain "rough. "
include: increasing the pressure drop in the in- It is generally conceded that the effect of the
jector, increasing fluid inertance (i.e. , longer propellant feed system is usually unimportant
L/D in the injector or feed system) , decreasing in the study of high frequency instability . The
chamber volume, etc. Attempts to change the frequencies are often so high as to preclude coup-
18 LIQUID PROPELL
ANT ROCKET COMBUSTION INSTABILITY
ling with the relatively sluggish feed system. It than that required for sustaining the oscillations ;
should be noted, however, that in large combus- and (2) making changes in the dynamic energy
tion chambers the fundamental acoustic frequency losses or damping so that they exceed the energy
may be so low that the feed system can easily gains from the combustion response (see Chapters
couple. Combinations of resonant combustion 7 and 8) . Into the first category fall the very com-
and chug instability have also been observed . mon developmental attempts to achieve stability
In some cases the elimination of the chug by feed by varying the injector hole pattern , hole size ,
system changes has also resulted in elimination pressure drop, etc.
of the resonant combustion. In other cases , the Of the thousands of postulates or design criteria
opposite has been true. for achieving combustion stability, the following
An oscillatory source of energy is required for is an example of an injector design rule that has
sustaining an instability. For high frequency worked out quite well . In nearly every case, "the
instabilities, this energy must come from the stability of a rocket engine will be improved if
propellant combustion and is usually only weakly the two phases, i.e., liquid and combustion
dependent upon the feed system. Further, the gases , move at grossly different axial velocities ."
sustaining energy addition must be properly This rule of thumb indicates that if the most
time-phased with respect to the oscillating pres- volatile propellant is injected at higher velocity,
sure. In most high frequency instabilities the the engine will become more stable. Also , if the
coupling appears to be direct. Each wave af- less volatile propellant is injected at lower veloci-
fects the propellant combustion strongly enough ties , further increases in stability will be found.
so that sustaining energy is added directly to This "relative velocity " criterion is probably
that wave (i.e. , within a time no longer than responsible for the generally observed good sta-
the period) . Effects of secondary importance can bility characteristics of engines using gaseous
come from transient change in propellant in- hydrogen fuel . Like all generalizations in the
jection rates, in propellant impingement and study of combustion instability, there have been
atomization characteristics and from residual exceptions to the rule and certain limits must be
effects from one cycle influencing the amplifica- set . Often it is not practical for performance ,
tion of the next. In general, however, these simply compatibility, or other system reasons to increase
affect the equilibrium amplitude of the insta- the relative injection velocities (see Sect . 7.4) .
bility. The predominant effect of combustion chamber
SUSTAINING MECHANISMS : Sustaining baffles places them in this first category as well,
mechanisms which have been proposed for high because their stabilizing influence primarily re-
frequency include : loss of ignition , sensitive sults from simultaneously increased resonant
chemical preparation time, physical time delays, frequency (ie . , a shift to higher modes) and
detonation processes , pressure or temperature lowered acoustic displacement of the combustion
sensitive chemical kinetics, the "exploding" of gases within a baffle compartment. Some of their
droplets heated to above their critical temperature effectiveness may also stem from disruption of
and pressure and the shattering and mixing of wave propagation and droplet shattering. In
the streams , fans, or drops by the gas particle addition, there may be some effect of the baffles
motion. These are only a few of the more recurrent in energy dissipation due to vortex shedding, but
explanations which are advanced to explain the the extent of this contribution to effectiveness of
sustained combustion instabilities. Many of baffles is not currently known .
these will be discussed in detail in later chapters . Although it is known that engines may be
METHODS OF ELIMINATION : Two stabilized by the use of baffles on the injector
fundamental methods of eliminating high-fre- face, less well-defined criteria exist for defining
quency combustion chamber instability have how many baffles are required , i.e. , the necessary
been employed : ( 1 ) making changes in the pro- baffle spacing, or baffle length required to achieve
pellant spray combustion field or in the pressure
wave character* so that the combustion response *
Frequency or wave shape alterations may be accom-
to the wave motion releases less oscillatory energy plished through changes of the chamber geometry.
dynamic stability in the engine (see Sects . 3.5.3.3 or other types of acoustic absorbers (Sect. 8.2) .
and 8.2) . Although some empirical rules have Acoustic absorbers are also often considered to
been developed which seem applicable to some be a panacea. It is noted that if "enough" highly
propellant combinations over narrow ranges of absorbing resonators are inserted into a chamber,
injector variation , these rules are based only it will be stable. Similar to the case of baffles,
upon experience . When they fail in practice they questions remain as to the correct design criteria,
must be replaced by other rules which accom- and together with other operational factors it
modate the most recent failures of the old ones . is desirable to minimize the use of acoustic ab-
Generally, it has been thought that if a baffle is sorbers . It has also been found that the inclusion
made long enough to "shield" the region in the of particulate matter into the combustion gas acts
chamber wherein the major portion of the com- as an absorbing device by dissipation of oscillatory
bustion occurs, and if the baffle spacing is such energy through frictional processes associated
that the baffle cavity frequency is above about with particle drag. This damping method has
5000 Hz , the engine would be stable. Unfor- been widely acclaimed as the solution to high
tunately, there is much evidence which contra- frequency instability problems in solid propellant
dicts this rule . In one case it was found that motors (see Sect . 8.5.2) .
longer baffles made the engine even more un-
stable . In most cases , however, it has been found 1.2.2.3 Intermediate frequency, buzz . - Between
that if the baffles are made long enough, and if the two extreme types of combustion instability
they are spaced closely enough, the engine will is the intermediate frequency. It is unfortunate,
stabilize . but most of the combustion instabilities which
Baffles are not generally regarded as a panacea are not obviously either low or high-frequency
for promoting combustion stability. Even if are lumped into this intermediate category. This
sufficient and proper baffles did assure stability, propensity is so strong that often many chugging
it would still be desirable to minimize the length instabilities at higher than usual frequency are
and number of baffles used . The presence of referred to as buzz (see Chapters 5 and 6) .
baffles on the injector face represent a discon- The beginning of an intermediate frequency
tinuity in the most important combustion region . instability usual y shows a growing coherence of
It has been shown that baffles can have significant the combustion noise at a particular frequency
and deleterious effects on both combustion ef- with slowly increasing amplitude. There is usually
ficiency, and the effectiveness of nozzle thrust- wave motion in the propellant feed system. Al-
vector-control injection * . Furthermore, as the though there may be wave motion in the chamber,
baffle length is increased, the heat losses from the the phase and frequency does not usually corre-
combustion gases can become large enough to spond to an acoustic mode. If chug and buzz-
lower combustion efficiency, and the heat loads types are to be distinguished, it is by spatial
to the baffles may become prohibitive. Thus, it chamber pressure variations present during buzz
is desirable from the standpoint of cost , com- instability. The pressure wave shape is very nearly
plexity, performance, thermal compatibility and sinusoidal and one or both of the propellant feed
thrust vector control to minimize the number and systems may be highly coupled . Buzz-type in-
length of baffles used in a combustion chamber stabilities are not particularly damaging if they
to achieve dynamic combustion stability. remain at low amplitude, but may degrade per-
In the second category fall various types of formance, total impulse or thrust vector. In some
damping devices. Items of this nature have been cases the amplitude increases to the point of
noted to be effective when metal-walled com- triggering a high frequency mode.
bustion chambers were replaced with ablative In very large chambers there may be wave
chambers (Sect . 8.5.1 ) or lined with Helmholtz motion which approximates that of acoustic
instability. In one buzz instability the amplitude
* This effectiveness loss is because of mixture ratio and phase relationships in the combustion cham-
effects associated with the baffle which persists into the ber were the same as for a first tangential acoustic
nozzle. mode, but the frequency was 20 to 30 percent
lower than had previously been observed for this amplitude. The combustion chamber may be
mode. This particular instability was cured by either triggered unstable by some artificial dis-
the use of quarter-wave tubes placed on the turbance or the instability may develop spon-
propellant feed system. Some instances of longi- taneously .
tudinal high-frequency instability, although by The initiation of an acoustic instability is
definition an acoustic mode, probably should be frequently a nonlinear phenomenon ; that is,
called buzz . This is because this acoustic insta- there may be a threshold value of perturbation
bility has the linear buzz characteristics , is usually amplitude above which a sustained instability
feed system coupled, and may be eliminated by is caused, and below which the perturbation will
feed system rather than combustion changes. damp. Thus a single pressure disturbance can be
A type of instability which also falls into the amplified and result in sustained combustion in-
intermediate category is the so-called " entropy stability . A rocket engine's inherent stability
wave." Here axial mixture ratio gradients passing determines its ability to absorb large disturbances
the sonic plane in the nozzle may emit a pressure and yet return to its steady-state operation . This
wave which travels upstream toward the injector. was the impetus for combustion stability rating
The reflected wave influences the mixture ratio devices which provide artificial disturbances to a
and hence travels back downstream as an en- combustion chamber (see Chapter 10) .
tropy discontinuity at the gas velocity . The Prior to the introduction of stability rating.
overall effect is that of an intermediate frequency devices, a rocket engine's inherent stability was
oscillation . determined by reliance upon the occurrence of
Buzz is often encountered in development spontaneous stability. This required very many
programs on engines which are designed to tests and one system was deemed more stable
throttle over a wide thrust range . It is almost than another if, in many tests, the superior system
axiomatic that if the throttling range is to be exhibited fewer occurrences of combustion in-
very wide, buzz or chug will be encountered at stability. In other cases, the operational con-
some thrust condition . This is because the com- ditions were varied from the nominal. The system
bustion is given a continuously varying set of which remained stable through the widest ex-
conditions ; e.g., velocity of propellants , impinge- cursion of operating conditions such as mixture
ment time, atomization effectiveness, etc. It is ratio, chamber pressure, fuel temperature, etc. ,
nearly certain that at least one condition will be was alleged to be the more stable .
found which is favorable for coupling with wave The technique of relying upon spontaneously
motion in the propellant feed system. This is occurring combustion instability was desirable
particularly true if the engine is fairly large, al- in that the rating found was clearly associated
lowing many possible resonances in manifolds, with naturally occurring disturbances and the
domes, feed lines and other parts of the feed combustion was not changed because of the in-
system. sertion of foreign rating devices into the system .
This type of instability has been noted on However, using that approach , either a very large
many engines which were designed to be throttled . number of tests was required for rating, or the
Not only will the engine buzz at some operating rating obtained might not be typical of the oc-
condition , but often these oscillations will in- casional large trigger source (for instance, a hard
crease in amplitude sufficiently to initiate a high start) . Furthermore, there was no method for
frequency instability. determining the size of perturbation to which the
system would be stable. If the rating was ob-
1.2.3 Initiation of Combustion Instability
tained by changing the operating conditions, it
In addition to the characteristics of the fully- may have been obtained at conditions remote
developed instability discussed in the previous from actual operating conditions. At the off-
section, the manner in which the instability starts nominal conditions there might be completely
can also furnish an important clue to the diagnos- different driving and damping mechanisms present
tician. Knowledge of how the instability began than at the desired operating conditions. Because
may be as important as its mode, frequency and of these severe limitations, combustion stability
2217
INTRODUCTION $ 1.2
rating devices have been developed to perturb or small perturbation analysis at the stability
stable, steady- state combustion upon demand, boundary.
and thus eliminate some of the disadvantages of Pressure perturbations on the order of a few
the naturally occurring instability rating ap- percent of the steady-state chamber pressure and
proach . exhibiting a sinusoidal shape are deemed linear.
Rating devices have helped to shorten the Transition to a distorted wave shape and ampli-
development cycle of rocket engines. Prior to tudes increased to above ten percent of chamber
extensive use of these devices it was possible to pressure imply a nonlinear regime has been
arrive at the flight test stage and encounter small reached . Should this latter wave shape be present
system changes which gave perturbations suf- from the onset of resonant combustion then a
ficiently different than those previously exper- nonlinear analysis is required.
ienced so as to cause a sustained instability. All classes of combustion instability are dis-
In addition to the methods of initiation , the tinguished from random turbulent fluctuations
beginning of the combustion instability is quite. or combustion noise by coherence of a particular
different for the two cases. The fully-developed frequency or set of frequencies and in most cases
instability may be remarkably similar even by a much greater amplitude . Turbulent or ran-
though this initiation stage is distinctly dif- dom chamber pressure oscillations in rocket
ferent . These characteristics are contrasted by engines may have amplitudes on the order of one.
a variety of name pairs ; such as, sinusoidal versus to three percent. It should be noted that these
steep-fronted waves, spontaneous versus trig- "random" oscillations, when spectrally analyzed ,
gered or pulsed, small amplitude versus finite show many preferred frequencies . These fre-
amplitude, and more generally, linear versus quencies, even in a stably operating system, can
nonlinear. This latter distinction is derived from usually be attributed to some system characteris-
the type of analysis which is believed applicable tics such as pump speed, propellant feed line
to the mathematical modeling of at least the length or combustion chamber dimensions .
onset of these instabilities. Because of this funda- The lower frequency instabilities such as chug
mental difference in the initiation characteristics , and buzz, and even most longitudinal mode high-
two rather distinct schools of thought have de- frequency instabilities, were historically found .
veloped (see Chapter 4) . to be linearly initiated . The high frequency non-
Linear instabilities are nearly always con- linear instabilities were not generally recognized .
sidered to be spontaneous, but devices have been This was probably due to the relatively crude
constructed which sometimes can enhance the pressure transducers which were available at
occurrence of linear instabilities . Nonlinear in- the time and the absence of rating devices . Fur-
stabilities, on the other hand, are always triggered ther, the early engines were usually characterized
by a finite disturbance. The disturbance may by low injection density and were prone to a
occur naturally, or may be artificially triggered linear, or slowly building instability . Exceptions
by a combustion stability rating device. to this may have been found on some start se-
quences which resulted in a finite perturbation
1.2.3.1 Spontaneously initiated linear insta- or "hard start . "
bility. Spontaneous instabilities require no initial Linear, low -frequency instabilities acting as
disturbance, but rather grow out of the noise triggers for high frequency instabilities are often
inherent in the combustion process. If an engine prevalent during engine start-up. As noted, an
is to experience a linear instability, it might be engine operating over a wide range of thrusts ,
expected to begin immediately upon reaching flowrates, and chamber pressures is much more
normal operating conditions, since no trigger is likely to experience an intermediate frequency
required. However, variations in test conditions instability. Thus, if an engine's start transient
as well as the closeness to a stability boundary is very gradual, i.e. , full thrust is achieved only
could delay that occurrence somewhat. It would after several seconds , some set of operating con-
appear that if an engine has experienced an in- ditions is likely to be prone to a linear buzz or
stability of this type, it should yield to a linear
. chug instability. This linear instability can grow
and trigger resonant combustion . To prevent affect the guidance sensor systems. Further, for
this occurrence upon engine start, the start se- small engines used for intermittent operation,
quence is typically shortened to a few milli- the resultant thrust or total impulse is severely
seconds (while still avoiding overshoot or hard altered from that of a smooth start. For larger
start) . In this manner, the linear growth of any engines , this ignition spike can result in a trigger
oscillations is curtailed since the " sensitive" for sustained resonant combustion which may
portion of the start is quickly passed through . cause subsequent hardware destruction .
NATURALLY OCCURRING TRIGGERS :
1.2.3.2 Induced or nonlinear combustion in- Hypergolic liquid bipropellant rocket engines
stability. It would appear that most of the com- may operate over a wide range of conditions ,
bustion instabilities which are encountered today ranging from a highly pulsed mode of operation
are initiated by finite disturbances. These finite to long duration firings. In either situation , the
disturbances may take the form of several types ignition and start transients must be compatible
of natural disturbances or artificial triggers which with the propulsion system. For example, high
are used to determine dynamic stability of an pressure spikes resulting from explosions of ac-
engine system. cumulated propellants may result in the complete
The naturally occurring disturbances have ac- failure of a radiation cooled chamber.
quired the descriptive names of " spikes" and Propellants are said to be "beneficially hyper-
"pops . " Although there is no universal agreement golic" if the chemical reaction initiated by con-
in the rocket industry, it is generally conceded tact of the two propellants is sufficiently energetic
that a "spike" is a significant chamber over- to establish steady-state combustion with a
pressure upon ignition of the engine. A "pop" smooth pressure buildup in a specified period of
is defined as a similar over-pressure, but occurring time. Because of low chemical reactivity, the
spontaneously during mainstage operation (i.e. , chemical reaction may build up slowly for a
operation at nominal chamber pressure). period of time allowing unreacted propellant
For many years the sources of pops and spikes accumulation to occur in the chamber. This period
were the subject of intensive research during of time may result in undesirable spiking when
rocket engine development programs. In more true ignition actually occurs because the propaga-
recent years, however, the source of the distur- tion flame front passes through premixed pro-
bance has become of less interest due to the pellants and builds into a detonation wave. Much
development of stability rating devices. Engine of the experience with spiking is clouded by in-
systems which have withstood a variety of ar- strumental problems. Very sophisticated and
tificial combustion perturbations and quickly high frequency response instrumentation is re-
returned to stable operating conditions have quired to make a careful study of spiking.431 A
been assumed to damp natural perturbations typical spike pressure amplitude may be ten
rapidly . This has been found to be the case in times steady-state chamber pressures, but with
many engine systems and natural perturbations. pulse duration of only a few microseconds . This
have thus been rendered innocuous, although spike may either decay in a single cycle or show
wherever possible the sources of such distur- linear damping, lasting through several cycles
bances are still removed. of an acoustic mode of the chamber. High fre-
Under conditions of high altitude operation, quency instability following a spike will usually,
hypergolic bipropellant combinations may char- but not always, damp very quickly as steady-
acteristically start with an extremely high state operating conditions are approached .
chamber pressure spike. This spike may be at- Pops are not usually severely damaging to
tributed to the explosion /deflagration of the combustion chambers, but like spikes they can
propellants collected in the thrust chamber and/ severely disrupt either programed impulse or
or accumulated on its walls during the period of delicate portions of missile systems. They are
ignition delay. These chamber pressure spikes also natural triggers for high-frequency instabili-
may be of sufficient magnitude to result in de- ties. Pops are most often noticed in medium to
structive thrust chamber failure, or adversely large-sized rocket engines and are not limited to
hypergolic propellants . Neither a comprehensive The pulse gun, as the name implies , is a device
knowledge of the source of pops nor information which resembles a gun . It consists of a breech into
on wave growth thresholds are known . Some pops which an explosive (or powder) is placed , usually
are thought to be caused by leaks in the injector. in a conventional cartridge case, a firing mecha-
It is possible that these leaks lead to liquid nism , a barrel, and usually a diaphragm to protect
propellant flowing in an uncontrolled manner the explosive from the direct rocket chamber en-
across the injector face, collecting in pockets , vironment. Like the gas pulse, the pulse gun
and (without the necessity of oxidizer being barrel is usually attached to the rocket chamber
present in the case of monopropellants such as such that the pulse is fired tangential to the
hydrazine) exploding . Likewise, initiating dis- chamber, but it too may be oriented in any
turbances could be caused by a collection of direction . This device fires upon command to the
storable propellants in cracks or crevices where firing mechanism which may be a mechanical
detonation of hydrazine (for example) is en- detonator to initiate the main charge. The ex-
hanced by partial confinement as well as catalytic plosive charge in a pulse gun may vary from 3
effects of and heat transfer from solid surfaces. or 4 grains of gun powder to over 100 grains of
Accumulation of hydrazine in pressure pickup high explosive. To some degree, the overpressure
ports has been detected by chemical analysis in the chamber caused by the pulse gun is related
after firing of N2O4/50 % hydrazine-50% UDMH to the charge size but the relationship with sus-
propellants. Apparently, the UDMH was selec- tained instability may not be so direct.
tively distilled away. Explosive decomposition The explosive bomb consists of three major
of film coolant, the possibility of a noise pulse of parts. There is the explosive itself, usually a high
unusual amplitude from the combustion zone, explosive such as RDX, some sort of a detonator
and disturbances in the feed system are all possible which may be either initiated thermally by the
sources of pops . Probably many disturbances rocket gases or may be exploded electrically from
occur that are too weak to cause pops . an external signal. Lastly, there is a case which
ARTIFICIAL TRIGGERS : To avoid the insulates the explosive charge and its detonator
many tests which may be required to determine from the environment of the rocket chamber and
stability by relying upon natural triggers, sta- furnishes some degree of containment for the ex-
bility rating devices have been developed . Al- plosive. Like the pulse gun , explosive charges
though many types have been employed , three from 2 to 100 grains are typically used. Unlike
techniques are most often used to perturb com- the pulse gun and gas pulse, the bomb is usually
bustion systems. These are the (inert) gas pulse, mounted inside the chamber and is not restricted
the pulse gun and the nondirectional bomb . The to a wall location . The perturbation from a bomb
first seems to act as a velocity perturbation to the is less directional than the pulse gun ; both can
combustion processes, while the pulse gun and give chamber pressure perturbations of 10 to 500
bomb give both a pressure and velocity perturba- percent.
tion . These devices give perturbations of a The presence of these devices may introduce
finite size (10 to 500 percent of chamber pressure) . spurious effects on combustion. It has been found
Thus the triggered instability is nonlinear and is that even though most of the bomb case is ex-
best described by the nonlinear theory. pelled after the bomb detonates, the bomb dis-
The gas pulse used on engines employing LOX turbs the combustion prior to detonation and
and RP- 1 propellants was found effective in the small case residual may have an effect. The
producing perturbations which triggered sustained pulse gun and gas pulse also introduce an ad-
instability. Recently, however, the gas pulse has ditional cavity into the chamber which may re-
been utilized on storable propellants such as sult in acoustic interaction .
N20, and 50 % hydrazine and 50 % UDMH with
practically imperceptible effect upon the com- 1.2.4 Dynamic Stability*
bustion . With the RP- 1 /LOX propellants the The ultimate objective of any rocket engine
gas pulse was successfully used to determine a
most sensitive combustion region . * V . H. Monteil and O. W. Dykema, Authors.
development program is the successful flight . linear stability of the system. Control system
Since large costs, important program objectives theory217 defines a nonlinear system as stable if
and, in some cases men's lives are involved in the transients , resulting from a change of any
each flight, considerable efforts to guarantee the kind in the system operation, die out or if the
success of the flight are justified . In the area of amplitudes of subsequent sustained oscillations
combustion stability, this means the attainment are sufficiently small. This definition implies that
of high confidence, prior to conducting any the change in system operation can be of any kind.
flight, that the engine will not sustain damage and can be artificial or natural. The stability of
during the flight because of combustion insta- the nonlinear system is defined only by the
bility. Both theory and experiment indicate that system behavior subsequent to the transient . A
a condition referred to as dynamic stability will dynamically stable nonlinear system cannot
yield the necessary high degree of confidence sustain high amplitude , damaging oscillations
which will result in the engine performing stably. and will always return to acceptable operation
regardless of the transients which might occur.
1.2.4.1 Dynamic versus statistical stability.- The value of dynamic stability lies in the
In most cases, the coupled combustion gas dy- definition of the kind of steady-state operation
namic system of a liquid rocket engine appears that the system can sustain. In a nonlinear sys-
to be nonlinear and requires some kind of trigger, tem, large perturbations of steady-state operat-
natural or artificial, to initiate a high frequency, ing conditions may be required to gain confidence
high amplitude, damaging chamber pressure that the system cannot sustain damaging opera-
oscillation . As a result, a great deal of effort is tion . An unstable linear system, however, does
expended in attempting to determine what type not require a large system transient for oscilla-
and magnitude of triggers might occur in flight tion growth. If the steady-state operating con-
and in evaluating engine stability with artificial ditions become such that the system becomes
triggers of the assumed type. Many cases have linearly unstable, the instability will be immedi-
occurred, however, where no apparent trigger can ately apparent. Unfortunately, not all of the
be observed, and the oscillation appears simply operating conditions, which may control linear
to grow, out of combustion noise , to some limit stability, are known . Thus, a system naturally
cycle amplitude. It is apparent in these cases stable (no artificial perturbations) under many
that a trigger was not observable either because operating conditions in a number of tests may
the available instrumentation was not adequate still develop a destructive instability under ap-
to detect it or the system simply became linearly parently the identical operating conditions in-
unstable and no trigger was involved . The role curred in later tests.
of a trigger clearly is irrelevant in a linearly un- In summary, the concept of dynamic stability
stable system . involves the use of the system response to evaluate
The concept of dynamic stability on the other the stability of a system . To evaluate dynamic
hand, avoids any consideration of the possible stability the system is driven, by any means, into
types and magnitudes of naturally occurring high amplitude oscillations. If the oscillations
triggers. Dynamic stability is concerned only with subsequently decay rapidly to steady-state com-
the response of the system subsequent to transients bustion, then it is apparent that no high ampli-
in system operation and requires that the system tude, damaging, limit cycle oscillation (non-
return to normal operation after any and all tran- linear) exists (at least within the range of the
sients. The particular artificial transient which system disturbance) . A rocket engine which has
might be used to evaluate the system stability demonstrated this response over the range of
need not have a direct relation to naturally oc- operating conditions expected in flight should
curring disturbances . The significant factor in always remain stable in flight, even under rather
dynamic stability is the behavior of the system wide excursions and abnormal transients.
once the initial disturbance is removed . Although Another approach to gain some confidence in
dynamic stability is largely concerned with non- the stability of an engine is based on conducting
linear stability, confidence is also obtained in the a large number of stable tests and flights. This
confidence is called statistical stability. Statistical tensive component and system demonstration
stability indicates only that instabilities have program must be run or subsequent vehicles must
occurred rarely, or never, under the operating be flown with decreased confidence in the pre-
conditions tested . This does not rule out the pos-
dicted performance and reliability of the vehicle .
sibility that the system can sustain a nonlinear The loss of even one vehicle during a flight pro-
instability but may only indicate that the natural
gram because of unknown reliability of some com-
occurrence of a destabilizing trigger is rare. It
ponents or system is sufficiently expensive to
also does not indicate a broad range of stability
justify extensive efforts to assure the highest pos-
outside of the range of hardware and operating
conditions tested. sible confidence in the reliability of all components
There are engines that are known to be non- and systems prior to demonstration testing and
linearly unstable, but have demonstrated a flight. The development of an engine to satisfy
reasonably good record of stable combustion in the dynamic stability criteria has been shown to
flight. Confidence that these systems will not en- be a means of assuring high confidence in the
counter a damaging instability depends entirely stable operation of the engine.
on the vast background of test data which indi- Probably the most vivid demonstration of the
cates that as long as the engine operates in a above discussion lies in the Atlas program . The
known region of test experience, there is a low Atlas booster injector was extensively tested and
probability that instability will result. Any small qualified at both the component and engine
change in hardware and/or nominal operating system levels prior to its first flight. The thrust
conditions can invalidate this vast background chamber assembly exhibited stable combustion
of supporting data and may result in instability and an incidence rate of instability of approxi-
and/or require the generation of an equally vast mately one percent . Despite this low probability
background of data with the new system to re- of unstable operation , two successive Atlas ve-
gain an equal confidence level. hicles developed spontaneous instabilities on the
There are many examples in the history of launch pad which resulted in a complete failure
liquid rocket engine development programs where of the missions . As a result, a time consuming and
a thrust chamber assembly which has exhibited expensive development effort had to be conducted
statistical stability for a large number of tests (in the middle of the flight program) to assure
suddenly begins to self-trigger high frequency stable operation. A 14-month special program
combustion instability in a high percentage of was necessary to develop a baffled injector, to
tests . The cause of the radical change in stability demonstrate dynamic stability, and to re-demon-
(if the cause can even be found) is often a small strate engine system operation , reliability and
change in hardware or operating conditions which, compatibility with the new injector. The Atlas
it was thought, would have little or no effect on booster with the dynamically stable, baffled in-
stability. When this change in stability occurs jector has never exhibited a combustion insta-
far along in a vehicle development program, when bility in hundreds of subsequent tests and
all hardware and operating conditions of the flights. Similarly, subsequent programs such as
vehicle/propulsion systems are "frozen ," the the F- 1 , and Titan III, Stages I and II, have
cost in terms of money and flight program delays developed dynamically stable injectors and have
required to correct this problem can be disas- encountered no incidences of combustion in-
trous. Not only must the stability be improved, stability in many hundreds of subsequent tests.
but the effects of the necessary changes (usually Furthermore, these engines have sustained mal-
to the injector) on the rest of the propulsion sys- functions such as baffle and chamber failures,
tem and vehicle must also be evaluated and foreign objects in the feed systems and extreme
changes made where necessary . Once the redesign excursions in operating conditions, yet these
is made, the data on performance, compatibility abnormal conditions have not resulted in com-
and reliability compiled from previous component, bustion instabilities . These same conditions
system and flight testing are no longer applicable might well have caused combustion instability
to the new system. Therefore either a second ex- in statistically stable engines.
1.2.4.2 Dynamic stability in engine develop- cept of dynamic stability faces the problem
ment programs.- Unfortunately, in the majority squarely and develops the desired stability early
of past rocket engine development programs, in a program. When the need for high confidence
combustion stability was defined as a requirement in the stable operation of an engine is recognized
late in the program, and in some instances, after in the preliminary planning stage, a decision can
flight testing had begun. In these cases the en- be made to satisfy simultaneously dynamic sta-
gine components were in an advanced state of bility, performance and compatibility from the
development, and the engine system had been very start of engine development . Theories and
extensively tested before the dynamic stability experimental evidence indicate that all of the
requirements were imposed. This had the effect variables of injector design, chamber configura-
of severely restricting design freedom in the tion, and operating conditions affect combustion
stability effort . Typical restrictions in past pro- stability, performance, heat transfer, and dura-
grams included requirements to maintain com- bility. If all these aspects of chamber design are
bustion chamber dimensions, propellant system considered simultaneously and early in the de-
hydraulic resistances, injector element type, velopment program , not only can a more optimum
chamber heat flux, and engine performance. Under solution for the total design be reached , but each
these restrictions a simple mechanical damping individual problem area can be solved more
device, the baffle evolved . Baffles could be quickly and surely.
mounted on existing injectors and thus solve the For example, the large thrust-per-element
stability problem with minimum effort and time. (LTE) injector design approach is often con-
These early injectors relied primarily on baffles sidered as a solution for combustion stability.
(generally consisting of an even number of Since an increase in thrust per element usually
blades extending radially from a central hub) to results in increased mean spray droplet size, one
stabilize the combustion . Later systems , with might expect a corresponding loss in performance.
greater freedom, employed baffles (generally an If a solution for an existing combustion insta-
odd number of blades) in conjunction with modi- bility problem is being sought far downstream
fications of the combustion process through the in a development program, little can be done to
use of larger injector orifices (see Sects. 3.5.3.3 avoid this performance loss and the loss either
and 8.2 for details) . must be accepted or the LTE solution for sta-
The prohibitive expense involved when major, bility cannot be used . If, however, a stable sys-
developed vehicle components must be changed tem is being sought at the outset of a develop-
to solve a stability problem clearly point up the ment program , then a small increase in the
need for early development of dynamic stability. combustion chamber stay time (chamber length
Early development of dynamic stability, demon- or contraction ratio) may restore the performance
strated by rigorous pulse testing, assures a broad with very little real penalty to the thrust chamber
framework of stability within which other aspects design.
of the vehicle may be developed with confidence.
Statistical stability cannot be developed early 1.2.4.3 Demonstrating dynamic stability in en-
since it requires a large number of tests on the gine development programs.- Perhaps one of the
final prototype hardware. It is exactly this as- most difficult problems encountered in early en-
pect of statistical stability which sets the stage gine stability programs was that of measuring
for costly time-consuming, difficult re-develop- the relative stability of any new injector design .
ment programs to obtain stability after all other It is obvious that an ideal evaluation of the
development is complete. All engine components stability of the system could be obtained if
must be completely developed before a meaningful every possible mode or mechanism of instability
statistical stability statement can be made. This could be artificially excited to produce clearly
approach often results in the acceptance of what- defined oscillations . The driving force could then
ever degree of stability which results at the end be removed to determine if the system would
of a development program . return to normal acceptable operation, or if it
In contrast with statistical stability, the con- would sustain oscillations of some objectionable
magnitude. Implementation of this concept , cited as overpressure criteria usually vary from
however, is difficult . At first the modes or me- 50 to 100 percent of chamber pressure . An over-
chanisms of instability were only vaguely the- pressure criterion usually does not yield consis-
orized and methods of introducing any sort of tent results because both the true magnitude as
planned disturbance in the system were non- well as the recorded indication of the overpressure
existent. However, it was obvious that a part of depend strongly on many unknown and un-
the nonlinear feedback system of a hot firing controlled variables. The problem of measuring
thrust chamber is the oscillation of the combustor shock-type pressure waves has been pursued for
gases in the various acoustic modes of the cham- many years. Instruments which are able to react
ber. Thus it appeared that the most convenient rapidly to a step change in pressure level are
method of evaluating the stability of an engine notoriously poor in measuring the absolute level
under development was to force the chamber of the step change itself. Careful calibrations of
pressure into oscillation , and to observe the sub- many commercial high frequency pressure trans-
sequent response . This method makes the im- ducers in a shock tube by investigators at JPL597
plicit assumption that an artificial disturbance. have shown overshoot from 56 to as high as 260
of chamber pressure is a direct means of triggering percent of the true step change in pressure. Varia-
a nonlinearly unstable system. In order to gain tions of this type are amplified by the sensitivity
the maximum confidence in the stability of an of the transducer to vibration , partially recessed
engine rated by this method, allowances must mounting, the type of transducer, the signal
be made for possible shortcomings of driving conditioning, and the recording system (see
just the chamber pressure. One approach would Sect . 9.3 ) . All of these problems make it extremely
be to produce very high amplitude chamber difficult to be sure that an adequate pulse was
pressure oscillations, over a broad frequency supplied and, therefore, whether dynamic sta-
spectrum. A few attempts to drive the system bility was adequately demonstrated .
with a sinusoidal oscillation proved that the In the transmission of the pulse from the charge
energy requirements for such a system were far to the measuring instrument, distance is an im-
beyond that attainable with any existing or portant factor. Normally in a gaseous medium , for
contemplated driving devices. The most direct a given charge size , the local pressure level will
alternative method of performing this operation be proportional to the inverse of the distance.
subjects the chamber to a very short duration from the charge for the three-dimensional case.
pulse of sufficient amplitude to excite any or all In a chamber filled with droplets , which cause
of the acoustic modes. This pulse could be pro- "diffusion" of a pressure wave, the pressure
vided only with some sort of explosive device. decays much more rapidly. On the other hand,
Two types of explosive pulsing techniques it has been observed that the chamber reaction
have been used for stability rating of rocket en- zone may respond violently even to small pulses,
gines. These are the pulse gun and the non-direc- producing overpressures which are many times
tional bomb . Both were described in Sect. 1.2.3 greater than that produced by the same explosive
in connection with nonlinear combustion in- charge in a pressurized , passive chamber. This
stability. A more detailed discussion of explosive combustion zone response to the pulse is known
pulsing techniques can be found in Chapter 10 . to be affected by the magnitude of the pressure
The majority of engine development programs pulse and the local combustion conditions. Thus
concerned with dynamic stability have used the actual overpressure that a transducer will
bombs to generate the explosive pulses and thus record varies widely depending on the location
further discussion in this section will be limited of the instrument relative to the charge, and
to bombs. on the response of the intervening combustion
.
For demonstration of dynamic stability in an zone.
engine development program, it is necessary to Because of the difficulty of reproducibly gen-
define the pulse in some terms which will yield erating and measuring overpressure levels, many
consistent results . Pulse overpressure levels and engine development programs have used an ex-
bomb size have been used as criteria. The levels plosive pulse charge size criterion to demonstrate
dynamic stability. One obvious upper limit to As a result of the above discussion , a reasonable
the charge size on a given engine is excessive test program can be established to adequately
structural damage . For solid wall thrust chambers demonstrate dynamic stability and establish
of the Atlas and Titan types a 200 grain charge confidence that an engine will not self-ignite
appears to be near the structural limit . After instability in flight . A typical dynamic stability
repeated pulse testing with 200 grain charges criterion intended for this purpose is outlined
some minor bolt stretching and baffle cracking below. The general approach followed in this
have occurred . criterion is to strive to develop dynamic stability
Another limit on charge size is the effect of early in a program, with a few candidate in-
the pulse on propellant flow rates into the cham- jectors . These tests are designed to screen out
ber. An excessively large pulse may change the unstable configurations and to establish the dy-
flow rates sufficiently that the new operating namically stable candidate. Use of bombs as
conditions are quite different from those which large as are feasible, and the location near the
one wishes to test for stability. During the short injector face and the wall is the approach often
period before the desired flows are re-established employed for this initial screening . The possibili-
the amplitude of the pulse induced chamber ties of flow stoppage and/or a more sensitive
pressure oscillations may be greatly reduced . charge size or location are evaluated with the
The degree to which flows are changed by the selected candidate . Development of performance
pulse, and the time before nominal flow are re- and compatibility may proceed using the most
established are functions of the particular cham- stable candidate injector. The stability of the
ber and feed system under test and few generali- final prototype configuration is then evaluated
zations can be made with respect to a limit on over the limits of the anticipated flight operating
bomb size. There have been cases where a large conditions. A final test of stability in the engine,
charge will not induce instability while a smaller with small bombs to limit hardware damage,
one will induce it (see Sect . 10.2.4.1 ) . This has evaluates possible flight- configured engine sys-
been attributed to the effect of the large pulse tem effects of stability. Criteria very similar to
on the propellant flow rates. A simple test series , this have been followed successfully for Stages
with a range of charge sizes, can be run to es- I and II on Titan III and Agena. Much of this
tablish that there is no charge size, small or large, type of stability testing has also been accom-
which can initiate instability in the engine . plished on the Atlas, Thor, H- 1 and F- 1 engines.
The location of these charges in the chamber The following is an example of dynamic stability
should be such that the charge is most likely to criteria for a large engine :
initiate oscillations in the preferred and/or
damaging modes of the chamber. Theory and I. General Criterion
experiment indicate that the transverse modes An injector shall be considered dy-
are both the most probable and damaging. The namically stable if the amplitudes of
best charge location to initiate oscillations in all driven oscillations resulting from all of
transverse modes simultaneously is near the the required explosive pulse tests at-
injector and near the chamber wall . Here again tenuate to 5 percent of mean chamber
an anomaly apparently exists , as in the case of pressure within 40 milliseconds.
the effect of charge size on propellant flows. A Explosive
II.
few isolated cases have been reported where an
The explosive shall be composition C-4
.
engine can be triggered by a bomb located near
or a commercially available RDX equiva-
the throat, but not by the same bomb, under the
lent.
same conditions, from any other location . Again,
the bomb location in the corner between the in- III. Bomb Locations
jector and the wall should still be considered the Bombs shall be located at each of three
the prime location to demonstrate dynamic sta- positions as specified below:
bility and a few tests should be made to eliminate A. Radially between the wall and the
the possibility of any location anomaly. mid-radius of the chamber and axially
not further from the injector than one- ratio in steady-state operation . The
quarter of the distance from the injector maximum and minimum test conditions
to the throat. are defined as the estimated extremes of
B. Radially between the wall and the operation in flight.
mid-radius of the chamber and axially V. Hardware
in the convergent nozzle section. Pulse tests shall be conducted in solid
C. Radially on the centerline of the wall (or water-cooled) combustion cham-
chamber and axially not further from the bers, except for engine pulse tests which
injector than one quarter of the distance shall be conducted on flight- configured
from the injector to the throat. hardware.
IV. Test Conditions VI. Required Explosive Pulse Tests

Pulsing shall be accomplished at 5 con- The required explosive pulse tests are
ditions of chamber pressure and mixture listed in the following table :
Test conditions
Bomb size,
Test grains Location Hardware
Chamber Mixture
pressure ratio
Initial screening of candidate injectors (each injector type)
200 A Nom. Nom . Solid wall

12 200 A Min. Max. Solid wall
Candidate injector evaluation (at least one injector)

12316
25 A Nom. Nom. Solid wall

50 A Nom . Nom. Solid wall
100 A Nom. Nom . Solid wall
4 200 Α Nom. Nom . Solid wall
5 200 B Nom . Nom. Solid wall
200 C Nom . Nom. Solid wall
Prototype verification (each of two injectors)

12345
200 Α Nom. Nom. Solid wall

200 A Max. Max. Solid wall
200 A Min. Min. Solid wall
200 A Max. Min. Solid wall
200 A Min. Max. Solid wall
Engine verification (each of two engines)
1 50 A Nom. Nom. Flight-configured

1.3 HISTORICAL SURVEY * to include instability observation via circum-

ferential as well as axial slits. Levine and Lawhead
In the history of liquid propellant rocket de-
and their associates at Rocketdyne developed a
velopment the point where combustion instability
two-dimensional motor in which the entire cross
became important was where these phenomena
section (in the form of a 2- D strip) of a high-
were first recognized as being responsible for
thrust chamber could be observed and where
rocket failures. Combustion-oriented oscillations
attention could be concentrated on the important
in pressure could easily go undetected using the
combustion phenomena immediately downstream
steady-state instrumentation that was standard
of the injector. † Still later, Rossman et al.606 at
in the 1950 era and before. When combustion
Bell Aerosystems used the window principle for
instability amplitudes were sufficiently high to
studies of the droplets that were generated in the
generate audible signals, the chance for detection
actual combustion environment . One of the
of the instability was enhanced .
early studies that utilized such observation
The recognition of different classes of oscilla-
techniques, together with pressure instrumen-
tion , with different responsible mechanisms, was
tation, was conducted by Tischler et al.462 at
also an important milestone in the 1950 era. Two
NACA Lewis Research Center. That study
theoretical papers were a direct result of interest
pointed out the complex situation of combined
generated by a Bureau of Aeronautics symposium
modes since two types of wave motion were
on the subject of combustion instability in liquid
clearly shown in combination.
propellant rocket motors (Naval Research Lab-
Other investigators were also involved in the
oratory December 7-8 , 1950) . One analysis by
Summerfield673 considered the effect of both in- improvement of the instability recognition and
observation techniques. The combined efforts
ertia in liquid propellant feed lines and com-
of researchers at Princeton , MIT, and NACA
bustion chamber capacitance with a constant
Lewis resulted in the Li-Liu differential pressure
combustion time lag, and was applied to low
transducer.449 This strain gauge-type pickup with
frequency instability. Crocco173 advanced the
a water-cooled catenary diaphragm was the
concept of the pressure dependence of the time
forerunner of later miniaturized versions using
lag , which was applied to low frequency phenom-
the strain gauge concept . Industrial development
ena in monopropellant and bipropellant motors,
of the capacitance-type pressure transducers ,
and high frequency instability with combustion
which have proved even more successful over
concentrated near the injector face. This is not
the years in combustion research, were also in an
to say these Princeton professors were the first
embryo stage during the early 1950's with higher
authors dealing with the subject , since Gunder
frequency, more rugged, smaller versions to
and Friant300 had provided early insight to the
come. The piezoelectric-type transducer, which
problem and the time lag theory apparently had
has gained wide usage in the past few years, did
been suggested by the Von Karman group at
not contribute to these early studies.
JPL in the late 1940's .
Another experimental research that was being
Experimental investigations of combustion
carried out during this early era involved basic
instability were in the early stages at a number
measurements of the fundamental times as-
of industry, government, and university labora-
sociated with the combustion process to test the
tories in the early 1950's . For example, the use
sensitive time lag theory. Information on chamber
of observation windows as a means to study
behavior was being sought by varying fuel and
combustion phenomena were used by Altseimer65
oxidizer flow rates sinusoidally, and then mea-
at Aerojet for steady-state observations, and by
suring the resultant fluctuations in chamber
Berman et al.95,96 at General Electric to observe
pressure. This technique did provide basic in-
unsteady phenomena. Later these techniques
formation on the total time lag469 (see Sect.
were extended by Ellis and Pickford242 at Aerojet
6.2.2) which had significance for low-frequency
instability. However, in order to check the high
* D. T. Harrje, Author, with contributions from the
ICRPG Working Group on Liquid Rocket Combustion
Instability . See Sect. 9.2.2 for details .
frequency mode theory, frequency limitations ties to the chamber length required for efficient
of the apparatus necessitated replacement by a steady-state combustion. A similar model was
stability-limits-testing technique that was used later developed by Lambiris, Combs and Levine421
by Grey and Harrje¹80 in 1958 at Princeton to at Rocketdyne to better describe combustion
confirm the sensitive time lag theory as applied phenomena as encountered in large engines. The
to the longitudinal mode. This was achieved by use of streak photography, variable-length test-
holding the combustion process constant and ing , static pressure profiles and shock tracers
varying the chamber length (hence the frequency) . have all added to our knowledge of the axial
Similar techniques were applied by Harrje and steady-state combustion profile . Taking these
Reardon187 via a sector motor to confirm the rocket combustion studies up to the present,
transverse mode behavior two years later. it now appears possible to check out the validity
In late 1958 a widely publicized disagreement of various combustion mechanisms by a " direct"
occurred between Zucrow-Osborn, 774 and 114
method.11
Crocco.174 The point in question involved the Before leaving the subject of injection studies,
results of the tests just mentioned , which in- which were often directly related to the combus-
dicated a definite time lag behavior, and those tion processes, some specific topics should be
results from gas rocket studies at Purdue which cited . Included in the group were studies of spray
argued against the necessity of a time lag . Sev- fluctuation , impingement angle, liquid phase
eral years passed before the theory of Sirignano646 mixing, dynamic characteristics, drop-size dis-
and the experiments of Glassman et al.113 involving tribution , spatial characteristics, droplet break-
the wave shape and the importance of the up , etc.
Arrhenius rate function in gas-rocket-type com- The steady-state model developed at Lewis
bustors helped to clarify the differences between Research Center was followed in 1962 by a non-
the two combustion devices . linear theory using a one-dimensional model to
During the 1950's and early 1960's the AFOSR predict combustion instability limits. Priem and
Contractors Meetings provided the forum for Guentert563 were the originators of this theoretical
most liquid rocket instability discussions just as approach which is described in Chapter 4. The
today the ICRPG serves this need . One constant model uses various mechanisms from the injec-
point of discussion was whether nonlinear or tion-combustion studies just discussed . A dis-
linear theoretical analysis should be used for turbance is inserted into each model and the
the high-frequency instability problem. Torda,697 computer is used to evaluate whether stability or
then at Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute, was one instability results.
early advocate of the nonlinear approach. Priem Considering the actual rocket hardware, al-
and others later supplied the concepts applied though a relatively large thrust United States
to rocket engines. The subject of nonlinear theory liquid rocket engine was available in the early
will be discussed more fully in a moment. 1950's (i.e. , the Redstone) , the era of the large
While arguments as to the best way to proceed engine was really closer to 1960. A number of
theoretically on the instability problem were in engines in the 100 to 200 thousand -pound thrust
progress, the question remaining in the back- class had been developed by that time and the
ground was how much was really known about greater than million-pound thrust designs were
steady-state combustion. Along these lines in- being studied (F-1 and M- 1 ) . Large engine feed
formation on the factors influencing mass and system associated instability had already been
mixture ratio, injector element design, and other experienced and solved for the case of the Red-
propellant flow phenomena were being studied stone engine. The approach followed for high
by Rupe615 and others at JPL . Related studies frequency instability was that incidences could
were being conducted by Heidmann , 336 Ingebo , 375 be eliminated with controlled start sequencing
Morrell, 499 Priem559 and others at Lewis Research (to avoid triggering such modes) , and by careful
Center. These studies formed the background selection of injection patterns and types , e.g. ,
for the Priem-Heidmann propellant vaporiza- LOX/hydrocarbon injectors avoided unlike im-
tion model564 which relates the propellant proper- pingement injector designs which were more
susceptible to spontaneous resonant combustion . much attention in recent years because of the
Life with this approach was hazardous as was ability to damp transverse modes. However, the
shown by two Atlas mishaps described in Sect. design of the subsonic portion of the nozzle is also
1.2.4.1 . Thus in 1961 the Atlas booster493 became important for stability. The majority of nozzle
the first production engine to adopt a different studies have been theoretical , with Crocco ,
stability approach- use of a baffle so as to avoid Culick, Reardon , Sirignano, and Zinn the prin-
both spontaneous and triggered forms of resonant cipal contributors. The nozzle may serve as the
combustion. main damping source for longitudinal mode or
Techniques to control combustion instability may provide slight amplifications in certain
using baffles were first used in 1954 by Male and transverse mode situations . Only in the longitu-
Kerslake461 at NACA Lewis . Numerous studies dinal case have experiments been made.
at Aerojet, Rocketdyne, and Princeton also The merits of being able to determine the
helped to point out the benefits and limitations. relative stability of candidate injector designs
of the baffle approach. As explained in Sect . 8.2, by rating devices were discussed at length in
the mechanisms by which stability is accom- Sect. 1.2.4.1 and the details of the techniques
plished using the baffle are still not completely can be found in Chapter 10. These techniques
clear- indeed more than one mechanism is proba- were under development in the late 1950's pri-
bly responsible. The criticality of injection con- marily at Aerojet and Rocketdyne. Stemming
ditions near the baffle was found to be especially from such studies a 220-grain bomb was devel-
important in establishing the desired damping. oped for the Atlas MA-5 dynamic stability
A few years after the addition of the baffle to verification in 1961.493 Studies of stability rating
the Atlas engine there was strong sentiment that techniques using bombs , pulse guns and gas in-
further instability research was unnecessary jection have been conducted more recently
since the high-frequency problem had been (1965-1968) by Combs et al. at Rocketdyne
solved . This same argument was used again a as well as at other organizations . Evaluation of
few years later for the acoustic liner approach to the techniques was the prime purpose of the
instability suppression . Unfortunately, it has studies as discussed in Chapter 10. The rating
not turned out to be that simple for either device. techniques are the standard means of evaluating
to achieve universal stability and both devices. dynamic stability, for example, the Titan IIIM
have preferred applications. Stage I baffled injector was designed for dy-
*
Liner design has had the advantage of a namic stability and was proved successful from
reasonable theoretical base, particularly with the first test (1964) . Two programs that have
recent additions that treat nonlinear effects . yielded a great deal of information on the de-
However it has been found that typically the velopment problems in achieving dynamic sta-
design problem is made difficult by the actual bility were the F-1 program20 conducted at
chamber environments that are present . Experi- Rocketdyne and the GEMSIP program " at
mental studies in liner design for rocket motors Aerojet. An ad hoc committee formed for the
were initiated by Blackman and Lewis in the F- 1 problem played an important role of trans-
early 1960's at Pratt & Whitney. That work has mitting information to and from both of those
been extended by Garrison . Other experimental programs.
work has been principally conducted by Phillips To achieve dynamic stability more than damp-
at NASA Lewis, Oberg at Rocketdyne, and ing devices and rating techniques were required ;
Harrje at Princeton . The theory of resonators predictions of the stability limits were necessary.
as related to combustion applications was clari- Reardon's empirical correlations650 based upon
fied by the work of Ingard . Nonlinear theoretical the Crocco sensitive time lag theory were applied
extensions using the jet-flow model were done to the design of various engines. Modifications
by Sirignano . of the Priem theory by Dynamic Science and
Both baffles and liners have been receiving Rocketdyne proved helpful in other design ap-
* See Sect . 8.3 for individual references. † See Sect. 3.6 for individual references.
333
INTRODUCTION $ 1.3
plications. 91,136 Another correlation approach con- criticality of the impingement processes has been
ceived in the early 60's by Dykema238 also al- studied by a new approach at JPL618 and offers
lowed stability predictions to be made on new an explanation for the popping phenomena
hardware designs . This later approach is based (Sect. 7.6) .
on droplet parameters controlling the response, The advent of the laser and the ability to
a subject which was further studied by Strahle665 overpower combustion light has encouraged re-
at Princeton . In another analysis with the em- newed study of the difficult problem of droplet
phasis on understanding the conditions conducive measurements both cold and hot . Weurker et
to instability in LOX/LH2 engines, Feiler and al. * at TRW have been the leaders in this area.
Heidmann260 formulated a response model which Use of improved paraffin droplet techniques has
has proven quite successful. also shown considerable promise in the study of
Chapters 4 and 6 supply the background and droplet distributions (Dickerson et al.224 at
application data on these approaches. In addi- Rocketdyne) .
tion to NASA's interest, AFRPL has been deeply Another area of recent interest has involved
involved in this important aspect of designing further development of damping devices . Rocket-
for stable operation through in-house testing dyne has concentrated on the use of slots in the
efforts, extension of computer programs for the injector face, often in conjunction with baffles ,
Priem approach136 and encouragement in the a design which was used for the LM ascent en-
publication of a manual on how to apply the gine.522 A similar approach involved the use, at
sensitive time lag theory.650 Bell Aerosystems, of a toroidal cavity resonator
Damping devices have not been necessary in with apertures extending into the chamber at the
all rocket motors to achieve the desired stability injector-chamber interface. This design proved
for manned flight . One example is the Agena completely successful on the PBPS axial engine.
engine with a successful history of 250 launches , Similar designs had also shown considerable
over 350 space firings and nearly 3000 ground promise in the Bell LM ascent engine develop-
tests which have demonstrated that a reliable ment . In an even more recent program, Aerojet
system can be maintained without producing and Aerospace have been performing tests on a
disturbances frequently assumed to a general relatively small number of damping devices
condition of rocket engine combustion . The vari- placed across an injector face. As few as three
able-thrust TRW LM ascent engine has met all Helmholtz resonators324 placed in the walls of
the dynamic stability criteria without requiring research chambers at Princeton had indicated a
damping devices . The merits of the later injector marked stability improvement-preferred con-
design approach together with a competitive ditions were those in which a short baffle limited
Rocketdyne module design (see Sect . 7.4.5 ) are the frequency spectrum with damping accom-
currently being tested on larger diameter hard- plished by the resonators.
ware where the stability demands are more dif- The nature of the tangential mode is still not
ficult to meet. completely clear. Tests in recent years by
Designs of recent years have extended engine Clayton15 at JPL have revealed shock-type waves
operation to higher pressures, above the critical in 11 -inch diameter hardware . Other observa-
conditions of the propellants . Experimental pro- tions in similar diameter hardware have revealed
grams have been evaluating these effects on the peaked Maslin and Moore wave predictions.
stability. Such studies have been active at Aero- Phase differences have also been shown where
jet, Rocketdyne, Penn State, Illinois Institute of the wave leads near the nozzle entrance in the
Technology, and elsewhere. JPL study whereas it leads near the injector
It has not been only the newer ranges of pres- based on the measurements of others . Explana-
sure operation that have required additional tions have been offered which involve detona-
study. The effect of reactive jets of the hyper- tion-like processes,48 however, the frequency has
golic propellants which cause the jets to deflect been shown to be limited in all cases to that
rather than mix has also received recent atten-
tion at JPL364 and Dynamic Science.777 The * See Sect. 9.4.5 for references.
predicted from acoustic theory. These wave data. ment has led a somewhat clouded history. Unlike
are necessary if the proper theoretical analysis performance, which has always received its proper
is to be applied . Wave growth studies have been share of attention , instability has often in the
made by Agosta in the past and remain a sub- past been something that was only spoken of in
ject of active interest. guarded terms certainly it was not to be ad-
In this review of the history of combustion vertised. In recent years this state of affairs has
instability the emphasis , following a brief dis- vastly improved and frank and open discussions
cussion of the earlier works, was to concentrate of current instability problems have taken place
on the high frequency modes or resonant com- and even are part of the annual ICRPG Com-
bustion. While resonant combustion is perhaps bustion Conferences .
the most dramatic way to destroy an engine A factor in determining the heartbeat of cur-
(burnout in a matter of milliseconds) problems rent research into combustion instability phenom-
in both low and intermediate frequency insta- ena is the status of engine development programs.
bility have plagued many engine development Currently liquid rocket development programs
programs. The early monograph by Crocco and are at a very low ebb ; hence the concern for the
Cheng179 served a need in clarifying the basic health of the associated instability research . Will
mechanisms associated with low frequency in- the answers be ready when the next generation
stability. An active program of research into low
. of engines are developed? This cyclic tendency
frequency phenomena has been maintained for is not unique to the rocket field nor has it failed
many years at NASA Lewis with Wenzel, Szuch, to be felt before in instability research. Just prior
Dorsch, Priem* and others participating . Studies to the advent of Sputnik (1957 era) marked one
in this area are still in progress though they are previous low point. Another hesitation occurred .
few in number. with the development and use of the baffle on
Intermediate frequency instability has had the large engines, in the early 1960's. However, re-
most uneven history . Often the receptacle for those occurring engine problems on various thrust units
unstable phenomena which could not be readily subsequently spurred even more work in these
explained by the high and low frequency theory, areas of research and development .
much uncertainty continues to exist as to the To summarize the status of the instability
importance of this type oscillation. Scala in 1956 problem as of today it is necessary to subdivide
analyzed entropy wave-type instability but, as the problem into several principal categories :
explained by Crocco in Sect . 5.3.2 , this insta- (1) the understanding of the processes funda-
bility is relatively rare in a pure form. In the past mental to liquid rockets such as atomization ,
few years, Fenwick et al. at Rocketdyne, McCor- mixing, vaporization , chemical kinetics, etc. ,
mack at Dartmouth and investigators at Prince- (2) the application of instability theory to hard-
ton have looked at the bunching effects and the ware design primarily as a guide in predicting
basic jet frequencies as responsible mechanisms stability trends, (3) the application of damping
for intermediate frequency phenomena .† Many devices such as baffles, liners, slots, etc. , which
of these jet characteristics had been observed in do not attempt to alter the combustion but
earlier investigations. The Rocketdyne analysis rather seek to absorb energy or restrict wave
was used with success in solutions of some H-1 motion, (4) the ability to detect the phenomena
development problems of buzz in 1966 . of combustion instability, and (5) the develop-
ment of techniques to rate liquid rocket engines
1.4 CURRENT STATUS for stability.
Progress in category one, the fundamentals of
Combustion instability research and develop-
liquid rocket combustion processes, has been
understandably slow. This is because of the ex-
* See Chapter 5 for individual references.
treme difficulty in attempting to observe and
† See Sect. 3.3 for individual references.
measure these physical and chemical processes
D. T. Harrje, Author, with contributions from the
ICRPG Working Group on Liquid Rocket Combustion which often take place simultaneously at high
Instability. speed and in environments that rule out conven-
tional instrumentation . An example of such diffi- tools to the theoretician in his battle with the
culties are the studies of unsteady droplet burning instability problem . Unfortunately, because of
rates (as discussed in Sect . 3.4.2) where direct ob- such factors, a crash program to devise the ulti-
servation is often impossible, especially if one mate theory has never been feasible-constant
wishes to closely simulate the actual environments reevaluation of the current tools available and
encountered in high injection density, high cham- how they relate current knowledge of the actual
ber pressure rocket combustors . Hence simulation rocket combustion instability requires both time
must be attempted by other means such as and patience .
scaling, substitution of propellants (for such im- Before leaving the subject of theory status,
provements as optical clarity) , laboratory evalua- mention should be made of low and intermediate
tion of only a portion of the processes involved , frequency theory as well as that pertaining to
etc. resonant combustion . Although often regarded
Perhaps it will never be possible to solve the as a problem substantially less difficult, instability
combustion instability problem by the direct in the low and intermediate ranges continues to
approach of attempting to understand in suf- appear in a surprising number of engine develop-
ficient detail the steps through which an element ment programs. Often this is due not to the lack
of propellant passes from its point of injection of theory or the inability to analyze the problem
into the combustor until it is converted into com- but rather because of the numerous factors that
bustion products. However, this basic effort can influence the occurrence of these instabilities
needs to be continued because knowledge of how and new parameters that enter the picture be-
the physical and chemical processes are influenced cause of different operating regimes . A recent
by injector element design and operating condi- example is the problem associated with pres-
tions, and how they are altered by factors such surization gases that dissolve in the propellants
as pressure and velocity perturbations is essen- causing enhancement of lower frequency oscilla-
tial to the successful application of instability tions . Further study is currently being carried
theory. Should the key be found in these funda- out to provide the proper model. Another exam-
mental studies the dividends would be tremen- ple is the spray bunching phenomenon associated
dous think what it would mean to be able to with intermediate frequency oscillations. Studies
directly predict stability from parameters such in that case have yielded important insight so
as droplet size (primarily a function of the injec- that problems of that type could be overcome .
tion orifice diameters and differential pressure) In category three, immediate solutions to the
and the unsteady burning rate factors (from a instability problem are being sought using damp-
knowledge of propellant choice, injection density, ing devices. Success has been achieved in almost
axial and transverse combustion distribution , every case . Progress to date has also been good
etc.). in understanding how these devices function,
In category two, the theories as currently used particularly in the case of liners where theoretical
act more to indicate trends and thus point the models have kept pace with the applications.
way to logically move in achieving stability. Cor- Based on usage, certainly baffle proponents need
relations using the theories as outlined in Chap- to make few apologies . Even without a good
ters 4, 5 and 6 can all point to considerable suc- theoretical base, experimentation with the con-
cesses in this regard . Through refinements in our trolling design parameters has achieved a high
knowledge via the more fundamental studies , degree of success. Were it not for the heat transfer
future theoretical models hopefully will improve penalties and the design complications, the quest
these stability correlations . We have moved a for alternate solutions would have gained little
long way from the dark days of the early fifties . impetus. Recently more effort has been directed
Incorporation of nonlinear effects, with the re- toward better explaining the fluid mechanical
sultant clarification of phenomena that pre- role played by baffles so that less empiricism will
viously were poorly understood , is one milestone be required in future applications.
along the road . Computer developments and With regard to liners and the closely related
mathematical advances have provided powerful acoustic slots, application has been rather limited
although the tests that were performed have been In those applications where chamber pressure
generally quite encouraging . As mentioned in measurements still are not feasible (e.g., certain
the previous section, limited liner concepts and flight-weight hardware) other primarily optical
slots have been successfully applied to developed techniques, often using recent advances in tech-
hardware. In most applications it is required that nology, have been used with considerable success .
the gas properties (speed of sound based on These approaches are described in Sect . 9.4.
temperature, molecular weight, and ratio of Last of the categories is the status of rating
specific heats) possess a degree of uniformity so methods to ascertain the tendency toward com-
that the theory may be successfully applied . The bustion instability of an engine. Stability rating
trend in optimization is to choose the best lo- techniques have improved over the years to a
cation for these damping devices so that designs point that rating of combustors over a wide thrust
can be minimized in size, complexity and cost. range can be achieved with a high degree of con-
Acoustic liners for ablative chambers is one ap- fidence. Problems may still exist in the very low
proach being investigated . The theory of acoustic thrust range where the rating technique may
slots, nonlinear regimes of operation , and opti- alter the normal combustion environment or pro-
mum configuration based upon fundamental flow vide a source for damping after the disturbance
considerations are typical of other areas of study. has been generated (the physical size of the bomb
The last two status categories are concerned can be the problem in the first instance, the port
with detection and ratingcombustion insta- of the pulse gun the cause in the second) . How-
bility incidences. Detection has vastly improved ever, these are the exceptions rather than the
over the years. Where there were at one time rule and the ability to rate engines for stability
problems in evaluating instability occurrences has become quite refined as discussed in connec-
at relatively low frequency, today measurements tion with Dynamic Stability (Sect. 1.2.4) and
at tens of thousands of cycles per second have Stability Rating (Chapter 10) .
been achieved, thus allowing not only better high Thus it might be said at this time that a
frequency measurements, but accurate recording good working balance has been achieved between
of shock-type wave forms as well. One of the the theoretician and experimentalist, the de-
principal factors in this success is the wide use velopment engineer and the researcher in the
of relatively small piezoelectric transducers with field of combustion instability. Each group has
ablative protection, helium or water cooling . This made a contribution toward the goal of providing
stable combustors and in the understanding of
together with tape recording advances (flat re-
the controlling factors. Not all the problems have
sponse to 80 kHz or better is now possible) has
been solved but steady progress has been made
allowed these and other miniaturized probes to
on all fronts. Future needs will require new in-
make unsteady pressure measurements that were sight ; however, the immediate problem of engine
previously impossible. Although further im- stabilization has been achieved in almost every
provements in pressure measurements will un- case. Alternate approaches have evolved so that
doubtedly take place in the future, the current important factors such as performance, chamber
status is extremely good. compatibility, and stability can exist in harmony.
CHAPTER 2
Steady-State Processes
2.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF COMBUSTION that the propellants are usually injected from a
AND FLOW PROCESSES * distributing manifold ( Sect . 2.2.1 ) through orifices
into the combustion chamber in the form of liquid
In a very general sense, the character of the
jets (Sect. 2.2.2 ) . In some manner, the jets must
time-dependent perturbations that can exist in a
atomize, i.e. , break up into small droplets , and
system depends on the steady-state properties of
the droplets must vaporize. Atomization is often
the unperturbed system. Therefore, every aspect
achieved by causing two (doublet ) or three (trip-
of the steady-state combustion and flow processes
let ) streams of like ( or sometimes unlike ) liquids
in liquid propellant rocket motors is potentially
to impinge;* impinging jets produce thin liquid
relevant to combustion instability. For this reason ,
sheets or fans which disintegrate rapidly, first
it is important to have as thorough a knowledge
into ligaments and then into droplets (Sect . 2.2.3 ) .
as possible of steady-state motor processes before
Except in monopropellant systems, the reactive
undertaking a study of combustion instability.
fuel and oxidizer vapors must intermix ( Sect.
Five textbooks can be recommended as sources
2.3.3.3 ) . The mixed vapors react, and finally the
for background material : Ref. 63, Ref. 78 (es- hot product gases flow out of the combustion
pecially Ch . 7 ) , Ref. 536 (especially Ch . 26 ) ,
chamber through a choked nozzle .
Ref. 535 (especially Ch . 3 ) , and Ref. 740 ( es-
Numerous variations of this sequence of events.
pecially Ch . 11 ) .
can occur. For example, with some injector designs
A complete knowledge of the sequence of events
the liquid propellants may be partially or totally
that occurs in a steadily operating liquid propel-
mixed, atomized or vaporized before they enter
lant rocket motor has never been attained . Liquid
the combustion chamber, by contouring the in-
propellant combustion processes are quite compli-
ternal injector geometry suitably, by injecting
cated and defy precise analytical description . A
gases into injector passages in a controlled manner,
host of comprehensible subprocesses are of direct
or by other methods ( Sect . 2.3.3.1 ) . Some pro-
relevance to the overall combustion sequence as
pellants (monopropellants and bipropellant com-
shown in Fig . 2.3.3a . It is details of these sub-
ponents with monopropellant characteristics ) may
processes to which subsequent sections of this
experience appreciable condensed-phase com-
chapter are devoted . In the present section , we
bustion reactions before mixing or vaporizing ;
shall attempt to discuss how these subprocesses
in other systems liquid-phase mixing may occur
might be integrated into a description of the over-
and give rise to condensed-phase or surface re-
all process. The integration is necessarily impre-
actions. Heterogeneous reactions may also be of
cise ; except for the simplest models, it consists
importance in the absence of liquid-phase mixing,
merely of patchwork.
particularly for hypergolic propellant combi-
nations which ignite spontaneously upon contact,
2.1.1 Overall Description
As a brief introduction to the kinds of com- * Other techniques that have been used for liquid /liquid
bustion and flow processes that occur in liquid systems include showerhead, splash-plate and swirl
atomizers. Gas/liquid injectors often employ coaxial
propellant rocket motors, it can be stated first
elements where liquid in the central jet is sheared by a
surrounding annular gas. Impinging gas and liquid jets
* F. A. Williams, Author. are also used .
37
and notably at interfaces between impinging fuel H; Total (thermal + chemical) enthalpy
and oxidizer jets or fans. Thorough gas-phase added to gas from drop of kind j
mixing of fuel and oxidizer may not be achieved, per unit mass of drop vaporized
either by accident or by design (Sect . 2.5 ) , e.g. , k Specific reaction rate constant
poor mixing occurs near the chamber walls when mi Time rate of increase in mass of drop
fuel-rich streams are intentionally sprayed there of kind j
for purposes of cooling. Condensed phases may be Qi Number of drops of kind j produced
present in the equilibrium mixture of combustion per unit volume, per unit mass
products when utilization is made of propellants range, per unit time
containing either metals (which produce refrac- q Heat flux vector
tory oxides ) or substantial amounts of carbon R Gas constant per unit mass
(which itself condenses ) . There are regions in N° Universal gas constant
many motors, especially between spray fans, where Ui Diffusion velocity of species i
reaction products recirculate back to the vicinity
. VLi Velocity of drop of kind j
of the injector instead of proceeding directly to the 10i Mass rate of production of species i
nozzle, with the result that a fraction of the gases by gas-phase reactions
remains in the combustion chamber for a long time X Position of drop in chamber
(Sect. 2.3.4 ) . A number of examples may be cited nc Combustion efficiency
of chambers which operate at pressure levels above Tc Overall conversion time
the critical point of one or more of the liquid Tr Residence time
propellants ,601 under these conditions the sharp Ω;; Mass of species i added to gas by a
distinction between liquid and gas disappears and vaporizing drop of kind j per unit.
the usual descriptions of atomization and vapori- mass of drop vaporized
zation processes require modification (Sect .
Subscripts :
2.4.2.2 ) .
This list of complications , illustrating the non- i Index denoting chemical species :
systematic ways in which departures from the i = 1 , ... , N
normal combustion sequence often occur , could j Index denoting droplet kind ; j = 1 ,
be extended farther. However, it is less instructive M ( e.g. , fuel, oxidizer)
to pursue a discussion of complications than to
elaborate further on simpler models for the com- 2.1.2 Conversion Time and Residence Time
bustion sequences. The present paragraph serves
as a warning not to apply existing models uni- A helpful crutch in considering the complex
versally. sequence of combustion processes is to ascribe to
The following nomenclature pertains to Sect . the propellant combination an overall conversion
2.1 : time Te, which is the time required , from the
instant of injection, for a representative element
A, n Constants in vaporization rate ex- of propellant to produce equilibrium combustion
pression, Eq. 2.1.5-1 products. Sophisticated variants of this conversion
a, b, a, ß Constants in size distribution func- time appear in the "time-lag" descriptions of com-
tion, Eq . 2.1.6-1 bustion instability179 ( Sect . 4.2) . In discussions of
B Pre-exponential (frequency) factor steady-state motor operation , it is relevant to
in reaction rate compare 7. with the residence time 7, of a repre-
DI First Damköhler number sentative element of propellant in the chamber.
Eact Activation energy Obviously the optimum motor design is achieved
Fi Drag force per unit mass on drop of when the first Damköhler number213 DI = Tr/Te is
kind j unity, since for Dr < 1 the residence time is too
G (TL) Drop size distribution function short for the conversion processes to be completed
gi Number of drops of kind j per unit in the chamber, whereas for Di >1 the excessive
volume chamber volume may cause flow friction and
STEADY-STATE PROCESSES $2.1 39
weight penalties. The description of the steady- injector design , etc.; they typically lie in the range
state combustion sequence, which arises from the 10 to 70 inches.
Tc
Te and T. concepts, is ill-defined and physically un-
satisfying because nothing is said about the history 2.1.4 Gas-Phase Processes
of events that occur during the interval re, thereby
making it impossible, in general, to compute Additional hypotheses concerning the nature of
either T. or 7, in a simple way. One must introduce the gas-phase conversion processes are needed for
simplifying hypotheses concerning processes that obtaining a correspondingly simple expression for
Te. If it is assumed (in addition to instantaneous
occur during 7. for these concepts to become use-
vaporization) that gas-phase mixing processes are
ful . Some simplified models lend themselves natur-
ally to description in terms of Te, while others do also rapid, so that the gases in the chamber are
not. essentially premixed combustibles , then 7. is de-
termined by the chemical kinetics (both mecha-
2.1.3 Characteristic Length and Characteristic nisms and rates) of the gas-phase reactions . For
Velocity example, approximating the gas-phase reactions
as a one-step, first-order process with specific.
One useful simplifying assumption is that in- reaction rate constant
jected propellants vaporize very rapidly, since
then both Tc
7 and 7, can be investigated by con- k= exp ( - Eact/R°Te) (2.1.4-1 )
sidering only gas-phase processes . Under this con-
(where B is the frequency factor, Eact is the acti-
dition , if the material in the combustion chamber
vation energy and ° is the universal gas con-
is approximated as an ideal gas, with gas constant stant) , one finds by solving the elementary first-
R and specific heat ratio y, at stagnation con- order chemical kinetic equation that the ratio of
ditions, then 7, is simply related to the chamber
the mass of reactants present at time t to the
temperature Te and to the characteristic length L*
mass of reactants present at the time of injection
of the motor (the ratio of the chamber volume to
(t = 0 ) , a ratio which clearly equals the com-
the throat area) . This correspondence can be seen
. bustion efficiency ne of a chamber with residence
by first noting that 7, is the ratio of the mass time t, is given by
contained in the chamber to the mass per second
flowing out the nozzle, then using the well-known nc = 1 - e-kt (2.1.4-2 )
isentropic formula relating the mass flow through
Strictly speaking, this result yields an infinite
a choked nozzle to stagnation conditions ; the chemical conversion time 7. ( a property shared by
result is78
many widely differing models, which makes it
Y+ 1Y+1/2(y-1) more appropriate to discuss the results of such
Tr = L * (YNT.) - 1/2
2 models in terms of 7. rather than L* ) , but com-
bustion will be reasonably complete (e.g. , nc =
L* (~ + 1 \ r+1/7−1 0.99) in a time that is expressible in terms of the
-1/2 (2+1) (2.1.3-1 ) parameters B,་ Eact and Te ; e.g. ,
Te≈4.61B1 exp (Eact/ R°Te) ( 2.1.4-3 )

where the characteristic velocity c * (the product
of chamber pressure and throat area divided by since In (1-0.99 ) = - 4.61 . This result provides
the mass flow rate ) has been introduced in the last an illustration of how, with a sufficient number
expression . This result for 7, enables one to in- of assumptions, the conversion time can be related
terpret the Damköhler criterion for optimum . to parameters of a more fundamental nature .
motor design in terms of an optimum character- Much more can be said about gas-phase chemi-
istic length L*. Irrespective of the validity of the cal kinetics, about gas-phase mixing and about
assumption of short condensed -phase residence models that disregard the presence of condensed
times, it may be stated that experimentally, opti- phases in the chamber. The best description of
mum values for L* are observed to exist and to premixed gas-phase kinetics depends intimately on
vary appreciably with propellant combination , the propellant combination ; for some propellants
(e.g. , hydrogen-oxygen ) the kinetics are under- the ratio of the condensed-phase to gas-phase 7.
stood well, 122 while for others practically no infor- contributions to increase as the chamber pressure
mation exists . It generally is found that the gas- is increased, and it also provides a basis for intro-
phase reaction time decreases when either the ducing a "pressure-sensitive time lag" into de-
chamber temperature or the chamber pressure is scriptions of combustion instability179 (Sect . 4.2 ) .
increased. Since this division of the conversion time is rather
Descriptions of gas-phase mixing processes imprecise, it is instructive to consider condensed-
(Sect. 2.3.3.3 ) depend strongly on chamber shape phase models which are more explicit, less phe-
and on injection -pattern geometry ; relevant mo- nomenological and more mechanistic .
lecular transport properties are typically known Aside from descriptions dealing with homo-
more accurately than chemical kinetic parameters, geneous condensed-phase chemical kinetics, the
but turbulent mixing processes, which generally simplest model that focuses attention on the con-
occur in motors, are difficult to describe prop- densed phase was stated first by Probert.568 It is
erly 536,740 Mixing-process models for rocket com- assumed that the liquid propellant jets break up
bustion have not received much attention and instantaneously into droplets and that gases
deserve to be studied further. evolved from droplets by vaporization , mix and
One-dimensional models for premixed gas flow react instantaneously to produce equilibrium com-
in constant-area motors, accounting for nonzero bustion products. The droplets are assumed to
Mach numbers in the chamber through relevant move at a velocity VL in the direction of the
mass, momentum and energy conservation equa- chamber axis, and the rate of vaporization of
tions, can be formulated in terms of the algebraic these droplets is taken to control the conversion
equations of "diabatic" flow (constant-area flow time. Thus, the model is essentially one of spray
with heat addition ) . Such models can be extended combustion or spray evaporation .
to variable-area chambers and in particular to A number of different choices are possible for
throatless chambers which produce supersonic flow describing the spray vaporization processes . For
through thermal choking (e.g. , purely diverging monopropellant systems it may be assumed that
reactors ) ; the description then involves obtaining the chemical heat release occurs in the spherically
solutions to ordinary differential equations.289,748 symmetrical gas flow region near each droplet.
Instead of dwelling further on these and other Then monopropellant droplet combustion theories
elaborations of descriptions of gas-phase processes, (Sect . 2.4.3 ) should be used for describing the
we shall proceed to discuss models that consider vaporization rates . If it is assumed that the
condensed phases . One reason for doing so is that chemical heat release occurs in gas regions far
for most rocket motors the conversion time Tc is removed from each droplet, in that case simple
appreciably longer than would be expected on the vaporization theories (Sect . 2.4.1 ) should be used
basis of gas-phase chemical kinetics alone ; thus , for describing the vaporization rates .
if gas-phase processes are dominant , mixing must In bipropellant systems ( Sect . 2.4.2 ) there is a
be of importance . great variety of limiting cases. If one of the
propellants is much more volatile than the other,
2.1.5 Condensed - Phase and Gasification
then it is reasonable to assume that the volatile
Processes
propellant vaporizes instantaneously after injec-
A straightforward extension of the preceding tion and that the spray model refers to vapori-
ideas is to assume that 7. is the sum of two terms , zation of the less volatile constituent. In bipro-
a time lag associated with condensed-phase proc- pellants utilizing liquid oxygen and hydrocarbon
esses and a time lag associated with gas-phase fuels , it can usually be assumed that the oxidizer
processes.78 It can be argued approximately and vaporizes instantaneously, while for hydrogen-
qualitatively that the rates of the condensed-phase oxygen systems the hydrogen can often be as-
processes are likely to be relatively unaffected by sumed to be gaseous at the injector exit.440 When
the chamber pressure, whereas the rates of the one of the propellants vaporizes quickly, the
gas-phase processes are pressure dependent, gener- vaporization rate of the less volatile constituent
ally increasing as pressure increases. This causes can be described on the basis of the theory of
STEADY-STATE PROCESSES §2.1 41
burning of a fuel droplet in an oxidizing atmos- G (r ) bri exp ( -ar ") (2.1.6-1 )
phere (or of an oxidizing droplet in a fuel atmos-
where a, b, a and B are constants. Other functional
phere, as the case may be) ( Sect . 2.4.2 ) . Alterna-
forms have also been used (Sect. 2.2.4) .
tively, if chemical reaction times are long com-
A partial differential equation with independent
pared with the time for an element of vapor to
variables r and t (or ri and the axial coordinate
diffuse away from the vicinity of a droplet (but
x ) can be written for the time ( or space ) evo-
still short compared with the time for the droplet
lution of the distribution function G. This equa-
to vaporize) , the droplet vaporization rates can
tion has been referred to as the spray equation .
be described on the basis of the theory of non-
If the values of the constants a, b, a and ẞ are
reactive droplet vaporization (Sect . 2.4.1 ) . If both
.
assumed to be known from measured atomizer
propellants are of comparable volatility, then
characteristics, and if the quantities VL, A, and n
spray descriptions can be developed for which
are treated as known constants, then the spray
condensed phases of two different chemical types
equation can be solved for the spatial development
are taken into account.740 Droplet vaporization
of G in the combustion chamber . From this so-
during the heat-up period can also be analyzed.
lution , one can calculate ne for a chamber of a
Whatever description is adopted for the vapori-
specified length, thereby obtaining a rather de-
zation process , analysis of this process yields an
tailed description of the combustion processes
expression for the time rate of change of droplet
implied by the spray combustion model. It is
radius r , which can usually be approximated
found that, for a given chamber length, large
reasonably well* by an equation of the form740
vaporization rates ( large A) , small droplets ( small
drL гL) , small injection velocities ( small VL ) and spray
= _ - ArL-n (2.1.5-1 )
dt distributions that are as nearly monodisperse as
possible, all favor high combustion efficiency.740
where the value of A which is independent of гL, This relatively simple type of spray combustion
depends on local gas-phase and droplet properties model is amenable to improvement by taking into
and where the constant n generally lies in the account the effect of the spray on the gas phase .
range 0 <n < 1. It is not proper to specify VL and A in advance ;
instead, these quantities will vary with axial dis-
2.1.6 Spray Combustion tance in a manner dictated by mass , momentum
and energy conservation for the two-phase system .
In order to complete the description of a spray in one-dimensional flow. We shall not delve now
combustion model , one might assume for sim- into the details or results of the improved analyses,
plicity that at any given axial position in the except to say that it becomes desirable to account
chamber all droplets are of the same size (i.e., for differences between droplet and gas velocities ,
that the spray is monodisperse) . It is obviously so that droplet drag coefficients become relevant
more realistic to account for differences in the
parameters . † Studies of the coupling between the
diameters of the various droplets, but the system gas phase and the spray have led to a considerable
is so complex that this can be done only statisti- amount of information on propellant vaporization
cally. Thus, it is convenient in such models to
as a design criterion for rocket-engine combustion
introduce a droplet size distribution function. chambers. The primary fallacy in these descrip-
G (r ) , such that G (r ) dr, is the probable number tions probably is the assumption of one dimen-
of droplets with radius between гL and r + dri . sionality; if this assumption is deleted , then it
A four-parameter functional form for G (r ) , ca- becomes exceedingly difficult to develop a compre-
pable of correlating experimentally measured size hensible, detailed description of spray combustion .
distributions, is743 A few calculations have been made for sophisti-
* This relationship, as usually derived , does not consider † See Refs. 53, 535, 656 , 660 and 745 and see Sects.
forced convection or droplet stripping. However, these 2.3.3.2 and 2.4.1 for drag coefficients.
processes can be correlated approximately by the same See Refs. 117, 132, 343 , 369, 373 , 420, 557, 558, 559,
equation with a suitable relative velocity dependence in A. 564, 565, 651 , 738 and Sect . 7.2.4.
cated spray combustion models in which properties largest droplets to those expected for the gas ."420
are not invariant in planes normal to the motor The motion pictures show axial striations of
axis. * The choice of the transverse variations is luminosity extending downstream from the like-
based on the droplet distributions expected to be on-like doublet fans, sometimes beyond the throat
produced by atomizers that have particular rela- of the nozzle.440 They indicate that intense heat
tive geometrical positions, consistent with some release occurs where the fuel and oxidizer fans
simple injector designs . Cold- flow measurements first meet and that the more volatile propellant
of spray characteristics can help in providing up- often vaporizes quickly, producing a downstream
stream boundary conditions and in extending the region in which droplets of the less volatile pro-
calculations to include a wider class of injectors . 356 pellant (e.g. , hydrocarbon fuel in hydrocarbon-
Electronic digital computers are used in the calcu- liquid oxygen systems ) burn in the gaseous atmos-
lations, and it is difficult to draw generally valid phere provided by the volatile constituent. Down-
conclusions from the results . Faced with such stream intensity peaks coincide with the axes of
complexities in attempts to develop improved the fans of the less volatile propellant, thereby
theoretical descriptions of the complete com- providing support for the use of droplet com-
bustion sequence, one is motivated to seek guid- bustion models in downstream regions . It was
ance from laboratory experiments on rocket inferred qualitatively from these studies that the
motors. upstream jet-impingement and fan-intersection
regions are of critical importance to phenomena
2.1.7 Experimental Observations † of combustion instability.440 Processes occurring
in these regions are certainly the most complex
The most revealing laboratory experiments that and the least understood of the processes occurring
have been reported consist of observations made.
anywhere in the chamber. Thus, it is likely to be
by Levine and coworkers on two-dimensional
quite difficult to develop adequate analytical
motors with transparent walls . 420, 421 , 424, 440 Both
descriptions of the steady-state combustion and
streak photography and high-speed cinema- flow processes that are most relevant to com-
tography have been employed . The natural lumi- bustion instability.
nosity of the combustion process has been ob-
served, and strong backlighting has been used in
2.1.8 Elaboration on Description of
an effort to make condensed phases visible. Many
Spray-Combustion Models
measurements were made with liquid oxygen as
the oxidizer and alcohol as the fuel, since this In spite of this unfavorable outlook, analytical
combination facilitates observation in some rework is continuing on the development of steady-
spects. However, a number of observations were state spray-combustion models, with the specific
reported on liquid oxygen and hydrocarbon fuels objective of obtaining models that will be useful
such as kerosene , on liquid oxygen and gaseous or in calculations of combustion instability (Sects .
liquid hydrogen, and on storable hypergolic combi- 4.3 and 7.2.4) . It is therefore of interest here to
nations such as nitrogen tetroxide and unsym- look more closely at the bases of these models and
metrical dimethyl hydrazine. at how subsequent material in Chapter 2 bears on
These experiments show highly heterogeneous their development .
conditions in the combustion chamber and do not Models for steady-state combustion of a spray
appear to conform to the assumption of one- generally begin with the assumption that the
dimensional flow. The streak photographs are spray is a dilute collection of spherical droplets .
interpretable in terms of the presence of droplets The term "dilute" means that the volume occu-
of differing sizes moving with differing velocities ; pied by condensed material can be neglected in
slopes of streak traces can be correlated with comparison with the volume occupied by gas- an
velocities ranging from those expected for the excellent approximation except possibly in the
immediate vicinity of the injector . In hypothe-
* See Refs. 165 , 166 , 356 , 421 and Sects. 2.3 and 2.5. sizing that droplets are spherical, consideration of
† See also Sects . 2.3.3.2, 2.3.3.3 and 2.3.4 . the injection process and of most atomization
processes is ruled out. Thus the information in Here ρ is the gas density, V is the gas velocity,
Sects. 2.2.1 , 2.2.2 and 2.2.3 affects spray com- Y is the mass fraction of chemical species i in
bustion theories only through upstream boundary the gas, U is the diffusion velocity for species i ,
conditions.* An exception to this statement is w₁ is the mass rate of production of species i in
that atomization through aerodynamic shattering the gas phase by homogeneous chemical reactions,
and atomization or coalescence through inter- and there are N different gaseous species in the
droplet collisions, can sometimes be included as system. The quantity ;; is defined as the mass of
break-up or coalescence criteria, by assuming that chemical species i added to the gas by a vaporizing
the interaction time is short enough for the conse- droplet of kind j per unit mass of droplet vapor-
quent droplet deformations to be negligible ; thus, ized . The introduction of ;; affords the option
material in Sect . 2.2.3 sometimes appears directly of either considering simple vaporization (in which
in spray combustion models ( Sect . 4.3.1.3 ) . case, for the example of a fuel droplet, ;; would
If VL; denotes the velocity of a j droplet of be unity when i denotes fuel and zero otherwise )
mass m, then counting droplets of kind j leads to followed by homogeneous combustion , which is
the steady-state spray equation accounted for through w , or hypothesizing the
a existence of a diffusion flame in the thin boundary
· layer surrounding the droplet (in which case, for
( m;g; ) +▼ • (VL¡g ; ) = Qj
am
the example of a fuel droplet, i ; would be zero
j = 1 , ... , M (2.1.8-1 ) when i denotes fuel, negative when i denotes
oxidizer, and positive when i denotes reaction
Here the size distribution function g; (m , x) , de-
products, with the values of ;; for oxidizer and
fined as the number of droplets of kind j per unit
products determined by the stoichiometry of the
volume at position x per unit range of mass about
diffusion flame ) . The material in Sect. 2.4 is rele-
m, possesses an m dependence that can be de-
vant to the determination of Nij.
scribed by formulas inferred from either Eq.
Overall mass conservation for the gas can be
(2.1.6-1 ) or equations appearing in Sect . 2.2.4
obtained by summing Eq. (2.1.8-2 ) over all
(which contains additional information on distri-
species N. Since conservation of mass in the
bution functions ) . The quantity m; (m , x ) is the
gasification process implies
time rate of increase in mass of a droplet of kind j
N
and mass m at position x ; its approximate func-
ΣΩ;; = 1 j = 1 , ...
. ) M
tional dependence on m can be inferred easily i= 1
from Eq. (2.1.5-1 ) . A more elaborate form indi-
cating the dependence on droplet and gas prop- since conservation of mass in homogeneous chemi-
erties is given in full in Sect . 2.4 . The source term cal reactions implies
Q; represents the number of droplets of kind j per
unit volume per unit range of m produced per Σω ; = 0
i= 1
unit time by shattering, droplet collisions, etc .;
the information in Sect . 2.2.3 must be used in and since the definition of diffusion velocities
obtaining Q. There are M different kinds of implies
droplets (fuel, oxidizer ) in the system . N
Conservation of chemical species i in the gas Y₁U₁ = 0
can be expressed, for steady flow of a dilute i=1
spray, as N
M 00 we find (using Y = 1 ) that
i=1
V• [p (V + U₁) Y; ] = w ; − Σ [ ® m‚ª‚g ;dm
j=1 0
M
i = 1 , ... , N (2.1.8-2 ) ▼ • ( pV ) ==
= Σmg,dm ( 2.1.8-3 )
j1
* Aid in establishing upstream boundary conditions
can be gleaned from Sects. 2.3.1 , 2.3.2 , 2.3.3.1 and 2.3.4 The derivation demonstrates that Eq. ( 2.1.8-3 )
as well as 2.2.1 , 2.2.2 and 2.2.3. is contained in the set ( 2.1.8-2 ) .
To derive an equation for conservation of mo- quantity H; is defined as total (thermal plus
mentum of the gas, it is reasonable for dilute sprays chemical ) enthalpy added to the gas from a droplet
in rocket motors to assume that forces experienced of kind j per unit mass of droplet vaporized . Its
by droplets consist solely of aerodynamic forces value depends on processes occurring in the bound-
(skin-friction and separation drag ) exerted by the ary layer adjacent to a droplet and can be inferred
gas. If F; ( m , x ) denotes the drag force per unit from discussion given in Sect. 2.4. Applying energy
mass (i.e., acceleration ) exerted on a droplet of conservation across the boundary layer, one finds
kind j by the gas , then the steady-state mo- that H; is the total enthalpy leaving the surface
mentum conservation equation for the gas can be of a droplet of kind j per unit mass vaporized and
reasoned to be therefore energy conservation for the droplet can
M be expressed as
-- - mFig¡dm
pV.VV = −Vp — V • ≈− Σ [
j=1 °
0 a
m; (mh; ) + VL ; • V (mh ; ) = ṁ¡H¡
am
M ∞
-Σm; (VL - V) g , dm ( 2.1.8-4 ) j = 1 , ... , M (2.1.8-7 )
j- 10
where p is the hydrostatic pressure, T is the where h; (m , x) is the total (thermal plus chemi-
cal ) enthalpy per unit mass for a droplet of kind j .
viscous stress tensor of the gas , and the last term
Equations ( 2.1.8-1 ) through (2.1.8-7) can be
accounts for the momentum carried to the gas by
the material that vaporizes from the droplets . viewed as 5M +N +4 equations in the 5M +N + 4
unknowns g , (pYi) , V, VL , h and hj. When
Information appearing in Sects. 2.3.3.2 and 2.4.1
expressions for gas-phase transport fluxes*
is useful for obtaining F; in terms of droplet and
gas properties . The steady-state motion of the (Ui , T, q) , homogeneous reaction rates† (w ) ,
droplets is described by the equations thermodynamic properties ( p , ... ) and droplet
behavior ( m;, Qi , Nij , Fj , H;j as obtained from
a
m; Sects. 2.2.3 , 2.3.3.2 and 2.4 ) are appended to the
· VLj + VLj • VVL¡ = Fj
am set, and when upstream spray distribution func-
tions and a sufficient number of other upstream
j = 1 , ... , M ( 2.1.8-5 )
boundary conditions and boundary conditions at
in which the first term accounts for the possibility the chamber side-walls are known , then in princi-
that the droplet velocity is size dependent . ple a complete description of the spray combustion
In terms of the total (thermal plus chemical ) process can be obtained from these equations . To
enthalpy per unit mass for the gas h and the develop such solutions is the fundamental ob-
gas-phase heat flux vector q, which includes jective of steady-state theories for spray com-
energy transfer by heat conduction , diffusion and
. bustion .
radiation , the steady-state equation for conser- Since it is clear that the system of equations is
vation of energy for the gas can be written as complicated, solutions have been obtained only
by introducing further simplifications. Except for
▼ • [µV (h + V²/2) ]
the studies mentioned at the end of Sect. 2.1.6 ,
= V· q - V • ( T.V) the first simplifying assumption always has been
M 00 one-dimensional flow. This reduces the number of
- Σ m (F¡ • VL¡ ) g¡dm independent variables from four (m and x ) to
two (m and x) . Next , unless one introduces highly
M 00 simplifying assumptions concerning the fluid me-
- Σ [* m; ( H; + V² ;/2 ) g;dm (2.1.8–6 ) chanics ,740 the usual practice has been to eliminate
j=1 0
m as a variable by considering only monodisperse
where V2 V.V and VL2 = VL; VLj. The last two
terms account for the work done on the gas by
* These quantities generally have been neglected en-
the droplets and the energy added to the gas by tirely since typically they are small in the core flow.
the material vaporizing from the droplets . The † Only occasionally have these been included.
STEADY- STATE PROCESSES $2.2 45
sprays,,656,660,738 by introducing a small number ( 2 The applicability of the results to real rocket
to 5 ) of discrete droplet sizes ,558, 559, 564, 565 or by motors should always be judged through com-
accounting for a size distribution in a somewhat parison with quantitative and qualitative obser-
ad hoc manner.745 The result is a set of ordinary vations such as those reported in Sects. 2.3 and
differential equations in x which at least can be 2.5.
programmed for computer solution.
After reducing the system to ordinary differ- 2.2 INJECTION AND ATOMIZATION
ential equations, investigators have adopted two 2.2.1 Manifold Flow *
paths to obtain solutions. One group has simplified
further until it becomes possible to obtain ana- In all but the very simplest of injection schemes,
lytical solutions.53,656,660, 740,745 Another group has such as a single element , it is necessary (or con-
programmed the system for solution by digital venient ) to distribute the propellant to the in-
computer. * The first approach leads rapidly to jection orifices by means of a manifold. In most
some general conclusions such as those cited in current schemes this manifold consists of a number
Sect . 2.1.6 . The second approach affords the possi- of connected passages fed by the single outlet of
bility of simultaneously including a greater num- a shutoff valve, and terminating in the orifice
ber of phenomena. The second approach has pro- array.
duced a number of rather general conclusions for Consider first the case where the injector con-
specific propellant combinations. These include421 sists of a large number of relatively small orifices.
a. A uniformly-distributed, one-dimensional The mass and mixture ratio distributions (Sects.
treatment of the injection region is un- 2.3.1 and 2.3.2) may then be characterized on a
realistic . scale defined by the flow from the individual
b. Calculation of droplet acceleration in a orifices, assuming the interaction of jets and sprays
high-velocity, combustion gas stream must is unimportant for this situation . Here the mani-
include the influence of droplet deformation fold design , based on distribution capability , plays
on the aerodynamic drag coefficient . a dominant role in determining the essential fea-
C. The effects of forced convection on heat tures of the early reaction region in the chamber.
and mass transfer processes must not be If the manifolding results in a poor distribution of
neglected . propellants ; performance, chamber capability and
d. Droplet breakup processes must be con- even stability can be adversely affected . For such
sidered, particularly if combustion chamber situations it is essential that the overall discharge
length for attaining high efficiency is to be coefficient from valve exit to orifice exit be
computed. matched (or controlled in a specified way if the
e. The combustion rates of monodisperse discharge from individual orifices is not intended
sprays compare well with the combustion to be uniform) so as to provide the desired local
flow.
rates of corresponding polydisperse sprays.
If the largest droplets' velocities are of As the scale of the element increases, the mass
interest, however, the monodisperse spray and mixture ratio distributions within individual
elements are detectable in the overall combustion
model does not supply that information
and cannot be used. process. Under these circumstances, the inter-
f. Both fuel and oxidizer sprays should be action between manifold flows and jet properties
considered, particularly if details in the must be taken into account . The turbulence within
injection region are to be computed . the manifold and, in particular, the local velocities
g. The changes of chamber pressure with com- in the vicinity of the orifice entrance (e.g., the
bustion progress and gas acceleration are so-called cross-velocity ) , can directly influence the
easily incorporated in a model for machine stability (both spatial and temporal ) , contiguous-
solution, and should not be neglected .
* J. H. Rupe, Author.
* Refs. include 132, 420, 557, 558, 559, 564, 565 and Note that changes in combustion length can mask
738. such effects.
ness, and symmetry of the effluent jets.705 As these elements . However, such analyses tend to de-
jet properties are degraded by adverse conditions generate rapidly through a series of compromises
within the manifold , the mass and mixture ratio that are required to facilitate manifold fabrication .
distributions associated with each element become Thus, the manifold design is dominated by em-
ill-defined, unsteady, and nonreproducible. This piricism with consideration given to minimizing
results in the initial conditions for the so -called pressure drop, cross-velocities, and dead spots .
steady-state combustion process also becoming The problem has received only superficial docu-
indeterminate. Thus, it is seen that in addition mentation in the open literature (for example ,
to the process of propellant distribution , the mani- Ref. 705).
fold also has a role in determining the flow prop-
2.2.2 Jet Properties *
erties within the orifice itself and at the orifice
exit. Although the orifice configuration613,616 (Sect . Insofar as liquid propellant rocket injectors are
2.2.2) can be utilized in certain instances to relax concerned, the term "jet " refers to the effluent
such manifold requirements as low cross-velocity flow from an injector orifice . In most cases of
at the orifice inlet, the available compromises practical interest the jet is in the liquid phase†
(e.g., an orifice more than 10 diameters long ) are and is conceived as a steady, continuous stream
often unacceptable since they are believed by some that is aligned along a particular reference line
designers to introduce insurmountable difficulties relative to the exit orifice geometry, and exhibits
in fabrication . a marked density discontinuity with its surround-
In addition to the requirements that the mani- ings . Although many geometrical variations are
fold provide the essential control of mass distri- possible, the one receiving wide acceptance is the
bution -either uniquely when jet properties are "cylindrical" jet . This jet is characterized by an
inconsequential or in conjunction with the orifice. axis of symmetry , a free boundary, and a velocity
geometry when jet properties are a factor- it is profile within the flow. The extent to which these
also necessary to consider the absolute magnitude conceptual qualities are realized is to a large
of the pressure loss sustained in the manifold . measure dependent upon the extent to which the
itself and the absolute volumes contained within flow within the cylindrical portion of the orifice
the flow passages . These are not free variables can eliminate the deleterious effects introduced
since they are, in general, elements of a flow by the hydrodynamics of the manifold flow and
system and must be considered from that view- the transition acceleration from the manifold to
point . Unfortunately, specific guidelines for mani- flow within the orifice boundaries .
fold design have not as yet been elucidated ; how- The orifice configurations that are most common
ever, it seems safe to assume that the objectives in rocket injectors are quite similar to those that
of small volumes and low pressure losses are both have been utilized for many years in control
desirable but often incompatible. Under steady- and /or measurement devices.464 This family of
state conditions, manifold volume has little sig- orifice configurations is illustrated in Fig. 2.2.2a
nificance and hence can be increased to produce. and the essential features of each are as follows :
relatively quiescent conditions at the orifice entry (a) represents the conventional sharp edged orifice,
and thus maximize jet stability. Conversely, the (b) is a rounded or contour approach orifice ,
problems associated with flow transients at engine (c ) is a higher LD, square-edged orifice, which
startup and shutdown , and propellant holdup in produces a cylindrical jet as in (a ) and ( b ) ,
the manifolds are aggravated as the volumes while (d ) is that same orifice where the jet has
increase.
The manifold problem can be treated to a first * J. H. Rupe , Author.
order analytic approximation by calculation of † A notable exception is hydrogen, which in most cases
the equivalent hydraulic resistances of each pas- is injected into an environment above its critical pressure
sage. This basic concept is illustrated in most so that the only possible distinction between liquid or
gas is based on whether or not the temperature is less
texts on hydraulics (see Refs . 234, 621 , 709 ) .
than or greater than the critical temperature . Other
This approach is clearly an iterative procedure exceptions are found in the high chamber pressure designs
that must account for the interaction of all flow receiving attention currently.
STEADY -STATE PROCESSES $2.2 47
ature, cross currents and resultant contraction the

discharge coefficient may be as low as 0.90.464
In the case of the venturi orifice ( e ) both
divergence angle and length affect the ability of
— (a )
the orifice to flow full.464 Chamber conditions are
also very important in determining flow in the
divergent section ; especially when this orifice is
operated as a cavitating venturi181 to limit com-
munication from chamber to feed system. The
- ( b)
discharge coefficient is therefore also easily
altered . 464
It is interesting to note that modern rocket
injector designs are still dominated by the con-
—-— ( c ) figuration exemplified by (c ) and (d ) and hence
are characterized by the flow properties just de-
scribed . The transition between flow condition
(c ) and (d ) is known as " hydraulic flip" and is
sensitive to injection pressure, orifice length/di-
ameter ratio , orifice entrance configuration , and
-(d )
the fluid properties .
In an effort to delineate bounds on operating
conditions for which hydraulic flip would occur ,
Northrup studied the phenomenon in 1951.519 This
work was extended by Wright761 who attempted to
- (e )
determine the effect of cross -velocities on the
separation conditions. In some very recent
studies383 these experiments were verified and an
analytic model was developed as a tool to aid in
FIGURE 2.2.2a.-Jets emanating from several typical predicting the conditions for which separation
orifice configurations.
might occur. The interrelated effects of orifice
L/D ratio , manifold cross -velocities and pressure
drop on the discharge coefficient of typical orifices.
reattached to the orifice wall, and finally (e)
(and of the hysteresis effect exhibited ) are illus-
represents a venturi orifice .
trated in Figure 2.2.2b from the work of
For the sharp-edged orifice flow conditions of
Northrup.3,519 , 318
(a ) and (c ) the discharge coefficient Ca lies be-
Clearly this concern with dual flow configur-
tween 0.6 and 0.7 . * In ( d ) , the flow reattaches to
ations is related to the generally recognized need
the wall allowing the orifice to flow "full." The to control discharge coefficients and maintain the
result is agitated and divergent flow at the exit.
stability and direction of the jet configuration as
(bushy or broomy flow) , and the discharge coeffi- well. This is critical in those instances where the
cient rises to between 0.8 and 0.85. A still higher
secondary flows become important, as exemplified
Ca is achieved with (b ) when the contour is not
in the sprays of impinging jets .
too abrupt and L/D is small ( ≈0.25 to 0.5 ) , i.e. ,
Correlations relating spray properties to the
for a good, smooth, rounded orifice Ca≈0.97 . For
degradation of jet properties have not yet been
the best designs Ca = 0.99, while with poor curv-
devised . However some insight into the magnitude
of these effects is given in Ref. 617 where it is
* A procedure for determining the discharge coefficients shown that mass distributions in sprays of "well-
for "non-cavitating" flows through short, sharp-edged
controlled" impinging doublets exhibit gross vari-
orifices has been developed by Hall, 304 who showed reason-
able agreement with experimental measurements for that ations when the velocity profiles are not identical.
particular flow regime . Similar illustrative experiments are described in
x- Decreasing flow o-Increasing flow

.9
0.052 inch dia . hole 0.040inch dia . hole
L/D ratio = 3 L/D ratio =1
.8
Cross-velocity Cross-velocity
.7 O ft/sec Oft/sec
.6
6.
ficient
.8
5 5
,Cd w
.7
coef
Flo
9
6
∞
10 10
.7
.6
.9
.8
20 20
.7
.6
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Pressure drop , psi
FIGURE 2.2.2b . -Typical variation of flow coefficient vs pressure drop at different cross-velocities for orifices with and
without flow discontinuities.
Ref. 288 where truly identical jets whose center- The detailed properties of a family of jet flows
lines were misaligned in a predetermined fashion have been presented in some detail in Ref. 616 .
were utilized to form a series of sprays and the However, these studies failed to generalize on the
resulting mass and mixture ratio distributions relationship between orifice configuration and
were determined. When taken together the results manifold disturbances to the resulting jet prop-
show that relatively small changes in direction erties. Thus, although definitive information on
and/or momentum (or its distribution within the steady jets formed by particular orifice geometries
jet ) will produce marked changes in the properties is available, the coupling between jet properties
of the sprays that are formed . Thus, it must be (as determined by injector design ) and the conse-
concluded that control of mass and mixture ratio quent steady-state combustion environment has
distributions on a scale that is determined by the yet to be elucidated .
discrete properties associated with a given element Although this chapter is primarily concerned
must stem from adequate control of jet properties. with the steady-state properties of the injec-
tion/combustion process, it should be clear from For proper combustion it is necessary to atomize
the above that the attainment of truly steady jets the propellants and thereby provide a great in-
is dependent upon conformance to at least one of crease in liquid surface area to accelerate burning.
two essential criteria ; i.e., "quiescent manifolds" Hopefully, in this process the appropriate distri-
or "near fully-developed-flows at orifice exits." bution of the propellants will be maintained so as
Since common practice does not satisfy either of to achieve the desired mixing. Atomization in-
these criteria, then it must also be concluded that volves the breakup of liquid jets and/or sheets .
in most instances the early combustion region is In this section the processes involved in liquid
only quasi-steady and it is this quasi-steady en- stream and drop breakup are discussed with a
vironment that is perturbed by and ultimately brief review presented of the analytical treatments
coupled to the combustion chamber dynamics. available to describe the simpler breakup mecha-
The fact that variations in combustion chamber . nisms .
conditions, ( e.g. , pressure , vibration , etc. ) can Several breakup mechanisms may be important
perturb these quasi-steady injection properties in in the atomization process with the mechanism
a significant manner, not necessarily related to dependent upon the type of injector . A highly
combustion or combustion instability, can intro- idealized version of the atomization process may
duce considerable difficulty in correlating unsteady be described as follows : the liquid is ejected from
"combustion" observations . an orifice as a jet, as a sheet , or as two or more
jets which may impinge to form a sheet . Dis-
2.2.3 Mechanisms of Atomization * turbances are present in the liquid which deform
the surface. Typical disturbances include jet tur-
bulence , gas bubble formation , injector orifice
imperfections, aerodynamic effects from ambient
2.2.3 :
gas, or injector vibration . Forces due to surface
Ak Coefficients in disturbance func- tension, or more importantly to aerodynamic
tion series pressure caused by a relative velocity difference.
Cd Discharge coefficient between the fluid and the ambient gas, act upon
f (x , r, 0, t) Disturbance function . the surface deformations causing them to grow.
g Spatial distribution of disturbance If growth is sufficient, the jet or sheet may be

function severed or at least an element of fluid may be
k Transverse wave number ripped from the liquid surface. The severed fluid
Lb Breakup length may form a drop or may form an unstable liga-
lw Wavelength ment which will later break up into drops and
n Longitudinal wave number, 2π/ lw finally, if the aerodynamic force on the drops is
S Complex disturbance growth rate , sufficiently large, the drops can be shattered into
λ+iw smaller drops .
tb Breakup time For some simple breakup mechanisms theo-
tsep Time for separation of fluid from retical treatment has been successful. In the fol-
jet, fastest-growing disturbance lowing sections the general analytical approach
y Thickness of annulus, coaxial in- and its application to some simple breakup models
jector element are discussed .
λ Growth rate of disturbance
Kinematic viscosity 2.2.3.1 Liquid surface instability . -A stable,
Disturbance frequency steady flow system is assumed to exist as a liquid
<
3
jet or sheet. Superimposed upon this stable system

Subscript : is an assumed disturbance of the form
max Conditions associated with fastest-
growing disturbance. f(x, r, 0, t) = estg (x , r, 0) ( 2.2.3-1 )
where x, r , are the spatial coordinates, t is time,

* E. J. Rice, Author. and s may be a complex number ( s = λ + iw ) .
The nonlinear equations of mass, momentum , low velocity jets where capillary forces are pre-
or energy conservation are linearized by assuming dominant. At high jet velocities jet turbulence
the disturbance is small compared with the stable and aerodynamic forces are controlling. In the
system dimensions (jet or sheet ) . These pertur- transition region theoretical breakup analysis is
bation-type equations are then substituted into of little use since both mechanisms are of com-
the appropriate conservation equations . This re- parable importance .
sults in differential equations in the spatial dis- The failure to predict drop size distributions is
turbance function g (x, r, 0 ) . Solutions for the a further limitation to the theoretical approach.
spatial disturbance function are then sought which In some limiting cases average drop sizes are pre-
will satisfy liquid surface boundary conditions . dicted but not distributions. Drop size distri-
The boundary condition may be expressed as a butions must be determined experimentally and
surface pressure which can include surface tension , the dependence upon system properties must be
shear stress, and aerodynamic pressure. The empirically correlated . This will be dealt with in
spatial disturbance function g may include the Sect. 2.2.4.
velocity potential function , and/or the stream In spite of all its limitations , theoretical analysis
function, or just the disturbance amplitude func- of liquid jet and sheet breakup provides much
tion , depending upon the approach used . useful information in several limiting cases . The
If the solution yields a positive real part of the following sections will discuss the results of some
complex growth rate (s in Eq . ( 2.2.3-1 ) ) the of these analyses .
disturbance will grow and thus be unstable. The
disturbance wavelength for maximum instability 2.2.3.2 Liquid jet breakup, low velocity. -The
is then found . This may be determined from breakup of a liquid jet at low velocity cannot be
maximum disturbance growth rate or else from truly called atomization since an increase of sur-
maximum disturbance growth, if the rate is a face area does not result . However , it is an inter-
function of time. The predominant disturbance esting limiting case and has been used to produce
wavelength then allows inferences about drop size, sprays of uniform drop size.206
breakup length, and breakup time. Rayleigh578 first derived the equation for the
Several limitations to the theoretical analysis stability of a non-viscous jet subjected only to
surface tension forces. Weber723 extended the anal-
should be realized . First, the disturbance ampli-
tude is assumed small to linearize the differential ysis by including the jet viscosity . Both analyses
equations of motion. At breakup, the disturbance. were for the case of symmetrical disturbances on
may approach or exceed the fluid system dimen- the jet surface ( see Fig . 2.2.3a) .
sions (e.g. , jet diameter) and thus the linearized Rayleigh's578 analysis yielded the following re-
equations may not be valid. Second , to obtain lationship between the wavelength of the dis-
closed form or explicit solutions an assumption of turbance which will exhibit the maximum growth
either very long or short wavelength disturbances rate (real part of s in Eq. (2.2.3-1 ) ) and the jet
must be made which means the solution is not radius :
necessarily valid except over a limited wavelength lwmax = 9.02rj (2.2.3-2 )

range. Third, in determining the predominant. For comparison , Weber's723 analysis, which in-
disturbance wavelength it is usually assumed that cluded the liquid viscosity, yielded
disturbances of all wavelengths initially have the
1/2
same amplitude. This may be violated due to 3μι
lwmax = 8.89r; ( 1+ ripLS (2.2.3-3 )
such phenomena as a nonuniform turbulence spec- V2
trum, cyclic flow oscillation or separation at a
with the maximum growth rate given by
boundary, or perhaps a mechanical oscillation of
the orifices .
Another limitation to theoretical breakup analy- Amax = [√Spur +GALT,] (2.2.3-4 )
S T
sis involves the overlapping of competing breakup
mechanisms . For instance, theoretical breakup The slight difference between Eqs . ( 2.2.3-2 ) and
analysis is successful in predicting drop size for (-3) with μL = 0 is due to the approximation of
STEADY-STATE PROCESSES $ 2.2 51
He considers the solution for an arbitrary dis-

turbance (f) of the form
f= Akeinx+st cos (k☺) (2.2.3-8)

k
where k = 0 , 1 , 2, .... The equation for the growth

rate is
FIGURE 2.2.3a.-Symmetric disturbance . Sn2

s = λ + iw = − vn² + √√ ( vn²) ² + ( 1 - k² - n²r;2)
2pLri
Bessel functions in the derivation leading to Eq.
(2.2.3-3 ) . The following inferences as to breakup (2.2.3-9)
time, breakup length, and drop size are given for Examination of Eq . ( 2.2.3-9 ) suggests that
the results of Weber. The parallel set due to Eq.
(2.2.3-2) can be obtained with only small differ- k²< 1- (nr ; )2 (2.2.3-10)
ences by setting viscosity equal to zero . The is a necessary condition for A to be positive .
breakup time for the jet can be estimated by Now nr; = 2πr; /lw is a small number because of
SPLY , 6μLF the long wavelength consideration . Thus , insta-

1
tb≈ = + (2.2.3-5 ) bility results only with k = 0. This is the axisym-
Amax S S
metric case as seen in Eq . ( 2.2.3-8 ) and shown
and the breakup length is then : in Fig. 2.2.3a .
For k = 1 (stable ) the disturbance is such that
Lb≈Vjtb (2.2.3-6)
the jet cross-section remains circular but is dis-
With the assumption that the jet breaks at one placed from the undisturbed jet axis . This type
wavelength interval and this forms one drop, a of disturbance is shown in Fig. 2.2.3b .
mass balance yields the following for the drop size : A low velocity jet thus breaks up only from
axisymmetric disturbances whose wavelength is
71/6
3μι greater than the jet circumference .
dL = 1.88d1; [ 1 + 3x (2.2.3-7)
VPLSdj .
2.2.3.3 Liquid jet breakup, high velocity. - The
From Eqs. ( 2.2.3-5 ) and ( -7) it is seen that more interesting (and complicated ) case of
high surface tension ( S) causes more rapid jet
breakup with high jet velocity can result in true
breakup, while for low viscosity fluids the drop
atomization with the production of very small
size is independent of S and depends only upon
drops and a large increase in liquid surface area.
jet diameter, dj. For viscous fluids the breakup
High jet velocity in this case really means a high
time and the drop size are seen to increase.
relative velocity between the jet and its surrounding
Equations (2.2.3-2 ) through (-7 ) are valid
atmosphere. This can be accomplished by injecting
only for disturbances whose wavelengths are
a high velocity jet into a low velocity atmosphere
greater than the jet circumference ( lw > rd ; ) . For
or by surrounding the jet with a high velocity gas.
this case the surface tension is the driving force
The main distinction between this case and the
causing the instability, and the viscous terms
previously discussed low velocity jet is that aero-
represent damping forces. The jet tends toward a
dynamic forces must now be considered acting on
configuration with less surface area and thus less
the jet surface.
surface energy. Short wavelength disturbances
(lw < d; ) represent stable configurations since the
surface area is increased . The surface tension is
thus a restoring force tending to maintain the
jet's original shape.
Levich439 provides an excellent discussion of the
stability of a low velocity liquid jet subjected to
arbitrary deformations with large wavelengths . FIGURE 2.2.3b. -Asymmetric sinuous disturbance.
Weber723 considered the case of jet breakup liquid surface increase, and energy dissipation in
with atmospheric effects . The results of his analy- the jet. From Eqs . ( 2.2.3-13 ) and (-14 ) it is seen
sis show the disturbance maximum growth rate that , at high relative velocities, the time for
(Amax) to increase and to shift to shorter wave- separation of individual drops is much less than
length with increasing relative velocity. This the time for complete breakup of the jet. The
would indicate a faster disintegration of the jet atomization of the jet thus commences almost
and reduced drop size . For more detail on immediately upon injection into the atmosphere
Weber's723 results see Ref. 24 , p . 1-40 . and continues throughout the jet length.
Due to the complicated nature of the equations For high viscosity fluids Levich439 shows that
when aerodynamic effects are considered , Levich439 p(AV) 2- Sn
separated the analysis into four limiting cases. 12 (2.2.3-15 )
PLV
He considered long and short wavelength dis-
turbances for both high and low viscosity fluids. Thus higher growth rate disturbances are obtained
The following is a summary of that analysis . for long wavelengths (smaller n ) . He also shows
For short wavelength disturbances and low that the time for jet breakup to increases without
liquid viscosity, the following expression was ob- bound with increasing viscosity, and thus con-
tained for the wave growth rate : cludes that small drops (from small lw ) cannot
2 be produced by viscous jets .
In²
S= [p ( AV) ² — Sn ] (2.2.3-11 ) Considering the case of long wavelength dis-
PL turbances on the surface of a high velocity jet ,
with an arbitrary disturbance as in Eq. (2.2.3-8 )
Thus, s can be real for
and for small fluid viscosity, the disturbance
2TS growth rate was shown439 to be
(2.2.3-12 )
P(AV)2
For very high relative velocities extremely short - pn¹r;2 (AV)2 In

Sn2
wavelength disturbances can be unstable. It should S= + ( 1— k² - n²r ; ² )
be recalled that for low velocities only disturbances 2PL ) 2pLrj
(
with wavelengths larger than the jet circumference (2.2.3-16 )
were unstable. If the drop size produced is of the where growth rate is real for
order of magnitude of the disturbance wavelength ,
high velocity jets can produce very small drops in W
comparison to low velocity jets. pn²r;³( AV) 2 In
πι
In contrast to low velocity jets the separation (2.2.3-17 )
k²≤1— (nr ; ) ² +
of fluid from the jet surface, due to short wave- S
length disturbances, does not sever the jet . Final Thus, for large relative velocity, values of k
breakup of the jet is produced by the cumulative greater than zero can produce instability. It should
effect of separation of small quantities of fluid.
be recalled that for low jet velocity instability
The time for separation of the fastest growing
resulted only with a symmetrical disturbance
wavelength is
(k = 0 ) . An inspection of Eq . ( 2.2.3-16 ) reveals
S PL that even though a sinuous disturbance (k = 1 ,
tsep≈ (2.2.3-13 )
(AV) 3 3
p³ see Fig. 2.2.3b) may grow, the symmetrical dis-
turbance (k = 0, see Fig. 2.2.3a ) will grow faster
while the breakup time for the jet is and should thus dominate the jet breakup .
At sufficiently high velocities the second term
rj PL
tь≈ (2.2.3-14) in Eq. (2.2.3-16 ) can be omitted and thus
AV
Ρ
Equation ( 2.2.3-14 ) was derived using an energy s = n²r;AV In (2.2.3-18 )
2PL (1 )
balance involving the energy transferred to the
jet by the surrounding gas, energy consumed in which shows the disturbance will grow for long
wavelength ( w > πr ; ) . In Eq . ( 2.2.3-18 ) the type fluids . Fluid viscosity increases the drop size and
of disturbance* (k = 0, 1 , 2 , ...) no longer ap- jet breakup length (see Eqs. ( 2.2.3–5 ) , ( −6 ) and
pears. All types thus grow equally fast . (-7) ) .
Levich shows the time for jet breakup of low At intermediate jet-gas relative velocities , where
viscosity, high velocity jets to be aerodynamic forces must be considered, short
wavelength disturbances are unstable for low
rj
tb≈ (2.2.3-19) viscosity fluids . This results in formation of small
AV ρ
drops which are shed from the jet surface. Long
A comparison of Equations (2.2.3-19) and (-14 ) wavelength disturbances are also unstable with
shows that the breakup times are of the same the symmetrical case having the fastest growth
order of magnitude. This implies that , for a high rate. For sufficiently high relative velocities the
velocity jet of low viscosity, small drop size sinuous and higher order transverse† disturbances
atomization and large drop size fragmentation can become unstable. These would result in jet
have probabilities equal in order of magnitude. fragmentation forming large drops (see Eqs .
For long wavelength disturbances on a high (2.2.3-12 ) and (-16 ) ) .
velocity, high viscosity jet , the growth rate was For very high jet velocities small droplet shed-
shown439 to be ding from the jet surface continues but the char-
acter of long wavelength disturbances changes.
p( AV) ² ( nr ; ) 2 All transverse and symmetrical disturbances grow
In (2.2.3-20 )
4μι ( ) equally fast . Sinuous or higher order transverse
disturbances may cause jet fragmentation with
the jet breakup time to be
the formation of large drops (see Eq. (2.2.3-18 ) ) .
5μι Increasing fluid viscosity reduces the fluid shed-
tb = (2.2.3-21 )
P(AV)2 ding from the jet surface and increases the drop
size for that fluid which is severed . High viscosity
and the wavelength for maximum growth rate fluid jets break up due to long wavelength frag-
to be mentation with resultant large drop sizes (see
lwmax = 6rj (2.2.3-22) Eq . (2.2.3-15 ) and (-20) ) .
Some support for the theoretical results is ob-
High viscosity thus reduces the disturbance.
growth rate and increases the time for jet breakup tained from the experimental observations on jet
breakup given by Grant and Middleman.296 At
(and thus the breakup length) . Large drops due
low jet velocities they observed symmetrical wave
to jet fragmentation are produced with very
breakup. Higher velocities caused the appearance
viscous jets. A number of experimental studies
of transverse waves which damped and sym-
have provided further information on high relative
metrical waves continued to break the jet . A
velocity breakup . These include publications by
Ingebo, 379 Clark 146 and Morrell , 500, 501 further increase in jet velocity produced jet
breakup by transverse waves . For even higher
2.2.3.4 Summary of jet breakup results. -This velocities , and a turbulent jet , surface atomization
prevailed.
section provides a brief review of the more im-
portant conclusions obtained from the theoretical
2.2.3.5 Surface breakup- The theoretical jet
jet breakup discussion in Sects. 2.2.3.2 and 3.
breakup models reviewed in Sections 2.2.3.2 and
Equation numbers are given for reference back to
these previous sections . 3 considered the deviation, due to a disturbance of
Low velocity jets break up by fragmentation a liquid jet from its original cylindrical geometry.
due to the growth of symmetrical waves on the jet

surface. The diameter of the resulting drops is † This should not be confused with transverse acoustic
about twice the jet diameter for low viscosity modes of instability in a combustion chamber. The defini-
tion implied here derives from Eq . (2.2.3-8 ) and defines
the jet cross-section shape under the influence of the
* Also see Eq. (2.2.3-8) . disturbance.
A low viscosity jet , under the influence of a high the length of the high gas velocity region . A higher
relative velocity gas environment, formsshort liquid velocity results in more rapid escape from
wavelength surface disturbances which are inde- the high gas velocity region. A larger liquid jet
pendent of jet diameter (see Eq . 2.2.3-12 ) . In diameter reduces the fraction of liquid atomized
the following analysis a simplified approach ig- by high gas velocity surface stripping. Mayer's
noring the actual jet geometry is thus used. analysis assumes a steady velocity difference be-
Mayer470 considered the case of wind-induced tween the gas and the liquid, thereby eliminating
capillary waves on a flat, deep liquid surface . He the separate effects of liquid and gas velocities
assumed that when a wave grows to an amplitude and the finite quantity of high velocity gas avail-
comparable to its wavelength, the wave crest able for surface atomization . The importance of
severs and forms droplets of size proportional to finite liquid jet diameter is discussed, but it does
the wavelength. A functional form for the drop . not appear in Mayer's analysis .
size distribution generated by the wave breakup The qualitative discussion of the concentric
was obtained which enabled the derivation of an tube injector was presented here since, with proper
average drop size given by simplifying assumptions, the system may be ame-
2/3 nable to analytical treatment .
μLVS/PL
dL = 9 ( 16 ) 1 /3B (2.2.3-23 )
P(AV)2 2.2.3.6 Liquid sheet breakup. -Dombrowski and
Johns230 considered the stability of asymmetric
where B≈0.3 . Excellent agreement was shown
waves (see Fig. 2.2.3b) on a viscous liquid sheet
between this theoretical drop size¹70 and empirical
under the influence of aerodynamic forces caused
correlations of jet breakup in high speed gas
by a steady cocurrent gas flow. They obtained
streams obtained by Weiss and Worsham.724
wave number and growth rate expressions which
Adelberg49, 50, 51 has extended Mayer's analysis
are viscous effect multipliers of the inviscid so-
to include the effect of fluid acceleration on the
lutions of Squire.664 Also they allowed the sheet
surface disturbance wave speed . He shows that
thickness to vary with time (following the fluid
these acceleration waves (as distinguished from
particles) .
capillary waves of Mayer's analysis) are con-
The drop size produced by the breakup of a
trolling if the jet is experiencing a large acceler-
radially flowing liquid sheet (sheet thickness
ation .
varies inversely with distance) was obtained in
An empirical correlation on the mass median
the following manner. When the disturbance with
drop size produced by a concentric tube injector
the wavelength for greatest total growth (not
was presented in Ref. 352. The correlation , con-
necessarily greatest growth rate) reaches a critical
sidering only those parameters actually varied,
amplitude , the wave breaks at the crests and
can be reduced to
troughs. Wave fragments of one-half wavelength
Vi dj³ are formed which contract into ligaments. The
di~ (2.2.3-24)
AV y ligaments are assumed to break into drops ac-
cording to Weber's criterion (Eq . 2.2.3-7) .
where y is the gas annulus thickness . The exponent The resultant drop size expression of Dom-
on AV is seen to agree well with that of Eq. browski and Johns230 is quite lengthy and the
(2.2.3-23 ) (i.e. , 1 versus - ) . reader is referred to the source for the details .
The conditions in a concentric tube injector However, the following should be noted here. In
differ from those assumed by Mayer in the fol- Ref. 230 the theoretical drop size ( after adjust-
lowing ways. A thin annulus of gas of high velocity ment by a suitable constant ) was compared to that
is injected concentrically around a liquid jet of obtained experimentally from fan sprays and the
low velocity. The high velocity gas stream mixes agreement was favorable. The effect of the spray
with the surrounding gas environment . When this variables upon drop size depends upon which of
mixing region has penetrated to the liquid jet , four domains is dominant. These four domains
the liquid jet thereafter experiences a decelerating can be defined by whether or not the viscosity
gas environment . A thinner gas annulus decreases is effective in the sheet breaking into ligaments
and in the ligaments breaking into drops . The that a drop will shatter if the surface deformation
.
limits on the exponents for the two extremes of at the stagnation point is roughly equal to the
7
low and high viscosity are : viscosity 0 to 201 drop radius . This occurs if the Weber number
surface tension + to , relative velocity -3 exceeds six for a low viscosity drop and ten for a
to , liquid density - to ≈ , and gas high viscosity drop in the case of a suddenly
-
density to ≈12. applied steady gas velocity.
It may be possible to utilize the analysis of If the result is rounded off and the surface
Dombrowski and Johns230 to obtain theoretical deformation is equal to the drop radius , the drop
drop size expressions for other atomization devices. breakup time can be estimated by
besides fan sprays. However, the sheet thickness
dL
as a function of time must be known . Perhaps tb≈ (2.2.3-26)
the excellent analysis of Hasson and Peck326 can 2 (AV) Ρ
provide the starting point for impinging jet infor a low viscosity drop with a suddenly applied
jectors and the water bell analysis of Taylor683 steady gas velocity.
for swirl atomizers .
It has been pointed out357 that in the actual
Spray formation from impinging liquid jets re- atomization process, a newly formed drop is not
sults from breakup of the resulting liquid sheets. subjected to a steady relative gas velocity. The
The empirical dropsize correlation by Ingebo375 is
drag force between the gas and the liquid will
one which has been used often for the common
reduce the relative velocity. If the drop breakup
case of impinging liquid jets. More recent dropsize
time is sufficiently large, the Weber number may
correlations have been obtained by Dickerson , 224 be reduced below critical before the drop shatters.
using a molten wax technique. In the latter work
Photographs of drop breakup with a suddenly
spray size distributions for various types of im-
imposed gas velocity were presented by Rabin ,
pinging jet elements were empirically correlated Schallenmuller, and Lawhead.569 Two types of
in terms of orifice sizes and injection velocities.
drop breakup were shown, shear- and bag-type
Work with liquid sheet breakup in a unique in- breakup. With both types the drop is first flattened .
jector design is being conducted by Riebling 592 If bag-type breakup occurs the center of the disk
blows out into a bag which breaks into very small
2.2.3.7 Secondary drop breakup. - A liquid drop
droplets while the ring breaks into much larger
removed from a sheet or jet may be exposed to
drops . With shear-type breakup the edges of the
the aerodynamic pressure effect of a high relative
flattened drop are sheared into sheets and liga-
gas velocity . If this pressure is sufficiently large
ments which then break into drops. In Refs. 210
to overcome the restoring force of the drop surface
and 515 the drop breakup time was experimentally
tension, the drop will disintegrate into smaller
shown to be of the same form as (but ten times
droplets. The Weber number357 defined as
the value of) Eq . ( 2.2.3-26) . Additional references
p(AV) 2dL on secondary droplet breakup include Refs. 222,
We = (2.2.3-25)
28 223 and 755 .
is considered as an effective indicator of the neces- 2.2.4 Spray Description *

sary gas dynamic environment for secondary
breakup . The final form of the liquid phase in the chain
of events leading to combustion is often a col-
Hinze357 has analyzed the forced deformation
lection of roughly spherical droplets called a
of a liquid sphere under the influence of the pres-
spray. † A common objective of experimental drop-
sure distribution caused by turbulent gas flow
let measurements and atomization analyses is a
around the sphere. He considered the two cases
of a suddenly applied steady velocity and a
gradually increasing velocity as may occur with * J. F. Groeneweg, Author.
For some cryogenic propellants, such as liquid oxygen ,
falling raindrops. His results are presented as the
this concept of a spray may be inadequate since sub-
deviation of the liquid surface from the original stantial phase change may occur while the liquid is in
sphere at the stagnation point. Hinze concludes ligament or jet form.
description of the spray which allows the pre- estimates of f must be used . Statistical uncertainty
diction of droplet propagation within the com- is reduced as sampling effort increases. While the
bustion chamber and, ultimately, the energy re- time variable is not a consideration in this section
lease profile (see Sects . 2.4 and 7.2.4 ) . The purpose because only steady-state conditions are con-
of this section is to outline the type of information sidered, unsteady behavior is of interest for insta-
necessary for spray description and to briefly bility analysis (Sect . 3.3 ) . Conservation equations
review the existing level of knowledge of steady- may be written for f,743 and are the basis of pre-
state spray properties. dicting downstream behavior based on the specifi-
The basic factor influencing all approaches to cation of an initial density function at formation .
spray description is summed up by the statement The function f could be considered to depend
that spray formation is a random process . Fixing on other variables than those listed above , such
all injection parameters which can be controlled as temperature, however, existing knowledge of
such as flow rates, fluid properties and injection even velocity and position dependence is scarce.
geometry does not produce drops of a single size Drop sizes have received most of the emphasis in
traveling at the same velocity at a particular both experiment and analysis . However, detailed
position. The fact that droplet births are dis- measurements299 have shown that, even immedi-
tributed throughout a region of space and are the ately after formation at a particular position ,
result of fluctuating gas-liquid interactions means drops of a given size move with different velocities
that a statistical treatment is required . indicating that velocity should be treated on an
The following nomenclature pertains to Sect . equal statistical basis with drop size . Spray prop-
2.2.4 : erties are also strong functions of position 277, 589
due to droplet-gas transport processes . From an
DL Drop diameter
Djk analytical viewpoint the key positions are those
Generalized mean drop diam-
where spray formation has just been completed
eter
since they locate the initial conditions required
Dm Mass median drop diameter for analysis .
D30 Volume mean drop diameter
The bulk of existing spray data is composed of
Dmax Maximum drop diameter
various types of drop size distributions and mean
D32 Volume-surface (Sauter) mean.
drop sizes. Analytical representations of these
drop diameter
quantities are obtained by various integrations
f (DL, VL, x, t) Spray density distribution
of f over the droplet variables. Integration over a
f. Spatial drop size distribution
particular droplet variable reduces the amount of
fF Flux drop size distribution
information available and ignores the distributed
bgo General drop number distri-
nature of the variable in favor of the simplification
bution
realized by dealing with a mean value. The re-
X Drop position
mainder of this section ignores time dependence
α , B, d, n, K, 4 Parameters in empirical distri-
bution functions since only steady-state conditions are considered ,
and spatial dependence is implicit .
A basis for spray description is provided by the Two general types of drop size distribution
concept of a spray density function , f(DL, VL, x, t ) , data are available corresponding to two kinds of
which specifies the number of drops in the ranges sampling methods used . They are the spatial
of dDL, dVL, and dx, about the size , DL, velocity distribution f , and the flux (temporal) distri-
VL, and position x at a time t . This function bution fr given by
theoretically represents the results of a spray
sampling operation in which sample size ap- dV (2.2.4-1 )
f =ft dv₂
proaches infinity while increments in droplet prop-
erties, ADL, AVL and Ax (the category sizes con-
sidered) approach zero . A theoretical prediction r = √ √ ₁f dVL (2.2.4-2)
of f from a knowledge of injection parameters
does not now exist (Sect . 2.2.3) so experimental Spatial distributions representing the number of
57
drops per unit volume per unit size are estimated peak (unimodal) , but some experimenters have
from instantaneous samples of the droplet popu- found definite bimodal characteristics . 101 , 218, 299, 339
lation in a given spray volume ; e.g. , high-speed Partial characterization of distributions is fur-
photography. Flux distributions which specify the nished by various mean sizes. A general set of
number of drops per unit size crossing a unit area means is defined by507
per unit time are estimated by collecting a sample
of all drops passing a plane in the spray during
a known sampling time ; e.g. , frozen wax224,724 or S ( DL ) 'g dDL
immiscible fluid collection cell methods . 465 The (Djk) j-k = (2.2.4-3 )
distinction between f, and fr is usually ignored in
the literature, but differences between the two √ ( D1 ) kg dDL
can be large depending on the distribution of drop
velocities.299 In the remainder of this section the where g is a number distribution and the inte-
symbol g will be used to refer to size distributions gration is over the complete range of sizes. If
in general without regard to type . Size distribu- k = 0 the denominator simply assures normali-
tions are usually normalized to make the integral zation . Two commonly used means are the volume
over all sizes equal to one. In that case, any mean, D30, and the volume-surface (Sauter ) mean ,
physical magnitudes of liquid concentrations or D32 . Two additional parameters used to character-
fluxes are lost unless they are purposely specified ize distributions are the mass median , Dm, and a
as the normalization factor. maximum drop size, Dmax .
Data which result from individual measure- Since a theoretical prediction of the form of g is
ments of diameter produce a number distribution lacking, a variety of empirical forms have been
of the type shown schematically in Fig. 2.2.4. used to fit size distribution data . The equations
Uncertainties are greatest at very small sizes are basically of two types :
where measurement resolution is limiting and at
g ( DL ) DL exp ( -BDL ) (2.2.4-4)
very large sizes where measured frequencies are
particularly sensitive to sample size . Mass distri- g (DL) exp ( y²) (2.2.4-5)
butions obtained by weighting the ordinates of with
the number distribution by DL are a useful form
DL
which often allows reasonable extrapolations to y = 8 ln (2.2.4-5a)
D,
be made at the size extremes. The particular
or
examples shown in Fig. 2.2.4 each have a single
7DL
y= ln (2.2.4-5b)
Dmax -DL.
1.6 ×10-2 where a, B, 8, n, K and are parameters . The first ,

Fraction
number
micron
Eq. ( 2.2.4-4) , may be called a generalized gamma

mass
per
of
or
function, 450 and specialized conditions on the pa-

1.2 Number rameters lead to forms having names such as
Nukiyama-Tanasawa and Rosin-Rammler. The
second group consists of logarithmic transfor-
Mass
mations of the normal distribution ,390 Eq.
(2.2.4-5 ) . Equation (2.2.4-5a) gives the log-
normal distribution whose range extends to infi-
nite sizes while the upper limit form, Eq.
(2.2.4-5b) , provides for a maximum size. For any
particular case of Eqs . (2.2.4-4 ) to (-5 ) , the
means given by Eq. (2.2.4-3 ) may be calculated
50 100 150 200 250
Drop diameter, microns as functions of the distribution parameters. 97, 507
Mass medians are usually determined from a
FIGURE 2.2.4 .- Typical drop size distributions. cumulative plot and maximum size from either
the largest observed or a drop stability criterion mum drop sizes. In principle, an infinite number
(Sect . 2.2.3 ) . of means given by Eq. ( 2.2.4-3 ) are equivalent
A comprehensive empirical approach would be to the specification of the distribution . In practice ,
to choose a distribution equation capable of fitting. investigators have usually only measured and
the data and to correlate its parameters with in- correlated one or two size indicators for a given
jection conditions . The labor of such an approach set of conditions . A sampling of the literature
has limited the number of such attempts and their (see Table 2.2.4 ) confirms the intuitive trends of
scope . For example, the parameters in Nukijama- drop sizes which vary directly with orifice size ,
Tanasawa forms of Eq . ( 2.2.4-4 ) have been corre- liquid viscosity , and surface tension ; and inversely
lated for impinging jets224,375 and cross-current with relative velocity between the gas and liquid .
injection379 in air streams ; and the parameters in Additional information for impinging jet arrange-
the upper-limit form of Eq. ( 2.2.4-5 ) have been ments may be found in Refs. 224 and 375. Maxi-
correlated for a swirl atomizer589 and a collection mum drop diameters measured for injection into
of size data from several injector types.506 In the a cocurrent gas flow have been found to depend
absence of parameter correlations, distribution. on the acceleration or deceleration of the gas
equations are fitted to specific data sets or the stream in addition to the liquid and gas ve-
distribution data are simply plotted and tabu- locities.376 The dependence of size on gas density
lated . 101 , 277, 339 Direct measurements of spray char- cannot be approximated by a simple exponent
acteristics in a rocket combustion environ- since a switch in dependence from inverse to direct
ment377, 378,373 are scarce because of the associated is observed as gas density increases. 218, 229 Specific
experimental difficulties. Indirectly, distribution injector types and their relation to droplet sizes are
characteristics based on the log-normal form have discussed in Sect . 7.4.
been inferred from an analysis of rocket perform- In summary, spray description requires a sta-
ance based on a vaporization model.564 tistical treatment, and the concept of the spray
Other than size distributions, most of the exist- density function furnishes a basis for analysis.
ing data is in the form of mean, median, or maxi- Spray data available as input to this model are
TABLE 2.2.4- VALUES OF EXPONENTS SPECIFYING THE DEPENDENCE OF DROP SIZE ON INJECTION VARIABLES
Conditions Drop size Orifice Surface Liquid Liquid Velocityb Ref.

correlated diameter tension viscosity density
Single jet crosscurrent D30 12 4 1 -1 -3(g) 379

injection into heated air Dmax 0.42 0.29 0.29 -0.29 -0.87(g)
Single jet, costream and

contrastream injection into Dm €512 } - % (r)
-4 724
heated air
Correlation for pressure, D32 0.65 0.20 0.35 -0.35 -0.55(r) 506
swirl and impinging jets Dmax .52 .18 .48 -.48 —.66 (r)
Swirl nozzle injection into D32 0.53 0.21 0 -0.48 -0.50(L) 219
stagnant gas
For example, D30 = di1/2S1/4uL / PL /4-3/4.

b g, gas ; L, liquid ; r, relative.
• Not varied in experiment.
mainly limited to specific size distributions or ing (primarily diffusion in a smoothly operating
correlations of mean sizes with injection con- combustion chamber) if the desired throat con-
ditions . dition is to be met . The problem in general is to
achieve (other factors being equal) a uniform
2.3 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF PROPELLANTS mass flux throughout the throat cross section with
a minimum chamber length.
The following nomenclature pertains to Sect .
The initial propellant distributions produced by
2.3 :
real injectors are basically three-dimensional ar-
C Concentration of gaseous propellant rays of droplets formed from ligaments emanating
Em Mixing efficiency factor, defined in Eq. from many sources. The complexity of such sys-
(2.3.3-1 ) tems imposes the necessity of reducing these more-
F (C) Concentration distribution function or-less known properties of a single spray to the
G Local flow rate per unit area desired mass flux distribution thru some arbitrary
g Spreading factor or intuitive artifice.
ΚΑ Sampling area correction factor In certain analyses544,421, 64 the discrete prop-
Mj Momentum ratio function , defined in erties of the individual elements are reduced to
Eq . ( 2.3.3-2 ) an assumed uniform ( or other prescribed ) distri-
m Local total mass flow rate, mi + m2 bution of particles of known size near the injector
n Number of samples with < T face so that the droplet-gas interaction process
n' Number of samples with > T can be described . Although this process results in
P, q, A Constants in F (C ) expression , Eq. a tractable combustion model, the contribution of
(2.3.3-8) the injector (to the extent that it does not satisfy
St Lagrangian scale of turbulence the assumption ) with regard to mass flux distri-
Vrms Root-mean-square lateral velocity bution is lost .
W Point-source strength An alternate approach613 emphasizes the contri-
α Impingement angle bution of individual elements as determined from
B (p, q) Beta function measurements on non-reactive sprays . Such meas-
Φ Mass flux fraction , mi/ (m₁ + m2) urements serve to define, strictly from geometrical
¥ Ripple factor, Cmin/Cmax considerations , the mass flux distribution at the
axial station where the boundary enclosing some
Subscripts :
T 95% of the total mass flux for the element is a
Overall or total spray conditions
proportionate share of the chamber cross section .
1, 2 Indices specifying propellant compo-
At that station the radial component of velocity
nents (e.g. , oxidizer and fuel)
is presumed to go to zero- hence a mass flux for
2.3.1 Mass Flux Distribution * the bounded surface can be specified .
In the case of elements composed of identical
The mass flux distribution in the transverse like-on-like impinging jets, these distributions can
plane is of considerable interest in liquid rocket be characterized to a reasonable approximation
engine design . If a uniform mass flux distribution by a two-dimensional Gaussian distribution within
is to be achieved by the time the nozzle throat is essentially elliptical boundaries . This is the general
reached, i.e. , all propellants to be burned prior to description that is utilized by Reardon et al.583 in
that location (thus providing uniform product portraying the element orientations for like-
temperature and density) , then considerable at-
tention must be given to the initial mass flux † The discussion here will concentrate on designs which
distribution achieved at (or near) the injector. seek to achieve uniform mass flux across the injector face.
Although the initial mass flux distribution can be The use ofnonuniform mass flux distributions for purposes
somewhat less than uniform , such nonuniformities such as : improved stability, modified heat transfer,
specialized research modeling, etc. , encourages other
cannot exceed the capabilities of secondary mix-
mixing phenomena which include recirculation and radial
winds. These are discussed in Sects. 2.3.3, 2.3.4, 7.2.5 ,
* J. H. Rupe, Author of Sects. 2.3.1 and 2.3.2. 8.5.3 and 9.2.2.
doublet sprays from which interactions and/or The performance level that is achieved,703, 145, 271
coupling effects with combustion chamber dy- the compatibility of the gas side boundary
namics are inferred . This representation is spe- flows609,168 with the wall, as well as the stability of
cifically appropriate for the distributions produced the combustion process583 are intimately related to
by doublets comprised of identical jets. this parameter. Although it is undoubtedly true
On the other hand, for non-identical jets (in- that there is no one particular mixture ratio distri-
cluding like-jets of differing momenta ) the mass bution that is best for all possible requirements ,
distributions resulting from impingement are sym- the intuitive arguments for achieving a specified
metrical only about the plane including the jet distribution in a controlled and reproducible man-
centerlines. The phenomenon is illustrated in Fig. ner are rather overwhelming. Also as is the case
2.3.1a where the normalized mass flux for two with mass flux distribution ( Sect . 2.3.1 ) , it is
different element configurations are portrayed.613 logical from the standpoint of performance to
It is noted that only in one of these cases are the strive for a uniform distribution at the nozzle
jets identical. As the jet momenta diverge from throat, and to accomplish this objective with the
a ratio of unity, the resultant becomes increasingly minimum possible chamber length . Since the
non-planar and hence can make a unique contri- modification of an initial mixture ratio distribution
bution to the overall mass flux distribution . by secondary mixing processes (Sect . 2.3.3 ) is a
This concept of an element mass distribution relatively ineffectual process , 168, 318 it is apparent
being utilized to form a composite for a complete that the injection scheme must play the most
injector is illustrated in Fig . 2.3.1b613 which por- important role in the determination of this cham-
trays the mass distribution for an injector con- ber property .
sisting of 6 elements . It should be noted that in Attempts to measure mixture ratio distributions
the actual "model" (of which this is a repro- in actual rocket engines by direct sampling tech-
duction ) the absolute magnitude of mass flux is niques date back at least twenty years. 73, 125, 448
proportional to the density of the photographic However, until the advent of the high speed mass
negative, which can be used to provide a quanti- spectrometer, these studies were necessarily
tative description of the mass flux distribution at limited due to the extreme severity of the environ-
the model plane. A computer model has recently ment being sampled and the dependence of a
been developed356 to describe the three-dimen- composition determination upon an inferential
sional spray mass flux patterns formed by arrays relationship with, for example, temperature.73 The
of injector elements as in a complete injector. additional complications arising from slow sam-
The model uses empirical cold flow data613,356 to pling rates and the necessity for direct analysis
characterize the contributions from individual of the sampled gases precluded the wide accept-
elements . Collisions of spray droplets from ad- ance of such techniques. However, several new
jacent elements are considered on a probability efforts628,758 that utilize high speed mass spec-
basis . Development injectors, as well as research trometers for real time analysis of local com-
injectors, are now characterized by similar meth- bustion products show promise of yielding the
ods . 224, 258 Normally full injectors are tested rather much needed information . No data have been
than individual elements in order to characterize , published to date but the apparatus and tech-
non-reactively, the element-element interactions . niques are in the advanced stage of development .
In lieu of a direct measurement of mixture ratio
2.3.2 Mixture Ratio Distribution distribution and/or a correlation with injector
Of the several parameters that serve to char- geometries, there are several alternate procedures
acterize the combustion process in a liquid pro- that have been devised to describe this parameter.
One method uses the flow rate from individual
pellant rocket engine, the mixture ratio distri-
bution is certainly one of the most important.
an equivalent representation would be to specify the
* It should of course be recognized that the description individual mass flux distributions rather than their quo-
of mixture ratio serves only to separate the mass flux tient so that the discussions relating to scale of the element
distributions of the individual propellants. Obviously and secondary mixing are equally applicable here.
61
STEADY-STATE PROCESSES $2.3
30°
60
45° 60° 75° D-ARM 15° 45°
0 G00810
G - 00055 G - 00980
OXIDIZER G 0.1195
G 0.0085
G 00115- G 0.1440
30° G 00155 G 0.1885
G 0.0210 G0.2180
G -0.0270 -6.0.2345
G - 00360 G - 0.2600
G = 0.0450 G - 0.2745
G 0.0570 75°
15°
C-ARM O 0° A-ARM
75° 15°
FUEL
TEST CONDITIONS
SIMULATED CORPORAL PROPELLANTS a 44 deg
(CCI4 + KEROSENE AND ZnCl2) L/d 100
60° ORIFICE DIAMETER € 85.01 30°
FUEL 00986 in. 2.80
OXIDIZER 0.173 in. m, 0.329 lb/sec
0.921 lb/sec
SPRAY TIME 085 sec ■ 1.250 lb/sec
45° 15° 0 75°

30° B-ARM
(a)
30° 45°
19
45 60° 75° D-ARM 15
G - 00037 G - 0.0945
G - 00094 G 01134
30° G - 0.0189 G 0.1513 60°
G 0.0283 G-0.1891
G 0.0378 FUEL -G - 0.2269
G 00472 -6-02648
G - 0.0567 -G - 0.3026
G - 0.0756 -G - 0.3394
75°
15
C-ARM 0 O A-ARM
75° TEST CONDITIONS

SIMULATED N204 -N2H4 PROPELLANTS a- 45 deg
(CCI4 + KEROSENE AND H2O) L/d 100
ORIFICE DIAMETER E - 73.64
G /Ao FUEL 0.173 in. 1.23
OXIDIZER OXIDIZER 0.173 in. 0.493 lb/sec
-0.609 lb/sec
60° SPRAY TIME 0.5 sec .1.102 lb/sec
30°
45 30° 15 B-ARM
(b)
(a) On a spherical surface for nonsimilar jets.

(b) On a spherical surface for similar jets .
FIGURE 2.3.1a.-Mass flux distributions for typical doublet elements .
VIEW LOOKING UPSTREAM

INJECTOR REFERENCE
FUEL: CORPORAL MARK
OXIDIZER: SFNA
MIXTURE RATIO = 2.80
ER
DIZ
OXI
) P
Y
(T
EL
FU (TYP)
CHAMBER
BOUNDARY
IMPINGEMENT-POINT PLANE AT STATION 2.767 in. INCHES

MODEL PLANE AT STATION 8.597
Gmax =0.738 lb/(sec in. 2) AT STATION 16.45 in.
FIGURE 2.3.1b . - Mass flux distribution for a six-element array of unlike doublets .
orifices (based in general on an extrapolation from been successful in the measurement of mixture
non-reactive calibration fluids to propellants ) , ratio gradients.102
while a second utilizes experimental measurements The flow rate method is the most common
of mixture ratio distributions within sprays formed means to estimate local mixture ratio but neces-
by elements or entire injectors but with non- sarily results in an arbitrary definition of the
reactive fluid . In at least one case705 the mixture region of the chamber that is characterized by
ratio has been inferred from the erosion pattern the stated value. Conn et al.168 imply a circular
on an ablative wall. Another technique using section while Harrje583 prefers an ellipse. Each of
thermocouple rake measurements of the sprays these is undoubtedly a valid representation when
formed by propellants (and pseudopropellants ) the scale of the element is small. On the other
injected at different temperature levels has also hand, when the distribution within the element
becomes significant, then a procedure that defines correlation with element configuration that in
local properties becomes more meaningful. The turn provided a so-called " uniformity criterion . "'612
results obtained with one such procedure613 are This criterion has been used to improve rocket
illustrated in Fig . 2.3.2 where the mixture ratio combustor performance . 145,610
distribution for two typical doublet elements are These sampling techniques have also been useful
superimposed upon their mass flux distributions in characterizing mixture ratio distributions of
(the same mass flux distributions shown in Fig . other element types244,591 as well as complete in-
2.3.1a) . It is particularly interesting to note that jectors, and to show that uniformity of mixture
regions of relatively nonuniform mixture ratios. ratio is indeed a prerequisite to high perform-
(associated with significant mass fluxes ) dominate ance . 389, 609
these distributions even though the mixing effi- It should be noted that the properties deduced
ciencies characterizing the entire sprays were from nonreactive sprays of unlike doublets have
relatively high . restricted applicability for highly reactive pro-
For cases of no element-element interaction a pellants135b, 246, 389, 415,777 due to a phenomenon re-
composite array of such elements would yield a ferred to as reactive stream separation . For certain
mixture ratio distribution analogous to the one propellants and for specific element types ( e.g.
shown in Fig. 2.3.1b and these distributions would unlike doublets ) preliminary bounds for this oc-
then provide the appropriate initial conditions currence have been established in terms of oper-
required for the analysis of steady-state com- ating pressure, jet velocities and diameters , pro-
bustion.554,762 The mathematical model356 previ- pellant temperatures, and propellant reac-
ously mentioned in connection with spray mass tivity.415,430 However, it seems clear that these
flux likewise describes mixture ratio distributions gross effects should be taken into account when
for liquid-liquid propellant systems. In effect, this prescribing the size of the element for which the
model represents a numerical means of describing initial mass and mixture distributions of unlike
information such as shown in Fig. 2.3.1b , with impinging hypergolic elements are presumed
additional (analytical) predictions as to how this known . 389, 619
mixture ratio pattern would vary with axial lo- Although the analogous problem of combustion .
cation . Allowance is taken for inter-element drop- effects on the mixture ratio and mass distributions
let collisions, but not for gross distortion of spray of elements composed of like-on-like sprays have
patterns by adjacent elements . not been studied extensively and therefore have
Extensive current application of the technique not as yet been quantitatively described , it would
originally advocated by Rupe613 to describe mix- seem reasonable to assume that similar effects
ture ratio distribution of full ( liquid-liquid) in- may appear if fuel and oxidizer from closely
jectors has provided empirical verification of the spaced adjacent elements come into intimate con-
general validity of this method in application to tact prior to full atomization into spray droplets.
performance analysis. 224, 258 In some cases, however, Thus it is seen that the mixture ratio distributions
element-to-element interaction substantially dis- associated with highly reactive (hypergolic ) sys-
torts the distribution that would be anticipated tems require further elucidation.
by simple superposition of individual element
patterns. 2.3.3 Mixing Processest
In at least one instance617 detailed measurements
Before detailed consideration is given to the
on nonreactive sprays have been used to determine mechanism and characteristics of the various
a single quantity, i.e. , a mixing efficiency, to
mixing processes which occur and play an im-
represent the degree of uniformity of mixture
portant role in rocket engine combustion , it is
ratio and to utilize this parameter* to define a
pertinent to review briefly their overall significance
and relative importance.159, 355, 269
* The parametric relationship for maximized mixing
uniformity as applied to unlike doublets is discussed in
Sect . 2.3.3.1 , see Eq. 2.3.3-2. The modified versions of † J. D. Lewis, Author. British Crown copyright. Re-
that relationship for other unlike element types are dis- produced by permission of the Controller of Her Britannic
cussed in Refs . 244 and 591. Majesty's Stationery Office.
60° 75 D-ARM 15° 30

0
G 00058-
G00309-
30° G 00881
G 0.1468-
G02056- OXIDIZER
-r/r+1) 0.58940, 1.43

15 -0.66310, 1.97 75
0.73680,2.80
-0.76310, 322
-0.78940, -3.75
+1)-076310, 3.22 -0.81570, 442
0.78940,375-
0.81570, 4.42
C-ARM O -0° A-ARM
FUEL
75°
TEST CONDITIONS
SIMULATED CORPORAL PROPELLANTS
(CCI4 + KEROSENE AND ZnCl2)
OORIFICE DIAMETER
FUEL 0.0986 in.
OXIDIZER 0.173 in.
60° a . 44 deg 30°
L/d 100
E- 85.01
r/r+ 1 ) Q73680, r2.80 (NOMINAL)
VALUES OF G NORMALIZED TO
1.0 lb/sec
30 15° B-ARM 60°
(a )
60° 75° D-ARM 15 30°

8
G000612
G 0.04571 45°
45 G 0.07145-
G010005-
G0.12862 FUEL VALUES OF G NORMALIZED TO
AG Q15720- m1.0 lb/sec
G 0.18517 60°
G 0.21437 +1) 0.59730,1.48
G 0.24293- 0.54545,1.20
G 027151- 0.49730, 0.99
G0.30010
15 75°
C-ARM A-ARM
75 . 15°
TEST CONDITIONS - / +10.44210, = 0.790
SIMULATED N204 -N2H4 PROPELLANTS 0.38680, 0.630
(CCI + KEROSENE AND H₂O) -0.33160, r = 0.495
ORIFICE DIAMETER -0.27630, 0.380
FUEL 0.173 in.
OXIDIZER 0.173 in. 30°
a 45 deg OXIDIZER
L/d 100
Ar+1) 054545, 1.20 (NOMINAL:)
E -73.64
45- 30° 15° B-ARM 75° 60° 45
(b)
(a) On a plane surface for nonsimilar jets.

(b) On a plane surface for similar jets .
FIGURE 2.3.2 . - Mixture ratio distributions for typical unlike double elements .
It has long been recognized from practical de- processes under rocket combustion conditions in
sign requirements that chemical kinetic processes , the three categories enumerated above, it is im-
based on pre-mixed vapor-phase reactants , are portant to recognize the complexity involved and
neither rate controlling nor do they exert a domi- that any theoretical or experimental appraisal of
nant influence upon combustion characteristics in one process in isolation is virtually impossible to
most liquid bipropellant rocket engines during achieve in practice .
steady-state operation . It may be noted that
monopropellant combustion is far more susceptible 2.3.3.1 Liquid phase mixing .- There are obvi-
to control by kinetic effects . In common with ous attractions in attempting to achieve a high
other high intensity systems, bipropellant rocket proportion of oxidant/fuel mixing in the liquid
combustion performance is largely determined by phase, since this technique offers the greatest
a complex network of interdependent physical prospect of exercising design control where it is
processes as are indicated schematically in Fig . likely to be most effective, at the source of the
2.3.3a . This diagram illustrates the general case ensuing chain of combustion processes. Although
and it will be appreciated that under any given several attempts to obtain liquid-liquid mixing
set of operating conditions, propellant combi- before injection have been reported , these have
nation, or injector design configuration some of usually been unsuccessful owing to the onset of
the reaction paths may assume greater or lesser uncontrolled reactions during transient off-design
importance and may even be absent altogether. operation caused by the high sensitivity of the
Nevertheless, it can be seen that for all bipro- premixed propellants. Consequently, attention has
pellant combinations and at every selected oper- been directed mainly towards methods of liquid
ating condition , adequate mixing of fuel with phase mixing within the combustion chamber
oxidant is an essential criterion for the attainment itself. Exceptions to this generalization are pro-
of efficient combustion , i.e. , maximum heat release vided by design solutions of the "recessed-cup"
in minimum volume. and similar types where mixing and often partial-
As indicated in Fig. 2.3.3a, it is possible for reaction take place in small pre-combustion cham-
propellant mixing in the rocket engine to occur bers on the injector face. In practice , liquid phase
under one , or more, of the following three con- mixing has been found to enhance the rates of
ditions : heat release and combustion efficiencies with some
1. in the liquid phase hypergolic propellant combinations* ; whereas,
2. by droplet transport in a heterogeneous en- with non-hypergolic propellants there has often
vironment been a tendency to provoke unstable com-
3. in the vapor-phase bustion 539, 318, 446
By comparison with combustion systems for So far, no authoritative theoretical model has
air-breathing engines , the rocket has the ad- been derived to describe liquid phase mixing
vantage of being able to utilize liquid - phase mixing processes, especially those in the presence of highly
under prescribed circumstances, whereas the exothermic chemical reactions, produced by typi-
higher gas temperatures of the rocket usually cal injection systems. Instead, there have been a
prevent all but rudimentary attempts at enhance- considerable number of experimental investiga-
ment and control by aerodynamic methods . Other tions , among which those at the Jet Propulsion
practical considerations apart from combustion Laboratory (e.g. , Refs . 617 , 612 , 615 and 244 )
efficiency may also impose design constraints es- are of particular significance. These studies have
pecially affecting the injector configuration . For provided quantitative data and empirical corre-
example, although rapid mixing in the liquid and lations under nonreactive or essentially isothermal
vapor-phases is a prerequisite of good perform- conditions and attempts have been made to relate
ance, at the same time there is often a requirement these to measurements of the overall combustion
to inhibit mixing processes in the boundary layer
in order to reduce heat transfer rates to acceptable *
Reacting stream separation246,389,415 may preclude
values by film cooling or other means. liquid phase mixing for common hypergolic propellant
Therefore, in the following discussion of mixing combinations under certain operating conditions.
PROPELLENT
INJECTION
LIQUID STREAM ATOMIZATION VAPOUR STREAM

IMPINGEMENT FORMATION
DROPLET DROP-VAPOUR VAPORIZATION DROPLET

COLLISION MIXING HEATING
RECIRCULATION
TRANSFER
LIQUID PHASE LIQUID - VAPOUR VAPOUR PHASE SUPER CRITICAL
MIXTURE MIXTURE MIXTURE MIXTURE
ATOMIZATION DIFFUSION TURBULENT

MIXING
HEAT
VAPORIZATION
LIQUID PHASE GAS PHASE

REACTION REACTIONS
TURBULENT.
MIXING
INTERMEDIATE FINAL
REACTION PRODUCTS REACTION PRODUCTS
TURBULENT
MIXING
EXPANSION IN
EXHAUST NOZZLE
DELAYED RECOMBINATION
REACTIONS PROCESSES
EXHAUST JET
FIGURE 2.3.3a. - Combustion and allied processes in liquid propellant rocket engines.
performance and to qualitative visual observations (b) impinging sheet ; these are similar to im-
of the flame shape or intensity. pinging jets except that propellants are
Propellant mixing can be produced by a wide formed into thin sheets by fan sprays or
variety of injector designs, the most common of other methods before converging upon
which include
each other
(a) impinging jet ; whereby single or multiple
plain cylindrical streams of each propel- (c) splash plate ; propellants are injected
lant converge at a common point in free through plain jets to impinge on suitably
space near the face of the injector positioned plate. Some liquid phase mixing
occurs on the surface during film for- to present in any general manner. However,
mation limited comparisons have been possible by the
(d) vortex ; plain jets of one propellant im- adoption of a mixing efficiency factor, Em,617 de-
pinge on a cylindrical surface film of the fined as
second, thus providing a low resultant
axial momentum Em= 100
0 { 1- [ ← KAM ( T - 6)
MTOT
Typical mixing and resultant flow patterns pro-

Β΄ ΚΑm (φτ- φ)
duced by representative impinging-jet , splash +Σ (2.3.3-1 )
ήτ ( φτ - 1 )
plate and vortex injectors are illustrated in Fig.
2.3.3b derived from Refs. 246 and 111. Liquid where
phase mixing can be seen to be confined to a very n number of samples with < & T
small volume and its effectiveness is known to n' number of samples with > T
depend on the destruction of the oncoming fluid KA factor for sampling area correction defined
momentum in a regular and controlled manner ; as the ratio of the area of equivalent
hence the advantages of surface impingement spherical surface represented by the sam-
techniques which do not depend on close design ple to the cross sectional area of the
tolerances and are least prone to flow disturbances. sample tube
The wide variety and range of complexity of m local mass flow rate of the spray
injector designs has made the analysis and in- mT overall mass flow rate of total spray or
terpretation of experimental results very difficult component stream
Oxidant
Fuel
Combustion gases
IMPINGING JET
ANG..
SPLASH PLATE "VORTEX" TYPE
FIGURE 2.3.3b.-Relative locations of fuel, oxidizer and combustion gases associated with splash plate and vortex-
type injectors.
& local mass flux fraction = m₁/ ( ṁ1 + m2) practical combustion conditions, provided mixing
фт overall mass flux fraction rates are large compared with chemical reaction
= ṁT₁ ( ṁT₂ + ṁT₂) rates246 ; for example, when using stabilized fuming
nitric acid and various alcohols or kerosene/amine
and subscripts 1 and 2 are used to identify the
mixtures. Conversely, with propellant combina-
two components (e.g. oxidant and fuel) .
tions which give rise to rapid liquid phase reactions
This mixing factor , based on the variation of
(e.g. , oxidizers such as chlorine trifluoride or
local mixture ratio and weighted in accordance
nitrogen tetroxide with mixed hydrazine deriva-
with the proportion of the spray represented by
tive fuels) the impingement mechanism can be
each sample, has been used by various workers to
strongly influenced . Photographic studies246 have
compare sprays produced by differing injector
shown violent evolution of gases at the impinge-
configurations and operating conditions, and is
ment interface sufficient to blow apart , or sepa-
generally preferred to other expressions relating rate, the streams of fuel and oxidizer and thus
the distribution of samples about a mean value.
inhibit further mixing and atomization . With such
For example, in the simplest case of the impinge-
systems it is, therefore, probable that the uni-
ment of two unlike jets in free space it has been
formity of mixture distribution is not only de-
possible to show612,615 that for a range of geo-
pendent on the ratio of the momenta in the two
metrical and operating conditions the mixture
streams but also on the relative momentum be-
distributions are dependent on stream momenta.
tween them. Highly reactive propellant combi-
At any given condition the most uniform mixture
nations, however, can be made to give good com-
distribution ( i.e. Em was a maximum) was ob-
bustion efficiencies by design features which nullify
tained with equal momenta in the two jets, i.e. ,
the disrupting influence of gas evolution i.e. , the
p1u2d1 = p2u22d2 use of multiple interlacing injection elements or
or such devices as the recessed-cup injector.
-1 Injector designs like the splash plate and vortex,
p1u12d ,
M; == 1+ = 0.5 (2.3.3-2) which lead to liquid phase mixing on a solid
p2u22d2 ]
surface, have the advantage of avoiding the
in which p is the fluid density , u the axial injection necessity for accurate alignment inherent in im-
velocity, and d the jet diameter ; while M; is a pinging systems and to some extent mitigate
convenient expression for representing large vari- against the effects of spontaneous reaction . How-
ations in momentum ratio. A typical correlation ,
100
from Ref. 615 , obtained from experimental studies
of a simple unlike doublet system with an im-
80
pingement angle of 60°, is shown in Fig. 2.3.3c. 80

Similar trends of variation in mixing efficiency
with liquid stream momenta have also been ob-
60
60
served for coplanar triplet injectors and concave Em
surface deflectors .592, 252 These and other similar
investigations have also shown the dependence of 40 A₁/A₂
- 1.0
mass flux distribution (spray patternation ) and -0.670
in some cases of spray quality (drop-size and -0.655 and 0.656
-0.592
20
drop-size distribution ) , on injector geometry and 20

- 0.439
jet momenta. In addition , there is evidence237 -0.391
under nonreacting conditions, that the miscibility -0.261
O
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
of the two fluids has little or no effect upon the 2
1+ pi ui ² di
mixing efficiency and distribution of fluid com- M; = 2
P2 uz² dz
ponents.
Cold flow tests with effectively inert fluids ,
FIGURE 2.3.3c . -A correlation of the dynamic character-
similar to those described above, are capable of istics of free liquid jets and Em for an impingement
simulating the liquid- phase mixing behavior at angle of 60°.
ever, these designs lend themselves to an infinite methods of propellant injection which provide
variety of geometrical configurations, scale effect intentional liquid stream impingement as a pri-
and operating criteria with the result that no mary mixing device may still rely on spray mixing
effective characterization of their design features as a secondary process, see Fig . 2.3.3b. In addition ,
has been possible up to the present time . Never- for many injectors (e.g. , like-impinging) , each
theless, a number of qualitative design rules of propellant is atomized independently through a
an ad hoc nature have been accumulated for par- multiplicity of separate injector elements so there
ticular systems as a result of intensive develop- is no direct liquid mixing. Primary mixing of
ment experience. A typical procedure is the fol- propellants then takes place through intermingling
lowing : during the development of an injection between unlike sprays as a result of ( 1 ) natural
system, several design configurations are sub- expansion in the spatial distributions , ( 2 ) droplet
jected to cold flow mixture and mass distribution dispersion by turbulent eddy diffusion in the sur-
measurements over a range of operating con- rounding gas and ( 3 ) forced mixing by deliberate
ditions. Selected configurations are then subjected spray impingement.
to open burner tests for photographic recordings As in the case of vaporization rate predictions,
to be made of the flow patterns and flame shape , an intimate knowledge of the initial spray char-
then finally to detailed determination of their acteristics is an essential prerequisite of any at-
combustion performance and heat transfer prop- tempt to predict and understand the subsequent
erties under normal rocket engine conditions.¹¹¹ droplet mixing processes. Numerous experimental
By this means it has been possible to formulate determinations of the spray properties under cold-
empirical design rules on the effects produced by flow conditions have been reported in the liter-
changes in stream momenta, impingement po- ature (see Sect . 2.2.3 and 2.2.4 ) for atomizers of
sition, injector geometry, etc. , for the particular the types used as injector elements in rocket.
systems studied . Some of the rules may be of engine applications. These studies have included
more general application . measurements of the drop -size distributions , mass-
Unfortunately, this comparatively tedious and flux distributions (patternation ) and velocity dis-
costly approach* is likely to remain for some time tributions near the point of spray formation for a
the best available method for the acquisition of variety of injector element designs and scales with
detailed knowledge on any given type of injector, a range of fluid properties, ambient densities and
where complex liquid and gas phase mixing proc- operating conditions. In many instances it has
esses are involved . The desirable alternative , a been possible to correlate results satisfactorily by
comprehensive theoretical model of the various empirical , or semiempirical, relationships for a
chemical and fluid dynamic processes, is unlikely particular range of circumstances and these re-
to be realized until a better understanding of the lationships are of use in theoretical models of spray
fundamental mechanisms has been achieved. combustion processes.
Both vaporization and mixing processes in
2.3.3.2 Droplet transport. - The initial com- sprays are then dependent on the ballistics and
bustion characteristics of most liquid-fueled high- trajectories of individual drops, or groups of
intensity systems depend largely on the related droplets, which may be determined from em-
processes of atomization and spray mixing origi- pirically derived drag coefficients, CD, using an
nating at the injector. This is especially true of expression of the form740
the liquid bipropellant rocket engine where the dVL CDPAV AV
injection process is employed both as a means of = 0.75 (2.3.3-3)
dt PLdL
imparting a large surface area to the liquid volume
for vaporization purposes and for encouraging in which AV is the relative velocity between
spray dispersion as an aid to the mixing of fuel droplets of diameter dɩ and liquid density PL, and
with oxidant, see Fig. 2.3.3a . Previously discussed surrounding gas of density p . In practice it has
been found that the drag coefficients of liquid
* Even this approach is much less costly than hot droplets , especially under evaporating conditions
firings. and high Reynolds number, depart markedly from
those derived for solid spheres , i.e. Stokes Law in In addition to the time-averaged spatial distri-
which bution and propellant mixing processes attributed
CD = 24Re-¹ (2.3.3-4) to the liquid injection mechanism ; it may also be
necessary to consider temporal variations in mass-
where Re is the Reynolds number based on droplet flux , and hence in mixing, caused by periodic
diameter, relative droplet to gas velocity and the
disruption of the liquid streams during the atomi-
appropriate gas properties. Correlations which
zation process .446, 341 Small- scale combustion studies
allow both for liquid evaporation374 and for droplet have confirmed the presence of these periodic
distortion at high relative velocities569 with burning variations in terms of light emission and temper-
and non-burning fuel droplets are
ature at a point, and good correlation has been
CD = 27Re-0.84 0 <Re <80 obtained with measured frequencies. It may be
= 0.271 Re0.217 80 <Re <10 (2.3.3-5) noted that these periodic fluctuations in mixture
=2 Re >104) ratio also give rise to apparent anomalies in the
composition of gases sampled from the combustion
The importance of recognizing the effects of zone which suggest unrealistic departures from
evaporation and drop distortion , implicit in these chemical equilibrium among the sampled con-
correlations of CD with Re , has been demon- stituents.200
strated419 in a comparison of experimentally de- Finally, a simplified analytical treatment of
termined burning rates with theoretical predic- forced mixing between unlike sprays has been
tions for droplet evaporation under typical rocket considered in the formulation of a semi-empirical
combustion conditions . combustion model421 based on the use of adjacent.
It is now theoretically possible by statistical sprays of fuel and oxidizer produced by impinging
methods to provide a comprehensive model for jet "like-on -like" injection elements. Mixing was
the subsequent droplet transportation mecha- assumed to take place instantaneously at the
nism743 and thus derive a complete distribution of boundaries of "wedge" shaped regions containing
mass and composition within the combustion fuel or oxidant sprays whose configurations were
chamber, including the probability of droplet col- determined from cold flow experiments. A com-
lisions producing either agglomeration or liquid parison with experiments in a two-dimensional
phase reactions . However, the complexity of the combustion chamber showed that the theoretical
problem has, so far, defied rigorous analysis and model, which included spray mixing as a rate
in practice numerical solutions have only been controlling process near the injector face, was
obtained after drastic , or perhaps oversimplifi- better able to describe the measured velocity
cation of the mathematical expressions and the distributions than one where vaporization alone
physical model. Instead, the majority of work on was considered.
spray mixing under rocket combustion conditions None of the studies of spray mixing and droplet
has been by inferential observations based on the transport processes, whether theoretical or experi-
flame patterns produced in semi-transparent mental in nature, have yet considered adequately
chambers (e.g. , Refs . 246 , 111 , 419 and 421 ) and the effects of operation at high pressures when the
on direct measurements of composition or tem- critical temperature of either, or both, droplet
perature profiles.4445 systems could be exceeded.
Small-scale studies of single and multiple fuel
sprays under simulated rocket combustion con- 2.3.3.3 Vapor mixing.-It has long been recog-
ditions445 have shown that nonuniform mixture nized from high-speed motion and streak pho-
distributions in the combustion products could tography that some nonuniformity in gas compo-
be related to cold-flow measurements of mass-flux sition and temperature distributions persist.
distribution . The technique has also been used to throughout the rocket combustion chamber and
demonstrate that the additive effects of adjacent into the expansion nozzle despite efforts to pro-
sprays of the same component, measured under mote fuel and oxidant mixing in the liquid phase
cold-flow conditions, are reproduced in the com- by direct impingement or spray interpenetration .
bustion product distributions. Moreover, these striations in mixture strength
STEADY- STATE PROCESSES $ 2.3 71
have been demonstrated to continue far beyond. solutions obtained at various locations down-
the point at which vaporization processes were stream from the point sources by assuming values
complete, 445 so that final mixing of the propellants for the scale and intensity of main stream turbu-
was taking place through turbulent diffusion lence . Results of this analysis were presented in
processes in the vapor phase. In practical systems terms of a "ripple factor," y, defined as the ratio.
where it becomes possible to achieve good atomi- of the minimum to the maximum concentrations
zation , for example by the use of blast atomizers * across any given plane normal to the direction of
with oxygen /hydrogen or H.T.P. †/hydrocarbon flow. This ripple factor was found to depend on
propellant combinations, it is probable that vapor the ratio of downstream length to the separation
phase turbulent mixing becomes the dominant distance between sources and on the intensity,
rate-controlling mechanism in the steady-state but not the scale , of turbulence . For the selected
combustion process. Although a high degree of values of separation distance and turbulence in-
turbulent mixing is clearly desirable if high per- tensity it was concluded that turbulent mixing
formance is to be achieved ; there is also evidence rates were large (at least in the principal com-
that excessive mixing is unnecessary and can , bustion zone) compared with those of vapori-
under certain circumstances, degrade the com- zation and, therefore, that the latter process was
bustion efficiency.214 dominantly rate-controlling.
Turbulent mixing between gas streams has re- Experimental studies of vapor phase mixing
ceived considerable attention in connection with under rocket combustion conditions have used
air-breathing combustion systems of all types and direct gas sampling methods,445, 447 the addition of
an extensive coverage of the subject is available a tracer,350 or spectroscopic measurements129 to
in the published literature. Less attention has evaluate changes of composition profiles along the
been paid to this topic under rocket combustion length of the chamber. In the particular case of
conditions ; but a theoretical analysis becomes oxygen/hydrogen combustion with concentric jet.
feasible if the intensity and scale of the turbulence injection systems , radiation measurements129 con-
are known, together with the configuration and firmed that turbulent mixing controlled the extent
aerodynamic properties of the gaseous sources . A of reaction if liquid oxygen was injected through
further assumption has to be made, or empirical a central jet surrounded by an annular stream of
data have to be used, on the influence that com- gaseous hydrogen . However, if the propellant
bustion can have on physical properties and on streams were interchanged, a condition which
the turbulent intensity. Although it has been might be expected to enhance mixing near the
postulated that discrepancies between theoretical injector by expansion of the gaseous core, it was
and measured flame propagation rates were due found that propellant vaporization appeared to
to "flame generated turbulence''397 and this con- become rate controlling. A similar result was ob-
cept has received wide acceptance, serious doubts tained by assessing the variation in combustion
about its validity have recently been expressed.437 efficiency with chamber length349 and this trend
.
A simple analytical treatment100 of turbulent. has also been observed by other workers at
mixing under rocket combustion conditions was differing engine scales.
based on equations developed for the injection of The influence of turbulent mixing on combustion
gas from a point source into a uniformly turbulent performance has been analyzed 351 using as a basis
gas stream in the absence of chemical reactions . the earlier analytical treatment of the decay of
Molecular diffusion processes were ignored and concentration profiles.100 Numerical solutions for
eight propellant combinations and a range of
* Blast atomizers may be defined as those in which the chamber geometries were expressed in terms of a
primary source of energy for liquid breakup is derived mixing parameter, TL/S , the product of turbu-
from a suitably oriented jet of gas, usually at high-velocity. lence intensity and the ratio of chamber length to
H.T.P. (High Test Peroxide) . Concentrated solutions
injector element spacing. Reasonable correlation
of hydrogen peroxide in water, (usually 85 to 100 weight
was established with experimental measurements
percent hydrogen peroxide) which are used either as a
monopropellant or as an oxidizer in a bipropellant system and this "mixing model" enabled conclusions to
for rocket propulsion applications. be reached on the effects of maldistribution on
combustion performance and optimum perform- vortex generation and nonuniform recirculation .
ance mixture ratio. However, an apparently anom- Under rocket combustion conditions the "pockets"
alous result was the decrease of turbulence in- of gas flowing past a point can vary in composition
tensity along the chamber axis, from values as between the extremes of pure fuel and pure oxidant.
high as 10 percent near the injector to about and it has been found200 that these variations about
2 percent 8 inches downstream. the mean value were best described by the beta-
More recently, as part of an analysis of con- distribution function , F ( C ) , given by
vective heat transfer within the combustion cham-
F (C) ACP-1 ( 1 - C ) -1 (2.3.3-8 )
ber, a better description of experimental results
on turbulent mixing processes has been achieved.531 for 0 < C < 1
In this theoretical model it is assumed that the
where p and q are constants limited to positive
root mean square lateral velocity, and not the
values and A is a normalization constant defined
turbulence intensity, remains constant throughout
as
the chamber length . Thus, as combustion takes
place and the mean axial velocity increases , the
A-1 = CP-1 ( 1 — C ) -¹dC ( 2.3.3-9 )
turbulent intensity will fall away in a manner fo
closely similar to measured observations . The
same basic mixing theory as that developed for = ẞ ( 1 , p , q)
hydrocarbon/air combustion637 was used to predict in which the concentration , C , is expressed as the
the concentration , C, derived from a point source ratio of oxidant-equivalent moles of fuel to the
of strength, W, at a radius, r, from the longi- total oxidant equivalent moles of both fuel and
tudinal axis of the source, given by oxidant , i.e., С = (2nc + nн) /( 2пc + nн +no) .
W This analysis was successful in explaining ap-
C == • exp ( −r²/4g ) (2.3.3-6) parent departures from chemical equilibrium in
4ng 447
samples collected over finite time intervals.4
Moreover, as a corollary, it was concluded that
in which g is a spreading factor defined by
conventional gas sampling methods and a com-
g = StVrmst + S [ exp ( − Vrmst /St) -1 ] ( 2.3.3-7 ) plete chemical analysis could be used to assess
the magnitude of mixture ratio fluctuations at a
where S is the Lagrangian scale of turbulence, point.
Vrms the root mean square lateral velocity , and t 2.3.4 Recirculation
the time after injection . The adoption of a con-
stant value of r.m.s. lateral velocity, Vrms, has The significance of recirculation as a flame-
been found by computation to lead to a final holding, or piloting, mechanism in air -breathing
turbulence intensity of the order of 1.5 percent combustion systems of all types is well known
with complete combustion and thus is in good and has been the subject of a number of investi-
agreement with experimental observations . gations reported in the published literature . These
Most experimental and theoretical studies of have ranged from aerodynamic studies of the
vapor phase mixing have been concerned with conditions under which recirculating flows and
changes in composition , which may be described vortices can become established in confined ducts ,
in terms of mixture strength profiles, over sections usually of very simple geometrical shape, to as-
of the combustion chamber normal to the direction sessments of the effects of recirculation and en-
of gas flow. However, nonuniformities may also trainment on the mixing between coaxial streams .
be present in an axial direction which give rise Experiments have been carried out both with
to random, or periodic, fluctuations in composition reacting and non -reacting constituents and, al-
about a mean value at any given point. It has though much of the work is not strictly applicable
already been mentioned that these fluctuations to rocket conditions, many useful qualitative ob-
can originate from the spray breakup mechanism . servations and generalizations emerge.205, 77, 84
(see Sect . 2.3.3.2 ) , but they can also be caused by In the liquid propellant rocket engine, gaseous
gas dynamic processes near the injector face, e.g. , recirculation phenomena are normally confined to
a narrow region of the combustion chamber near can be clearly identified with local flow patterns
the injector where they can be induced by en- and velocities .
trainment and momentum exchange between the Most experimental investigations of recircu-
injected propellants and the surrounding gas. lation under rocket combustion conditions have
These entrainment effects give rise to high local been by qualitative observations, using high-speed
turbulence" and a reverse flow of gas which, photographic techniques, as part of more general
depending on its source, consists either of cool studies of the flame patterns in transparent com-
unburned propellant vapor or of hot combustion bustion chambers . Moreover, few attempts have
products. Moreover, the recirculation flow pat- been made to confine attention to the recirculation
terns may be localized around each individual zone itself in order to relate spray geometry or
injector element, or else may be of larger scale propellant momenta to the resulting flow re-
giving rise to "cross winds" over appreciable areas gimes . 201,275 One detailed study of recirculation as
of the surface of the injector. Recirculation can, a flame piloting mechanism689 did , however , in-
therefore, be either beneficial or detrimental to vestigate in a systematic manner the significance
the stable combustion processes and reliable oper- of selected design and operational variables on the
ation of the engine according to the scale and overall performance of the system. In this es-
intensity of the flow, also depending on the compo- sentially experimental program, the effects of basic
sition and temperature of the gases taking part. chamber geometry and propellant properties, in-
When injector designs and the rates of chemical cluding mixture ratio, were assessed in terms of
reaction are such that only cold unreacted pro- mixing profiles derived from gas sampling and
pellant vapors form the recirculating flow, it has analysis, both for reacting and non -reactive con-
been stated159 that the resultant eddy can have ditions. Nevertheless , further work of this nature
but little effect on the combustion process. While is needed before reliable generalizations can be
this may be substantially true for highly localized made and the importance of recirculation in the
effects in which the injected stream only entrains more general context of vapor-phase mixing can
its own vapor ; other evidence is available to indi- be established .
cate that if unlike vapors become entrained then In addition, limited studies of the flow regime
mixing is improved and there is an increase in the near the injector face have been made using flow
initial rate of heat release. visualization techniques similar to those developed
In the case of recirculation of combustion for application to air-breathing combustion sys-
products, there are claimed to be three inde- tems . Of these, possibly the most interesting is
pendent ways in which they can assist com- that in which the phase change produced by flash
bustion.159 First , they are able to provide a con- vaporization is used to simulate the density
tinuous heat source for ignition purposes and, if changes under combustion conditions,360 although
not balanced in composition , are capable of further it is evident that considerable development of this
reaction with the propellant vapors . Secondly , technique is necessary before it can be regarded
they enable combustion processes to be brought as being of general usefulness.
into the "core" of each spray system. Finally, the The importance of the momenta of the injected
resultant evolution of gaseous combustion prod- propellants in determining the nature of the re-
ucts within the sprays may accelerate the spatial circulation has been demonstrated experi-
expansion process, thereby leading to more rapid mentally -526 by subjecting a typical impinging jet
spray mixing. Nevertheless , despite this awareness injector to a wide range of differential pressure
of its beneficial effects as a flame piloting mecha- (i.e. , mixture ratio ) conditions at a constant
nism, there has apparently only been one instance, chamber pressure. Temperature measurements at
in a thermal ignition H.T.P./kerosene rocket en- selected points on the surface of the injector
gine, where deliberate design provision was made showed the anticipated approximate relationship
to make use of this phenomenon . On the other with the gas temperature and mixture ratio as
hand, an excessive reverse flow of hot combustion long as the total momentum of the oxidant flow
products can have detrimental effects in causing exceeded that of the fuel. A complete reversal of
overheating of the face of the injector, 116 which this trend was observed at very fuel-rich mixture
conditions as fuel momentum became dominant , and Agoston,752 F. A. Williams740 and A. Williams.741
Fig. 2.3.4 , when surface temperatures rose rapidly The following nomenclature pertains to Sect.
despite the continuing fall in the mean com- 2.4 :
bustion temperature . Further evidence from these a Stoichiometric coefficient
investigations showed that when oxidant mo- B Dimensionless interfacial mass transfer
mentum dominated the recirculation process the rate (transfer number)
reverse flow was fuel-rich in composition , but the B Pre-exponential factor
converse was true when the fuel sprays provided b Stoichiometric coefficient
the main entrainment mechanism . C Constant in Eq. ( 2.4.1-8 )
Therefore, empirical work has shown that re- CD Drag coefficient
circulation can provide an important contribution DI First Damköhler number
to the stability and intensity of the combustion D Fick binary diffusion coefficient
process in the injection region. Although no clear dL Droplet diameter
proof exists, it is also logical to assume that dis- Eact Overall activation energy of homogene-
turbances in the recirculating flow regime can ous reaction
produce related variations in the heat release rate he Heat of vapor phase combustion per
in the primary mixing region and thus establish unit mass of oxidizer (Sect . 2.4.2) or
a possible driving mechanism for combustion of fuel (Sect. 2.4.3)
instability. k Reaction rate constant
Le Lewis number, Pr/Sc
m" Mass flux per unit area, m/πгL²
2.4 LIQUID DROPLET VAPORIZATION
n Overall reaction order, a +B
AND COMBUSTION *
Pe Peclet number, Re Pr, based on di
Far from literally atomizing (or "moleculariz- req
Equivalent initial release radius at pre-
ing") liquid propellants, rocket motor injectors vailing pressure (supercritical com-
produce nonuniform sprays of droplets with the bustion)
median size typically containing some 1015 mole- Ist Stoichiometric oxidizer/fuel mass ratio
cules/droplet . Owing to low liquid phase diffusion Su Laminar flame speed with respect to
rates and temperatures this initial state of mo- unburned gas
lecular aggregation is ordinarily incompatible with √∞
Relative velocity (absolute value) be-
high volumetric chemical reaction rates. Hence tween droplet and gas , | V - Va |
rapid droplet vaporization is essential to compact α Reaction order with respect to oxidizer
and efficient combustion . The combustion be- vapor
havior of such sprays is indeed a statistical conse- B Reaction order with respect to fuel
quence of the vaporization /combustion behavior vapor
of its interacting individual droplets, each of which K Apparent evaporation coefficient ,
finds itself in a rather extreme and time-varying -d ( d₁² ) /dt
local environment (even during stable combus- V Kinematic viscosity, μ/p
tion ) . In this section, we briefly discuss the results. T Dimensionless time, Dt/reff2
of fundamental research on individual droplet Χ Stoichiometry parameter,
vaporization , with emphasis on the significant (Yox, /YF, L) / Ist
effects of localized gas phase chemical reaction in
Abbreviations :
augmenting the vaporization rates of monopro-
pellant and bipropellant droplets (fuel in oxidizer bp Boiling point
vapor or vice versa ) . While some overlap is in- B-S Burke-Schumann
evitable, attention will be directed at important DS Distributed-source
experimental and theoretical developments since fct() Function of ( )
the comprehensive reviews of Spalding,661 Wise LOX Liquid oxygen [O2 ( L) ]
PS Point-source
* D. E. Rosner, Author. QS Quasi-steady
760 200
740-
Povo2Ao
Liquid oxygen Povo²
720- 150
Temperature
X
PfVq2Ap
Kerosene
/ec
lb
700-
s
X
C
°
Apv2
Momentum
6
680- 100
•
Maximum
temperature
660
640- 50
620
ON
600 10
1,0 1.5 2.0 2.2
Mixture ratio by weight [ LOX /kerosene ]
FIGURE 2.3.4 . - The influence of liquid propellant momentum on injector face temperature.
Gas cr At critical point

33
(g)
(L) Liquid comb With combustion
μ Micron (10-6 m) d Droplet
(-) Average value of ( ) D Pertaining to diffusion
Concentration eff Effective
[ ]
Subscripts : eq Local equilibrium
ad Adiabatic ext At extinction
AE Auto-extinction H Pertaining to heat conduction
ΑΙ max Maximum (B -S limit)
PU
Auto-ignition
bp Boiling point P Product
BO Blow-off u Unburned mixture
8ུྪབ་
LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET COMBUSTION INSTABILITY
སྒྲ
*
ཙ
ཚ Vapor While such laboratory experiments can provide
vap Vaporization valuable insight into the possible life-history of a
At wall (vaporizing surface) droplet in a rocket motor combustion chamber,
Wet-bulb direct use of these data is precluded by the vast
At infinity (far from droplet ) gap in environmental conditions (pressure level ,
droplet size, relative flow velocities, turbulence
To fix ideas it is useful to examine the experi- level ) ordinarily separating well-defined labora-
mentally observed behavior of an isolated fuel tory experiments from rocket chamber conditions .
droplet when suddenly confronted with a stag- For this reason considerable attention has properly
nant, hot oxidizer ( containing) gas (see Figs . been focused on acquiring an understanding of the
2.4a and 2.4b ) . Such experiments518 typically physical and chemical phenomena governing each
involve photographically following the rate of stage in the droplet lifetime . In the absence of
diameter decrease of a fuel droplet suspended on such understanding it would clearly be impossible
a thermocouple junction. One notes the existence. to ( 1 ) generalize (correlate ) the results of avail-
of the following distinct regimes : ( 1 ) transient able experiments, ( 2 ) reliably extrapolate the
heat-up interval during which the droplet surface results to environmental conditions anticipated
temperature rises to the (nonreactive) "wet bulb" in rocket combustion chambers, and (3) correct
temperature with some change in droplet diameter , for artifacts of the experimental configuration .
dL (2 ) a vaporization period during which dr2 Even in the presence of such understanding,
decreases linearly with time with the droplet however, the application of such fundamental
temperature remaining nearly constant, and (3 ) data on droplet behavior to rocket motors con-
an "augmented" vaporization period (d12 again tinues to tax the ingenuity of designers.
linear in time ) associated with the presence of a While radically new experimental techniques
diffusion flame surrounding the droplet . Heat have apparently not been introduced , methods
generated by the localized gas phase reaction of used successfully in the past have been extended
fuel vapor and ambient oxidizer drives the surface to provide interesting new data on the drag
temperature up to near the fuel boiling point , and coefficients of vaporizing and burning bipropellant
sustains the enhanced vaporization rate until droplets, vaporization and burning times for
droplet consumption or extinction.
2 QS - Comb
dLo
Kvap
2
d
Kcomb
Pre - Heat QS - Evap
tign tlife
t
FIGURE 2.4a . -Square of droplet diameter versus time ; fuel droplet placed in hot stagnant oxidizer-containing gas.
T ( p)
'bp
Twb( comb)
-Twb (vap)
Tw
Pre Heat QS - Evap QS - Comb
O
tign tlife
FIGURE 2.4b .- Droplet surface temperature versus time ; fuel droplet placed in hot stagnant oxidizer-containing gas.
bipropellants at extremely high (supercritical ) long enough to ensure that unconsumed droplets
pressures, and monopropellant burning rates and do not emerge. Accordingly, several authors have
flame structure (in ambient environments which considered the design consequences of deliberately
react with the primary decomposition products of simplified one-dimensional steady flow models in
the droplet ) . Previous theoretical models of the which propellant vaporization is the rate-con-
combustion of bipropellant and monopropellant trolling process . In the most complete numerical
droplets have been considerably extended , in study of this type,565 it is assumed that ( 1 ) all
part with the help of new mathematical techniques droplets in the initial spray have the same initial
and/or approximations. These extensions are of velocity and never shatter or coalesce, and ( 2 )
three types : i.e. , those which ( 1 ) increase the properties of the bulk gas flow (resulting from
accuracy of absolute predictions (burning rate, propellant vaporization ) correspond to instan-
flame shape, etc. ) , (2) extend the domain of taneous stoichiometric combustion . The results of
applicability of previous results ( e.g. , to higher single drop studies play an important role in such
pressure levels , incipient forced convection ) , and models since the initial spray distribution is
(3 ) enable a qualitative understanding of the represented by several different groups of drop
effects of physical and chemical kinetic parameters sizes (each containing a fixed percent of the initial
(e.g. , on flame zone structure, burning rate, mass of the spray) whose histories are then
environmental conditions enabling droplet ignition
. computed from the laws governing droplet heat
or leading to extinction , etc. ) . As a byproduct , transfer, mass transfer and drag.
this work has delineated the limitations of pre- Most experimental droplet evaporation studies
vious theoretical models of droplet burning, and have been carried out using the above-mentioned
highlighted aspects of droplet burning having "captive droplet " technique (e.g. , ≥500μ droplet
direct relevance to rocket motor combustion suspended on one (or more ) thermocouple
instability. In what follows we outline these junction (s ) or a silica filament ) , in which forced
advances against the voluminous background of convection or natural convection flows of hot
previously available droplet results . gases augment the droplet vaporization rate.
Smaller droplets can be accommodated using
2.4.1 Droplet Heat-Up and Vaporization
"free-flight" techniques in which droplets are
Combustion chamber "stay-times" must be projected,363 or fall freely through hot gases
produced by a furnace or flame.240,757 In the latter nearly linearly with instantaneous droplet
case drag measurements can also be obtained for diameter.
vaporizing droplets by simultaneously recording Several alternative, but essentially equivalent ,
droplet position-time data.240 As noted below, this quantitative formulations of the above-mentioned
information is required to predict droplet trajec- phenomena have been reported . Our choice here
tories, instantaneous velocity lags (between local is based on conciseness and ease of generalizing
gas and droplet ) and, hence, instantaneous the results to cases in which combustion occurs .
vaporization rates in combustors . In each case one considers a single droplet , and
Experimental studies on single-component expresses the facts that : ( 1 ) the time rate of
droplets have led to the following important change of its energy content is equal to the
observations and conclusions, 112, 248, 249, 302, 562 which instantaneous difference between the convective
form the basis of the quantitative model outlined heat input and the heat required for surface
below: ( 1 ) in a quiescent environment the time to vaporization , ( 2 ) the time rate of change of
achieve the droplet wet bulb temperature is droplet mass is governed by the rate at which its
proportional to dro² and can be an appreciable vapors can diffuse away through the background
portion of the total vaporization time, ( 2 ) owing gas, and (3 ) the product of instantaneous droplet
either to small droplet size, or internal circulation mass and acceleration is equal to the net aero-
within large droplets , actual drop temperature dynamic (drag) force acting on the droplet.
histories are well represented by neglecting Explicitly, the resulting coupled equations
internal temperature gradients * ( compared to governing heat transfer, mass transfer and drag
external gradients ; i.e. , the "infinite liquid thermal for a quasi-spherical droplet of instantaneous
conductivity approximation ") , ( 3 ) for droplets of diameter d₁ ( = 2гL ) are, respectively,
high volatility the unidirectional mass transport
d NUH
process causes the heat transfer, mass transfer , [( ri) PLCLTL ] = ( 4πrL²) R (T - TL)
dt dL
and drag coefficients to fall below those appro-
priate to solid (nonvaporizing ) spheres at the - (4гL2 ) m'hy (2.4.1-1 )
same Reynolds number, ( 4 ) despite the transient
1 d
nature of the droplet heat/mass transfer problem, ( TYL³µL) = m "
step-by-step application of relations strictly (4πг12) dt
derived for steady state conditions usually leads
to accurate predictions†, (5 ) after the droplet Nup (Yv.w- Yv.00
= Dp ( 2.4.1-2 )
temperature reaches the "wet bulb" temperature di 1 - Yv ,w
(i.e., when heat transferred from the hot gas
dVa
environment is used almost exclusively to vaporize = d ( πrL² ) CD
PL ( TTL³) = ½µ ( V — Va) | V - Va│
liquid) the droplet surface area decreases nearly dt
linearly with time (see Fig. 2.4a ) ‡ corresponding (2.4.1-3 )
to a mass rate of volatilization , m , decreasing
Here the station subscripts L, w, refer respec-
tively to the liquid, the gas/vapor mixture at
* Internal absorption of IR radiation can produce the liquid/gas interface (Tw = TL ) , and the
unusual temperature profiles within droplets (see, e.g. , ambient stream ("far" from the droplet) ; the
H. C. Hottel et al.363) , however, calculations indicate that remaining symbols are defined in the Nomen-
this effect is probably negligible in most rocket motors and
clature. The subscript d (Eq . (2.4.1-3 ) ) refers to
industrial furnaces . It is also clear that the present discus-
the droplet, unsubscripted variables pertain to the
sion does not apply to droplets capable of undergoing
exothermic liquid phase reaction. gas, V - Va = V. being the instantaneous
† Limitations of this "quasi-steady" (QS) approxima- absolute value of the relative velocity between
tion will be discussed later on. droplet and gas. The dimensionless heat transfer ,
Systematic departures from the "d2-law" occur in the
mass transfer, and drag coefficients Nuн, Nud ,
presence of non-negligible convective contributions (free
or forced), since convection causes diameter-dependent and CD appearing (and essentially defined ) in
heat transfer augmentation. Eqs . (2.4.1-1 , -2, and -3 ) depend not only on the
local Reynolds number* Re VdL/ , but also Yv.w = Yv.eq (TL) . Once solved for TL.wb, the value
on the dimensionless mass transfer rate per unit of Yv.eq (TL.wb) can be inserted in Eq . ( 2.4.1-2 )
areat: to provide the quasi-steady vaporization rate
m"dL Yv.w-Yv.co during the period TL ≈ TL.wu (see Fig. 2.4b ) .
B= = (2.4.1-4 ) In the extreme case in which T. greatly exceeds
DoNud 1 - Yv.w
the boiling point of the liquid, * examination of
Physically, this is largely due to distortion of the Eq . (2.4.1-5 ) reveals TL,wb-Tbp, hence
radial profiles of vapor mass fraction Yv, tempera-
Cp (To - Tbp)
ture, T, and tangential velocity due to convective Bvap≈ (2.4.1-6)
hy
transport associated with the radial mass transfer
from the droplet. Thus, the simplest possible This limiting result , when combined with the
forced convection correlations which include these appropriate Nu ( Re , Pr, B ) relation , enables m"
essential phenomena would be of the form‡ to be calculated without the need to explicitly
Nuн ( Re, Pr, B) , NuD (Re, Sc , B ) , and CD ( Re, B ) , consider the vapor diffusion equation . For this
where property values are introduced as some reason, this extreme is (somewhat misleadingly)
suitable "mean" condition representative of the called "heat transfer controlled."
local environment within the boundary layer Early work on droplet vaporization in forced
(see below) . convection environments was based on "syn-
Before presenting recent experimental and thesized" correlations of the separable form : 657, 661
theoretical results for the dimensionless transfer
coefficients, some comment is in order on the In (1 + B )
Nu ( Re, Pr , B ) =
: NUB-O (Re, Pr )
(frequently invoked ) simplifications arising when B
( 1 ) the convective heating of the droplet and
(2.4.1-7)
evaporative cooling are nearly in balance ( i.e. ,
when TL TL , wb ) , and ( 2 ) Le≈1 . Then Eqs. where, NuB-0 (Re, Pr) constitutes the corre-
(2.4.1-1 ) and (2.4.1-2 ) can be combined to sponding solid sphere Nusselt number, commonly
provide a simple implicit equation for TL,wb,661 taken ast
viz :
NUB-O (Re , Pr ) = 2 ( 1 + CRe¹/2Pr1/3) ( 2.4.1-8 )
Yv.eq ( TL, wb) -Yv.∞
Bvap , wb = However, the logarithmic "driving force"
1 - Yv.eq (TL, wb)
In ( 1 + B ) is known to be exact ‡ only in the
Cp (To - TL.wb) stagnant limit (Re-0, NUB-0-2 ) . Moreover ,
= (2.4.1-5 ) available constant property solutions to the
hv (TL, wb)
conservation equations indicate that ( 1 ) the
where we have introduced the assumption of local In ( 1 + B ) driving force overestimates laminar
equilibrium at the gas/liquid interface, viz. flow mass transfer rates at high Reynolds number
and large B, ( 2 ) except as an empirical approxi-
* The Grashof number must be considered in the mation , it is unlikely that the transfer coefficients
presence of appreciable bouyancy. can be written in the separable form fct ( B ) •
† Sometimes referred to as the "transfer number. " 661
fet ( Re, Pr) at all Reynolds numbers, and (3 )
The second part of Eq . 2.4.1-4 follows from a mass balance
at the liquid/vapor interface by invoking the conditions
of ( 1 ) no vapor phase chemical reaction , (2 ) Fick's law * This is defined by pv. eq (Tbp) = p , where p is the
of diffusion, and (3 ) ambient ( "foreign" ) gas impenetra- prevailing total pressure .
bility into the droplet. This semi-theoretical form has been suggested by
In the absence of gas phase chemical reaction , the 280 Ranz and Marshall,577 and, most recently,
Frössling,28
differential equations governing heat and mass transport Lee and Ryley.435 Recommended values for the constant C
are similar , leading to the expectation that Nuн (Re, Pr, are 0.276, 0.30 and 0.37 , respectively.
B) and NuD (Re, Sc , B) will have similar functional forms. The (implicit ) law Nu/Nuв_o = [ln ( 1 + B ) /B] is
For gas mixtures relevant to combustion the diffusivity equivalent to the (explicit ) law99 (utilized by Priem , 562
ratio D/ R /(p cp) ] (or Lewis number, Le = Pr/Sc) is fre- El Wakil et al.248,249 ) Nu/NuB_0 = B ' / [exp (B ' ) -1 ] , where
quently near unity, in which case Nuн≈NUD. B' = m'dL/( Dp NUB-0)
even in the absence of mass transfer Eq. ( 2.4.1-8 ) free-fall. These authors state that the use of
overestimates the incipient effects of small [In ( 1 + B) ]/B in the ordinate was somewhat less
forced convection when (Re < 1 ) . * successful than (1 +B) -1, again suggesting that
Despite these "theoretical" objections, experi- the driving force In ( 1 + B ) somewhat under-
mental correlations of the above-mentioned estimates the "blowing effect" (thereby over-
separable form have proven reasonably successful estimating mass transfer rates) when laminar
and, although there is a need for simple design forced convection is significant.‡
formulae, few practical alternatives have been Corresponding drag coefficient data, correlated
suggested . The meaning of "reasonably successful" in the same way, are shown in Fig. 2.4.1b . Here
can be judged from the recent experimental work the " standard sphere drag" curve is CD (Re ) for
of Eisenklam et al . ,240 who photographed 25-2000μ solid inert spheres (B = 0 ) . With regard to the
droplets of six distinct liquids falling freely drag on bluff objects it should be commented
through unheated air. Figure 2.4.1a shows heat that the reduction factor [ln ( 1 + B ) ] /B has no
transfer coefficients† inferred from observed theoretical basis, even in the Stokes flow limit :
evaporation coefficients Kvap [where Kvap= Re<< 1 . A self- consistent formalism for calculating
-d (d₁² ) /dt ] during the TL≈TL.wb portion of the the correction to the Stokes drag law for a
vaporizing spherical droplet with no internal
* circulation has recently been outlined by Fendell
Improved semi-empirical forms of Eq. 2.4.1-8 can be
developed for small Peclet numbers (Pe = Re⚫ Pr) and B = et al.266 who have calculated the reduction in
O based on the fact that the proper small Pe behavior has CD • Re for several illustrative cases. Unfortu-
been shown to be Nu = 2 [ 1 + (1/4) (Pe ) + ··· ] , with
nately, however, simple closed-form corrections do
the next term being of order Pe² In Pe.
In the presence of appreciable property variations
(due to any cause) a " correlation" is of no use if an author However, a driving force like B/( 1 + B) would appear
has not carefully stated the conditions under which to be unreasonable on theoretical grounds when B→ ∞
property values are to be (or have been) inserted . In Fig. since there is no evidence that transfer rates would become
2.4.1a, based on the work of Eisenklam et al.240 all property independent of B at sufficiently large B. The maximum
values are those of the surrounding medium (air) evaluated value of Bvap in the experiments of Eisenklam et al.240 was
at the temperature (TL ,wb + T∞) . 3.
20
Evaporating drops
Nu (1 + B ) = 2 + 1.6 Re "/2
10 • Heptane
Pentane
O Methyl alcohol
5
x Ethyl alcohol
Nu
B
(1+
)
Nu ( 1 + B )= 2 + 1.6 Re 1/2
ΤΟ Evaporating drops
+ Water (temp . 200-1000 °C )
5 ▲ Benzene
2
10-2 10-1 10° 10 ' 102
Reynolds number , Re
FIGURE 2.4.1a .-Correlation of heat transfer data for a vaporizing droplet (after Eisenklam et al.240) .
1000
Standard Cp curve
O Methyl alcohol
× Ethyl alcohol
X
Δ Benzene
100
O
• Heptane
Pentane
(8 +1)
+ Water
10
X
1.0 ‫لس‬ ‫لسي‬
0.1 1.0 10.0 40.0
Re
FIGURE 2.4.1b .- Correlation of drag data for a vaporizing droplet (after Eisenklam et al.240) .
not emerge, hence additional computations will completely vaporize a droplet in a particular high
be required to establish trends . temperature environment : (1 ) increases as the
Before considering extreme conditions which tax square of the initial droplet diameter, ( 2 ) di-
the validity of Eqs . ( 2.4.1-1 , 2 , 3 ) , it is instructive minishes for fuels of high volatility (low Tbp,
to briefly examine the simplest possible case, low latent heat ) , and ( 3 ) depends only weakly on
viz , the evaporation constant for a small droplet the prevailing pressure level. *
preheated to near the wet bulb temperature, It is now appropriate to consider several circum-
suddenly placed in a high temperature stagnant stances in which the previous equations fail to
gas. Then, for Le≈ 1 , the previous "quasi-steady" apply circumstances which, it turns out, are
equations yield661 often intimately connected with unstable rocket
motor combustion . Thus, essential modifications
dL.02
Kvap = are to be expected when either ( 1 ) parameters or
tvap
boundary conditions (p , Yv ... , T. , V . , ...)
8 Cp ---
= In (2.4.1-9) * In Eq . (2.4.1-9) only Tьp and hy noticeably depend on
) in [ 1+
2 (Cp
- PL - Tip) ]
(T₂ hy pressure level. However, these effects are slight (at pres-
sures well below the critical pressure of the fuel) , act in
This equation quantitatively expresses the often opposing directions, and appear within the logarithmic
verified behavior that the time, tvap, required to term .
undergo appreciable percentage changes in times. Since some droplets can apparently reach their
not large compared with r12/D, ( 2 ) the droplet critical points prior to significant fractional
temperature is driven up to near the thermo- vaporization loss or velocity equilibration , it is
dynamic critical temperature of the liquid , or likely that droplet distortion , shattering and,
(3) exothermic chemical reaction ( either vapor ultimately, simple vapor/gas diffusion will then
decomposition, or fuel vapor/oxidizer vapor govern the rate of mixing . This class of "near-
combustion) occurs sufficiently close to the critical" phenomena may bear directly upon high
droplet surface to augment the heat transfer rate pressure rocket motor combustion instability, in
and, hence, vaporization rate (see Fig. 2.4.1a ) . view of the greatly increased pressure dependence
Items ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) both violate the fundamental of the "droplet" vaporization rates in this region .
quasi-steady assumption underlying Eqs. Analogous remarks apply to droplet combustion
2.4.1-1 , -2, and -3 according to which a truly at supercritical pressures (see Sect . 2.4.2 ) .
transient, moving boundary problem ( e.g., a The problem of enhanced droplet vaporization
shrinking droplet ) has been approximated by an rates in the presence of localized exothermic
"equivalent" steady problem with radial mass chemical reaction (within the droplet boundary
transport.740 Item ( 2 ) is intimately related to this layer ; see Fig . 2.4a ) is taken up in Sect . 2.4.2 ,
approximation since the radial interface velocity however it is appropriate to raise here two related
cannot be neglected ( compared to the radial gas questions : ( a ) Under what set of environmental
velocity at r = rL) when the liquid density is not conditions is ignition ultimately possible (for a
much greater than the prevailing gas mixture. particular droplet ) ? (b ) How long will it take
density , 742,434 On the face of it this conclusion before ignition occurs? The latter question is
would appear to cast doubt on calculations of the closely related to the transient heat-up/vaporiza-
type reported by Wieber,738 who used equations tion calculations already outlined. Indeed
essentially equivalent to ( 2.4.1-1 , 2 , 3) to show Williams742 has shown that the so-called droplet
that at supercritical pressures* heptane and "ignition -delay" is usually of the same order of
oxygen droplets can attain their critical tempera- magnitude as the time to attain the wet-bulb
tures following injection into 2780° K gas . How- temperature. However, tign for a particular fuel
ever, it is interesting to note that during transient may display ( 1 ) a dependence on oxidizer mass
heat-up an evaporating droplet can actually fraction Yox. in the surroundings , (2) a sensitivity
expand due to decreasing liquid density (see Eq. to ignition-promoting additives and ( 3) can be
2.4.1-2) as , in fact, Wieber's calculations reveal. appreciably shorter than the time to achieve
In such cases the absolute interface velocity need TL TL.wb. Accordingly, one alternative approach
not be large as PL pw, hence the accuracy of the for estimating a lower limit to tign is to estimate
QS approximation may not degenerate badly.§ the time required to first form a locally combustible
mixture (T, YF, Yox combination ) * within the
droplet boundary layer. Priem et al. ,562 and El
Wakil and Abdou,247 who have made such cal-
At the critical temperature of a substance, parent
"liquid" and the "vapor" with which it is in equilibrium culations, term this the physical ignition delay.
are equally dense -hence the two phases become in- To obtain the total ignition delay one must
distinguishable. As a consequence, both the latent heat of generally add on a chemical ignition delay, i.e. ,
vaporization and surface tension vanish as TL- Ter. The
the time required from the beginning of perceptible
equilibrium "vapor " pressure at Ter is called the critical
pressure, per (see Sect. 2.4.2 ) . homogeneous reaction to the establishment of the
* The critical pressure itself can be exceeded without envelope diffusion flame. Unfortunately, reliable
significant departures from the QS/finite latent heat estimates of the chemical ignition delay cannot be
droplet model. What is relevant is the supercritical pressure
level at which no subcritical wet bulb temperature (satis- * For this purpose it is often helpful to note that for
fying Eq. 2.4.1-5 ) exists.601 Le≈1 the following simple interrelation between Yox,
Only when PL = const . does Eq . (2.4.1-2) specialize to YF, T exists within the boundary layer :
the frequently used form -p (dr₁/dt) = m ” . T -T Yox, -Yox YF - YF..
§ A more quantitative statement must await additional
Tw - To Yox, -Yox,w YF , w - YF ..
calculations and/or measurements.
8883
STEADY-STATE PROCESSES $ 2.4
made based on presently available data and Controlled droplet combustion experimentation
theory. has led to the establishment of the following
important facts and patterns. † ( 1 ) Combustion in
2.4.2 Bipropellant Droplet Combustion the immediate vicinity of a droplet can be of two
general types, depending primarily on the relative
An important consequence of spray size dis-
tributions and unequal droplet evaporation rates velocity V. between gas and droplet . At low V ..
for combustion chambers is that a fuel droplet can one observes distorted "envelope" flames char-
find itself in an oxidizer-rich vapor (or vice versa ) . acterized by a contiguous vapor phase diffusion
This introduces the possibility of localized flame zone wrapped around (but not contacting)
the droplet . In this envelope flame, vapors
exothermic vapor phase chemical reaction , with
attendant increases in the heat feedback and emanating from the fuel droplet react with oxygen
diffusing inward from the environment providing a
hence vaporization rates of individual droplets
localized source of heat and reaction products.
(see Fig. 2.4a-b ) . To answer the question of
whether such processes play an important role in At larger V. the quasi-steady state configuration
becomes that of a "flame-holding" droplet
determining bipropellant spray combustion effi-
ciency, space requirements, and stability, it is supplying fuel vapor into its wake, where com-
necessary to first consider the laws governing bustion then occurs due to mixing with ambient
gas. Ultimately, at sufficiently large V , "blow
such "heterogeneous combustion ," the possible
off" (complete extinction ) occurs . ( 2 ) In the
vaporization rate augmentations due to gas
envelope flame regime, for nearly stagnant
phase combustion in the droplet boundary layer or
conditions , d² again decreases linearly with
wake, and the dependence of these vaporization
rate augmentation phenomena on liquid/vapor time, * however, the apparent evaporation coeffi-
properties and environmental conditions . cient ( ie., the combustion constant comb)
In addition to obvious modifications of the exceeds Kvap (for the same environmental condi-
suspended drop and falling drop techniques tions ) by a factor depending primarily on the
heats of combustion and vaporization, ambient
already mentioned , a fruitful experimental method
temperature level and ambient oxidizer mass
for elucidating steady "burning" rates of in-
dividual droplets (with and without convective fraction. (3 ) Droplet burning rates are remarkably
insensitive to the fuel chemistry (structure ) and
flow) and reaction zone structure has been the
pressure level , suggesting rate control due to
"simulated-captive droplet" technique, in which a
wetted porous sphere plays the role of the droplet * physical processes ( diffusion/heat transport)
(see Fig. 2.4.2a ) 57,753 Such experiments are rather than chemical kinetic factors. ( 4 ) The drag
carried out by feeding liquid reactant into the on a burning droplet (with either envelope or
sphere at the rate determined (upon ignition ) wake flame) is significantly less than that on a
by the physical and chemical parameters of a solid sphere of the same size in the same environ-
system under study-the major assumption ment, and (5 ) quasi-steady state droplet com-
being that simulation of internal droplet phe- bustion is not possible for all combinations of
ambient oxidizer mass fraction, temperature ,
nomena (circulation heat conduction/radiative
heat absorption /emission ) is not essential to pressure level and droplet size ( e.g. , in a gas
mixture of particular composition and tempera-
model steady state droplet combustion . While
practical considerations have limited this tech- ture, combustion cannot be achieved if the pres-
nique to sphere diameters above about 2000μ, sure levels and/or droplet diameters are too
much of the experimental data on isolated small ) .
"droplets" (discussed below) has been obtained
with its aid . † References include 57 , 58 , 240, 290, 292 , 293 , 303, 363,
518, 658, 680, 753 and 756. For a recent review and bib-
liography see Ref. 741 .
Some of the earliest heterogeneous combustion data Again this implies that the instantaneous mass vapori-
were obtained using a simple variant of the simulated zation rate, m , varies nearly linearly with droplet diameter.
drop technique, viz . fuel-wetted, fabric- covered solid Thisis for p<<per (see Ref. 124) ; phenomena peculiar
(nonporous) spheres . 659 to p >per will be dealt with later on in the present section.
B
-Wetted porous sphere

(Alundum )
Flame
zone
Fuel
Product Product
vapor
vapor
Oxidizer Oxidizer
vapor vapor
Oxidizer
Oxidizer
Fuel
FIGURE 2.4.2a . -Fuel-fed porous sphere technique for simulating droplet combustion (after Wise, Lorell, and Wood75 ) .
2.4.2.1 Envelope flame model for subcritical compatible with the requirement that the con-
pressures -theory and experiment. -As a starting ductive heat feedback from the vapor phase
point in the iterative process of building a theory diffusion flame be adequate to supply the latent
compatible with the above-mentioned facts, con- heat of vaporization at the droplet surface .
sideration was focused on the simplest case of a Without making any restrictive assumptions con-
spherically symmetric system-i.e. , a fuel droplet cerning the vapor phase flame zone structure,
suspended in an unbounded oxidizer containing when Le = 1 and constant mean thermodynamic
gas mixture with no free or forced convective transport properties are assumed, it can be shown
distortion of the composition and temperature from the governing conservation equations that a
profiles in the vicinity of the droplet. Upon linear combination of temperature and oxidizer
ignition, the droplet supplies fuel vapor which mass fraction satisfies a boundary value problem
meets and reacts with oxidizer vapors in a narrow identical to that governing the corresponding
gas phase diffusion flame zone concentric with
290
(enveloping ) the droplet surface (Godsave, "
* In this figure , and in the following discussion, the
Spalding658 et al . ) . In this quasi-steady model droplet is considered to be fuel, and the surroundings
(see Fig. 2.4.2b) * flame zone radial position and contain oxidizer. However, the treatment clearly applies
the fuel vaporization rate adjust themselves to be equally well to the converse case .
Tf
T (r)
T∞
Yp (r)
Yox,
TL
rf Yox (r)
YF(r)
Fuel
droplet Flame zone
Fuel
Product
vapor
vapor
Oxidizer
Product vapor
vapor
FIGURE 2.4.2b. Diffusion flame model of subcritical pressure bipropellant droplet combustion in the absence of convective
distortion.
pure droplet vaporization problem. In this way, ·

vided one replaces Bvap =cp (T - Tw) /h, with†
one can immediately write the quasi-steady mass
Cp ( T - Tw) Yox, .he
burning rate in the general form.740 Bcomb = + (2.4.2-2)
hy hy
m = 4πгL Fortunately , when combustion occurs the assump-
(
Cp
tion TwTbp (p ) can be justified even in unheated
Cp (T - Tw) + (Yox, -Yox, w) he surroundings ,742 hence all quantities in Eqs.
In 1+ Bet Yox , the Yox. )h.] (2.4.2-1 , -2 ) are estimable. As an important
immediate consequence, Eqs . ( 2.4.1-9) and
(2.4.2-1 ) (2.4.2-2) show that in a stagnant environment
the enhancement in apparent vaporization con-
Here he is the heat released (per unit mass of
stant [-d (d2) /dt ] due to combustion (see Fig.
oxidizer consumed ) in the vapor phase reaction 2.4a) is approximately:
between fuel and oxidizer. While (as indicated
above) Eq. (2.4.2-1 ) applies regardless of the Kcomb In (1 + Bcomb)
distribution of chemical heat release within the (2.4.2-3)
Kvap In (1 + Bvap)
droplet boundary layer, in the absence of addi-
which indeed exhibits the experimentally observed
tional information its quantitative use is limited
to the case when the homogeneous chemical
reaction rates are adequate to prevent oxidizer † An interesting (but rarely stated) interpretation of
from "fighting its way" to the surface, i.e. , when this Le = 1 result is that the evaporation rate of an ignited
droplet in oxidizer-containing gas at temperature T. is
Yox, w =0. Then Eq. ( 2.4.2-1 ) becomes identical
the same as the evaporation rate of a noncombusting
to the expression for steady-state droplet vaporiza- droplet (of the same size) in combustion products of final
tion (in the absence of chemical reaction ) pro- temperature T + (Yox ho/Cp) .
trends with T. , Yox,, he and h,. This simple contours, Fig . 2.4.2b) . As will be noted below,
treatment also rationalizes the observed in- this thin-flame limit is not merely an irrational
sensitivity of burning rates to chemical factors computational approximation —it represents a self-
and pressure level, since In ( 1 + Bcomb ) does not consistent asymptotic limit * [for the cases of
show order-of- magnitude changes for a wide class very large (a ) bimolecular forward rate constant ) ,
of organic fuels in oxygen- containing gases, (b) pressure level and/or, ( c ) droplet size ] from
moreover In ( 1 + Bcomb ) exhibits only a weak which the maximum possible (diffusion limited )
dependence on pressure level (for reasons identical. droplet burning rate, mmax , can be predicted .
to those already discussed for Bvap) *. To embrace the fact that droplet combustion
Before discussing chemical kinetic phenomena , simply does not occur for all combinations of
ignition and extinction , it is appropriate to stress droplet size andand environmental conditions
here that even in the absence of effects peculiar to (p, Yox. , T. ) it is necessary to explicitly
particular experimental conditions (e.g. , natural introduce chemical kinetic limitations into the
convection around large droplets at high pres- envelope flame model. Despite the resulting
sures) the previous expressions often provide only complexity, only by these means does it appear
a guide to orders-of-magnitude and trends . This to be possible to decide whether (a ) the lower
is due principally to the extreme property varia- limit map (no chemical reaction ) or the upper
tions,399 and departures from unit Lewis number limit max ( flame sheet envelope) is more appro-
which can occur in real casest (e.g. , oxygen priate in a particular set of circumstances, or (b )
droplets burning in a hydrogen environment ) .399, 361 neither limit yields a sufficiently accurate pre-
For this reason several methods of accounting diction . Even if a detailed knowledge of the
for property variations have been suggested ; (multi-step, branching chain) chemical kinetics of
however, useful results usually require simplifying fuel vapor/oxidizer vapor systems of practical
the kinetic model to the extent that all chemical interest were available, specific numerical pre-
reaction is considered confined to a flame sheet of dictions would be costly and tedious, hence a
negligible radial thickness . In this extreme, great deal of semi-quantitative and qualitative
sometimes called the Burke-Schumann128 limit , ‡ information has recently been gleaned from
oxidizer and fuel vapor do not co -exist (intermix) — simplified but general theoretical treatments263, 398,
instead, both concentrations vanish at the flame 452,682 of evaporation as enhanced by single step
sheet , with their gradients standing in the irreversible vapor phase reactions of the form :
stoichiometric ratio to one another (see dashed aOX + bFproducts . In these treatments the
* Early
measurements on large captive droplets292,303 reaction rate (per unit volume ) is assumed to be of
and porous spheres57 in nearly quiescent oxidizing environ- the mass-action form : rate a k (T) • [ OX ] [F ],
ments revealed more sensitive pressure dependencies than which defines the forward rate constant k (T )
expected from hv (p ) and Tьp (p) . However, these depar- (usually taken to have an Arrhenius temperature
tures from the simple theory were shown to be compatible
dependence, i.e. , B exp ( -Eact/ T ) ) and the
with induced (natural convection) flows which distort
individual reaction orders a, B. If Tf.ad, is the
the quasi-steady flame shape and augment heat /mass
transfer rates. adiabatic flame temperature for the ambient
† However, Eq. (2.4.2-1 ) , together with a reasonable gas/fuel combination, and n is the overall order
choice of mean properties, has provided remarkably (n = a +B) then inspection of the governing con-
successful absolute predictions of Kcomb for hydrocarbon/air
servation equations indicates that the normalized
systems ; see, e.g. , Refs. 293 , 292. Recent computer solu-
tions of the transient variable property burning equations magnitude of the combustion-enhanced vaporiza-
(in the thin-flame limit ) suggest that this agreement only tion rate should be of the general form :
occurs after an initial transient which is not short com-
pared to the total droplet lifetime [see Kotaki , S. and * See Refs . 261 , 263, 279, 398, 452 and 682 .
Okazaki , T. , Int . J. Heat Mass Transfer, Vol. 12, pp . 395– Full advantage is usually taken of the Le = 1 (or
609 , 1969, and Nuruzzaman, A. S. M. , and Beer, J. M. , "Schvab-Zeldovich" ) approximation which enables first
Comb. Sci . Tech. , pp . 17-24 , 1971 ] . integrals (algebraic interrelations between YF(r), Yox (r) ,
After the investigators who first applied "flame-sheet" Yp (r) , T (r) ) to be used to reduce the overall coupled
concepts (in 1928) to treat steady-state diffusion flame problem to the integration of one highly nonlinear ordinary
shapes in ducts. differential equation.
exists at each value of pn/2dL. However, in the

m- mvap
= fct (Dr) (2.4.2-4 ) more frequently encountered case (large activa-
mmax -mvap
tion energy) m /mvap VS. pn/2dL reveals a domain
where Di represents the appropriate* Damköhler of multiple-valued (non-unique or non-monotonic)
number (ratio of characteristic diffusion time to behavior,263 within which (in particular) both
chemical reaction time) , given by high ṁ (near equilibrium ) and low m (near
inert ) solutions* exist for a particular pn/2dL.
k(Tf.ad) (aMox + bMF This situation is quite reminiscent of earlier work
D₁= Pond² (2.4.2–5)
4D∞∞ Mox"MF on the combustion of carbon (a true heterogeneous
reaction ) wherein it was shown that "ignition "
and fet (D1) has the limits fct ( 0 ) = 0 , fct ( ∞ ) = 1 .
and "extinction" correspond to the system
The behavior of m for large but finite Dr has been
suddenly jumping from the lower branch to the
investigated by the method of matched asymptotic
upper branch and vice versa. To fix ideas, con-
expansions , which (in the present application )
sider the near equilibrium combustion of a large
offers a systematic technique for obtaining
(captive) droplet at high pressure . As the pressure
corrections to max to account for incipient flame
level is continually reduced only slight departurest
zone broadening. * Coupled with a regular param-
from max will be observed . However, these
eter perturbation for DI« << 1 and numerical
departures will increase until point AE is attained
methods for intermediate D1, it is possible to
( Fig. 2.4.2d ) . At only slightly lower pressure
obtain the behavior of fct (D1 ) in Eq. ( 2.4.2–4 ) .
levels "low pressure extinction " (auto-extinction)
To bring out the implications of these theoretical
will occur, i.e. , the only "available" quasi-steady
studies for practical systems the resulting behavior
state will be that corresponding to only slight
is shown on log scale in Figs . 2.4.2c, d in the form
(usually negligible) combustion enhancement. ‡
of the enhancement ratio m/mvap vs‡ pn/2dL,
Similar comments apply for extinction due to the
implying that such parameters as ambient oxidizer
droplet size becoming insufficient (at constant
concentration , temperature level, fuel identity,
pressure level ) . Analogy with previous ignition
etc. , are held constant.
studies would also suggest that droplets originally
Two qualitatively different types of behavior
vaporizing in accord with the "near-inert " branch
are obtained,263 depending primarily on the ratio.
will "spontaneously ignite" (auto-ignite ) when
Eact/RTf.act. When this ratio is sufficiently small
the pressure level brings pn/2dL above (pn/2dL) ai ·
(as for vapor phase reactions of very low activa-
In this way, the domains of possible droplet
tion energy) then m/mvap VS. pn/2dL is single-
combustion receive their explanation in terms of
valued (monotonic) , i.e., one and only one quasi-
the relevant gas phase kinetics, within the confines
steady burning rate between mvap and max
of a quasi-steady spherically symmetric theory.
Even for this simplified kinetic scheme, however,
* The appropriate Damköhler numbers for the near
extensive computations and parametric studies
frozen (virtually no reaction ) expansion is similar to
Eq . 2.4.2-4 but based on k evaluated at TL , wb or T∞ , would be required to map out similar curves for
whichever is higher . For droplets in a convective environ- various ambient temperatures and oxidizer levels .
ment the characteristic diffusion time will be shortened,
hence, if all other things were equal, D, would be reduced
appreciably due to relative motion between droplet and * In all cases of this type examined theoretically to
gas. In practice convection produces flame distortion and date, the intermediate (3rd eligible steady state) is stat-
ultimately, flame "blowoff" (see Fig. 2.4.2e and accom- ically unstable and hence should be physically unrealizable .
panying discussion) . † The effects of incipient flame zone broadening on the
Slight reversibility (large but finite equilibrium con- burning rate have been shown398 to be intimately connected
stant) , also produces flame zone broadening, and the with the reaction order, a, and are extremely small when
effects can be treated by similar mathematical tech- α
a≤1 .
niques. 144,263 Tarifa680 has presented data on the dependence of
This abscissa is proportional to D1/2 for a particular Kcomb on pd for gasoline, and p°.55d for kerosene . Also
system (in view of the pressure dependence of the diffusion included are data on the pressure dependence of the
coefficient) . When the overall order is 2 , the abscissa minimum droplet diameter allowing combustion (for
becomes simply the pressure-diameter product. kerosene, gasoline, n-heptane and ethyl alcohol) .
10
B - S Limit
m m max
map mvap
2
pn/dĹ
FIGURE 2.4.2c . -Homogeneous chemical kinetic effects on quasi-steady droplet combustion rates ; single-valued case (low
activation energy) .
10
B - S Limit
AE
m mmax
To
p m
Unstable nv ap
vap
branch
AI
pn
/ 2
dĹ
FIGURE 2.4.2d . - Homogeneous chemical kinetic effects on quasi-steady droplet combustion rates ; multiple-valued case263
exhibiting auto-ignition and auto -extinction (high activation energy) .
This, together with the realization that only negligible radial thickness (a "modified flame.
trends are usually sought , has motivated the surface" ) . The quasi-steady, constant property,
development and exploitation of less rigorous , coupled linear* differential equations governing
but more computationally convenient approximate flame location, temperature and composition
methods. In one of these, due to Peskin and
Wise,546 the nonlinearity of the Arrhenius tem-
* In this model the nonlinearity is artificially removed
perature dependence is retained but the chemical
from the differential equations and placed in the boundary
reactions are artificially confined to a zone of conditions on each zone.
STEADY- STATE PROCESSES $2.4 89
profiles, and burning rate , m , are then solved, Eq. 2.4.2-8 ) † provided the extinction criterion
leading to implicit but closed-form transcendental (see below) is not contravened . This appears to
relations between m, D, and the parameters of the be rigorously true at very low values of Re - Pr,
problem. Peskin et al.545 have used these results to (at which the semi-empirical Frössling form of
illustrate the existence of auto-ignition and NuB-0 (Re) breaks down ) since Fendell et al.267
auto -extinction ambient temperatures and their have shown that, for constant property creeping
dependence on ambient oxidizer mass fraction† flow around a small vaporizing /burning sphere :
at constant pdı, however at this time the available
body of such information is limited, as are relevant mmax (mmax) Re -0 [ 1 + 1 ( Re - Sc ) + ]
experimental data. ‡ (2.4.2-6)
Droplet ignition , quasi-steady burning rates ,
and extinction in practical combustors are strongly which is precisely the result that would be
influenced by forced convection (due to instan- anticipated for nonreactive mass transfer from a
taneous droplet-gas velocity lags ) and turbulence sphere in the absence of appreciable interfacial
(intensity/scale ) , neither of which can be in- velocities.47 At higher Reynolds numbers theo-
cluded in simple spherico-symmetric theoretical retical analyses become intractable, but then
models. While progress in these difficult areas available experimental data57 supports the empiri-
(together with the ancillary question of the drag cal use of a Frössling-type correlation , * as in the
on burning droplets ) has been largely as a result. non-burning case.
of direct experimentation , several recent theo- Experimental data on the drag on burning
retical analyses have shed light on qualitative droplets, either in the regime of envelope flames or
aspects of these effects . wake flames, reveal drag reductions when com-
As a practical expedient, there is still no pared with the drag expected from solid spheres
alternative but to assume that forced convection* in the same fluid dynamic environments . In
augments the quasi-steady burning rate mmax and addition to the data reviewed by Wise and
vaporization rate, mvap, by the same factor (see Agoston,752 Eisenklam et al.240 have recently
reported drag coefficients for droplets of methyl
Interestingly enough, it is found that as the ambient alcohol, ethyl alcohol, benzene, heptane and
oxygen concentration is reduced ( 1) ignition and extinction pentane freely falling in heated air. For a particular
temperatures approach one another, and (2 ) differences choice of mean properties used , † and in the
between m on the near equilibrium and near frozen envelope flame regime, these authors report a
branches diminish. Eventually the double-valued region correlation of the same form as for non-burning
disappears, hence below this value of Yox, ignition/
droplets (see Fig . 2.4.1b ) , viz:
extinction (as defined here ) should not occur (see Fig.
2.4.2c) .
Despite the fact that the combustion of large droplets
at near atmospheric pressure is nearly diffusion -limited ,
Wood et al.757 have shown that flame inhibitors (e.g. , † Departures from this form of correlation in the work
CF3Br) added to air can cause the extinction of ethanol of Eisenklam et al.240 may only be apparent, i.e. , a con-
combustion. Typically, extinction occurs without much sequence of their calculation procedure for Nu. A more
"warning, " i.e. , the value of m at incipient extinction is general definition than their Eq . ( 1 ) would have been
not significantly lower than m in the absence of inhibitor. Nu = (4) (cp/K) (PL/B) . Recorrelation of their envelope
Bipropellant droplet theory, as outlined in the present flame data (for heptane, pentane , methyl alcohol and
section, shows that for sufficiently large pa/2dL it is hopeless ethyl alcohol) on this basis is suggested .
to search for "burning rate catalysts. " It is interesting to Once the flame no longer envelops the sphere, the heat
contrast this situation to that of monopropellant burning transfer to the sphere abruptly drops , with the result that
(Sect. 2.4.3) . values of m in the wake flame region can be reduced to
* Though a great deal of work has been done on natural values only somewhat larger than vap (see Fig.
convection-induced distortion of flame shapes and aug- 2.4.2e) .412,753
mentation of burning rates (owing to its importance in * See previous footnote with regard to the data of
many laboratory studies on droplet burning in quiescent Eisenklam et al.
environments) , we focus attention here on forced convection † Consult Ref. 240 for details ; e.g. , the mean gas density
phenomena, since they are likely to be of greater relevance was (somewhat arbitrarily) taken as [pF(Tbp) + 2p. (Tf, ad)
to actual combustor environments. + P (Tbp) ].
Vext Vво
evaporation
coefficient
Apparent
*comb
/
s
)
2) ec
(m m
0.4
flame
Wake
Έναρ
0.2
Envelope flame No flame
0.1
10 20 40 100 200 400
Air velocity, Voo ( cm / sec )
FIGURE 2.4.2e .-Apparent evaporation coefficients for cetane with envelope flame, wake flame, and following blow-off
(after Kumagai¹12) .
1 The relative velocity Vext at which flame

CD (Re, B ) = CD , B =0
-0 (Re) (2.4.2-7) extinction occurs on the upstream portion of a
1+B
droplet has been experimentally studied using
again suggesting a reduction factor (due to inter- captive droplets . While available measurements
facial mass transfer ) comparable to that for heat cover only a narrow range of fuel/oxidizer
and mass transfer coefficients (see Fig. 2.4.2a ) . combinations and environmental parameters,
The role of variable properties must be considered they generally support the semi-quantitative
with special care for reported drag coefficients . treatment of Zeldovich767 and Spalding,661 ac-
For example, when CD and Re are based upon cording to which there is a finite upper limit ( set
upstream gas properties, the data points fall very by homogeneous chemical kinetics) to the flux of
close to the "standard drag curve" (i.e., appear fuel vapor that can be consumed by a diffusion
independent of Bcomb) . In this connection , it flame zone. From this point of view, the effect of
should be remarked that Fendell et al.267 have increased relative velocity is to continuously
reported the surprising result that a constant increase the fuel flux "imposed" on the flame;
property flame sheet model in the creeping flow this results in an increased flame zone thickness
regime can yield drag coefficients in excess of the necessary to consume the fuel and depressed
Stokes value. Whether this is an artifact of the maximum temperatures- ultimately producing
constant property model , or a realistic con-
sequence of peripherally nonuniform vapor in-
* This upper limit being of the same order of magnitude
jection at large Sc but low Reynolds numbers , as the fuel mass flux in a premixed stoichiometric flame at
remains to be seen. the same pressure level.
localized extinction. For a laminar flow stagnation completely vaporizing.738 Since the latent heat of
point the theory predicts that Vext should depend vaporization and surface tension vanish at Ter,
linearly on d (i.e., there should exist a critical this means that the subsequent combustion of
velocity gradient) , † a trend which has been ob- such a "droplet" (fuel pocket ) † should be qualita-
served in some, 482,659 but not all,57,700 experiments . tively, as well as quantitatively, different from
For specific fuel/oxidizer systems , only limited that already described . That this will not be a rare
data are available for situation can be seen from Table 2.4.2 , which
collects thermodynamic critical state data for
(Vo/dL) ext several common fuels and oxidizers.
= fct (T , Yox,, P, turbulence intensity/scale ) If the gas in the spherical pocket does not
react with its surroundings, then the time required
(2.4.2-8) for it to disappear by molecular interdiffusion can
be estimated from available solutions to the
however the theoretical approaches outlined transient diffusion equation in spherical co-
earlier, when extended to include convection , ordinates. If combustion occurs at the "interface"
should be capable of modeling this class of phe- between fuel vapor and oxidizer ( containing)
nomena. Indeed Peskin and Yeh547 have reported vapor then the time to consume the fuel will be
qualitative agreement between (V/dL)ext as
shortened, but still limited by molecular diffusion
predicted for a modified flame surface/creeping
processes (i.e. , the rate fuel and oxidizer vapors
flow theory and the observations of Ref. 482 on
can diffuse toward one another through the
(V/dL) ext for kerosene and ethyl alcohol in air.
product gas generated at the reaction zone ) .
Only limited data are available on droplet
Since the pressure levels of interest here are large,
burning rates and extinction phenomena in flows
this suggests transient application of the envelope
containing periodic (e.g. , sound field) or random.
flame sheet concept . Such a treatment is particu-
(i.e. , turbulent ) disturbances. With regard to
larly straightforward if one makes the rather
time averaged burning rates , significant enhance-
extreme assumption of a constant density field ,
ments have been reported for periodic distur- thereby ruling out radially symmetric convective
bances but no observable enhancements were
transport. Spalding
-662 presented simple closed-
reported in the turbulent case.57 However, in-
form results for the flame-history and burning
creased turbulence intensity significantly reduces time by regarding the fuel pocket as the result of
Vext, especially when the scale of the turbulence
an instantaneous (at t = 0) point source ( PS ) . *
is comparable to the near-extinction flame "stand
Rosner-601 presented closed-form results for finite-
off" distance.57
size ("distributed" at t = 0) sources (DS ) ,
suggesting that this model should be more accu-
2.4.2.2 Envelope flame model for supercritical rate when the stoichiometry favors short burning
pressures-theory and experiment. -Calculations
relevant to rocket motors (and diesel engines )
reveal that droplets injected into a chamber * There is a region of supercritical pressures (p >Per) in
which the wet bulb temperature will be subcritical (TL , wb
maintained at a pressure, p, sufficiently greater
<Tor) . This region is narrowed considerably in the presence
than the liquid's critical pressure,* Per, can be of an envelope flame.
heated to their critical temperature, Ter, before † Again, these remarks apply equally well to an oxidizer
pocket in a hot fuel vapor surroundings .
Droplet breakup (prior to Tɩ→Te ) and fuel pocket
For large kerosene "droplets" in 293 K air, (V∞/dL)ext distortion due to velocity lags (V.0) , which would
is about 102 sec-¹. However, much larger values are considerably shorten the combustion time, are not con-
required at higher ambient temperatures. sidered here. Effects due to high turbulence intensity, and
It appears however, that the value of (Kcomb) avg cannot fuel vapor pyrolysis at high pressures and temperatures434
exceed some limit , no matter how violent the oxidizing have not yet been accurately assessed, and are likewise
gas vibrations may be.413 Phase lags between m (t) , Mcomb(t) omitted here.
*
and p (t) , V (t) are currently under theoretical investiga- Chervinsky137b has recently generalized Spalding's PS
tion, owing to their relevance to the combustion instability treatment by allowing for self-induced radial convection,
problem (see Sect. 3.4.2) . subject only to the restriction pT = const = pœT…•
TABLE 2.4.2. - CRITICAL CONDITIONS FOR SOME FUELS reduces to a straight line. The distributed source
AND OXIDIZERS 543
( DS ) model leads to the inverted result [easily
solved for x (7b) ]:
Substance Per, Ter,
atm °K x/ ( 1 + x ) = erf [ 1 / ( 27ь¹/2) ]
- [1 / (πь ) /2 ] exp [ −1 / (4ть ) ]
Hydrogen (H2) 12.8 33.3 (2.4.2-10 )

Kerosene (C12.5H24) 26 662
Ethanol ( C2H5OH ) 63.1 516.3 Note that the PS model always overestimates
Ammonia (NH3) 111.5 405.6 burning time, the departures exceeding 10 percent
Hydrazine (N₂H₁) 145 653.2 x above about 10-1.
for Χ
Fluorine (F2) 25 118.2
In experiments designed to check the accuracy
Oxygen (O2) 49.7 154.4
100 431.2 of these models , Faeth et al.256 ignited 600 to
Nitrogen tetroxide (N2O4)
1000μ n-decane droplets (Per =20.7 atm) in a
freely-falling pressure vessel* containing O2/N2
mixtures . Maximum flame radii and burning
times . Both treatments lead to important con- times were then photographically inferred in the
supercritical pressure range up to 136 atm. , and
clusions that the burning time for a fuel pocket
in the composition range : air-pure oxygen .
should increase with ( 1 ) pressure (as pl/3 ) , ( 2 )
Estimated burning times in air (normalized to the
initial fuel pocket mass (as m2/3) , and ( 3 ) nearness
burning time at p = 1 atm) are shown in Fig.
of ambient gas composition to that of the products
of stoichiometric combustion . The last two con- 2.4.2h, together with the DS-model prediction at
supercritical pressures. † The effects of oxygen
clusions apply also to droplet combustion at
. enrichment in the surrounding environment were
p <per*, however the first conclusion is in sharp
contrast to subcritical pressure behavior (where , also well represented by the PS and DS theories,
it will be recalled that, if anything, higher pres- the latter being somewhat more accurate at the
sures shortened burning times) . highest value of x possible for the n-decane/oxygen
The time evolution of fuel , oxidizer and product system (x = 0.32 ) . These trends , together with
profiles for the DS model600 can be appreciated by reasonable predictions of maximum flame radius , ‡
referring to Fig. 2.4.2f. Here T is the dimensionless suggest that "droplet" combustion at super-
time, Dt/reff , and reff is the radius that a pure fuel critical pressures can indeed be regarded as a
vapor sphere would attain if it included the total transient , diffusion -limited vapor phase process ;
however additional data and more general and
amount of fuel released and had the same density
detailed theoretical treatments will no doubt be
as the surrounding gas . According to these models ,
the dimensionless time required to consume all required for application for rocket motor design .
fuel originally present, designated 7ь, depends only *
Especially at these high density levels, free-fall is
on the stoichiometry of the system. If the latter is essential to prevent ( 1 ) extensive flame distortion due to
specified by x = (Yox ../YF.L) /rst where rst is the natural convection , and (2 ) loss of the suspended "droplet"
stoichiometric oxidizer/fuel mass ratio, then the when the surface tension vanishes .
predicted Tь (x) relationships are as shown in † The band is due to uncertainties in assumed property
values.
Fig. 2.4.2g, taken from Ref. 601. The coordinates
In contrast to quasi-steady droplet combustion theories
of Fig. 2.4.2g are chosen such that the point (in which the predicted flame radius r shrinks mono-
source relation tonically with time, in direct proportion to гL) , the tran-
sient "chemical release" theories of supercritical pressure
Tb ( PS ) = ( 4π ) −¹ { [3 / ( 4π ) ] • [x/ ( 1 + x) ] } −2/3 combustion predict that the flame radius initially increases ,
passes through a maximum at about 7ь/e and then col-
(2.4.2-9)
b. It is interesting to note here that one
lapses to zero at 7ь.
of the greatest weaknesses of QS droplet combustion theory
* Thus, the desirability of fine subdivision (atomization) (discussed earlier in this section) was its inability to
remains unaltered, and the effects of combustion disappear accurately predict flame radii in the Burke-Schumann
as Yox, -0. (flame sheet) limit.
Yp /( 1+ Ist)
Yox/Ist
2.5
1,25
1.05
0.95
0.85
0.50 T = t /rett
0.25
r/reff
0.05
FIGURE 2.4.2f.-Time evolution of fuel, oxidizer and product concentrations according to the distributed source (DS)
chemical release model of " droplet" combustion at supercritical pressures ; x = 10 -¹ (after Rosner600) .
X =Yox,∞ /Ist
2 4 6 8 10-1 4 6 10° 2 410,00
4 +
Burning
2
time
,t₂
}
/
%
∞
6
Point source
4 Distributed source-
2
Chemical release theory
pure fuel, P > Pcr

10
2
10 2 4 6 8 10-1 2 4 6 8 10°
X/ (1 +X )
FIGURE 2.4.2g.-Dimensionless time to complete combustion ; comparison of the point source (PS) and distributed source
(DS) models of "droplet" combustion at supercritical pressures (after Rosner601) .
2.0
1.00
tb 0.6
tb,p=1 0.4
0.2
0.1
10 100
Pressure , atm.
O.I 1.0 10
Reduced pressure , P / Pcr
FIGURE 2.4.2h . Observed time required to complete combustion (normalized by the p = 1 atm. value) versus pressure
level ; n-decane in air ( Hall and Diederichsen303 ; Faeth et al.256 ; shaded line (of slope 13 ) is theoretical prediction ) .
It seems likely that these conclusions will have limited chemical reaction with surrounding vapors
important implications with regard to combustion
. of oxidizer or fuel . Consequently , combustor
instability at high pressure levels ( see Refs. 601 , efficiency, space requirements and stability cannot
662, 738 and Sect . 3.4.4.2 ) . Indeed, a recent be accurately assessed without considering singular
combustion instability analysis136 incorporating a features of the gasification of such metastable
supercritical pressure envelope flame model has liquids.
predicted significant alterations in stability limits. When compared with previously discussed
bipropellant droplet combustion , experiments on
captive118, 239, 257, 429 , 682 or simulated79, 353, 604 mono-
2.4.3 Monopropellant Droplet Combustion
propellant droplets have indeed revealed increased
Liquids whose vapors are thermodynamically sensitivity of droplet gasification rate m to ( 1 )
capable of exothermic chemical reaction are called
droplet diameter, in many cases approximating
monopropellants or said to have "monopropellant m ~d2 (corresponding to a linear diameter-time
capability." In liquid bipropellant rocket motors curve for captive droplets decomposing in a
the fuel (e.g., hydrazine ) or oxidizer (e.g. , ozone) stagnant atmosphere ) , ( 2 ) pressure level, even at
may individually have this capability, hence their
pressure levels far lower than the critical pressure
gasification rates can be enhanced by the heat of the fuel, and (3 ) fuel additives (catalysts ,
feedback resulting from localized vapor phase
inhibitors ) and impurities. Moreover , the absolute
decomposition * , even in the absence of diffusion-
value of m can exceed that pertaining to simple
vaporization into a product gas environment
* Not all monopropellants are single metastable com- maintained at the adiabatic decomposition tem-
pounds. Some are physical solutions, synthesized using
perature . At present, well-defined experimental
oxidizer and fuel constituents [ e.g. , NH3 ( L) / NH4NO3 (L) ,
CHaNO3 (L) /CH3OH (L) ] , whose mixture ratio (or "oxygen data on monopropellant droplets ( e.g., ignition ,
balance" ) can be varied at will.64 However, for purposes of extinction , flow rate effects, drag) are far more
discussion , we will merely refer to monopropellant “fuel" limited than for bipropellants. However, many of
decomposition (even if the liquid is not in itself a usable the above-mentioned trends can be rationalized in
monopropellant , or the reaction is not a simple decompo-
terms of quasi-steady diffusion theory, coupled
sition) . As before, most of the discussion applies equally
well to oxidizer droplets having some "monopropellant with homogeneous chemical kinetics . For reasons
capability." which will become evident below, our discussion is
divided into two parts, depending upon the modifications being required to account for ( 1 )
absence or presence of an outer diffusion flame spherical geometry and (2 ) the role of the droplet
involving ambient oxidizer. as a "flame holder" at the so -called " cold bound-
ary." Common to all available treatments are the
2.4.3.1 Monopropellant droplet decomposition in important assumptions that (1 ) the propellant
an atmosphere comprised solely of inert gases or de- reversibily vaporizes* at the surface r = rL ( in
composition products theory and experiment. -In accord with a Clausius-Clapeyron type law) to
the absence of a surrounding oxidizing gas, the yield decomposable vapors, (2) decomposition
simplest model capable of embracing the above- products (which back-diffuse ) are insoluble in the
mentioned phenomena is sketched in Fig. 2.4.3a . liquid fuel, and ( 3) nonconductive heat transfer
Here, heat generated by the spherically sym- mechanisms (e.g. , radiation ) are negligible. As in
metrical premixed vapor phase decomposition the case of laminar flame theory, it is possible to
flame zone is conducted back to the spherical fuel formulate and numerically solve the multicom-
droplet to sustain the quasi-steady vaporization ponent, variable property conservation equations
rate m . In this model, pursued independently by in the presence of specified chain-branching
Lorell and Wise ,455 Spalding and Jain,663 Williams ,747 reactions. However, greater insight has resulted
Tarifa et al. ,682 Rosser and Peskin604 and from analytical treatments of deliberately simpli-
Fendell , 262, 264 , 265 the enhancement in vaporization fied chemical/transport models. Apart from the
rate evidently depends on the radial location of ubiquitous Le = 1 and constant property approxi-
the vapor decomposition flame zone, which now
* Apart from this boundary condition , the monopropel-
cannot be determined based only on considerations
lant droplet problem is also the spherical analog of the
of radial diffusion (independently of the decom-
burning of homogeneous solid propellants which irre-
position kinetics) . Not surprisingly, mathematical
versibly gasify. However, this difference in boundary
treatments of this problem closely resemble those conditions is responsible for markedly different high pres-
of premixed gas laminar flame theory,740 with sure behavior.
T (r)
То
Yp,00
YF(r) Yp(r)
Fuel
droplet
Fuel
Decomposition products
vapor
FIGURE 2.4.3a.- Premixed decomposition flame model of subcritical pressure monopropellant gasification in the absence
of convective distortion.
mations, two types of chemical kinetic models. pressure and or small droplet diameter) , m→mvap
have proven especially fruitful, and are briefly and hence increases linearly with diameter, and
outlined below. ‡ logarithmically with the value of 1 + Bvap (as
FLAME SHEET MODEL (Spalding and previously discussed , Sect . 2.4.1 ) ; and ( 3 ) in the
Jain,663 Jain387) : If the activation energy, Eact limit if D (which corresponds to rapid
(for the vapor decomposition reaction ) and kinetics, high pressure and or large droplet
pressure level, p, are sufficiently high*, then the diameter*) m →4πг₁² (puSu ) and hence increases
thickness of the decomposition zone will be small with droplet area, and (pressure level) /2, and
compared to its radius of curvature . This being becomes independent of Byap. This simple model
the case, the simplicity of the thin-flame ( or is therefore in qualitative accord with each of the
"flame sheet" ) concept in bipropellant combustion experimental observations outlined above , with
can also be exploited here (i.e. , zones on both sides the sensitivity to additives and impurities follow-
of the flame sheet become chemically "source- ing from the strong dependence of m on gas phase
free") but without suppressing the fundamental kinetics (m [ k ( Tf, ad ) ]12 ) at large values of
influence of chemical kinetics (now embedded in a p /2dL . In the absence of relevant flame speed data ,
flame speed parameter, often available from absolute values of puSu ( and hence m ) can often
direct experimentation with gases ) . The result for be estimated in terms of gas phase rate data
gasification rate enhancement , m/ mvap in the ( e.g. , using Spalding's " centroid method " ) .740
adiabatic case (i.e. , a droplet surrounded by its By combining available information for ethyl
own decomposition products at the adiabatic nitrate, propyl nitrate, hydrazine and nitro-
decomposition temperature ) is particularly simple methane, Spalding and Jain663 have given the
and instructive663 : estimates of Byap and D11/2 /гL which are collected
in Table 2.4.3 . The applicability of this treatment.
m
has been extended by Jain387 to include the
ṁvap = { 1 + } [D , ¹/2— (D₁ + 4D, 1/2) 1/2 ] } -1
frequently encountered non -adiabatic case, † i.e. ,
(2.4.3-1 ) TTf.ad.f, The relevant flame speed then differs
where from the adiabatic flame speed , but the correction
D₁1/2 = ( puSu ) / Mvap" can be rationally estimated in terms of the im-
and posed enthalpy gradient and the activation energy
of the homogeneous decomposition reaction . Using
PuSu mass burning velocity for a plane adiabaticf exact numerical integrations for a simple class of
flame (proportional to [k (Tf.ad ) ph ]1/2 ) . k (T ) functions , Jain387 has further shown that
thin-flame theory only slightly overestimates m ,
This relation , shown plotted in Fig . 2.4.3b , especially for large values of Eact, Dr, and Byap.
immediately reveals that (1) the effect of chemical
FIRST ORDER (n = 1 ) , CONSTANT k
reaction is always to increase the burning rate as MODELS (Rosser and Peskin ,604 Fendell262, 264 , 265 ) :
compared with a chemically stable droplet with Linearized models of monopropellant decom-
the same physical properties ; ( 2 ) in the limit if
position, resulting from the assumptions of first
D -0 (which corresponds to slow kinetics , low order kinetics with a temperature independent
rate constant, lead to analytic predictions without
Of course, additional approximations (not discussed
here) have been introduced and successfully used to obtain
*
numerical results (see, e.g. , the "profile method" exploited It is interesting to contrast this behavior to that of
by Tarifa et al.682 in multicomponent systems) . bipropellant droplets , viz . monopropellants are influenced
* For the decomposition reaction of useful monopro- by chemical kinetics when k, p and d are large, whereas
pellants Eact is necessarily high since the monopropellant bipropellants (provided ignition has occurred) are in-
must be safely stored (prior to its use) , but rapidly fluenced by chemical kinetics when k, p and d are small
decomposed at high temperatures (to yield compact (cf. Figs. 2.4.2c , d and 2.4.3b) .
combustors) . Results confirm the expectation that monopropellant
† The unburned gas temperature and composition decomposition rates are far more sensitive to T. than
corresponds to the total enthalpy of the composition bipropellant combustion rates. (See discussion of ex-
products far from the droplet. tinction, below.)
100
ap 10
-Asymptote
mmmvap ÷Dj1/2
10-2 10-1 10 ° 10' 102
1/2 n/2
~
FIGURE 2.4.3b .- Effect of exothermic chemical decomposition on the gasification rate of monopropellant droplets sur-
rounded by motionless decomposition products at the adiabatic decomposition temperature (after Spalding and Jain663) .
a priori restrictions on flame zone thickness. forced convection environments have been re-
Using matched asymptotic expansion methods , ported, however the effects of incipient forced
Fendell 262,264, 265 ( 1965 ) has shown that for this convection have recently been predicted by
model the incipient effects of chemical decom- Faeth254 and Fendell,262 using quite different
position can be represented by the series : approximation methods. At the outset, it seems
clear that the influence on m should depend
m kr2 1/2 (he/hv)
= 1+ • + ... ( 2.4.3-2 ) markedly on the kinetic parameter D1. This is
mvap (D 1 + Bvap
due to the fact that incipient forced convection
which predicts slightly smaller enhancemen than should have little effect on the evaporation rate.
ts
thin -flame theory when kr2 / D is small but non- when the decomposition flame is well embedded
zero . In the opposite extreme kr2 /D >>1 this within the boundary layer (large Dr) . On the
expansion method 264 as well as an alternativ
e other hand, when the decomposition kinetics are
approximat method604 leads to asymptotic sufficiently slow the flame will be too far from the
ion
behavior of the form droplet, hence m should approach mvap ( Re ) . It
m is thus the intermediate case, occurring when
1/2 fet (he/hy)
= • ( 2.4.3-3 ) (kr2 /D ) 1/2 and Re are of the same order of
mvap In ( 1 + Bvap)
magnitude, which requires detailed treatment .
in qualitative agreement with the thin flame. Interestingly enough, Fendell's calculations262
model. * for this case reveal that Eq. ( 2.4.3-3 ) over-
Virtually no systematic experiments on mon- estimates (m/mvap) -1 by less than 30 percent
opropellant decomposition rate and drag in when (kr12 /D) 1/2 and Re are comparable and Re
is small but nonzero . Faeth's computations254
* However, in the limit : kr /D >> 1 , when he > hL' for adiabatic monopropellant decomposition indi-
Fendell 262,264,265 derives an alternative solution (reported
to be equally compatible with the governing equations and
boundary conditions ) which indicates that m /Mvap In contrast to the bipropellant case in which both
approaches (from above !) an asymptotic limit depending mvap and max are affected by convection in a similar way.
only on he/h, and Bvap. The significance of this apparent The map in Eq. ( 2.4.3) is then interpreted as mvap'Re -0
non-uniqueness is not clear. [1+ (Re) (Pr) + ···• ] .
TABLE 2.4.3.-THERMODYNAMIC AND KINETIC PARAMETERS FOR THIN-FLAME THEORY OF ADIABATIC

MONOPROPELLANT DROPLET BURNING663
Ethyl nitrate Propyl nitrate Hydrazine Nitromethane
Pressure,
atm Bvap D/1
/2/гL, Bvap D/1
/2/гL Bvap D/1
/2/гL, Byap D/1
/2/гL,
cm-1 cm-1 cm-1 cm-1
(a)
1 6.73 15.6 1.86 9.5 2.63 85.3 5.56 4.4

10 5.50 171 1.52 124 2.29 294 4.64 48.2
20 5.06 355 1.51 250 2.20 421 4.36 99.3
40 4.80 867 1.42 520 2.08 618 4.03 206
60 4.49 1010 1.37 800 2.08 771 3.88 316
A Values rounded to three significant figures.
cate that the coupled region is fortunately rather prediction that for sufficiently cold environments ,
narrow, suggesting the simple estimation pro- steady burning is not possible unless Dr is suffi-
cedure* ciently large, is certainly compatible with the
observation that monopropellant burning fre-
(mRe-o for Re such that mR.-0 > mvap (Re)
m= quently cannot be sustained unless some oxidizer
is added to the ambient environment (discussed
(mvap (Re) for Re such that mvap (Re ) > Re-0
below) especially at low pressures. With regard
(2.4.3-4) to the ignition transient, even under environ-
mental conditions such that quasi-steady decom-
which noticeably underestimates m only at
position with TLTbp is ultimately possible ,
Reynolds numbers such that mvap (Re) ≈mRe-0.
complete droplet consumption may occur before
Here Reo is the chemically enhanced vaporiza-
this QS stage is reached257 ; suggesting that
tion rate as calculated from the theory of mono-
appreciable decomposition can occur at tem-
propellant decomposition in a stagnant atmos-
peratures well below the prevailing boiling point ,
phere . The situation is more complex in the
especially at high pressure levels. In these same
nonadiabatic case, for when T <Tf.ad convection
experiments "ignition " of the decomposition
has two opposing effects. At first convection
reaction was observed to occur well before the
causes increased heat loss from the flame zone,
nonreactive "wet bulb" temperature was reached ,
suppressing the decomposition reaction . This can
again especially at elevated pressures (i.e. , high
outweigh the increase in transfer rates normally
values of TL.wb) . Thus, it appears that a greater
expected in nonreactive convective situations ,
degree of gasification occurs during the heat-up
leading to a region of decreasing m with increasing
period of monopropellants than is normally the
Reynolds number. Under these circumstances
case for bipropellants (see Sect . 2.4.1 ) . To predict
Eq. (2.4.3-4 ) over-estimates decomposition rates
the droplet mass history therefore requires quasi-
for Reynolds numbers approaching (kr12 /D) 1/2.
steady gasification rate calculations carried out
Little work has been reported on the ignition
with TL < TL ,wb [hence YF.w < YF.eq ( TL, wb) ] in
and extinction behavior of monopropellant droplets
the simultaneous presence of gas phase decom-
in stagnant and convective environments . Jain's387
† Corollary results for the dependence of droplet size at
extinction on an activation energy parameter have been
* Equivalent to that adopted by Beltran et al. for esti- reported by Jain and Ramani.388 If the temperature
mating the effects of enhanced hydrazine gasification sensitivity of the decomposition reaction rate is sufficiently
rates on rocket motor efficiency and instability (see next weak, stable “burning" appears to be possible however
subsection) . small the droplet.
Inner Outer
Droplet flame flame
surface boundary boundary Ambient
2000
,ok erature
1600
Temp
1200
N₂ H4/N2 04
800
Τι
400 Тов
N₂H4
N₂H4/Air
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Normalized radius , r/r₁
FIGURE 2.4.3c. -Observed radial temperature profiles for a hydrazine droplet decomposing in an inert atmosphere, in air,
and in nitrogen tetroxide (after Hersh et al.353) .
position and forced convection . Calculations of nitrogen tetroxide . As anticipated , increased

this type253 reveal strong effects of convection on ambient oxidizer concentration increases : ( 1 )
m in the presence of rapid chemical decomposition peak diffusion flame temperature, (2 ) peak
[even under conditions such that the Reynolds decomposition flame temperature, (3 ) thermal
number effect would ultimately be negligible gradients near the droplet surface, and hence
(when TF . < YF.eq ( TL, wb ) ) ; see Eq. 2.4.3–4 ]. quasi-steady gasification rates. Under such condi-
tions the burning rate dependence on pressure
2.4.3.2 Monopropellant droplet fuel decom- level, droplet size and impurity or additive level
position in an oxidizing atmosphere -theory and can exhibit some characteristics of bipropellant
experiment. —In a bipropellant system such as droplet flames [e.g. , linear dr2 vs. t behavior,
hydrazine/liquid oxygen the gasification rate of a indicating m ~d] some characteristics of mono-
hydrazine droplet can be simultaneously in- propellant flames (increased sensitivity to pressure
fluenced by exothermic fuel decomposition and level and impurity/additives ) and often "hybrid"
localized reaction of fuel-like decomposition characteristics [e.g., intermediate pressure de-
products with the surrounding oxygen-rich vapors. pendencies (see Rosser and Peskin604) ] .
Indeed, captive droplet experiments by Dykema Pending much-needed additional research on
and Green,239
" Lawver429 and Hersh et al.353 have dual-flame combustion, many ad hoc estimates
revealed ( 1 ) hydrazine gasification rate enhance- (of unknown accuracy) have been made by
ments in O2 and NO2/N2O4 containing vapors, *
and ( 2) the existence of a " dual" -envelope flame. * Several investigators have reported difficulties in
The thermal effects of the outer diffusion flame stabilizing monopropellant decomposition burning in the
absence of ambient oxidizer (especially at low pressures
are evident in the thermocouple traverses of
and ambient temperatures). Hence the outer diffusion flame
Hersh et al.353 ( 1967) , represented in Fig. 2.4.3c plays a role in many available studies of "monopropellant"
for hydrazine decomposition in nitrogen, air, and combustion.
invoking selected results already discussed for stable systems. It is noted however, that the
simpler limiting cases. * For quiescent systems, steady-state gas dynamic pattern in a thrust
burning rate estimates are usually made by chamber is closely related to the probability of an
assuming the role of the outer diffusion flame is instability occurring. That is, the mass and
merely to raise the effective value of T -other- mixture ratio distribution and the energy release
wise the burning rate is that of a monopropellant profile generated as the steady-state flow field in a
decomposing in an inert environment. In con- thrust chamber are also the determinants of the
vective flow environments Beltran et al.89 employ stability margin .
this "effective T." approach only if the boundary For element-type injectors associated with
layer thickness (inferred from the instantaneous axisymmetric cylindrical or conical chambers, it
value of Nu (Re, B, Pr) ) exceeds the estimated. may be said that the location of an element of
standoff distance of the decomposition flame fluid near the injector facet uniquely determines
(assumed independent of Re ) . At relative veloci- the location of that element of fluid at the nozzle
ties such that this inequality breaks down , only exit . It has been shown318,246, 619, 554 that flow in a
single-flame theory is applied , much in the spirit rocket chamber may be characterized by stream
of Eqs . ( 2.4.3-4 ) . Interestingly enough, when this tubes as outlined in Sect . 1.1.3 ( see Fig. 1.1.3b ) .
computational scheme is used together with the Each stream tube exhibits a particular mass flow,
Priem-Heidmann565,564 technique for estimating mixture ratio and energy release profile deter-
combustor efficiencies (based on liquid propellant mined by the injector design characteristics .
gasification as the rate limiting step ) , the Within a stream tube, the gas properties are
N2H4/ LOX system no longer appears so anoma- considered to be homogeneous at any axial
lous, i.e. , decomposition and/or combustion- station . This is reasonable, as the flow is highly
enhanced gasification apparently account for the turbulent within a given stream tube .
high combustor efficiencies previously observed The stream tube concept of core flow is con-
with this propellant combination.89 sistent with the highly turbulent flow in rocket
chambers for the following reason : the dimension
2.5 FLOW PROCESSES† of turbulence is typically very much smaller than
the diameter of the chamber. For example, cal-
2.5.1 Core Flow
culations of the Prandtl mixing length632 for
2.5.1.1 Effects of injector design. The steady- chamber flow generally shows the typical dimen-
state gas dynamic flow pattern within a rocket sion of turbulence to be on the order of 0.5 inch ,
much smaller than most chamber diameters . Thus
thrust chamber is determined primarily by the
injector design . If combustion instability occurs , virtually complete mixing will occur within a
the relatively definable pattern is obliterated and stream tube , but overall area mixing will not
replaced by a gas dynamic environment which is occur.
usually highly turbulent and erosive . Since there For convenience one would not wish to choose a
are few practical applications for a rocket engine stream tube smaller than one element . However,
whose normal mode of operation is unstable, there based on the work of Rupe (see Sect . 2.3.2)
is little value in considering instability as a steady- mixture ratio nonuniformities have been shown to
state characteristic . Here we shall consider only exist with elements of 100 lbs . thrust . Also , recent
the characteristics of steady-state operation in investigations356, 224 have shown the importance of
intermixing of spray fans from adjacent elements.
Thus the distinction must be drawn between spray
* In contrast , Fendell,265 again using the method of
matched asymptotic expansions, has undertaken a sys- interdispersion , which is important , and gas
tematic cataloging of enhanced vaporization behavior for stream mixing, which apparently has no great
those cases in which monopropellant decomposition must influence in most practical rocket motors. There-
precede the diffusion flame reaction. As might be antici-
pated from the previous sections, the magnitudes of two
distinct Damköhler numbers are found to govern the † Beyond the axial location where the sprays are formed
behavior of such systems. i.e., where radial winds or intense recirculation , if present,
R. S. Valentine, Author. are no longer a factor.
fore the majority of rocket engines, with thrust stream tubes. Pattern voids occur either by
per element on the order of 50 to 500 lbf, exhibit imperfect mass distribution at the injector face or
the tendency to provide unmixed areas within the because, barriers such as baffles, interfere with
spray fan of a single element . However, even with even mass distribution . The result of voids is
these nonuniformities, the choice of a single lateral flow towards the vacant areas. In severe
element stream tube, often approaching the 0.5 cases this lateral motion may result in some mixing
inch size, generally provides a reasonable basis for between stream tubes. There are also generally
performance calculations. adverse wall effects associated with strong lateral
For very large thrust per element systems flows, so this is never a desirable case.
(over 1000 lb F/E) the composition of the Stream tube divergence and displacement may
element must be analyzed further . Conversely, also occur as a result of an uneven energy release
low thrust per element engines (less than 1 lb profile. A combination of short impinging and long
F /E ) will show relatively complete mixing over a impinging elements on the same injector will
span of several elements. Thrust chambers less often produce this phenomenon . The short
than one inch in diameter may be considered as impinging elements react rapidly, with the energy
comprising only a single homogeneous stream release resulting in expansion of the affected
tube in the steady-state core flow field. stream tubes into the entire available flow area .
Even though chamber core flow may be reason- When the long impinging elements react, the hot
ably characterized by stream tubes, this does not gases formed at that point then force the pre-
imply that flow in the chamber is always axial. viously generated gases back into their original
There are , of course, interactions between the positions with corresponding lateral motion . In
stream tubes resulting from chemical and gas some cases these lateral flows can be damaging.
dynamic gradients . For example, two adjacent For example, consider an injector with short
stream tubes of identical mixture ratio and energy impinging outer elements and long impinging
release profile would not be inclined to interact inner elements . The outer elements react first ,
chemically . However, two adjacent stream tubes driving hot gases into the center as the effluent
of widely differing mixture ratio would tend to from the inner elements is still largely unvaporized .
react at the interface creating additional tur- Later the inner elements react driving gases
bulence and intermixing between the contents of outward toward the wall . When combined with
both stream tubes . The difference in mixture ratio the convergence of the chamber as the throat is
could occur either as a result of hydraulic dis- approached, these outward flows often create an
tribution behind the injector face or because of erosive atmosphere which results in severe
different types of elements exhibiting different streaking near the throat . In this situation , the
energy release profiles . The former case could be chamber is often undamaged near the injector
intentional, such as boundary cooling wherein face .
adjacent rows of elements have different mixture Many rocket engines have been developed using
ratios , or could result from injector manifold vortex or swirl cup concepts . These systems have
maldistribution . An example of the latter would be generally been relatively high performing, and can
adjacent location of two types of element with be compatible with the chamber, if carefully
identical mass flow and overall mixture ratio . If designed. Compatibility is not much more difficult
one were, say, a two-oxidizer-on-one-fuel triplet , to attain in such a system than with conventional
and the other a four-oxidizer-on-one-fuel pentad, elements as all of the induced lateral flow is in the
it is clear that oxidizer droplet size and vaporiza- same direction . Cooling of the chamber tends to
tion rates would differ. Thus, at a given axial be more difficult with swirling core flow, as the
station, the mixture ratio of the vaporized pro- boundary layer thickness is reduced and heat
pellants in each stream tube might be significantly transfer coefficients are generally higher as a
different. result of the greater velocity past the wall .
Gas dynamic factors affecting interactions Compatibility becomes a serious problem however,
between stream tubes could result from pattern if the lateral flows are opposed, and can concen-
voids or varying energy release profiles between trate at specific points around the circumference
of the chamber. This generally results in chamber The flow obstructions themselves are very
streaking or burnout and is most often noted near susceptible to thermal or erosive damage and are
the injector face. rarely satisfactory except for very short durations
Momentum of the injector element effluent in high energy rockets . They do, however, find
streams can also contribute to lateral flow, either successful application in low flame temperature
intentionally or unintentionally. An engine oper- gas generators.
ating at off-design conditions will often have
2.5.2 Boundary Flow
element effluents in which the resultant momen-
tum vector is non-axial. Cases have been noted168 2.5.2.1 Film or boundary coolant. -Control of
in which a change in operating conditions to a the chemical composition and temperature of the
cooler combustion temperature and less corrosive steady-state boundary flow is almost universally
reaction products have resulted in marked de- used as a means for cooling thrust chambers.
crease in duration capability. This effect can be Virtually all practical systems operate at com-
directly related to lateral flows of erosive gases bustion temperatures far greater than any known
resulting from an unfavorable change in resultant material can withstand . Often , the wall must also
momentum vectors. be protected against chemical attack from highly
Lateral flow can be used to good advantage by corrosive components of the combusting gases.
the injector designer who is unable to achieve The degree of need for boundary flow as a
even mass distribution because mechanical ob- device for wall protection is directly related to the
structions prevent proper element location . The injector core design . The existence of strong
elements may be located as nearly as physically lateral flows generated as described in the pre-
possible to the desired area , then the effluents may ceding section may require massive amounts of
be directed into the void area by adjustment of film coolant to offset potential damage . Con-
the momentum level and resultant direction . versely, even mass and mixture ratio distribution
and evenly distributed energy release will mini-
2.5.1.2 Mechanical turbulence generation . -It mize the need for film or boundary coolant.
has often been observed that low performing Film and boundary coolant are generally
thrust chambers may be improved by artificial applied evenly around the periphery of the
inducement of turbulence and lateral flow in the injector. This is not necessarily the best practice .
core. Common methods of inducing lateral flow To minimize the need for boundary protection ,
include vortex or swirl elements, canted baffles coolant should be concentrated at critical zones-
and adjustments to the wall contour. As an those where lateral flows or adverse chemical
example, a thrust chamber with an energy release concentrations would tend to attack the wall.
efficiency of 80 % achieved a 12 % increase in Cases have been observed in which the use of
performance when a ring shaped baffle was evenly distributed film coolant has actually had
installed in the chamber a few inches downstream an adverse effect . For example, if fuel coolant
of the injector ( this " enzian ring" baffle extends should come in contact with an oxidizer-rich
from the wall) . stream tube of the core flow, the resulting reaction
It is important to note that mechanical tur- right at the wall can create high temperature
bulence generation will probably only result in turbulent gas flow which will disrupt the boundary
better performance in systems which are basically layer and permit corrosive and erosive gas streams
low performing initially. An injector/chamber to contact the wall.
combination, which has even mass and mixture Injectors with face baffles to prevent combustion
ratio distributions and elements which generate instability generally require film coolant at the
small enough droplets to insure that vaporization point where the baffle approaches the chamber
is completed in the available length, will probably wall. Usually, the baffle is thick enough to create
not gain but rather will lose performance as a a void which is filled at the baffle tip by lateral
result of induced lateral flow. Furthermore , gas flows. Often , opposing gas flows concentrate
injector/chamber compatibility is far more diffi- at this point, and hence the most common
cult to attain in the presence of lateral core flows . location for chamber damage is downstream of
the baffle tips ( if a sufficient gap exists between This happens commonly, as few designers are
the baffle and chamber wall the same damage can capable of determining in advance precisely what
occur at that location ) . While this effect can be minimum cooling requirements will be or, to a
minimized by careful design , it is at this location lesser extent, the mixture ratio at which per-
that boundary flow control is most needed. formance will be optimized .
Off-design operation means that flow in the
2.5.2.2 Wall effects .-Protection of the chamber injector manifolds will not be as designed, with
wall or of baffles if they are present, is the primary higher velocities and pressure drops in some
reason for applying boundary flow control . As channels, lower in others. The element resultant
discussed previously, most wall or baffle damage momentum vectors which would normally have
results from imperfections in the core flow which been designed to be axial originally, may deviate a
sweep away the boundary layer and expose the great deal from axial.
wall to attack. The type of attack varies from These changes require corresponding adjust-
single critical areas to generalized attack when ments of boundary flow protection in order to
protection is uniformly insufficient . It is always maintain the highest performance consistent with
true that chambers fail at a single point- that durability. In general, a change to off-design
point at which the susceptibility of the wall and operation will result in lower performance and
the severity of the contained gases combine to poorer compatibility than would be exhibited by
provide the worst environment . an injector designed specifically for the new
Baffles are generally attacked at the tips, at conditions.
points where cooling is a minimum, or external The following is an example of the cost in
forces are highest or both. Chamber walls usually performance of off-design operation . A particular
exhibit some indications of localized streaking , or thrust chamber was designed to operate with no
in the case of regenerative chambers, specific film coolant, and was found to be incompatible
tubes which are more prone to burnout than with the chamber over the required duration .
others . The streaks often indicate the direction of As a result , film coolant was added until the
gas dynamic motion within the chamber. For injector/chamber met minimum compatibility
example, often the protected zones under film requirements. This required 20% of the fuel as
coolant orifices may be seen to cant toward zones film coolant, and resulted in a performance loss of
where voids are being filled by lateral flows such about 4% . It was subsequently found that a
as downstream of the baffles . similar injector designed for 6% fuel film cooling
Where strong but evenly distributed radial was compatible, and exhibited only a 1 % per-
outflows exist , or where evenly distributed adverse formance loss over the uncooled case. Thus, the
chemical species are present, the chamber may difference in boundary flow requirements of 14%
exhibit general roughness from the erosive or of the fuel could be attributed to the effects of
corrosive attack. In some cases, the flow pattern operating at an off-design condition .
is such that a deep gouge may appear at one or
more locations, usually near the injector face. 2.5.3 Energy Release Distribution
This is indicative of a strong local condition which 2.5.3.1 Element design. -Energy release occurs
attacks the wall, then is dissipated downstream by as the result of contact between fuel and oxidizer
the boundary protective flow . Such gouges would within the combustion chamber. As described
become streaks in the absence of the protective previously, the energy release profile is deter-
flow . mined by the element design , with stream tubes
formed by different types of elements exhibiting
2.5.2.3 Off-design operation . -Changes in oper- differing rates of combustion , dependent primarily
ating conditions or increased cooling requirements upon droplet size distribution , propellant vola-
are sometimes imposed upon engine systems after tility, and gas-spray relative velocity. The overall
design is complete and frozen. These systems are energy release efficiency is determined by the
then called upon to operate under circumstances percentage of the propellant that is able to
other than those for which they were designed. vaporize and burn in the available combustion
length. Thus , a few inefficient stream tubes can 2.5.3.2 Combustion volume and length effects.-
reduce the overall energy release efficiency below In liquid rockets the characteristic length, L* , is
acceptable limits. an almost meaningless parameter since volume
If an injector with an even mass distribution has comparisons are implied (see Sect . 2.1.3 ) . L*
elements which are all identical in mass flow, requirements to achieve a given energy release
mixture ratio , and design , then the energy release efficiency are related primarily to the injector and
will proceed evenly in all stream tubes. If the chamber design characteristics and to a lesser
elements are very efficient with respect to atomiza- extent to propellant properties . For example,
tion of propellants, and generate a very small equivalent energy release efficiencies have been
droplet size distribution, most of the energy attained in an L* of 5 to 10 inches with a very fine
release will take place within a very short distance element pattern as have been achieved with an L*
from the injector face. This system will generally of 30 to 40 inches with coarser elements. Some
exhibit excellent performance and compatibility cases have even been observed in which a reduc-
characteristics but will have a tendency to be tion of L* has led to higher energy release effi-
unstable. Thus, from the standpoint of stability, ciency with the same injector. This can occur when
it is generally good to have wide distribution of L is reduced by lowering the contraction ratio ,
energy release , axially, circumferentially and Ac/At, thus increasing the gas velocity past the
radially. It becomes clear that a practical engine vaporizing dropletst . In contrast, any reduction
must represent a balance between the factors. in L which results from reduced combustion
affecting performance, compatibility and stability . length, L, will invariably result in reduced energy
The balance depends upon mission requirements . release .
Manned systems generally must be dynamically When combustion is above about 95% com-
stable, with performance being of secondary plete, droplet vaporization may cease to be the
importance, whereas unmanned systems with high predominant factor in further energy release.
performance requirements must sometimes accept Kinetic factors and mixing efficiency may then
lower stability margins . become limiting . At this point however, com-
Energy release distribution is affected primarily bustion is at a state of completion such that there
by initial drop size distribution.564 Droplet size is is little impact upon combustion stability regard-
determined by the size and type of element , design less of the distribution .
characteristics of the element and propellant In systems of low energy release efficiency, the
properties. As described in Sect. 2.2 , atomization combustion front is distributed over a wide axial
is most commonly obtained by momentum effects distance. In these systems, combustion may
in impinging liquid streams, stripping of liquid continue on into the expansion nozzle. Generally
jets or sheets due to shear from local gas-liquid these systems are not unstable because of the low
relative velocities, swirl induced by orifice pressure combustion rate at any given axial station . No
drop, or combinations of these. With hypergolic instance has been recorded in which nozzle
propellants , an additional phenomenon occurs combustion has had any affect upon combustion
which affects droplet size and in turn energy stability.
release distribution . This phenomenon , reactive For chamber contraction ratios less than about two,
the high chamber gas velocities may cause secondary
stream separation ,246, 389,415 results from the rapid
atomization of large droplets with dramatic increases in
interface reaction that occurs when hypergolic
energy release rates as compared to chambers with larger
droplets come in contact with one another . Ac/At.
CHAPTER 3
Dynamics of Combustion and Flow Processes
3.1 INTRODUCTION * phase with the local conditions but will possess
phase lags .
Although the preceding chapter is concerned Storage rates do not have to occur on the
with steady-state descriptions of the combustion microscopic scale to be important . Low frequency
and flow processes that take place in a liquid instability can be caused by differences in in-
propellant rocket engine, dynamics are actually jection, burning, and discharge rates when viewing
considered there also . For example, liquid particle
the entire engine as the system . Here , phase
trajectories involve an inertia lag between the differences may occur by consideration of only the
drag force and the change of velocity. The dis- "steady-state" process descriptions of the pre-
tinction to be made here is that the term "dyna-
ceding chapter. In a Lagrangian sense there is a
mics" is used to refer to unsteadiness viewed in an
time delay between injection and burning of a
Eulerian sense. In a frame of reference fixed to
fluid element that is important in the descriptions
the rocket engine, the processes of Chapter 2 of various phase relations in an Eulerian view.
appear time-independent . The existence of such a
Because the investigation of periodic phe-
stable steady state is taken from experimental nomena is obviously of interest to stability
evidence. However, it is also known that under analysis, much of the following work is devoted to
certain conditions an engine does not possess this
periodic descriptions, characterized by a circular
steady state. The various fluid mechanical and
frequency . This frequency defines a char-
particle dynamics processes may then behave.
acteristic cycle time against which other process
differently from the steady-state descriptions of times may be compared. If the period is much
the previous chapter.
longer than some characteristic time of the process
Such behavioral differences usually occur when
under consideration , the process is said to behave
time rates of storage of mass , species, momentum ,
in a "quasi-steady" manner with respect to the
and energy with an Eulerian control volume
oscillation . For example, if the chamber pressure
become important. For example, the application at a point oscillates slowly with respect to the
of a pressure difference across an injector does not wave propagation time in the chamber, the wave .
cause an immediate velocity response of the motion effects may be disregarded , and the
liquid propellant . There is a period of acceleration pressure is determined by quasi-steady chamber
(i.e., a time rate of storage of momentum) mass conservation . Also, if the gas field surround-
before the steady state is reached . The compressi- ing a vaporizing droplet is undergoing oscillations
bility of the chamber gases or feed line liquids that are slow compared to gas-phase diffusion in
allows for the existence of wave motions (time the vapor film around the droplet , this diffusion
.
rate of storage of mass ) . Such wave motions can process behaves quasi-steadily with respect to the
cause unsteadiness in the combustion process by oscillation . In this quasi-steady limit , which has
many mechanisms . For example, if the diffusion practical value for some processes, many of the
field surrounding a vaporizing droplet is exposed descriptions of the previous chapter may apply
to a time-varying free stream, heat transfer and directly to the oscillating system. However, in the
species diffusion processes will not respond in more interesting cases, new techniques of treat-
ment are required because the unsteadiness plays
* W. C. Strahle, Author. an essential role.
105
The concept of a single circular frequency losses, thereby minimizing the overall thrust/
breaks down in certain instances. If shock waves weight ratio . However, the losses introduced by
occur, for example, the combustion process orifices, high-pressure-drop injectors , etc. , provide
encounters a succession of step functions. In a one of the most direct methods of obtaining
Fourier sense many frequencies are present . There dynamic stability in the lower frequency range.
can be no quasi-steady behavior because there are Thus, there must often be a tradeoff between the
always components of the wave with sufficiently static and dynamic performance of the system.
high frequencies. In any event , extreme caution is Occasionally a feed system may be tuned to force a
required in the use of quasi-steady considerations stable coupling with the combustion process by
when unsteadiness occurs somewhere in the use of passive systems ( e.g., quarter-wave tubes,
system . There are so many process times operative Helmholtz or Quincke resonators ) that introduce
in a rocket system that it is easily possible to have a resonance out of phase with an otherwise
essential unsteadiness with respect to several unstable system resonance. Hopefully, when both
processes but quasi-steady behavior with respect feed system and combustion dynamics are more
to others. Because of this complexity it is some- thoroughly understood, stable systems will be a
times difficult to reconcile results of different matter of standard design practice . For the
workers on what appears to be the same problem . present, analytical methods are helpful in ( 1 )
This chapter summarizes the state of knowledge estimating the dynamics of the coupled feed
of unsteady behavior of feed system flow, atomiza- system, (2 ) providing a method for under-
tion , combustion , and wave propagation pro- standing test data, and ( 3 ) providing a " logical"
cesses. The treatments of these topics make use of test facility where, after correlation with test
the usual distinctions of engineering systems . data, the effects of system changes may be
That is, consideration is given to linear and non- evaluated.
linear behavior, lumped or distributed parameter Evaluating the dynamics of a feed system
systems, and quasi-steady or unsteady behavior . requires an extension of steady-state calculations
Presumably, perfect knowledge of all pertinent to include inertance and capacitance effects. The
processes would allow a comprehensive description inertance is the tendency of the fluid to resist flow
of unsteady behavior of the rocket system by an rate changes due to pressure forces . Similarly, the
appropriate patching of the elemental processes. capacitance is the tendency to resist pressure
Such syntheses are discussed in Chapters 4 and 5, changes, despite changes in flow rate. Both the
but it will be apparent that the knowledge of the inertance and capacitance effects are time-
elements is insufficient to expect much success dependent and enable a fluid system to exhibit
without a good deal of empiricism introduced in preferred or characteristic frequencies. These
the synthesis procedures. Whereas the gas dyna- frequencies are analogous to those exhibited by a
mics and feed system dynamics are relatively well vibrating string, or more closely, an organ pipe.
understood , the injection and combustion pro- This section describes this "acoustic" behavior
cesses are not . In Chapter 2, it is indicated that and then discusses methods of formulating and
under certain restrictions the steady-state descrip- studying the dynamics of a propellant feed system.
tion of injection and combustion is well in hand . The following nomenclature pertains to Sect.
However, the actual structure of the steady-state 3.2 :
is not understood in sufficient detail to form a
Ajk Normalization coefficient
basis for unsteady analysis. There are , of course a Diameter of plane duct blockage (see
certain problems in wave propagation that have
Fig . 3.2.2d)
escaped solution, but the pacing item appears to bo Orifice radius
be the injection and combustion processes .
f Friction factor
ko Orifice inertance correction coefficient
3.2 FLOW IN PROPELLANT FEED SYSTEMS*
High performance rocket engine systems are * J. A. Nestlerode, J. R. Fenwick, and L. E. Sack,
usually achieved by minimizing feed system . Authors .
DYNAMICS OF COMBUSTION AND FLOW PROCESSES $3.2 107
L' Inertance of elbow associated with dis- mode of the duct ; the fundamental mode would
tance along centerline have lw = 41. Any mode compatible with the
L" Inertance of elbow due to curvature boundary or end conditions can be expected.
lo Orifice length Hence, from a determination of the end conditions
Zw Wavelength the standing-wave resonances can be predicted . A
m; Normalized flow rate for mode j troublesome frequency may be eliminated by
Rt Tip radius of pump impeller placing a restrictive or capacitive device at the
S Peripheral area of pump impeller proper location.
ν; Damping coefficient for j -th mode The other basic type of resonance is that of the
Φ Pump flow coefficient classical Helmholtz resonator, in which a large-
Turning angle of elbow capacitance element is coupled directly to a
Pump head coefficient relatively short element of large inertance. In
Ω Pump impeller rotational speed mechanical terms, the inertance element may be
thought of as a mass and the capacitive element as
Subscripts :
a spring. The coupled system has a natural
ar Anti-resonance
frequency given by
j Fourier mode index
k Location index a A
f= (3.2.1-2 )
Z Feed line 2π τυ
r Resonance
where is the volume of the capacitive element
3.2.1 Feed System Acoustics and is the effective length and A the cross
sectional area of the inertance element . For the
Long feed lines tend to exhibit so-called
idealized Helmholtz resonator, harmonics do
"standing" waves, which result from the super- not occur.
position of incident and reflected traveling waves. By a cursory inspection of a given propellant
Standing wave patterns have spatially fixed . feed system, with the concepts of Helmholtz and
points of maximum and minimum pressure (and ) standing-wave resonators in mind, estimates of
velocity) fluctuation , termed antinodes and nodes ,
natural frequencies and , therefore , of probable
respectively. For low velocity flow, the standing frequencies of potential feed-coupled instabilities
wave frequencies may be calculated from fluid .
are revealed . For systems in which nodes or
properties and feed system characteristics by the
antinodes are not obvious because of more complex
well-known relationship
geometry or many interrelated components, it
lwf= a (3.2.1-1 ) becomes necessary to use equations of a more
general form .
where l is the wavelength , f is the frequency ,
and a is the sound velocity in the fluid. To relate
3.2.2 Component Dynamics
to a characteristic feed system dimension requires
some insight into the nature of standing waves. 3.2.2.1 Lumped-parameter approach. In gen-
Fig. 3.2.1 shows a possible standing wave in a eral, a fluid system can be simulated by an
line connecting a tank and a downstream con- equivalent resistance, capacitance, and inductance
striction . For a standing wave, a velocity node is a network. In the lumped-parameter approach the
pressure antinode, and vice versa . The tank system is divided into many small " lumps " of
represents a large capacitance, and so maintains resistance, capacitance, and inductance , so that
relatively constant pressure despite flow fluctua- the system is governed by a set of simultaneous ,
tions . On the other hand, the constriction has a ordinary differential equations rather than by
high inertance and will attempt to maintain partial differential equations. The analytical
constant flow despite pressure fluctuations. For description may be made as accurate as desired in
the wave shown in Fig. 3.2.1 , only of a complete the frequency domain by choosing a sufficient
wavelength appears , or lw = l . This mode would number of lumps . A useful procedure is to deter-
be referred to as the second closed-open acoustic mine the wavelength of the highest frequency of
Pressure fluctuation amplitude
Velocity fluctuation amplitude
N A N A
Tank Restriction
Flow
-l-
A = Pressure antinode , velocity node

N = Pressure node , velocity antinode
FIGURE 3.2.1 . -Possible standing wave in a feed line.
interest from Eq . (3.2.1-1 ) and then to use no From Fig. 3.2.2b , it can be seen that
fewer than eight lumps per wavelength .
The most common elements encountered in m=
| ( mm ) dt
feed systems are uniform flow passages . For such
a feed line section (Fig. 3.2.2a ) a generally Thus
accepted representation for pressure loss is
P1 P2 =Rm² (3.2.2-1) p= (m₁- m₂) dt (3.2.2-4)
where the resistance R is related to the friction

or
factor f by
fl - m₂ = C dp
m₁—
R= (3.2.2-2) dt
2pDA2
When the time variation of the fluid variables is where the capacitance e is related to the bulk
modulus K of the fluid by
considered, there are additional contributions to
the flow and pressure terms. First, consider V
C=p (3.2.2-5)
inertia alone, i.e., the acceleration of a fluid K
column, Newton's second law gives
The representation of a feed system must
dm
P₁ -P2 = =L (3.2.2-3) include not only the relatively uniform feed lines,
(
4)dm
dt dt
where £ is the fluid inertance. -A=

The remaining fundamental dynamic term is
the fluid capacitance, a measure of the com-
pressibility of the fluid, which is the change in the
P₁ m P2
mass m of fluid stored in an elemental volume v
for a unit change in the pressure in the volume,
i.e. ,
l
Әт
C= FIGURE 3.2.2a .-Section of feed line for derivation of
ap
lumped resistance and inertance relation .
DYNAMICS OF COMBUSTION AND FLOW PROCESSES §3.2 109
R2 =0 7
R2 4
R₁ 1
‫אך‬
m m2
Curved elbow Mitered elbow
0.6
-Volume V
O Curved
$ =90° Mitered
FIGURE 3.2.2b .-Elemental volume for derivation of
0.4
lumped capacitance relation . 60°
R 30°
but also system elements such as elbows , valves, 0.2
orifices, tapered sections , and pumps. Such ele- 8
ments, which are characterized by three-dimen-
sional flow fields, may influence, or may even 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
control, both the static and dynamic behavior of R2/R1
the feed system. Even though one-dimensional FIGURE 3.2.2c.-Inertance L " due to duct curvature.
flow is usually assumed for low and intermediate
frequency problems, it is the three-dimensional
nature of these elements that influences the
DUCT BLOCKAGE : When a plane barrier is
one-dimensional dynamics. For example, a very
placed in a duct , the inertance contribution of the
short orifice clearly has resistance. Moreover,
blockage has been shown by Jackson385 to be as
because of the characteristic pattern of the flow
in Fig. 3.2.2d .
through the orifice, an effective inertance is
ORIFICES : For low velocity flow (V < wlo)
present that is greater than can be accounted for
through orifices with small length-to-diameter
by the orifice length alone. Similarly, the three
ratio, the inertance is given by702
dimensional flow within a centrifugal pump
results in local cavitation , with a resulting lo
L= (3.2.2-6a)
significant local decrease in the bulk modulus. πbo² ( 1 + 1.7 )
In evaluating the effective inertance of a
component, the theoretical and experimental where bo is the orifice radius and l。 is the orifice
work of Jackson 385 is of particular value . In this length. At higher velocities & decreases until
work, elbows, duct blockage, orifices, and tapered 3 lo
sections were investigated . In the following L== — (3.2.2-6b)
8x b² (1
Tb.2 +1.7 %)
paragraphs, it is assumed that the resistance of
each component is readily obtainable by analytical at a Reynolds number of about 2000. To account
or empirical techniques . for wall effects , Eq . ( 3.2.2-6 ) can be modified¹08 to
ELBOWS : The inertance of an elbow can be
regarded as the sum of two contributions : ( 1 ) L== (3.2.2-7)
that associated with the distance along the 8 πb.2 (1 + 1.7kb )
-36
centerline (L') and ( 2 ) the additional inertance

where the coefficient ko is given by
due to curvature ( L ' ) . Fig. 3.2.2c shows L"
values for both curved and mitered configurations. 2b.
For curved elbows of large radius ratio the k。 = 1- (3.2.2-8a)
D
curvature inertance £" is negligible. On the other
hand, for mitered elbows, the curvature inertance or if the feed line diameter D is less than about
( ") is a larger part of the total inertance. 2 centimeters ,
head coefficient , and 2 is the impeller rotational

Flow T speed.
SUMMARY: In a lumped-parameter analysis ,
the procedure is to define the maximum frequency
required and then to write the ordinary differential
equations for the pressure within the elements and
vX2
2-
the flow between elements . Application of bound-
ary conditions such as tank pressure or chamber
pressure relations enables simultaneous solution
of the equations. The obvious drawback of the
lumped-parameter approach is that the number
of equations increases rapidly for frequencies
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 upward of 100 Hz . For such situations there are
other methods of solution that are more tractable .
3.2.2.2 Continuous-parameter approach . The

FIGURE 3.2.2d .-Inertance due to duct blockage. continuous-parameter feed line description is
based on the one-dimensional wave equation
(water hammer equation ) .43, 103,453 The compressi-
2b. bility of a small element of liquid is expressed as
k。 = 1- [0.245 (3 + √b ) ]1/3 ( 3.2.2-8b )
D
ap KL am
= ( 3.2.2-10)
where bo is in centimeters . at PLAI ƏX
PUMPS : The proper treatment of pumps
requires more than just the simulation of the head- and the inertia of the element is expressed as
flow relationships. The capacitance and inertance 1 Эт
ap
can be equally important, particularly in the high- = (3.2.2-11 )
ax Ai at
speed pumps used in rocket engine systems. The
capacitance of a pump is larger than that pre- Eqs. (3.2.2-10 ) and ( 3.2.2-11 ) may be solved
dicted by Eq. (3.2.2-5 ) because of the cavitation in many ways , but for simulation purposes, two
that normally occurs. The author is unaware of representations are most useful . Both are solutions
any technique other than testing that is presently for time-varying pressure and flow rate at two
available for determining the effective capacitance stations along a length of feed line ( Fig. 3.2.2e ) :
of a pump. The inertance of a centrifugal pump
can be estimated from the empirical equation
aL
P2 ( t ) = -
Αι m2 (t) + 2p₁ ( t - tı)
Rt ΔΡ
L= = (3.2.2-9)
3Sp2 3ΦΙΜΩ aL
+ m2 (t -2t ) -P2 ( t - 2tz )
Ai
where R is the tip radius, S is the impeller
peripheral area, is the flow coefficient , is the (3.2.2-12a)
m D& mz
P2
A₁ = = D₂²
FIGURE 3.2.2e . -Section of feed line for derivation of continuous -parameter relations .
aL AL connecting a large tank and a closed end has

m₁ (t) = p₁ ( t) +2 m (t − t ) resonances at frequencies given by
Α. AL
k,π
aL ωτ = k, = 1 , 3 , 5 , ...
2ti
-Pi (t - 2t ) - m₁ (t - 2t )
Αι
Anti-resonances occur at
(3.2.2-12b)
kart
or War kar = 0, 1 , 2 , 3 ...
ti
aL aL
P2 (t) + m2 (t ) = p₁ (t — ti) + m₁ (t — tı) If the closed end is replaced by an orifice , the
AL Ai
resonances will still be apparent, but they will
(3.2.2-13a) not be conservative and will be changed in fre-
aL aL quency unless a pressure anti-node (flow node)
P₁ (t ) --― mi (t) = p2 (t - tz) - mz( t − t ) occurs at the orifice. Fig. 3.2.2f illustrates the
Αι Ai
damping effect of an orifice in a fluid line .
( 3.2.2-13b) The equations presented in this section are
where a² = KL/PL and ti = l/aL. From these valid for a lossless line . With a pressure loss in-
equation pairs (representing a four-terminal cluded, the pressure resonances are damped, since
network) , the Laplace transforms may be written any pressure fluctuation results in a change in
orifice flow rate and hence an energy loss . Corre-
P21 + exp ( -2tis ) ]
spondingly, the anti-resonance is conservative
AL since input flow is of such phase that it exactly
m2[1 - exp ( -2tis ( ] +2p₁ exp ( −tis) matches flowrate in the pipe and no pressure
Ai
fluctuation takes place across the orifice. Thus,
(3.2.2-14a )
with damping present, the resonant frequencies
AL are slightly reduced whereas the anti-resonant
Αι mi[1+ exp ( -2tis ) ] frequencies remain fixed.
2aL 3.2.2.3 Modal techniques.- Lumped-parameter

= p [1 - exp ( -2tis) ] + m₂ exp (-tis)
Αι analyses have been shown to be extremely
flexible and powerful ; they also maintain a
(3.2.2-14b) physical significance in the time domain . How-
or
ever, complex systems often become difficult to
aL aL evaluate in the frequency domain and require a
P₂+ m2 =
= mi exp ( -tis)
Αι (p₁ + Α . m ) exp large amount of computer equipment. To mini-
mize computer requirements , system frequency
(3.2.2-15a) response is often compromised . Distributed-
aL aL parameter techniques have extended frequency-
Pi- mi = P2 m2 exp ( -tis)
Ai Αι response capability but become difficult to handle
when nonuniform systems or time-varying non-
(3.2.2-15b ) linearities are encountered . Modal analysis is an
The description of the flow dynamics is com- additional technique that often has advantages
pleted by specifying two boundary conditions. over either the lumped- or distributed-parameter
In a complex feed system, with several distinct methods.
sections of feed line, the boundary conditions Although modal techniques have had standard
often take the form of matching conditions at the acceptance in treating mechanical and structural
places where the line sections are connected to vibrations, they have not been used generally to
each other or to other system components (Sect . simulate fluid systems . The basis of modal analysis
5.4.2) . The boundary conditions determine the is the concept of characterizing a system, or
resonances of the feed line. For example, a line obtaining a solution , as a function of boundary
sure drop conditions ; the values of the high-

frequency damping coefficients v; are usually
not well known, but reasonable values are 0.03 to
0.05 , unless a concentrated resistance is present.
-Envelope of flow Once a solution is obtained in terms of the
fluctuation amplitude
(1) Orifice at flow node - no attenuation Laplace variable, the solution in the time domain
can be obtained by performing the inverse
transformation .
The normal disadvantages of an infinite-series
solution are not present with the modal analysis
since truncating the series only limits the fre-
quency response of the solution to a definable
(2 ) Orifice at flow antinode - maximum attenuation frequency range. Thus, the frequency response of
the solution can be tailored to the requirements of
the analysis . An additional advantage of the
modal technique is that the form of the solution
is the same regardless of the complexity of the
system or the method used to evaluate the Fourier
coefficients. A system can be described in as fine
detail as desired , using such conventional methods
as finite difference nets . Once a finite difference
(3 ) Orifice off node - intermediate attenuation
model is formulated (a model that might be too
FIGURE 3.2.2f.- Damping effect of an orifice in a fluid line. large to be mechanized to give a transient solution
on the computer ) , conventional eigenvalue tech-
variables in terms of a Fourier series of frequency-
niques can be used to obtain the Fourier coeffi-
dependent terms. A detailed discussion of modal
cients . Thus, the modal analysis allows use of the
analysis, including a mathematical development powerful finite difference techniques but does not
of the solution , is given in Ref. 139. Only a brief require the solution of the finite difference net as
summary is given here.
part of a larger system, nor does it require the
The flow rate mk at any location k in a feed solution for internal coordinates. Therefore, it is
system is written as
like most distributed-parameter approaches in
that an input-output solution is obtained .
mx = Σ mjk (3.2.2-16 )
j0 3.2.3 System Response
where the index j denotes a Fourier mode having The purpose of a feed system description is , of
a characteristic frequency w;. For a uniform area course, to provide a boundary condition for the
flow passage analysis of the combustion and flow in the thrust
παι chamber. Three approaches are used to describe
Wj (3.2.2-17 ) the effect of the feed system. The simplest and
ι
most commonly used approach is that of a limiting
A normalized flow rate for mode j is defined by condition, such as constant injection pressure or
N constant injection flow. If the engine operation is
sΣAjkPk (s) not strongly dependent on the feed system
k=0 mjk
mj = = (3.2.2-18 ) behavior, then such a simple approach is justified .
s²+ 2vjs + w ;² Ajk
However, in many cases more information is
where pk is a boundary or input pressure at needed . A second approach is to use a feed system
.
location k, the Ajk are normalization coefficients , transfer function derived by combining the
and s is the complex Laplace transform operator. linearized equations for the feed system com-
The damping coefficient ; introduces losses . The ponents. Using this approach the engine problem
steady-state coefficient vo is used to satisfy pres- may be solved in either the time or frequency
domain. The third approach involves the solution namic coupling effects at lower frequencies often
of the nonlinear differential equations in the time. allows a better understanding of the higher
domain. This technique may be necessary if wide- frequency effects.
range operation of the system is required or if In attempting to study the characteristics of an
limit-cycle* operation is to be studied . Of the engine system, the frequency domain techniques
three approaches , the linear approximation is have, as discussed above , particular advantages
generally the most useful . and disadvantages. Alternatives to the frequency
The feed system transfer function is derived domain studies are the less sophisticated time.
from the set of equations for the components by domain response studies. Time domain analysis
writing each variable as the sum of a steady-state makes up for the inability to use classical stability
value and a perturbation . Subtraction of the criteria by providing not only an extremely
steady-state equations gives a set of relations powerful analytical tool, but also a practical
among the perturbations. These relations are then method of incorporating multiple and massive
Laplace-transformed . Finally, using substitution. nonlinearities, and allows correlation with actual
to eliminate variables, a feed system transfer transient or limit-cycle test data.
function The significance of being able to correlate
mi' (s) analytical results with engine system data cannot
G (s) =
=
Ap ' (s) be overemphasized . The importance of such
correlation is twofold : ( 1 ) to verify the validity of
is obtained. By setting s = iw, the vector relation
the model, and (2) to convince others who are
G(w) between pressure and mass flow rate oscilla-
unfamiliar with analytical models (but who must
tions can be determined . Usually, this type of
accept and use the model results ) that the model.
frequency response function is sufficient for engine
really represents the actual engine system.
stability studies .
Fundamental to correlating with most engine
Since the substitution process to obtain G (s)
system limit-cycle data is the necessity to include
is quite tedious for complex feed systems, it is
multiple, time-dependent nonlinearities . Most
standard practice to assemble the linear equations
time-dependent analytical models allow the in-
on a computer and then to determine G (w ) for the
clusion of any definable nonlinearity.
desired frequency range. Using a digital com-
Another, and certainly not insignificant, ad-
puter, this determination involves the solution of
vantage of time domain analyses is that they lend
.
a matrix of equations with complex coefficients .
themselves to analog simulation . Analog tech-
On an analog computer, a sinusoidal voltage
niques are of particular value when iteration ,
representing Ap' is applied and the amplitude and
survey, optimization , or real-time data-input.
phase of the voltage representing m ' are measured .
studies are to be made. In addition, the output
Curve-fitting techniques have been developed to
recorders are often identical to those used to
allow the frequency response thus determined to
display engine test data, allowing an excellent
be represented analytically by a ratio of poly-
visual correlation between analysis and experi-
nomials. 453
ment.
In choosing the frequency response requirements
At times it is necessary to define the effect of
for components of a finite difference model, it is
feed system response on an apparent transverse
desirable to use mathematical descriptions that
mode of combustion instability. A mathematical
are valid from zero (steady-state) to a frequency
model of the feed system can be developed that
well above (usually about 10 times ) the frequency
allows a detailed representation of complex
range of interest . A benefit of using such com-
injector passageways and also allows for the dis-
ponent transfer functions is that when many
tribution of oscillatory chamber pressure across
transfer functions are mathematically joined the
the face of the injector. Such a feed system model
steady-state gain ratio is a very convenient check .
utilizes the matrix representation of n-port
Furthermore, a thorough understanding of dy-
networks to combine the linearized equations
* That is, oscillation at some relatively constant ampli- describing the interconnection of manifolds,
tude . channels, coolant tubes, and injection orifices. 98, 720
As an example, a feed system model using 28-port

fuel and oxidizer networks is illustrated in Figs.
3.2.3a and 3.2.3b. In this example, the injector
face has been divided into seven regions (Fig.
Inlet
3.2.3c ) . The injector networks can be split into
sub-networks to match the measured pressure Dome
data . The overall fuel network shown in Fig.
3.2.3a is split into two sub-networks , one repre- Face circuit
senting the injector face circuit and the other,
the chamber coolant circuit . A useful division for
the oxidizer injector is shown in Fig. 3.2.3b.
3.2.4 Comparison of Analysis and Experiment P+6

17
An effective example of the agreement between
Pc6
analysis and experiment was provided by the P+5 PC
occurrence of a feed-system-coupled oscillation 5
PC7
during development of the F- 1 engine.509 Four
aspects of this oscillation were significant : ( 1 ) PC4 Pt
Pcl
P12 Pil Pc3

P+4 P+3 P+4 Pc2`
P15!
Pt6!
P+3
Inlet manifold
FIGURE 3.2.3b . -Oxidizer injector network.
Coolant tubes the system was physically large enough to

accommodate a large number of measurements
throughout the feed system, and the existence of
Manifold
the measurements did not affect the system,
( 2 ) the application of suppression devices was
entirely successful, (3 ) the analysis was further
Coolant tubes
confirmed by laboratory-scale acoustic modeling
techniques, and (4) it was demonstrated that
Channel harmonics at least as high as the sixth may be
sources of troublesome frequencies.
A schematic of the F-1 thrust chamber test
facility is shown in Fig . 3.2.4a . Oscillations at
Pj6 420 Hz were noted in the LO₂ inlet and chamber ,
Pc6 but not at the splitter. A mathematical analysis
5 Pc5 of the feed system indicated many possible natural
PC7 resonant frequencies and overtones, among which
Pc4
Pji a standing wave between the splitter and the
Pcl
chamber had a sixth acoustic-mode resonance at
Pi4 Pc3 /Pc 2
420 Hz . In addition , that particular resonance had
a pressure node at the splitter, in agreement with
j2
Pj3 the test data.
To confirm the existence of a sixth-mode
FIGURE 3.2.3a. -Fuel injector network. resonance in a complex feed system, a Plexiglas
1.0.
Pc3 PC Pc5 PC7

ის
Pc2 A C5 Pc6
MPAX
|Pc
/
)
(0c
60 120 180 240 300 360

~
8 angle from fuel inlet ( degrees)
-1.0
FIGURE 3.2.3c .- Approximation of circumferential pressure distribution by seven constant-pressure regions.
Flow oscillation pattern
16" diam duct Quarter wave tube

to tank
Combustion zone
Lox
Splitter dome
Injector
FIGURE 3.2.4a . -Schematic of F- 1 thrust chamber feed system showing observed wave pattern .
scale model was built. When excited with an nitude. This prediction was confirmed on the
acoustic driver in the chamber, the model showed acoustic model . Fig . 3.2.4c shows the frequency
all the pressure node and antinode characteristics spectrum obtained with a quarter-wave-length
of a sixth-mode oscillation between the chamber resonator in each leg of the inlet ducting . With
and splitter. A traverse of the frequency spectrum resonators installed on the test stand, several
clearly exhibited the sixth-mode (Fig. 3.2.4b ) . hundred hot-firing tests, some with hardware
Additional measurements on the actual thrust that had previously exhibited the oscillations,
chamber test stand further confirmed the mode were conducted with no occurrence of the 420 Hz
identification. oscillation .
To suppress the oscillations a side-branch
quarter-wave-tube resonator was placed at the
3.3 INJECTION PROCESSES
location of a pressure antinode in the feed system.
According to theory, such a device should split Except for a few rather widely scattered
the resonance into two resonances of lesser mag- investigations, the consideration of the dynamic
48
50 attention shifted to the high frequency problem,
O Line measurement
Maximu
intensitym A Dome measurement the injection rate was assumed to be constant and
4th droplet burning processes were identified as the
1
42 8th
7th controlling factors. It is now generally recognized
)(db
5th 6th
that the intermediate processes of atomization and
34 mixing, which serve to prepare the injected
-
propellants for combustion, can be of great
importance in both low and high frequency
26
T
instability. It is also clear that these intermediate

processes may provide a significant coupling
18 between injection rate oscillations and droplet
burning dynamics.
The emphasis in this section is on the character
10 of the injection sprays rather than on the mass flux
variation , which was discussed in Sect . 3.2.
Consideration is given to the effects of oscillatory
conditions on drop size as well as the spatial
200 300 400 500 600 distributions of mass and mixture ratio, both as
Frequency ( Hz ) mean and fluctuating quantities. The discussion is
divided into three parts. First, the effects of
FIGURE 3.2.4b .-Spectral characteristics of feed system upstream conditions on the formation of pro-
model without resonators. pellant sprays are reviewed . These conditions
include flow rate oscillations, hydraulic flip,
50 and injector vibration . In the second part, the
O Line measurement emphasis is placed on the response of the injection
Maximum
Intensity
▲ Dome measurement sprays to pressure and velocity oscillations in the

42 5th
combustion chamber. Consideration is given to
)(db
the displacement and breakup of jets and sprays

4th 8th as well as to the mixing of the propellants, both in
34
T
liquid and vapor phases. Attention is restricted to

40
6th
small perturbations from the mean operating
.
26
conditions . The final part of this section deals
with the effects of shock waves on the breakup of
18 liquid jets and drops .

It should be noted that the coupling of these
processes with the combustion and flow conditions
10- 瓜
in the chamber to form a closed feedback loop is
not considered in this section . That discussion is
deferred to Chapters 4 and 5 , in which complete
theoretical models of instability are presented.
200 300 400 500 600 The following nomenclature pertains to Sect .
Frequency (Hz) 3.3 :
CD Drag coefficient
FIGURE 3.2.4c.-Spectral characteristics of feed system dLo Initial drop or jet diameter
model with quarter-wave tubes. da Effective spray width
7 Instantaneous burning rate
aspects of liquid propellant injection processes is a k Liquid-gas momentum exchange coeffi-
recent development. Early studies of low fre- cient
quency instability concentrated on injection rate 1 Velocity interaction index
oscillations as the controlling mechanism. When q Dynamic pressure
Tb Dimensionless droplet breakup time, impinging-jet injectors (Fig. 3.3.1a) .341, 344 Close
=TbVB correspondence of these natural variations to
X. Spacing between fuel and oxidizer sprays intermediate frequency instabilities has been
Yox Mass fraction of oxidizer in spray shown in hot firings ; chamber pressure fluctuations
86
β Gas/liquid density ratio were also correlated with the spray oscillations.749
δ Displacement
η Gas/liquid viscosity ratio
Tb Dimensionless droplet breakup time,
V (tb/dL)
Te Characteristic combustion time
Tx Time required for a fluid particle to
travel from injector face to a distance
x downstream
Ty Relaxation time for droplet burning
process
Subscripts :
d Threshold level for nonlinear mixing
S Saturation level, nonlinear mixing
3.3.1 Effects of Upstream Conditions *
The effects on injection streams of upstream

disturbances can take several forms . One form is a
bunching of the propellants at a location down-
stream of the injector, the so-called "klystron "
effect . Another change in the character of the
injected propellants can take place via "hydraulic
flip," that is, the shifting from a cylindrical jet to
a bushy jet and vice versa. A marked increase in
the jet velocity can cause increased aerodynamic
breakup as well as altering that portion of the
droplet generation associated with ligament
breakup. At the other extreme (i.e. , a sharp
decrease in jet velocity following a feed system
disturbance) flow rates can be effectively stopped,
necessitating what is essentially a restart of the
engine.154
3.3.1.1 Flow rate oscillations.-The klystron

effect has been studied by several investiga-
tors . 475, 268 Sinusoidal flow variations can be con-
verted to sharply spiked waveforms at downstream
locations by this mechanism, which may thus be a
source of low and intermediate frequency in-
stability.268 The axial flow variations in the spray
are very similar to the naturally occurring
"Christmas tree" or "pagoda" effect common to
* D. T. Harrje and F. H. Reardon, Authors, with

contributions from J. A. Nestlerode, J. R. Fenwick, and
L. E. Sack. FIGURE 3.3.1a.-Klystron effect, impinging jets.
A simplified illustration of the unsteady di mi

injection process is shown in Fig. 3.3.1b. Because (3.3.1-1 )
dt 1 - Tx ( mm;/m ;²)-
}}...
the faster fluid particles overtake the slower ones,
at some axial station the maximum-velocity
where mdm¡/dt and τ is the time required for
particles will theoretically be at the same location
a fluid particle to travel from the injector to
as the minimum-velocity particles. Continuity
station x. Eq. (3.3.1-1 ) is valid for 7m ( m;/m²) <
considerations dictate that the fluid originally 1.0 . The derivative terms, produced by variations
between the maximum- and minimum-velocity
in Tx, tend to "time-squeeze" the wave form. In a
particles should still be approximately between closed-loop system simulation , at least the first
them. Hence the fluid appears to have "clumped. " derivative term should be used to minimize flow
The klystron effect has been well established in
rate errors, although assuming a constant Tx
electrical systems and is commonly used to provide leads to the simpler expression
amplification of high frequency signals. Experi-
ments have indicated the applicability of this mi
m (x, t) = (3.3.1-2)
effect to fluid systems.268 The photograph of a 1 — T、m ( m¡/m¸²)5
single jet in Fig. 3.3.1c shows the severe clumping
illustrated schematically in Fig. 3.3.1b . The Typical wave shapes resulting from Eqs. ( 3.3.1-1 )
occurrence of the klystron effect with impinging and ( 3.3.1-2 ) are compared to that for the pure
jets is shown in Fig . 3.3.1a . The development of time delay, m (x, t ) = m¡ ( t −7x ) , in Fig. 3.3.1e.
a single clump is shown in Fig. 3.3.1d . Eq. ( 3.3.1-1 ) may be linearized by assuming
The flow rate at any axial distance x from the that both mm; and m; approach zero. Thus,
injector is268 d mi
m ' (x, t) m; (t - 7x)
= + ix (3.3.1-3)
mi m mi dt mi /t-ix
m (x, t ) = { 1 — r、 m ( m \ / m²)
or in Laplace notation
m - mi m (x, s) mi (s)
+ Tx = exp ( −7xs) ( 1 + 7x8) (3.3.1-4 )
ΣΙ mi m mi
Fluid jet ot -Fluid jet

after
injection Tx sec .
FAS S
Fast particle S Slow particle
mi m (x)
FIGURE 3.3.1b .-Schematic illustration of unsteady injection showing the klystron effect.
Eq. (3.3.1-4) indicates the potential of the

klystron effect for up to 90° phase lead relative to
the pure time delay, as well as amplification, not
present with a simple time delay mechanism. The
Bode diagram of Fig. 3.3.1f illustrates the gain
and phase characteristics for the klystron and
time delay mechanisms.
The sharp, pulse-type flow variations resulting
from klystron amplification can explain the saw-
tooth waves seen in injector-end chamber pressure
during "chug" and "buzz" instabilities . Low
amplitude, low frequency oscillations with such
amplification could result in periodic bursts of
chamber acoustic resonances. Such a phenomenon
has been observed in what has been called
"resurging. "272
3.3.1.2 Hydraulic flip.-The change in the

character of injected streams known as "hy-
draulic flip" has been suggested as a possible
cause of the undesirable combustion phenomenon
of "popping. "704 Hydraulic flip is discussed in
some detail in Sect . 2.2.2 . It has been postulated
that operation of an injector in the transition
region between cylindrical and bushy liquid
streams produces local pressure disturbances.
These disturbances propagate through pockets of
unburned propellant and are amplified into steep-
fronted waves. Since hydraulic flip occurs only in
certain ranges of injector pressure drop,3,5519
injector design modifications that removed the
injector operation from the critical pressure drop
ranges proved successful.704 However, really
definitive tests have not been made, so that the
influence of hydraulic flip remains somewhat
conjectural.
3.3.1.3 Injector vibration.-The actual mechan-

ical vibration of the injector face or the coupling
of structural vibrations through intermediate
flow components, such as the coolant tubes of a
tubular-wall chamber, can also result in significant
variations in the propellant injection sprays, and
so be responsible for unstable operation.272 A
clumping effect similar to that of the klystron
mechanism has been produced experimentally at
frequencies as high as 4500 Hz.475 Carried to the
extreme, this mechanism resembles the technique
used to generate droplets of known size by means
FIGURE 3.3.1c.-Klystron effect, single vertical jet. of vibrating orifices, 513, 511
FIGURE 3.3.1d.- Development of a "clump" in a horizontal jet .
3.3.2 Effects of Small Perturbations in Chamber with atomization and jet breakup, and effects
Conditions * related to mixing.
Even if the flow rate is constant, the injection 3.3.2.1 Atomization and jet breakup. -Very
sprays are affected in various ways by oscillating
little quantitative data is available on the effects
chamber conditions. Therefore, the rate of delivery
of an oscillating environment on the droplet size
of prepared propellants to the combustion zone is distribution of typical injection sprays. In one
not constant, but oscillates in response to the study, oscillations with pressure amplitudes of
pressure and velocity oscillations of the gases 5% of the mean values produced no noticeable
filling the combustion chamber. In addition, changes. 287 Oscillations were provided at higher
because of the nonlinearities associated with
levels in several investigations. However, the
many of the atomization and mixing processes, emphasis was placed on determining the effect on
oscillatory operation may result in the alteration the jets themselves, rather than on measurements
of the mean characteristics of the sprays from of the droplet spray resulting from jet impinge-
steady state. For purposes of discussion , the 587
ment.58
non-steady effects considered in this section can
be divided into two groups, viz ., effects associated 3.3.2.2 Mixing. Some stratification exists in
the spray produced by any liquid propellant
* F. H. Reardon and D. T. Harrje, Authors. injector.613,653 As the droplets of each propellant
Output
flow
rate
,t)ṁ
I
s
/ x bm
( ec
Eq . ( 3.3.1-1 )
5
+
1
3
Eq . (3.3.1-2 )
2
T
-Pure time
delay
5 6 7 8 9 10 || 12
Normalized time , wt , radians
FIGURE 3.3.1e.- Comparison of wave shapes for sinusoidal injection rate variation m₁ = 1-0.16 sin 5t (lbm/sec) ; mean
transport time T = 1.0 sec.
Linear klystron 10
effect (phase)
, egrees
100
Phose
Pure time delay ( phase )-
d
Gain
40 200
,db
Linear klystron effect (gain ).

20 300
1
400
Pure time delay (gain).
500
0.2 0.4 1.0 2 4 10
ω τι
FIGURE 3.3.1f.- Bode diagram for linearized klystron effect and pure time delay.
evaporate, the vapor must diffuse away and mix rate of a given droplet will, therefore , be a function
with the vapor of the other propellant in the right of the mixture ratio of the vapor surrounding it.
proportion for chemical reaction . The burning Because of the stratification of the liquid spray,
there will be mixture ratio gradients in the vapor. oxidant-deficient region of the spray. A velocity
If a transverse acoustic field is imposed on such a perturbation V' that increases the oxidizer mass
spray, the vapor will be displaced relative to the fraction in the vicinity of the droplet will increase
droplet, causing mixture ratio oscillations in the the burning rate of the droplet . Since the velocity
vicinity of each vaporizing droplet . Hence, there perturbations in an acoustic field change direction
will be an oscillation in the burning rate , which cyclically, the burning rate of the droplet will
can couple with the acoustic field to produce oscillate with the frequency of the applied acoustic
instability. Experimental results showing the field . For a small velocity perturbation V'eist, the
importance of this mechanism have been obtained instantaneous burning rate f can be written as
by several investigators . 441, 542, 582
A linearized model of the above mechanism can ƒ=ƒ( 1 + l • V'eiwt) (3.3.2-1 )
be developed by considering the effects of small

where is a "velocity interaction index" vector
transverse velocity perturbations on the spray
(see Sect. 4.2 ) , which has the same direction as
formed by an unlike-impinging doublet injector the gradient of Yox.
element with nonhypergolic propellants.583 At any Clearly, the effects of a given velocity per-
given axial station , such a spray will consist of turbation will be opposite for oxidizer and fuel
liquid droplets, vapors, and gaseous combustion droplets, since an increase in oxidizer fraction
products. As indicated schematically in Fig. corresponds to a fuel fraction decrease. Thus , the
3.3.2a, the stratification will be approximately
effects of the same velocity perturbation will tend
symmetrical about the line of centers of the
to cancel, unless the propellants have significantly
doublet orifices . The exact shape of the lines of
different vaporization rates. In the latter case,
constant oxidizer mass fraction Yox depends, of at any axial station there will be a greater number
course, on the injector design , operating condi-
of droplets of the less-volatile propellant, and
tions, and propellant characteristics . Also , be-
summation of the velocity effect over all of the
cause of turbulence in the combustion chamber,
droplets in the spray will result in a net con-
the Yox contours shown in Fig. 3.3.2a represent
tribution to the burning rate.
only a mean condition.
An expression for the velocity interaction index
Consider first a fuel droplet , which will be in an
can be obtained as follows. From Eq . (3.3.2−1 ) ,
1.V'eiwt =
于
Constant Yox
contour
and considering that only Yox variations affect
the ratef
1 Jy
= Yox'eiwt = Yox'eiwt
Fuel droplet 1- 2)
( Yox F Yox
The local oxidizer fraction oscillates because of the

relative motion of the vapor with respect to the
Yox Fuel-rich liquid droplet, hence
region
1
Yox':—— (V' - VL ) •VŸox
iw
and the liquid velocity perturbation is approxi-

Oxidizer -rich .. mately
region
k
V₁ = V'
FIGURE 3.3.2a.-Schematic illustration of the stratifica- iw
tion in the spray produced by an unlike-impinging
doublet. where k is a drag coefficient (Sect . 4.1 ) . Therefore,
quite small, of 0 ( 0.1 ) , and decreases with in-

k
creasing droplet size . Very small droplets follow
(1-1)3 the gas motion closely, so that this displacement
VYox
(3.3.2-2) mechanism is significant only for the larger
iwf droplets. It is expected also that this mechanism
.
The proportionality factor Jy is a dynamic is most effective near the injector face , where
function of the droplet and vapor characteristics , there are more large droplets .
not necessarily the same as that obtained by A second observation is that in order for the
steady-state analysis or experiment . One simple velocity interaction index to be real, that is , for
formulation that has some physical justification is the combustion response to be in phase with the
velocity perturbation , as assumed in Ref. 582, the
Jy = fy exp ( −iwTy)
relaxation time Ty must be about one-half of the
where Ty is a relaxation time for the droplet characteristic combustion time Te. On the other
burning process. Inserting this formulation into hand, if the relaxation time is very small , the
Eq . (3.3.2-2 ) gives combustion response will be in phase with the
k displacement, and a real-valued displacement
l= iw Ty VYox
OX index miwl can be used in Eq . (3.3.2-1 ) .
iw) exp [ -io ( 1, -1) ] VY。
1 = 1/3 ( 1-1
The characteristic combustion time Te can be
(3.3.2-3) identified with the sensitive time lag defined by
Crocco (Sect . 4.2.1 ) . Then the velocity or dis-
Assuming further that the combustion response
placement sensitivity of the combustion process
peaks at a certain resonant frequency wr = π /Te,
might be expected to increase with increasing
where Tc
Te is a characteristic combustion time.
injection orifice size (Sect . 6.3.3 ) . However, the
(Sect . 4.2.1.1 ) , an effective value of I is obtained
effective spray width is also likely to increase with
by setting w = w , in Eq . ( 3.3.2-3 ) . Thus
orifice size . At present, the dependence of the
Ty index (or m ) on design and operational factors
=
- Taly 1- ktc)
7/31 ( 1 π Tc ] Vox
:) exp [ -ir (1-2) has not yet been determined . However, on the
basis of experimental stability limits , for moderate
(3.3.2-4) orifice size ( 0.080 in. ) , and the propellant com-
The quantity of interest in practical cases is a bination LOX /ethanol, Smith and Reardon650
mean value Im of the velocity interaction index estimated the magnitude of I to be in the range.
that characterizes the entire spray. This , of 1 to 4, in good agreement with Eq . (3.3.2-5 ) ,
course, should be obtained by averaging over all which can thus be used to obtain a rough mag-
of the droplets of the controlling propellant in the nitude of the velocity index .
spray. However, it is also instructive to proceed The linearized analysis given in the preceding
by defining an effective spray width d, such that discussion will not be valid for all types of injection.
pattern . In many cases, the only significant
= mixing effects are definitely nonlinear in char-
ds
1- / vox ]
[ ....
mean acter . For example, although approximately
Then the magnitude of the mean velocity index. linear velocity effects can be expected for a like-
can be expressed as on-like injector pattern if the spacing between
unlike spray fans is sufficiently small, for typical
Tc kre Ty
= π designs the spacing is large enough that nonlinear
| lm
πας П 2
- / ( 1 + 14 ) exp [ -i (1 - 12 ) ] effects must be taken into consideration .
Qualitatively, the nature of the nonlinear
(3.3.2-5)
displacement sensitivity of a like-on -like injector
and its direction is the same as that of the mean
pattern can be seen by considering an isolated .
Yox gradient. element, consisting of one pair of oxidizer orifices
Several observations can be made about Eq . and one pair of fuel orifices ( Fig. 3.3.2b ) . For
(3.3.2-5) . First, the drag coefficient k is generally concreteness , suppose that the oxidizer vaporizes
Vapor
-Liquid
droplets
FFF
O F O F O F O F
(a) (b) (c) (d)
O F O F
(e) (f) )‫(و‬
(a) Steady state. (b) Small amplitude. (c) Moderate amplitude. (d) Very large amplitude.
(e) Small amplitude . (f) Moderate amplitude. (g) Very large amplitude.
FIGURE 3.3.2b . - Nonlinear velocity (displacement) effect, with like-on-like injection element .
more rapidly than the fuel, and that the velocity For velocity perturbations in the F-O direction,
perturbation is parallel to the lines of centers of small amplitudes will again have little effect,
the orifice pairs . Since most of the mass in the other than to move the combustion zone in the
liquid phase is concentrated near the axis of each downstream direction . Larger amplitudes will
spray fan, a small transverse velocity perturbation cause separation of the oxidizer vapor from the
will produce no appreciable effect on the burning fuel, resulting in a sharp reduction in the burning
rate. rate. Again a limiting influence will be operative
For a moderate perturbation in the O-F for very large amplitudes in that the fuel spray
direction , the oxidizer vapor will be displaced will be broken up and displaced along with the
into the region of highest fuel droplet concen- oxidizer spray.
tration , producing an increase in the burning rate . Thus, the response function of a like-on-like
However, a very large velocity perturbation will injector element can be approximated by a
disrupt the fuel spray, displacing it in the direction combination of deadband and saturation, as
of the velocity, that is, away from the oxidizer.
Thus, the burning rate enhancement due to dis- * This is one possible explanation of the "over-bombing"
placement of oxidizer vapor will be limited . * effect discussed in Chapter 10.
illustrated in Fig. 3.3.2c , although complete element of Fig. 3.3.2b, if the spacing between fuel
symmetry is not likely. The presence of adjacent and oxidizer sprays is denoted by x,, then the
elements will modify the response function , displacement da' of the oxidizer vapor necessary to
probably eliminating the saturation effect for produce an appreciable change in the combustion
O-F velocities and adding such an effect for F→O rate should be on the order of x./2 . The corre-
velocities, as shown by the broken line in Fig . sponding velocity perturbation is
3.3.2c .
TXS
Recent studies of hypergolic propellant com- Va'≈wda'≈ (3.3.2-6)
binations252,415 have indicated that under certain 2Tc
conditions the rapid liquid-phase reactions pro- The point at which saturation effects begin is
duce vapor pockets that keep the unlike liquids more difficult to estimate. Assuming the breakup
apart and so inhibit the mixing that would of the fuel spray to be the controlling event, as
otherwise occur with unlike-impinging injection
discussed previously, the experimental results of
elements . On this basis, it is not to be expected
Clark146 can be used to estimate the perturbation
that such injectors will exhibit the linear dis- level for saturation effects in terms of velocity or
placement effects with hypergolic propellants
displacement perturbations :
that have been observed with nonhypergolic
propellants. When injection stream separation dr V. dF PL
V.'≈ ; 88'≈ (3.3.2-7)
occurs , the combustion response to transverse Tc P
3 П
velocity perturbations should be similar to that
where dr is the width of the fuel spray. * The
of like-on-like injection , as discussed above.
Quantitative specification of the nonlinear
velocity (displacement ) sensitivity cannot be * It should be noted that Clark studied only cylindrical
accomplished without detailed and systematic liquid jets, not the sprays formed by impinging jets.
However, the authors are unaware of comparable experi-
studies of spray combustion . However, some rough
ments performed on sprays that can serve to determine
estimates are possible on the basis of existing whether Eq. (3.3.2-7) is a valid extrapolation of Clark's
knowledge. Considering the like-on-like injection results.
=4
1
V' or S' vá
(0+F) δα δ'
(a) (b)
(a) Actual (solid curve denotes isolated element ; dashed (b) Approximate deadband-saturation model.
curve denotes adjacent elements present) .
FIGURE 3.3.2c.-Burning rate perturbation for like-on-like element .
final parameter required to specify the combustion Drop or

response for this deadband-saturation model is jet
the slope of the combustion response function for

Vd' <V' <V.' (dd ' << 8 ' ) . This slope should be
approximately the same as that for the linear
displacement model, or
dL
dƒ' Te df' 1
(3.3.2-8)
dV' παρ dồ' dr
Shock
As discussed previously, the choice between the Bow shock
velocity and displacement formulations given in (if V supersonic)
Eqs. (3.3.2-6 ) to (3.3.2-8 ) depends on whether
the combustion response is in phase with the FIGURE 3.3.3 .- Liquid drop or jet in a uniform stream.
velocity perturbation or with the displacement
perturbation.
drops, the total breakup time, the motion of the
parent drop, and the nature of the secondary drops.
3.3.3 Stream and Droplet Breakup by
A complete analytical treatment of this problem,
Shock Waves *
including the details of drop deformation and
When shock waves are present in a droplet internal motion, has never been made. Accord-
combustion field, a large pressure distribution is ingly, it is necessary to resort to dimensional
established about each droplet , the droplet analysis , experimental observations, and approxi-
deforms , there is a shearing force at the periphery mate theories.
of the drop, and internal motion and surface The results of many experimental studies *
tension come into play. Under certain conditions indicate that the influence of the incident shock,
the droplet (or jet ) may be broken up mechani- the internal motion of the liquid, and the in-
cally at a rate greater than the vaporization rate, creased vaporization rate due to the temperature
so that a different characteristic time for the increase across the shock are sufficiently small
conversion of liquid to vapor is experienced . Thus, to be neglected. The fact that the shock plays no
the presence of shock waves can lead to changes role other than inducing the flow implies that the
in the spatial energy release patterns and char- relative flow between the drop and gas is the
acteristic times such that there is a distinct change important consideration and not how the flow
in the stability behavior of the combustor. was generated.
The discussion in this section is not intended Subject to the above simplifications, and
to be an all-inclusive review of the subject , but considering a perfect gas, dimensional analysis
rather is aimed at putting the problem into yields the following functional relationship :
perspective in terms of the application to rocket
combustion . 7b7b(We, Re, M, B, n) (3.3.3-1 )
where
Consider a spherical droplet , or cylindrical jet
of liquid, initially at rest, that is suddenly im- Vtb
Tb = dimensionless breakup time
pacted by a shock wave. The shock induces a dLo
flow behind it that may be subsonic or supersonic ;
in the latter case there will also be a bow shock pV2dLo
We = Weber number
(Fig. 3.3.3 ) . Most of the discussion following is 2SL
concerned with the droplet case , but the difference
between drop and jet breakup is small and will be
pVdLo
pointed out later. It is desired to determine the Re = Reynolds number (3.3.3-2 )
μ
rate of conversion of the original drop into smaller
* J. A. Nicholls , Author. * Cited in the text following.

V conditions for breakup can be exceeded by very

M= Mach number weak shock waves. Thus, it is to be expected that
a
the stripping mode of breakup will be more
pertinent than the bag mode in rocket applica-
Ρ
В= density ratio tions . Furthermore, the drop breakup time in the
PL
bag mode will usually be longer than the residence
time in the chamber and hence not as influential
μ
= viscosity ratio for instability. Most of the remaining discussion,
μL
then, will be devoted to the stripping mode of
The exact form of Eq . ( 3.3.3-1 ) must be deter- breakup .
mined from experimental investigations. Shock tube investigations* have shown the
In shock tube studies with relatively weak following relation for breakup time for the strip-
shocks, it was noted that for flow conditions ping mode :
below a certain critical Weber number the drop
dLo PL PL
did not break up but rather translated with the tb~ or (3.3.3-4)
V Ρ tb~dzo for
q
flow and gradually vaporized . 315, 314 For water and
methyl alcohol the critical Weber number ranged where q is the dynamic pressure. If a new dimen-
from 3.6 to 8.4, but higher values were required sionless breakup time, Tь = √ẞть, is introduced ,
for very viscous liquids. For We slightly greater Eq. (3.3.3-4 ) becomes simply
than critical the drop disintegrated in the " bag"
Tb =constant (3.3.3-5)
mode. In this mode the increased pressure near
the forward stagnation point forces the central This correlation shows that Re, n , and We are
portion to "inflate" in the downstream direction unimportant in the case of the stripping mode.
in the form of a bag. This blown up portion is Moreover, the shock itself, as well as internal.
gradually sheared off from an outer rim and forms motion in the drop and the vaporization rate are
a number of smaller drops. Obviously, surface also unimportant. Similar results have been
tension is of importance in this mode. For We obtained for liquid jets. 146, 501 The same correlation
substantially greater than critical the disintegra- has been found to hold for both burning and
tion was of the "stripping" mode. The stripping nonburning drops . 384,569
mode is characterized by liquid shearing (or Several approximate theoretical analyses† using
stripping) off the periphery of the drop ; surface varied approaches have led to relations similar to
tension is unimportant. Eq. (3.3.3-5 ) . However, a theoretical analysis.
In another study,569 a Reynolds number effect that treated the breakup as stemming from the
on the critical Weber number was determined, generation and shedding of capillary waves222 did
with the empirical correlation not lead to Eq . (3.3.3-5 ) , or the expected limiting
behavior but did appear to give reasonable
Wecrit / ( Recrit ) 1/2 = constant ( 3.3.3-3)
agreement with experiment . It is not clear at
where the constant equaled about 0.5 for non- present whether capillary or boundary layer
burning drops. It was shown that the form of Eq. stripping is the predominant mechanism.
(3.3.3-3) is consistent with a boundary layer It must be pointed out that the breakup time is
stripping analysis of breakup . Burning drops not unambiguous, and different investigators use
broke up at lower dynamic pressures, presumably different breakup criteria . This fact must, of
due to lowered surface tension. The correlation course, be taken into account in comparing
at the critical condition for burning drops was not results . Nicholson and Hill517 obtained Tь≈3.5,
as good as that for nonburning drops, which was whereas Jaarsma and Derksen384 reported T≈4.5,
attributed to uncertainty in the proper value of and Ranger575 found T≈4 for low subsonic Mach
surface tension . numbers, increasing to about 5.5 at M = 1 , then
When one considers the elevated pressures and
temperatures in rocket combustors and typical * References 250, 384, 517 , 569, 576, 598 , and 755.
drop or jet sizes, one finds that the critical References 146 , 133 , 500, 575 , and 755.
decreasing towards 4 at supersonic velocities. 3.4 COMBUSTION PROCESSES

This increase in T in the transonic range is
Attention is focused in this section on processes
similar to the behavior of the drag coefficient . In
that are important in controlling the high fre-
view of this result , it is instructive to review some
quency type of combustion instability, since the
experimental determinations of drag coefficients
considerations of Chapter 2 are directly applicable
for drops undergoing stripping breakup . Ranger
to low and intermediate frequency cases (see
and Nicholls576 found that such drops followed
Sect. 5.2) .
very nearly a parabolic trajectory in the x,t
plane . From Newton's law, the acceleration of a 3.4 :
spherical drop is
A Constant in Nusselt number correla-
d2x 3 CD P
= (V - VL)2 (3.3.3-6) tion
dt2 4 dL PL B Response function coefficient , Eq.
Since a parabolic trajectory implies constant (3.4.2-4)
acceleration , the distance traveled by the drop b Normalized slope of vapor-pressure
before breakup is given by curve
g (w3) Frequency dependence of heat flux
Xb 3
Xb = = CDOTь2 (3.3.3-7 ) to droplet
dLo 8 ть Droplet burning rate
ML Droplet mass
where CD. is the drag coefficient based on initial
drop conditions. Ranger and Nicholls found n Exponent in Nusselt number correla-
tion
CD 3.0, whereas Jaarsma and Derksen reported
CDo 2.5, for burning and nonburning drops. "Open-loop" combustion response
Somewhat lower values were obtained by Rabin, function (complex )
et al.569 PR Real part of P
For liquid jets , similar results have been qL Heat flux to droplet
reported , 146,501 with dimensionless breakup time tı, ... ts Characteristic times of droplet burn-
To determined to be in the range 3.2 to 3.9. ing, defined in Table 3.4.2a
ti Instant of injection
# PI
However, these values may be somewhat low

because of the method of determining To, viz, the t - ti Time elapsed from injection
P
continuity of electrical current through the jet. Droplet surface temperature

Povinelli555 obtained the empirical displacement Temperature of atmosphere sur-
expression rounding droplet
2 Fuel mass fraction at droplet surface
X
= 0.7 (3.3.3-8) Τι Droplet lifetime
dLo ie '
(VBV
ddLo .t)
.
3.4.1 Controlling Processes *
from tests with many different liquids. From such
data a value of 2.2 for the drag coefficient is There is limited evidence that the mechanism
obtained.
for high frequency combustion instability lies in
In summary, if We (Re) -1/2>>0.5 for a given the vaporization and combustion processes.
flow condition, the drop or jet will break up by a Droplet burning in an actual combustor is
stripping mechanism . In this case, for incom- recognized as a highly complex phenomenon ,
pressible flow, a simple but useful relation for consisting of many concurrent as well as sequential
engineering purposes is T = 4. In the transonic processes. The burning also interacts with the
flow range this value of breakup time may in- droplet drag and the consequent drop flight
crease by almost 50 % . For those cases where history. However, it appears that the drag
We ( Re) -1/2 is closer to 0.5 and the bag mode, or perturbations have a minor effect on stability
a combination of the bag and stripping modes, is criteria . In any event, significant differences
experienced, the reader is referred to the work of
Wolfe and Anderson.755 * W. C. Strahle , Author.
between the unsteady and steady states enter into logical starting point for understanding the
descriptions of the combustion process. Even for unsteady burning phenomena. Attention is re-
the limited class of systems controlled by sub- stricted here to liquid elements vaporizing in a
critical vaporization in the steady state, as- subcritical state , so that a well-defined liquid state
surance is impossible that the considerations of exists surrounded by a gas phase diffusion field .
Sect. 2.4 may be carried over into the unsteady The gas at large distances from the liquid-gas
state. interface is assumed to be undergoing small
Most work on unsteady combustion has oscillations which, in the frame of reference of
centered about the subcritical* droplet burning the liquid, may be decomposed into one or several
process because of its success in predicting steady frequencies. Since linearity is assumed, it is
performance (see Chapter 2) . However, many permissible to consider the response of the burning
diagnostic experiments giving the theoretician process to one frequency at a time , the final result
information on the detailed structure of the steady being obtained by superposition . It is assumed
state have not been performed . It has therefore that the liquid is spherical and that its geometrical
been necessary to proceed by assumption . Un- shape is invariant with time.
known factors include the degree of circulation
within a droplet, the structure of the wake, the 3.4.2.1 The frequency spectrum. -The gas phase
role of free stream turbulence and droplet inter- oscillation is considered to be the forcing oscilla-
ference effects , and the droplet flame structure. tion and the objective is to determine the behavior
All of these affect any theoretical formulation of of the vaporization or burning process under the
the unsteady state . The problem is that usual high influence of this oscillation . In other words , the
frequency cycle times may be of the same order as "open-loop" response of the burning process
the delay time between vaporization of a fluid is required . The frequency response will not
element and its combustion. The important depart from quasi-steady form unless the cycle.
quantity entering stability criteria is the com- time of the forcing oscillation becomes com-
mensurate with some characteristic time of the
bustion rate, which is not , in general, instan-
taneously the same as the vaporization rate . 178 burning process . Therefore , it is useful to examine
In spite of the difficulties, there is evidence and order the times which are characteristic of
that for many systems the droplet burning process droplet burning .
is controlling (see Sects . 4.3 and 4.4 ) . It is there- Five characteristic times are of interest : a
fore worthwhile to investigate the models that droplet lifetime ti, a liquid thermal inertia time.
have been proposed for unsteady droplet burning. t2, a liquid thermal diffusion time ts, a gas-phase
Only the burning process itself is considered here ; diffusion time for a locally stagnant gas field t4,
the inclusion into rocket system analysis is and a forced-convection gas-phase diffusion time
covered in Chapter 4. There are also some mecha- ts. These characteristic times are defined in Table
nisms which have been advanced that do not treat 3.4.2a ; numerical limits are specified on the basis.
the burning process in detail but are capable of of property data.471, 29 Liquid hydrogen has been
incorporation into stability analysis on a heuristic excluded as a propellant . As defined in Table
basis . 583, 179, 260 Since these mechanisms do not rest 3.4.2a , the times are heat transfer oriented, but
on complete and detailed treatments of the can be converted to mass or vorticity transfer
burning process, they are discussed in Sect . 4.2 times by use of appropriate Prandtl or Schmidt
and 4.4 in connection with high frequency stability numbers. It should be kept in mind that these
analysis methods. times are dimensional groupings that order the
appropriate process times ; they should not be
3.4.2 Linear, Nonsteady Drop and Spray Burning confused with precise estimates of the actual
process times. For example, the grouping denoted
The study of burning under the influence of
droplet lifetime is a term to which the actual
small amplitude disturbances in ambient gas is a
lifetime is proportional, but the true droplet
That is, at a pressure below the critical pressure of the lifetime depends on the precise nature of the
propellant. convective field and the values of other physical
parameters . It is conceivable that a turbulent in the section . The large magnitude of wt, is due to
process controls the gas phase diffusion time in the the fact that the actual lifetime is quite a bit
droplet wake. To account for this in Table 3.4.2a, smaller than the dimensional grouping . The second
the effective thermal conductivity has arbitrarily and third products are large because of the strong
been increased by a factor of 10 for the upper role played by the derivative of the vapor pressure
limit estimate. No estimate of chemical kinetic. with respect to temperature in governing mass and
times has been made since it is usually assumed heat transfer processes.
that they are short compared to all the listed The frequency ranges for unsteady interaction,
times. Because of the wide latitude taken in the based on the data of Table 3.4.2a and the wt
construction of Table 3.4.2a , it is best to consider products given above, are listed in Table 3.4.2b.
the middle decade of the time range as most Of interest is the fact that all five processes can
representative . exhibit unsteady behavior within the range of
As the frequency increases (beginning from frequencies that is characteristic of high frequency
zero ) the first effect should be interaction with the combustion instability. There has been , however,
droplet lifetime t₁. That is , when the cycle time no comprehensive study which has included all
becomes commensurate with t₁ there will be processes. At most , two have been treated at
important unsteady interaction with the de- a time .
creasing droplet size . When the cycle time becomes Consideration of the five characteristic times
of the order of the liquid thermal inertia time t2, defined in Table 3.4.2a shows that they all scale
the droplet temperature cannot perfectly follow with droplet radius г raised to a power between
that demanded by a quasi-steady treatment with 3/2 and 2. This leads to an interesting inde-
respect to this process . When the cycle time pendence : regardless of which theory may be
becomes commensurate with the liquid heat correct, the scaling rules, at least with regard to
transfer diffusion time t3, a thermal wave appears drop size, are roughly the same.
in the liquid. Continuing in this manner, one can
proceed to the high frequency limiting behavior 3.4.2.2 Response functions . - In the linear
with respect to all processes. For precise estimates, stability theory a quantity of interest to be
however, it is necessary to investigate more obtained from droplet burning theory is the
details, just as in a linear mass-spring-damper open-loop response function
system a resonance develops when the forcing
m (x, y, z, t) p (x, y, z)
frequency becomes commensurate with the natural PR = Re
p' (x, y, z, t ) mь (x, y, z) | ( 3.4.2-1 )
frequency, but the exact frequency of resonance
depends on the amount of damping. Detailed . Here p' and m ' are the instantaneous perturba-
theories giving the relations between cycle time tions of the pressure and burning rate from their
and process times are discussed later in this respective steady state values p and mь, and Re
section . Here it is of interest to state the mag-
denotes the real part. * For instability, PR must be
nitudes of the frequency-time product where positive and of order unity at a chamber position
important unsteady interaction occurs : where the pressure is varying . In this section the
wti 20 response function will be presented as derived
ætę~ 100 from several droplet burning theories . Since there
wt3~1000 is not enough space to present all parametric
wt4~ 5 results, the reader is referred to the literature
wt5~ 5 cited below for detailed effects . The results
These estimates come from numerical calculations presented here are, however, representative of
based on the various theories investigated later practical rocket parameters.
Unsteadiness with respect to droplet lifetime
*
However, a theory has appeared in the literature
based on chemical kinetics as the controlling mechanism * For a precise formulation of PR together with a magni-
for instability.203 The assumption may bear a reexamination tude estimate and the manipulation of Eq. (3.4.2–1 ) into a
in the future. form appropriate for stability criteria, see Ch . 4 .
TABLE 3.4.2a . -CHARACTERISTIC TIMES OF THE DROPLET BURNING PROCESS
Raw data Definition Time range,

sec
50rL200 microns Droplet lifetime : 2.6 X 10-3 to

6.5
PLCprL2
ti
PLCL sec K
2.2X105 < < 11X105
K ft²
Liquid thermal inertia : 0.52 X 10-2 to

Btu
9.4 PLCL50.3 8.8
(°R) (ft³) PLCLFL2
K
lbm
15.6 < pt < 125
ft³
Liquid thermal diffusion : 6.8 × 10-4 to
5.4 X10-1
PLCLFL2
lbm t3
KL
0.03p≤0.4-
ft³
Btu Gas phase diffusion. 1.7 X 10-6 to

0.28 ×10-5K≤5.2 × 10−5- (film thickness ~ rL) : 2.1 X 10-2
(°R) (sec-ft)
pcprL2
t₁
R
lb
0.94 ×10- μ < 5.4 X 10-5-
ft-sec
Gas phase diffusion 1.7 X 10-7 to

10 <Re≤100 2.1 X 10-3
IL
film thickness
Re¹/2
Pr≈1
pcprL2
t5
Re
and liquid inertia, with all other processes con- diffusion time effects (the thermal wave) the
sidered fast compared to these, forms the basis droplet temperature is at any instant considered
for analyses by Heidmann and Wieber346 and uniform , but varying with time . In the opinion
Tang and Crocco.192 The assumption is made that of the author, both of these assumptions are open
burning coincides with vaporization . In the to question,654 and necessary diagnostic experi-
frequency range of interest this is justifiable if, ments are needed .
on the average, the fluid burns within a thin The characteristics of the unsteady droplet
leading edge boundary layer or in a turbulent burning process are examined here by an analysis.
near wake. By neglecting the liquid thermal similar to those of Heidmann and Tang, but with
TABLE 3.4.2b. -FREQUENCY RANGES FOR Here TL' is the perturbation of droplet surface
UNSTEADY INTERACTION
temperature. Fourth, the thermal conductivity
varies as the first power of temperature, and the
Process Frequency Range , Prandtl and Schmidt numbers are unity.
Hz Under the constraint that the injected drop
૩૩૩૩
size is a constant the following response function
0.49 to 1200 may be developed by standard perturbation
Droplet lifetime
Liquid thermal inertia 18 to 3100 methods :
Liquid thermal diffusion 290 to 2.3 × 105
38 to 4.7X105 iw/a exp { [ (iw/a ) +1 ]a ( t ; −t ) } '
Gas phase diffusion PR = B + (ti − t) } ]
(stagnant field or (iw/α ) +1 (iw/α ) +1
wake)
Gas phase diffusion 35 380 to 4.7X106 (3.4.2-4a)
(forced convection) where
γ- 1 YFL
B =n+ a
Combustion instability 500 to 3X104 γ p'
1
απ
2T1
some differences. The purpose is to show, within
the framework of a single model , the characteristics A
of previous analyses as well as to indicate another a
B (1 - ŸFL)
effect not heretofore shown in the literature .
First , the Nusselt numbers for heat and mass .
transfer are taken in an approximate, high B= = In 1+ T₂-T₂) ]
- A ln ( 1 -
- p ) - A ln [ 1 + C (T. - T₁) ]
Reynolds number form:
1/2 n
p Y-1T (98)+
Nu =A (3.4.2-2 ) -CYFL+ b
(光)
YFL γ β
where the constants A and n are chosen to best ;
p' c -ba
fit the actual form. * The second difference is that
the mean drop size is taken as constant throughout TL dpv
b: (3.4.2-4b )
its lifetime, with fluid supplied from a source in p dTL
the center until all the original mass of the drop
has been vaporized . Third , the perturbation heat TL, dᏰ SL C₂TL
transfer to the drop is obtained from the spheri- C= AYFLg (W3) ;
B dTL Bhy
cally-symmetric heat equation , assuming no
internal convection and a uniform temperature in
3 CL டய
the steady state. The heat flux is given by W3 = B
2 Cp Πα
qu' = KL.4πrLTL'g ( 3) (3.4.2-3 )
where In Eqs. (3.4.2-4 ) , y is the ratio of specific heats of
the gas, 7 is the droplet lifetime, defined in the
WPLCLTL2 above sense, and t - t; is the elapsed time from
W3=
KL injection .
As w/ao , that is, as the cycle time becomes
g (w3 ) = (iw3 ) 1/2 coth ( iw3 ) 1 /2-1
short compared to the lifetime, the expression in
brackets in Eq . ( 3.4.2-4a ) approaches unity.
* The effects of velocity perturbations are inherently
nonlinear for transverse oscillations and are often minor Heidmann's analysis does not contain the second
for axial oscillations and thus have been omitted from term in brackets because the constraint on
this expression . injected drop size was not imposed in that theory.
It should be noted that t₁ - t | < T . When controlling physics are contained in Eq. (3.4.2-4 )
averaged over the chamber volume (i.e. , over as in the Heidmann and Tang models, as may be
droplets in different stages of their lifetime ) an seen by comparison in the top part of Fig. 3.4.2b .
effective (average ) value of a ( t ; -t ) results that The main difference when comparable assump-
is appropriate for chamber stability criteria. tions are used is that the peak in the present
As w/a -0, the response function of Eq. model is too broad. This is evidently a con-
(3.4.2-4a) does not vanish as determined by sequence of the constant size assumption . Curve A,
Heidmann, but remains finite, as in Tang's for which L/ R = 100 , closely resembles Tang's
numerical study. This behavior is due solely to results. The rise in the curve is due to interaction
the constraint on the injected drop size . Physi- with the lifetime ; the decay begins when the heat
cally, even though all propellant is consumed in capacitance effect takes over. Heidmann's curve
a time short compared with a cycle time, there is is also similar except for the zero frequency limit .
still a nonvanishing perturbation in burning rate At the injection station (i.e. , a (t - t ; ) = 0 ) the
because the droplet burns faster at high pressure. response curve for this case follows curve B and
The term B contains all the processes related to then breaks to curve A. Averaged over the
unsteady heat transfer to the droplet, which are chamber the response curve would still have a
dependent on wз. As L∞ (essentially the peak in the vicinity of w3 = 100 , which, for
Heidmann-Tang assumption ) the results become t3= 10-2 sec (Table 3.4.2a ) , corresponds to 200 Hz.
similar to those of Heidmann and Tang since For the opposite limit of no internal circulation
Eq. (3.4.2-3 ) becomes curves B and C are obtained . In the case of
dTL internal circulation the peak is broader than for
qL' = TL'PLCL • πг₁³ • iw = mLCL curve A, and the quasi-steady behavior holds
dt
quite far out in the frequency range. Thus, the
and is a pure heat capacitance effect. true state of affairs with regard to the liquid
Fig. 3.4.2a shows four response curves cal- circulation can have a large influence on the
culated by use of Eq. ( 3.4.2-4) . The shapes of results, which indicates that some diagnostic
these curves indicate that essentially the same experiments are needed .
+2
+1 B
A
R
α (t-ti ) b CL/CP RL/R
ABCD
1/2 -10 100

O -10 1
1/2 -10
1/2 -1
-3
10 102 103 10* 105 10°
W3
FIGURE 3.4.2a.-Vaporization -rate frequency response functions under various assumptions concerning heat transfer to
the liquid, from Eq . (3.4.2-4 ) , with A = 3.0, n = 0.5 , y = 1.2 , c ,T∞/h, = 10, and T∞/TL = 10.
+2
Strahle & Crocco

+1 0-0-0-0-0 Eq .(3.4.2-4) ,
no internal
circulation
PR Heidmann
Tang Eq .( 3.4.2-4),
high liquid
-2 conductivity
-3
+2
Dykema- Strahle (stagnation point )
Strahle , Williams (flat plate)
+1
-Eq . (3.4.2-4 ) ,
no internal
circulation
PR Strahle
(transverse wake)
-| Eq .(3.4.2-4),
0-0-0-0
high liquid
conductivity
-2
Strahle
(longitudinal wake )
-3
10 102 10³ 10ª 105 106 107
Frequency , ( Hz )
FIGURE 3.4.2b . - Compilation of burning-rate frequency response functions.
Regardless of the nature of the assumptions the effective until higher frequencies. To illustrate
heat transfer process is highly delayed in becoming this point , curve D is drawn for the unrealistic
effective. Normally, it would be expected that this case of b = -1 . Usually b≈ - 10, so that only
process would play a strong role at w31 , but small temperature variations are required in
because of the large slope of the vapor-pressure the liquid to accommodate the mass transfer
curve of the liquid propellant it does not become equation .
Curves A and C are shown in the top part of the upward trend cannot continue . Eventually,
Fig. 3.4.2b (for tз = 3.2X10-2 sec) , together with as the frequency is reduced , the curve must tend
results of Heidmann and Tang. A peak value, toward the low frequency results of Heidmann
obtained by Strahle and Crocco,671 is also indi- and Tang, since at sufficiently low frequency ,
cated. This peak was obtained by assuming combustion will closely follow vaporization within
oscillations fast with respect to lifetime but slow a cycle time. It is not known whether a response
with respect to all other processes . Essentially , it peak develops . The treatment of transverse waves
is the factor B in Eq. (3.4.2-4a ) with w3 = 0. was useful in that it showed that the same physics
Dykema235 was the first to discover a response were involved at the high frequency limit as with
peak in the proper frequency range on the basis longitudinal waves . However, the side of approach
of a simplified sphericosymmetric droplet burning to the limit could not be extracted because of a
model. The assumptions essentially amount to peculiarity in the steady-state flame structure.
fast oscillations with respect to the liquid pro- and the occurrence of displacement effects.666
cesses and lifetime (t1, t2, and t3) and oscillations While discussing analyses in the frequency
commensurate with t4. Because spherical sym- range dominated by gas phase diffusion time t4
metry was considered , t, did not enter. A typical it is worth noting that no unsteady treatment of
response function for this model is shown in the low-Reynolds-number droplet burning has ap-
bottom part of Fig. 3.4.2b . It is of sufficient peared . In this case the problem is nearly spherico-
magnitude to drive instability as observed ; the symmetric but, because convection is present, the
analytical details are presented in Sect . 4.4.1.3. difficulty in Dykema's work would not arise .
A fundamental assumption is that the flame The results would be of value near the point where
position is constant while the ambient gas is Vgas - V liquid = 0. Such a treatment would also
oscillating. Strahle665 has found that some artifice. remove a singularity that appears in the analysis
of this type is necessary to obtain any solution to if Nu is chosen in the usual convective form .
the spherically symmetric , time-dependent (Sect . 2.4 ) . That is, the Re1/2 -law must fail
problem. However, it is also known that the flame near Re = 0.
movement in a well-posed problem can have an For large Reynolds numbers (say Re >10) ,
influence on the response function . Strahle667,670 and Williams744 have considered
Actually, even if a flame can be held within the longitudinal-sound-wave perturbations acting on
leading-edge boundary layer of a drop, most the leading edge of a burning droplet . A collapsed
combustion665 must still take place in the wake in flame zone was assumed to exist in the interior of
the usual high-convection field found in com- the leading edge boundary layer. Strahle con-
bustion chambers. With this in mind, Strahle669, 666 sidered both the stagnation point and a flat plate .
considered both longitudinal and transverse Williams considered only the flat plate but carried
waves acting upon an overventilated diffusion the treatment into a wider frequency range than
flame in accordance with the experimental Strahle and also made a wider parametric survey
observations of Kumagai and Kimura.414 The of results. With his solution technique, Williams
process time of interest is the gas phase diffusion was not able to extract the burning rate per-
time t₁ , the same as for sphericosymmetric burning turbation , which was the result of Strahle's
because the transverse wake scale is the same as analysis. Instead , Williams introduced an ad-
the droplet size. In the high frequency limit, mittance concept that has been shown 178 to yield
which was all that was treated , the wake behavior essentially the same results as the flame burning
.
becomes independent of conditions near the rate. For practical rocket parameters the ad-
liquid and all other process times are unimportant . mittance and burning rate behavior appear
The longitudinal wake analysis is the more comparable for both the flat plate treatment and
satisfactory since the side of approach to the the stagnation point treatment . A typical stagna-
high frequency limit can be seen in the bottom tion-point curve near a velocity node is presented
part of Fig. 3.4.2b . However, the analytical in the bottom part of Fig . 3.4.2b .
procedure allows no estimate of the lowest There are three difficulties with the results of
frequency at which the result is valid ; certainly these treatments . First, only shallow response
peaks, if any, occur. Second, the break from diligently enough (with a model including suffi-
quasi-steady behavior occurs at such a large cient real-life complexity) , a mechanism could
frequency that no influence on stability is ex- be found for the support of high frequency
pected. Only near the point of relative velocity oscillations with the framework of the droplet
reversal in a high Reynolds number environment burning process. The body of evidence is that of
is the frequency in the proper range. This restric- the correlation of the observed frequency of
tive set of conditions holds for such a short oscillation with parameters affecting droplet size
fraction of a droplet lifetime as to have no meaning (see Sects . 6.3.3 , 6.5.2 , and Refs. 235 , 347 ) .
when considering chamber averages. Third , the Furthermore, the scaling of frequency with
important assumption is made that the liquid approximately the square of droplet radius is
temperature is constant in time, which from the observed . One is hard-pressed to find any mecha-
treatment above means that there is no internal nism other than droplet burning that would scale
droplet circulation and the partial pressure- results in this manner.
temperature slope (b ) is sufficiently large. Thus , Thus, the value of the droplet burning theories
the cycle time is considered short with respect to is to present a scaling rule. If one assumes the
ti and t2, commensurate with t5, and long com- existence of a response curve with the proper peak
pared to t3. This can only be reasonable near the that is a universal curve when plotted against
relative velocity reversal point . The break in the wri² , then this curve can be used to investigate
curve at rather large values of wts instead of at effects of parameter changes on system behavior.
lower values could not be anticipated without The difficulty is that the precise shape of the
construction of the theory ; in fact, this is the curve cannot reasonably be expected to be
major contribution of these theories . A useful universal ; it must depend on fuel type, operating
treatment that has not yet been made would conditions , etc. , in some manner, as yet unknown .
be the inclusion of a more realistic liquid state Thus, whereas effects of droplet size can be in-
with a leading edge boundary layer behaving vestigated in a reasonable way, changes in droplet
quasi-steadily with respect to ts. It can be shown size are usually produced at the expense of other
that such an analysis does not necessarily produce changes in operating conditions, the effects of
a curve of the form of the tailoff portion of the which cannot be explained theoretically .
Heidmann and Tang curves.
The preceding discussion has shown that there 3.4.3 Nonlinear Drop and Spray Burning
are wide differences between the results of the
various theories of unsteady droplet burning. In 3.4.3.1 Vaporization * .- The only truly non-
spite of the divergent theoretical results and the linear work concerning the details of the vaporiza-
tion process is that by Heidmann and Wieber. 347
absence of proper experiments, three observations
Other studies , which consider the rocket system
can be made : (1 ) Regardless of the choice of the
interacting with the vaporization process , are
mechanism, all droplet burning theories show a
decoupling of the combustion and acoustic reported in the following chapter. Presumably,
processes at large enough frequency; the item. these systems analyses show the same effects as
the Heidmann-Wieber study since the equations
missing is a proper description of the low fre-
quency cutoff. ( 2 ) It is this author's opinion that are similar. However, this is speculation, since
there also are some differences.
a promising prospect is in further work with
Heidmann and Wieber considered the effect of
respect to t4, with inclusion of the effects due to
interactions with t1, t2, and ta. ( 3 ) Diagnostic a transverse wave of linear form but finite mag-
experiments on the structure of the droplet nitude on the vaporization process. Combustion
burning process are needed. was assumed to be instantaneous following
The success of droplet burning theories in vaporization . Thus, no restrictive assumptions

correctly predicting the mechanism of high fre- concerning the lack of a heat-up period or
modification of the convective effect in the Nusselt
quency instability is consequently limited; how-
ever, there is a large body of evidence which
indicates that , if the theoretician were to search * W. C. Strahle, Author.
number were necessary. A response function , ever, if the drops were sufficiently small ( less than
equivalent to Eq. (3.4.2-1 ) averaged over the about 10 microns ) , the spray detonation would be
chamber, was evaluated, but it was done with a essentially the same as a gaseous detonation .
numerical technique that is not necessarily Under rocket motor conditions the situation will
equivalent to that usually used in analytical be favorable to a strong interaction of combustion
stability criteria . Although it is an intuitively and shock in that there will always be some small
attractive procedure, there is a question about its drops present and, further, shattering can easily
accuracy in the low frequency limit . become influential.
The primary assumption was that the liquid Experimental work on the interaction of shock
temperature was uniform but time-varying, to waves and combustion includes the studies of
which the objections of Sect . 3.4.2.2 may again be Rabin, et al. ,569 discussed in Sect . 3.3.3 . Additional
raised . Actually, this numerical study preceded shock tube studies were made by Webber, 722 who
the analytical study and the results are qualita- noted spontaneous explosion when fine sprays and
tively the same (see Fig . 3.4.2b ) . The calculated sprays of a volatile fuel were subjected to shock
response function was correlated with the ratio waves. In an extension of this work, Cramer¹71
of the cycle time to the half-lifetime of the passed a shock wave through a DECH ( diethyl-
droplets . * The results are interesting because of cyclohexane, a very non -volatile fuel ) spray in an
the existence of the response peak, which occurs oxygen atmosphere . A steep-fronted , high-velocity
usually at the lower end of the range of interest to wave resulted, which was described as "detona-
instability. Some success in its use has been tion-like. "
reported . 347 A systematic investigation of two-phase detona-
tion by Dabora, Ragland, and Nicholls207-210, 570, 572
3.4.3.2 Effects of shock wavest . - The com- showed conclusively that aerodynamic shattering
bustion characteristics of jets and sprays may be plays a major role and, in fact , is the main
substantially changed in the presence of shock determinant of the overall reaction zone length.
waves. If a shock passes through a combustion Thus the results presented in Sect . 3.3.3 are
field it will cause temperature and pressure applicable in fixing the combustion time behind
.
increases as well as a gaseous flow immediately shocks. It was also shown that two-phase
behind the shock. The temperature increase will Chapman-Jouget detonations could be maintained
tend to increase the vaporization rate, but this even though the reaction zone was as long as two
effect may be overshadowed by the aerodynamic feet , with the attendant high heat transfer and
breakup of the drops or jets. The latter mechanism frictional losses . The larger drop sizes led to
is discussed in Sect . 3.3.3 , where it is pointed out greater reaction zone lengths (since breakup time.
that under rocket combustor conditions even is proportional to drop size) , greater losses, and
weak shocks can lead to the onset of drop breakup hence to lower propagation velocities for the same
via the stripping mode. mixture ratio . At the lower velocities, where the
Williams746 treated such a problem in an temperatures behind the shock were lower, the
analytical study of the structure of heterogeneous combustion was observed to be delayed until the
detonation . Subject to the limitation of uniform droplet wake region, where the sheared-off micro-
drop size and no aerodynamic drop shattering, he droplets reacted explosively. Local shocks were
concluded that the extended reaction zone, due to formed which overtook the main shock and
the relatively slow vaporization process, would reinforced it , thus providing the mechanism to
lead to large wall losses and hence preclude sustain the wave. At higher wave velocities, and
detonation. In such a case the energy release by hence higher post-shock temperatures, burning
combustion would not reinforce the shock, and occurred earlier , possibly at the stagnation point
hence the shock would gradually dissipate. How- of the drop .
Jaarsma and Derksen384 found that the burning
In view of the remarks of Sect . 3.4.2, it could also have time of DECH drops subjected to shock waves
been correlated with wt2. corresponded to the breakup time. This time was
† J. A. Nicholls, Author of Sects. 3.4.3.2 and 3.4.4.3 . two orders of magnitude shorter than a calculated
burning time due to forced convection if no proper foundation for dynamics investigations.
shattering occurred . They also observed that There are some indications that high-pressure
burning drops could be extinguished by passage of pyrolysis effects are of greater importance than
a shock when the partial pressure of the oxygen in supercritical phenomena and that conventional
the combustion field was relatively low. droplet burning concepts are not applicable at
very high pressures .434
3.4.4 Special Effects
3.4.4.3 Liquid films on surfaces.-Liquid pro-
The preceding sections have neglected certain
pellants may impinge on surfaces inside the
aspects of liquid propellant combustion that may
combustor, either as coolants for chamber walls or
be of considerable importance in unsteady rocket
baffles or because of misdirected injector sprays.
operation . Some of these special effects are con-
The question thus arises as to whether such a
sidered in this section ; however, very little funda-
liquid film can lead to a combustion-supported
mental research has been done, particularly on
shock, or "detonation -like " wave (see Sect .
the unsteady behavior.
3.4.3.2 ) .
Shock tube experiments have been reported in
3.4.4.1 Monopropellant fuel. -Certain fuels of
which thin layers of lubricating oil, grease, or
practical importance , such as hydrazine, UDMH ,
carbon black, once ignited , led to accelerating
MMH , or blends of these , can support either
combustion fronts and eventually to sustained
decomposition or oxidation flames, or both,
detonation.294,454 The detonation velocity was
depending on local oxidizer concentration and
somewhat periodic ; secondary shocks were ob-
convective conditions within the combustion
served that overtook the main shock and caused
chamber (see Sect . 2.4.3 ) . The addition of
it to accelerate. The main shock slowed gradually
exothermic decomposition to the droplet burning
after each collision until the next secondary shock
processes enhances the burning rate and hence
overtook it.570
leads to shorter droplet lifetimes.353 This effect is
In an analytical study, Ragland571 used laminar
particularly significant for low values of the
boundary layer theory to assess the vaporization
droplet Reynolds number based on the relative
and combustion rate of the liquid layer behind the
velocity between the liquid and gas. Unfortu-
main shock front . Combining these results with
nately, only a steady-state analytical model has
the experimental data, and recognizing that in the
been constructed.140 Definitive conclusions re-
real case the boundary layer would undoubtedly
garding the influence of exothermic fuel decom-
be turbulent , he concluded that vaporization of
position on unsteady burning cannot be drawn at
the liquid layer is the major rate-controlling
this time.
mechanism for film detonation . This result is in
contrast to the liquid drop case in which aero-
3.4.4.2 Supercritical chamber pressure . -When a
dynamic shattering is rate-controlling (Sect.
liquid propellant is sprayed into an atmosphere
3.4.3.2 ) .
that is at a pressure greater than the critical
pressure of the propellant , the combustion.
3.5 WAVE PROPAGATION IN
dynamics cannot be expected to be the same as
COMBUSTION CHAMBERS
the subcritical dynamics discussed in Sect . 3.4.2.
Although some experimental and theoretical
Wave motion of the gases in the combustion
efforts have been made on the steady-state
chamber is an important factor in intermediate
problem ( Sect . 2.4.2.2) , unsteady effects have not and high frequency instability. The nature of this
yet been considered. * In fact, the steady state is wave motion is discussed in this section, however ,
not sufficiently well understood to provide a
coupling with the combustion process is reserved
for Chapter 4. Mathematical and experimental
studies are presented, and the relationships
* However, high frequency instability has been ob-
served in tests of rocket combustors at supercritical between wave pattern and chamber geometry are
chamber pressures (see Sect. 7.4.2) . described . The combustion chamber is here
defined as extending from the injector face to the 3.5.1.1 General considerations.-High frequency
entrance of the nozzle ; unsteady nozzle flow is and intermediate frequency combustion instability
considered in Sect. 3.6. in a liquid propellant rocket motor involves
For convenience, the discussion is divided into wave motion in the combustion chamber and in
three parts. Linear wave motions, considered in the exhaust nozzle. A disturbance of the flow, at
the first part, are those in which the wave shape is any point in the chamber or nozzle, would
essentially sinusoidal. The amplitudes of oscil- propagate as a wave away from that point . The
lation here are small enough that wave distortion boundary conditions on the wave motion are
has not occurred . The second section , on nonlinear prescribed according to the chamber, injector, and
wave motion, considers the effects of large ampli- nozzle shapes . These boundary conditions are
tudes and the resulting wave distortion . Finally, physical constraints on the wave motion and lead
the other causes of wave distortion and weakening, to certain discrete modes of oscillation . That is,
such as liquid and solid particle drag, acoustic only certain frequencies and wave patterns are
linears, and injector-face baffles, are described . allowable. In theory these are infinite in number ;
although only the lower-frequency modes appear
3.5.1 Linear Wave Motion * in practice. These frequencies and wave patterns
are, in mathematical terms , eigenvalues and eigen-
The following nomenclature pertains to Sect . functions. When they occur in combustion
3.5.1 (see also Sect . 4.1.2 ) :
chambers they are analogous to frequencies and
B Annular chamber transverse distribution wave patterns for the classical problems of
constant vibrating strings and membranes (of finite
3
Ꮛ Nozzle admittance coefficient (complex) dimensions ) , and of organ-pipe and closed cham-
I Inhomogeneous term in wave equation ber oscillations. In fact, the rocket combustion
Imn chamber may be considered (for the purpose of
Term in eigenfunction expansion of I
Lym physical insight ) as a modification of a closed
Associated Legendre function of first kind
m, n Eigenfunction indices for rectangular chamber having certain complicating features : a
chamber through-flow, two-phase flow with combustion and
Y Admittance of acoustic liner droplet drag ; and the presence of an injector at

one end and an exhaust nozzle at the other end.
В Half-angle of conical chamber
K Ratio of height to width of rectangular Also , acoustic absorption devices may be placed
chamber along the walls or at the injector face.
v, m Eigenfunction indices for conical chamber It is now clear how the wave patterns and
ν, η Eigenfunction indices for circular cylin- frequencies in the rocket motor may be considered
drical chamber as distortions of the wave patterns and frequencies
O in the closed chamber case. These distortions, of
PL Mass of liquid per unit chamber volume
ΣΠΑ course, are due to the complicating features just
Term in eigenfunction expansion of
entropy perturbation listed . If these distortions are small, the model can
be analyzed by an iterative approach, in which
Ө
Angle-coordinate in spherical coordinate

system these complicating features are neglected in the
Χ Transverse eigenvalue : first step . Then the first approximation to the
solution for the rocket chamber wave patterns and
x² = m² +n2 for rectangular chamber
.
x = S for circular chamber frequencies are equivalent to the closed chamber
x* Transverse eigenvalue for rigid, imper- solutions . These solutions are given in standard
vious chamber walls acoustics texts495,579 but will also be reproduced
4v.n Transverse distribution function for per- later in this section . The complicating features
turbations in circular cylindrical account for energy removal from and energy
chamber addition to the oscillating gases in the chambers .
Essentially, the amplitude of the oscillation is
determined by the condition of equilibrium ; that
* W. A. Sirignano, Author. is, in equilibrium, the amount of energy removed
from the chamber oscillation equals the amount oscillations and a low mean-flow Mach number.
added to the chamber oscillation (per unit time) . However, the discussion here is somewhat more
Whenever the amount added is greater (less ) general ; annular chambers, conical chambers , and
than the amount removed , the amplitude grows rectangular cross-section chambers are also con-
(decays ) until an equilibrium is reached . For sidered . The annular and conical chambers are of
stable engines, this equilibrium only occurs at practical importance ; the rectangular cross sec-
zero amplitude while for unstable engines, it tions have been useful for certain diagnostic
occurs at some finite amplitude . experiments (Sect . 9.2) . In addition the present
The magnitude of this finite amplitude can analysis considers the effect of acoustic liners.
only be determined by a nonlinear theory of some The conservation equations governing the
sort. There is some advantage, however, to a unsteady flow in a rocket combustion chamber are
linear theory in which the amplitude is considered presented in Sect. 4.1 . By appropriate differ-
to be very small and quantities which are quad- entiations and combinations, there is obtained the
ratic in the amplitude, or smaller, are neglected . wave equation for the pressure oscillations
It is simpler to develop a linear theory than a
102p ƏM
more general nonlinear theory since so much more a2V2p = a2
Y Late at
is known about linear differential equations than
nonlinear differential equations. The linear theory
-a2V · [F + MV - v⚫pVV ]
is sufficient to analyze the onset of spontaneous
instability since it predicts when small per- a
+ (y - 1 ) — [G -V • F ]
turbations grow, remain neutral, or decay. On at
the other hand, a nonlinear theory is required to
predict the transient behavior and the limit cycle a др даг
-
[pV • Vo ]+
if the small perturbation grows. Wave steepening at at at
and shock formation are nonlinear effects which
(3.5.1-1 )
obviously are neglected in a linear theory. Thus,
a nonlinear theory is required to predict accurately where a is the sonic velocity, p is the density, σ is
the wave shapes for pressures and velocity . the entropy, and V is the velocity, all for the gas
Furthermore, in cases where instability does not phase ; M is the burning rate, or rate of generation
occur spontaneously but must be triggered by of gas ; F is the force per unit volume exerted on
some finite-amplitude perturbation, only a non- the gas because of momentum exchange with the
linear theory could predict the onset of instability. liquid phase ; G is a combination of energy release
A linear analysis can, however, accurately show rate due to chemical reaction and phase change
various features of the oscillations, at least in a and of the rate of energy exchange between the
qualitative manner, if not always a quantitative two phases. In Eq . ( 3.5.1-1 ) the following non-
manner. For example, the effects of the nozzle and dimensionalizing scheme has been used : thermo-
chamber geometries, the effect of the combustion dynamic properties are nondimensionalized with
distribution , the effect of droplet drag, and the respect to their steady-state stagnation values , *
effect of acoustic liners can be predicted with a the velocities are nondimensionalized with respect
large degree of confidence. The natural frequencies to the steady-state stagnation sonic velocity, the
of oscillation can be predicted with extreme burning rate M by the product of the stagnation
accuracy . density and the sonic velocity divided by the
There exist a number of linear analyses of characteristic length of the combustor, the time t
longitudinal oscillations in cylindrical cham- by the characteristic length divided by the
bers178, 179, 180 and of three-dimensional oscillations stagnation speed of sound, and the spatial co-
in circular cylindrical chambers . * The approach ordinates by the characteristic length.
taken in this section is essentially equivalent to
these analyses , which consider small amplitude * When terms of the order of the Mach number squared
are neglected , these values are uniform throughout the
* See References 178, 187 , 203, 582, 583 and 630 . chamber.
For a linear analysis, each dependent variable 1 kplᵒsp' (y- 1 )

can be considered to be the sum of a steady-state [s'p' - V2p' ] = sM'- sMp'
γ γ γ
part and a perturbation , e.g. ,
do' dū ǝu'
p = p + p'est sū +2
дх1 dx₁ 8x1
Squares and products of perturbations are con-
sidered to be negligibly small. Also , V, VL, k, M, s ap' du
-2ū + 2u'
and M' may be considered as sufficiently small so γ ΟΧΙ dx12
that their squares and products may be neglected.
Assuming that the burning rate equals the s dū
vaporization rate, the energy release term E in -2 p '+2= I (3.5.1-3 )
y dxi
Eq . (4.1.2-7 ) may be combined with the liquid
internal energy. It can be shown that the following where X1
x₁ = x and 2 = 0 for Cartesian and cylindrical
approximations are then valid : coordinates and x₁ = r and
(F + MV) ' ≈ - kōL°V' 3s ū d

Ω p'
dr (
13γ p²²+2u4 )
M
≈ — Mh , ' ≈1
(G - V.F) ' ~ G' ~ p'
γ
dū v'
+ da [2u' + ' cot 6 ]
With these simplifications, Eq . ( 3.5.1-1 ) gives dr r
p =constant a a
/ (+1)
+ a [2 Ər r + cot + ər (-)]
r
for the steady state and
1 au' 2u' v'

[s'p ' -V2p ] = sM' + cot o (3.5.1-3a)
γ [ Ər r r
+ V • [kõï°V' + V • ÑV' + v • V'Ñ] for spherical coordinates.

Further developments of the equations and
Y -1
sMp'-s[V.Vo'] their ultimate solution is made by means of either
γ eigenfunction expansions or a Green's function .
(3.5.1-2) The details of either approach depends upon the
particular boundary conditions or, in other words,
for the perturbations , where k is a liquid-gas the geometry of the combustion chamber.
momentum interchange coefficient and PL° is
the mass of liquid per unit chamber volume. 3.5.1.2 Application to specific hardware
It is convenient to use Cartesian coordinates geometries. The method of eigenfunction expan-
(x, y, z) for chambers with rectangular cross sions will be employed here. * Only the leading
sections, cylindrical coordinates (x, r, 0) term in the eigenfunction expansion is of interest
chambers with circular cross sections, and to us, since it is the main factor in determining
spherical coordinates (r, p, 0) for conical chambers . the stability and the frequency of the oscillation .
In the case of a conical chamber, it is assumed Also , in small amplitude oscillatory situations.
that the injector face is a portion of a spherical without shockwaves, this term predominates and
surface whose center corresponds to the apex of accurately predicts the wave shape .
the cone. The velocity components (for any For rectangular cross sections, the transverse
coordinate system) are denoted by u, v, and w. eigenfunctions are sinusoidal and the expansions
The right-hand side of Eq. (3.5.1-2) is of the are
order of the mean-flow Mach number. Neglecting
terms of the order of Mach number squared * On the other hand , Culick351 has made use of a Green's
compared to unity, it can be shown that function in solving this type of problem.
p' Pmn (x ) cos (my +81 ) cos (nz + 82 ) + ... coefficient, L = L, +iL;, it can be shown that
u' = Umn(x) cos (my + 81 ) cos (nz + 82) + ... YSY YsY
81 == - ; 82=
m* n*K
v' = Vmn(x ) sin (my +81 ) cos (nz + 2 ) +...
w' = Wmn (x) cos (my + d₁ ) sin (nz + 82 ) + ... 2yys ( 1+

x = x*+ = x* +x ) (3.5.1-7)
o' = Emn (x) cos ( my + d₁ ) cos ( nz + 82 ) + ••• x* (1 )
M' = Mmn (x ) cos (my +81 ) cos (nz + 82 ) + ... For longitudinal modes, m* n * = 0 but with
liners there would still be transverse motion .
I = Imn (x ) cos ( my +81 ) cos (nz + 82 ) + ...
A similar eigenfunction expansion can be made
(3.5.1-4) for circular cross-sectional chambers . Annular
chambers as well as "full" chambers may be
where Eq . (3.5.1-3 ) and ( -4 ) may be considered considered with the following :
to yield
p' = P ( x) m (r ) eirº + •••
kpi's Pm γ - 1 S m dū
Imn = SMmn- n P n
Y γ dx u' = Um(x) ¥m( r ) eive + •••
d2mn dū dumn dym

- sū +2 v' = Vm (x) (r) eive + ...
dr
dx dx dx
s dPmn du s dū P m (r)
- 2ū mn w' = Wyn
νη (x) eiro + ••• (3.5.1-8)
+2 Umn- 2 r
Y dx dx2 Y dx
o' = Σm(
νη x) ¥m (r ) eiro + •••
(3.5.1-5 )
These expansions are chosen so that the system is νη (X)

M ' = Myn ( r ) eiro + ···
separable. In the above relations, x, y and z II νη (x) νη (r ) eive + ...

···
should be considered quantities nondimen-
These expressions correspond to spinning modes
sionalized by the chamber width .
but standing modes may be obtained in a trivial
Eqs. (3.5.1-4 ) and ( -5 ) may now be combined
manner by a linear combination of two modes
to yield the differential equation
spinning in opposite directions.
1 d²Pm
mn 1 -Imn In Eq. (3.5.1-8 ) , the radial eigenfunctions are
- (s² + x²) Pmn = (3.5.1-6 )
Y dx² γ linear combinations of the Bessel functions so that
where ¥m (r ) = J, (Smr ) + BY, ( Svnr )

x² = m² + n²
where B is a nonzero constant for annular chambers
The boundary conditions at the chamber walls and is zero for "full" chambers. r and x are non-
determine m and n. If x is the ratio of chamber dimensionalized by the outside wall radius.
height to width, and m* and n* are each con- Combination of Eqs . (3.5.1-3 ) and (-8 ) yields
sidered to be zero or any integer times , we have, the relation for I (x) . This relation is given by
for unlined chambers, that the normal velocity Eq . ( 3.5.1-5 ) if m and n are replaced by V and ŋ,
at the chamber walls is zero . Therefore respectively. Furthermore, Eqs. (3.5.1-3 ) and
81 =0; 82 = 0 (-8 ) can yield a differential equation for P (X)
which is identical to Eq . ( 3.5.1-6 ) if m and n are
m = m *; n = n* replaced by and ŋ η and
or the eigenvalue X =Sv
x² =m*2 + n*2 = x* 2
† All four walls are considered to be acoustically lined
However, for lined† chambers with the admittance here, but other cases could be considered .
is always zero or an integer to maintain con- These conditions imply that the radial velocity is
tinuity. Consider first the full circular chamber zero at both the inner and outer walls.
boundary condition . For unlined chambers, the With an acoustic liner on both chamber walls ,
normal velocity at the wall is zero so that S, = Sm* it follows that
which is a solution of
Ysy
Sv = Sm * +
J,' (S, *) = 0 Syn*
See Table 3.5.1 for the roots of this equation . On

f (S *) -f ( SE)
the other hand, for lined chambers, it can be
2 2
shown that
[(- ) - 1 ]
f (S * )
+ ) - 水と - 1 ] f(Sm*)
[ ( +) ( 84")
* YS Y
* = x* + x ) (3.5.1-9 )
Syn 2
V = x*+ x(1) (3.5.1-10)
1-
*
and
Again, L is a liner admittance coefficient. Ysy

B = B* + *
In the unlined annular chamber where is the Syn
ratio of the inner wall radius to the outer wall
* 2
radius, we find that SS, which is a root of V
dJ, *)' ( -1) +
(--
(1
+ C
)
dJ, dY, dY,
-
(Sm*) (Syn* ) (Syn* ) (Sm*) = 0
dr dr dr dr 2 2
V
-1 f ( Sun )-
— - - 1 | f ( S *)
Roots of this equation have been calculated in Sv
Ref. 120. In addition , we find that B = B* where
where
dJ. dY,
B* (Sm * ) (Syn* ) f(x) = Y,' (x) / [J, (x) + B*Y, ( x) ]
dr / dr
Again , for longitudinal modes there will be
radial motion in the presence of acoustic liners.
So, it is seen that the governing equations for
dJ, the longitudinal variations can be reduced to a
TABLE 3.5.1 .-ROOTS OF (Sun) = 0
dr
similar form for rectangular and circular (in-
cluding annular ) cross-sectional geometries . It is
Frequency f = Syrac
2гe/ reasonable to assume that this is possible for all
cylindrical geometries, no matter what the cross-
sectional shape is. Subscripts are omitted in the
V San Transverse character following discussion, so that it may be understood
of mode
that the analysis has some generality.
It is convenient to write the variables as the
120301
112132
1.8413 First tangential sum of two terms : one of order unity ( zero super-
3.0543 Second tangential script) and the other of the order of the mean
3.8317 First radial flow Mach number (unity superscript ) . That is,
4.2012 Third tangential
7.0156 Second radial P = P (0) + P (1)
5.3313 Combined first tangential and
first radial U= U + U(1 )
1 3 8.5263 Combined first tangential and M = M (¹ )
second radial ( 3.5.1-11 )
2 2 6.7060 Combined second tangential Σ = Σ(1)
and first radial
s = s(0) + s (1)
The mass source and entropy perturbations must (-16 ) that

be of the order of the Mach number since they P(0) = cos √(w(0) ) 2 — (x*) ² x (3.5.1-18 )
disappear as the mean flow disappears. It is also
where s(0) i (0). Obviously, since the system is
assumed that all liner and nozzle admittance
terms are of the order of the mean flow Mach homogeneous, any arbitrary constant multiplied
number. by the above solution is still a solution so that
the amplitude is not determined by a linear
Now, Eqs. (3.5.1-5 ) , ( -6 ) , ( -7 ) ( or ( -9 ) or
analysis. From momentum considerations , it can
(-10 ) ) , and (-11 ) yield after separation ac-
be shown that
cording to order in Mach number
√( w(®)) 2 − ( x * ) 2
1 d²P(0) ( s (0) ) ² + ( x* ) 2 U(0) = sin √ ( 0 ) 2- (x * ) ² x
P (0) = 0 (3.5.1-12 ) γίω (0 )
Y dx²
(3.5.1-19)
1 d²P(1) (s (0) ) ² + (x *) 2
- P (1) Furthermore, it can be shown that the transverse
ངས ”
Y dx² ཀ(x*) ] velocity component has a longitudinal variation
which is in phase with the longitudinal variation
2s(0)g(1) 2x*x(1)
P(0) + P (0) — s‹0M (0) of the pressure dependence. In Eqs. (3.5.1-18 )
γ γ and ( -19 ) , the frequency is found to be
kpL's (0) dū ΑΣ (1) #2j2

γ+1 w(0) = j = 0, 1 , 2 , ...
+ P(0) + S(0) Posū (x*
√( )²+
x+)
γ γ ux dx Xe2
The nature of the linear oscillations is seen from

dū dU(0) s(0) dP (0) d2u
-2 +2ū -2 U(0) Eqs . (3.5.1-4 ) , (-7) , (-18 ) , and (-19 ) . In general,
dx dx γ dx dx2 undulatory functions such as sinusoidal and
Bessel functions describe the amplitude as a
2s(0) dū
+ P(0) (3.5.1-13 ) function of position in the chamber. The presence
Y dx of the chamber walls, the injector, and the nozzle
tend to prevent travelling waves but allow
The longitudinal velocity disappears at the
injector face so that the boundary conditions there standing waves . That is , only standing waves may
become after some manipulation with the momen- occur in the longitudinal direction for any
tum equation chamber, in the radial direction for circular
chambers, and in both transverse directions for
dP(0)
=0 at x=0 (3.5.1-14 ) rectangular chambers. * This occurs because a
dx velocity node must be placed at the chamber
and walls and at the injector-face. Also, the nozzle
entrance has small longitudinal velocity varia-
dPa
=0 at x=0 (3.5.1-15 ) tions , so that to lowest order, it is a node. Travelling
dx (spinning) waves occur only in the tangential
Similarly, the nozzle boundary conditions are direction for circular chambers ; however, the
considered as discussed in Sect . 3.6, so that presence of injector-face baffles will inhibit these
modes, allowing only standing modes .
dP(0) At times, the argument of the trigonometric
=0 at X = Xe (3.5.1-16)
dx functions in Eqs . ( 3.5.1-18 ) and (-19 ) may
and become small imaginary numbers . It is convenient.
to use the hyperbolic cosine and sine functions in
dP(1) dU(0) that case .
= şεP (0) — yũ at X = Xe
dx dx It must be remembered that the waveforms
predicted by a linear analysis can be grossly in
(3.5.1-17)
* It is possible to obtain transverse travelling modes
It follows then from Eqs . ( 3.5.1-12 ) , ( -14 ) and chambers with square cross-sections.
error for large amplitude oscillations, especially 2

jπ
if shockwaves form. - (y + 1)ū₂ + Úe
It can be shown that Eqs. (3.5.1-13 ) , ( -15 )
and (-17) imply after substitution by (-18 ) Xe X
jπ
and (-19 ) that γ- 2 ū sin 2jπ- dx
~~2 (
- Xe[ ( ] •
Xew )T Xe
Xe X
x* (3.5.1-21 )
Asxe -8 +A x( Xe− y M (1) cos πj dx
iw (0) Xe and
Xe X
Xe Ax*
X Aw1xe = &it XeXr1 + dx
kpl cos² πj dx 3(0) [** M¡ cos #j Xe
+S Xe
(3.5.1-22 )
dù X
dx The first term on the right -hand-side of Eq .
(y+ 1 ) √to dis COS² πj
+ (y+1)
+
0 dx Xe (3.5.1-21 ) is the real part of the nozzle admittance
coefficient. For longitudinal modes, it is negative
π²j² xe dù X and therefore represents a stabilizing factor.
+2 Cos² πj dx However, for first tangential mode oscillations , it
Xã (c ) ) 2 Jo dx Xe
surprisingly is positive indicating that the nozzle
Xe X has a destabilizing effect for that mode. Cal-
пј
ū sin 2πj dx culations (see Sect . 3.6 and Sect . 8.4.3 ) indicate
Xeo Xe
that &, can be of the order of the Mach number in
certain cases. In those cases, the effect of the
πj • xe du X
nozzle is important compared to other effects to
+
Xe 10 ) )2.[ *ed dx2 sin 2rj Xe dx = 0 (3.5.1-20)
0 be discussed . In other cases, calculations show
that this term is of higher order and has, therefore,
where A = A ( j ) . For purely transverse modes
a negligible effect upon the stability ( except in
A = A ( 0 ) = 2 while for mixed modes or purely
marginal situations ) . In general, the significant
longitudinal (j = 1 , 2 , etc. ) , A = 1 . Eq . ( 3.5.1-20 )
changes in the engine stability characteristics of
may be interpreted as a complex relation or two
an engine which can be achieved through modifica-
real relations which determine s ) = 1 + iw1 .
tions of the nozzle design cannot be neglected .
w () is a modification (of the order of the Mach
The second term which represents the damping
number) of the frequency, but more importantly,
effect of acoustic liners can be the largest sta-
the sign of X determines the stability. For λ(1)
bilizing factor with proper design. Further
positive, the oscillation amplitude grows with
discussion of this term is contained in Sect.
time and instability occurs , while for X¹ negative,
3.5.3.2. Also , acoustic liner operation is discussed
the amplitude decays and, therefore , stability
in Sect . 8.3.
occurs. Neutral stability occurs with A = 0 .
The third term on the right -hand-side of Eq.
The effect of entropy waves for sufficiently well
(3.5.1-21 ) represents the driving mechanism .
distributed combustion can be shown to be
provided by the combustion process. This desta-
negligible so that entropy waves are neglected
bilizing term contains the burning rate perturba-
in Eq . ( 3.5.1-20 ) .
tion which is discussed in Sections 3.4, 4.2.1.2 ,
Separation of the real and imaginary parts of
and 4.3.1.3 . The fourth term, representing droplet
Eq. ( 3.5.1-20 ) and simplification by means of
drag, has a stabilizing effect and is discussed
integration of parts yields:
further in Section 3.5.3.1 .
Xe X For longitudinal modes of oscillation w = jπ/x
Ax*
AX ( Xe = &r- XeXi(¹ ¹) cos πj
M.(1›
)+7 [** M¸‹ dx
6 (0) Xe and the last three terms of Eq. ( 3.5.1-21 ) combine
to yield the negative ( stabilizing ) quantity
1 Xe X Xe
-ũe - w( ) ( - 2) ū sin 20xdx
-kō
0 (1+ cos 2 ) ) dx 0
This implies that distribution of combustion It is interesting to note that the same stability
tends to stabilize the longitudinal modes. For relation applies for various cylindrical configura-
purely transverse modes j = 0 and these last tions : rectangular cross-sections, circular cross-
three terms are simply ( +1 ) , which is a sections, and circular annular cross-sections.
stabilizing quantity independent of combustion There will be the same effect of combustion
distribution. These terms are most important as distribution droplet drag nozzle entrance Mach
stabilizing quantities ; usually, only the acoustic number, combustion response, frequency, and
liner term is more important. ratio of specific heats in the various configurations.
Eq . (3.5.1-22 ) gives the frequency correction However, the actual values of the nozzle ad-
due to the nozzle, liner, and combustion process . mittance and acoustic liner terms would differ
This equation is weakly coupled to Eq . (3.5.1-21 ) from one configuration to another. Again, it
since the frequency appears implicitly in the could be speculated that Eqs . (3.5.1-21 ) and
arguments of the nozzle and liner admittance (-22) might apply to all cylindrical chambers, no
coefficients. It should also appear in the com- matter what the cross-sectional shape.
bustion response term . If in the range of interest It is expected that the stability relations for
Er, Lr, and the combustion response terms are not chambers of varying cross-sectional area would
strong functions of the frequency w, we may set differ from Eqs. ( 3.5.1-21 ) and ( -22 ) . It is still
w = w(0) in Eq. ( 3.5.1-21 ) which would uncouple to be determined exactly what effect area change
the two equations with no loss of accuracy. If any might have. There seem to be two approaches to
of them are strong functions, the two equations the solution of this problem. One is to consider the
should be solved simultaneously. case of small area change as a small perturbation
The question arises as to whether Eqs . (3.5.1-21 ) to the cylindrical case. The other approach which
and (3.5.1-22 ) apply to transverse modes in the applies only for conical chambers involves the
limiting case of concentrated combustion , since a use of spherical coordinates as discussed earlier.
different result has been obtained for this case.771 For conical chambers, the lowest order approxi-
The differences in the analytical procedures are mation to the pressure perturbation is given by
discussed in some detail in Ref. 650. Isentropic
oscillations are assumed in Ref. 771 , and the Pym (r ) Lym( cos ) eireest
change in velocity which a particle undergoes as it
where is an integer (or zero ) and Lm is a
changes phase is not taken into account . This
Legendre's associated function of the first kind .
velocity change provides an important damping
m is determined by the relation of zero normal
effect . Therefore, the implication is that Eqs.
velocity at the wall or L' (cos 8) = 0 where ẞ is the
(3.5.1-21 ) and (3.5.1-22 ) should be used even in
half-angle of the converging chamber.
the concentrated combustion case for transverse
It can be shown that
modes and that these relations were not obtained
in Ref. 771 only because certain physical effects 1
Prm (r) = J (m+1/2) ( wor) + B J_(m+1/2 ) (wor)
were neglected . This discrepancy does not occur in r
the concentrated combustion case for longitudinal
mode oscillations because the combustion zone is where J is a Bessel function of the first kind and
a velocity node (to lowest order ) and the change (0) and B are determined by boundary conditions
in velocity of a particle changing phase is of at the injector and nozzle entrance. The above
higher order. relation applies strictly to a spinning wave but
Other than this discrepancy, and the one in the the standing wave is obtained in a trivial manner
droplet drag term discussed in Sect. 3.5.3.1 , bythe summation of two spinning waves travelling
Eqs. (3.5.1-21 ) and (-22) can be shown to be in in opposite directions.
agreement with previously published stability Thus, for conical chambers, the amplitude
relations which result from linear analyses . That variation is described by sinusoidal, Bessel, and
is, any other differences can be shown to be of associated Legendre functions. As with the
higher order or else due to the more general cylindrical chambers, travelling modes will occur
nature of the present discussion . in the azimuthal direction .
3.5.2 Nonlinear Wave Motion scribing the particle behavior , e.g., evaporation ,
chemical kinetics, viscous mixing, etc. These
processes produce wave distortion due to absorp-
3.5.2 :
tion and dispersion effects. The relaxation proc-
rp Base pressure ratio for wave reflection esses are usually of short time duration compared
δε Radial gas displacement to the wave period and are determined in a
δι Tangential gas displacement Lagrangian frame of reference with respect to the
€ Perturbation amplitude parameter particle. Thus, it is necessary to generate short-
term solutions of the differential equations de-
3.5.2.1 Introduction . * - Random pressure waves,
scribing the relaxation processes.
generated by a variety of processes or events, can
At the present time, computer capability does.
propagate through the reacting mixture in a com-
not exist to solve the general case of wave develop-
bustion chamber and with time can reduce to
ment from initiation to steady-state oscillation .
modes of resonance dictated by the rocket cham-
In view of this situation , the problem can be
ber geometry and the wave forcing function . † The
divided into two parts : ( 1 ) the initial wave de-
existence of resonance is dependent on whether the
velopment, and ( 2 ) the steady-state wave propa-
wave-energy accumulative processes are greater
gation.
than the dissipative processes . The history of
In the following discussion , the wave behavior
the wave shape and structure is determined not
for the longitudinal and tangential modes are
only by the gas dynamics of the reacting medium,
considered separately. Wave behavior observed
.
but also by the initial wave shape , the character-
from experimental data as well as the equations
istics of the chamber boundaries, the unsteady
that model the behavior are discussed .
behavior of the mass and concomitant energy
sources, and the dissipative and dispersive proc-
esses that occur . 308, 481 3.5.2.2 Longitudinal modes. * -Coupling be-
tween the mechanical energy in a pressure wave
The wave motion in a combustion chamber can
and the available thermal energy in a gas volume
be described by the conservation equations for
element during a fluctuation in heat release is
gas-liquid flow that include mass and drag source
based on the Rayleigh criterion . 143, 142 Included in
and heat sink terms (Sect . 4.1.2) . The wave
this concept is the wave shape and velocity as
forcing function comprises the mass source terms
well as the rate processes occurring in the reacting
and their derivatives . Such a mass source term
gases. Thus, the wave shape assumes an important
(M ) should include the position- and time-
role in that it determines the wave residence time
dependent behavior of all of the propellant parti-
in a reacting-gas volume element .
cles in the chamber. A major simplification is
A significant property of longitudinal wave
achieved by considering M to be the product of
propagation is coalescence. For example, consider
three functions : ( 1 ) the initial propellant spray
a burning droplet disturbed by a passing wave.
distribution function across the injector face based
Due to the change in droplet burning rate, wave-
on the injector design and hydrodynamics (Sect .
lets are generated which coalesce as they propa-
2.3 ) , ( 2 ) a distribution function that gives the
gate and ultimately overtake the initial wave that
particle sizes at any location in the chamber,308,740
caused the disturbance, thereby causing wave
and ( 3) a function that expresses the time-
amplification . In addition , as a wave propagates
dependent behavior of a mass source in a time-
in a gas it deforms . A compression wave in de-
dependent environment (Sect . 3.4 ) .
celerating flow steepens ; an expansion wave in
A characteristic time for the wave motion is the
accelerating flow broadens. A compression wave
wave period ; for the particle, the characteristic.
time is the relaxation time for the process de- in accelerating flow and an expansion wave in
decelerating flow may steepen or broaden de-
pending on the magnitude of the wave slope and
* V. D. Agosta, Author Sects . 3.5.2.1 3.5.2.2 and 3.5.2.3.
the velocity gradient in the fluid flow.641 Because
"Wave forcing function ," "resonance," and "mode"
are acoustic terminology and are borrowed in the absence of of wave deformation, the wave residence time is
suitable terminology for the nonlinear case. continuously changing as the wave propagates
through a chamber. The energy in the wave is a
Pressure
function of its velocity and wave shape. Thus,
18
the effective amplitude and wavelength, i.e. , the 21
)p( si
wave slope, determines the nature of the energy
or mass coupling to the propagating wave.
The velocity gradient is related to the pressure 13
gradient, which can be determined readily from
pressure measurements along the length of the
combustor. Typical measurements308 are shown 3
in Fig . 3.5.2a . In general, it is found that steeper
pressure gradients occur for injectors that pro- 10-3sec
Time
mote rapid jet breakup and intimate mixing of ( a)
propellants.544 Thus, a compression wave that 21
)Pressure
starts at the injector may steepen or broaden, 100
but on reflection from the nozzle will always
(psi
steepen (Fig. 3.5.2b ) .306 Fig. 3.5.2c shows an x, t
13
plot of such a wave ; several patterns of behavior
are observed. In the case shown, the wave slope
3
broadened from 32 to 30 psi/in . as the wave
propagated down the chamber. On reflection from
the nozzle, it steepened from 17 to 105 psi/in .
After reflection from the injector face, the wave 10° sec
first broadened from 75 to 63 psi/in. and then Time
steepened to 95 psi/in. It was noted that these (b)
events were not repeated on the two succeeding
(a) Initial wave.
downstream passes . The wave amplitude de- (b) Initiated oscillations .
creased from 70 psi to 55 psi on the downstream FIGURE 3.5.2b . - Wave shapes observed in a 2-inch-
traverse and increased from 60 to 193 psi as the diameter, 24-inch-long combustor with a contraction
wave moved upstream . The measured frequency ratio of 1.5 . (Propellants, LO2/JP-5A ; transducers lo-
indicated that the wave was at all times propa- cated at 3, 13, and 21 in . from injector face.)
gating at the local velocity of sound relative to the

mean gas flow. In such a situation the frequency nant frequency and a Mach number factor :56
is equal to the product of the "organ pipe" reso-
jč
f= j = 1 , 2, ... (3.5.2-1 )
2xe a)]
-(9
190 7
Pc where x is the effective length of the chamber
180 6
ΔΡ/Δ Χ (including an appropriate correction for the effect
of the exhaust nozzle ) , ū and a are mean values
xsia
170
-AP
15
Ax
p):(P
I of the fluid and sonic velocities , respectively.

/
(x
)
160
་་
From Fig. 3.5.2b it can be seen that after the

S
3
150
first group of waves (initiated by a modified
S
S shock tube ) attenuated, a similar behavior oc-

140
curred spontaneously. In one pass through the
130 S chamber the wave amplitude increased to over
120 O 100 psi, and was added to an increasing base
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
pressure . * This wave also damped out, and again
X ( inches )
spontaneous wave behavior occurred , but without
FIGURE 3.5.2a .- Experimental distributions of pressure
and axial pressure gradient for showerhead (S) and * The term "base pressure" refers to the local pressure
impinging (I) injectors. just ahead of the wave .
Tr = Rise time ( msec )

AP-Wave amplitude ( psi )
Px= Wave slope ( psi/in )
Ps
s = Static pressure before wave ( psi )
32
28-
Nozzle .093 .035
24- throat 60 130
22.5 Nozzle 17 95
entrance O 335 270
20 1.060
55 .040 .053
30 93 120
)(iXn
16 64.5 63
150
306 283
0.076
12- 75
28
155
8 .071
Tr =.063 180
.053 75
AP =70 193
4 Px=32 372
105
Pss=165 315
1
.2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Time ( msec)
FIGURE 3.5.2c .- Propagation of longitudinal wave in combustor of Fig . 3.5.2b.
the increase in base pressure as the wave built up oscillation increases past the linear regime to sub-
to about 100 psi amplitude in one pass . The time stantial values so that shock waves occur in the
interval between these events was about equal to system.143,646 Several shock development mecha-
the propellant fill time of the combustion chamber. nisms have been proposed . According to one
Experimental data (Fig. 3.5.2d ) using different mechanism, shock waves develop from wave co-
injectors indicated that wave steepening occurred alescence ; that is, the wave front steepens , the
with showerhead injectors (Ap/Ax < 3) , and wave aft end broadens, and the wave amplitude in-
broadening was obtained with impinging injectors creases. In theoretical analyses the existence of
(Ap/Ax >4) , 307 It was found that the base pres- shock waves is ascertained from the intersection
sure amplification was inversely proportional to of wave characteristics of the same family. At
both the chamber length and maximum slope of present , numerical methods are being developed
the steady-state pressure profile, as shown in Fig. to determine the existence and formation of shock
3.5.2e. The amount of wave-initiated evaporation , waves. 480,496 Alternatively, it is suggested that the
coalescence, and subsequent increase in base pres- superposition of low- and high-frequency wave
sure was greater with showerhead injectors than trains that propagate in a combustion chamber
with impinging injectors . produce a progressive wave amplification followed
If one considers the interaction of a wave with by a sudden damping. It is found experimentally
a burning propellant, then the change in wave that for low wave amplitudes the pressure oscil-
pressure causes a change in the entropy of the lations are more-or-less sinusoidal and the fre-
products of combustion . From a gas dynamic quency is well defined . As the chamber length is
point of view, these entropy waves appear as increased, harmonics are found to occur, thus
contact surfaces that move downstream at the distorting the wave forms. Finally, pressure peaks
local gas velocity.54 of very short duration but of high amplitude may
Another pattern of wave behavior in the longi- appear with a concomitant increase in frequency.78
tudinal mode is one in which the amplitude of In summary, longitudinal wave propagation in
3 chamber. Wave deformation occurs due to ( 1)

wave coalescence of a fluid dynamic nature, and
2
(2) absorption and dispersion because of relax-
ation processes . Since the chamber is filled with
(a)
liquid propellant particles, a low frequency vari-
ation in base pressure may occur which is related
3
to the propellant fill time of the chamber. Large

slope
sec
(pWave
amplitude waves may be of a continuous structure

μ
)/ si
and thus propagate at the local velocity of sound ,

or they may be discontinuous and propagate at
-
(b) shock wave velocities. Finally, no truly one-

dimensional waves can exist in an interacting
O
gas-particle-filled cavity due to the generation of

wavelets produced by the interaction .
3
3.5.2.3 Transverse modes. -Detonation-like be-

2
havior is not uncommon in the tangential modes
of instability. In some cases, wave pressure ratios
(c) of 15 and wave velocities approaching Mach 6
2 3 4 5 6 7 with respect to the reactants are encountered.143
AP/AX ( psi /in ) With respect to the combustion gases, wave ve-
locities near Mach 1.84 -the value determined
(a) Incident wave at injector. from solutions of the linear wave equation- are
(b) Incident wave at nozzle.
observed . In Fig. 3.5.2f some nonlinear character-
(c) Reflected wave at injector.
FIGURE 3.5.2d .-Relation of wave slope to maximum istics of tangential waves are shown : ( 1 ) the
pressure gradient (steady state) . extreme wave amplitude , ( 2 ) the steep wave
fronts, and ( 3 ) the ragged waveform behind the
Base pressure at injector before reflected wave wave front. Any explanation of the nature of these
rp features at this time can only be conjecture.
Base pressure at injector before incident wave
i)Chamber
The wave front shape of a spinning tangential

( nches
length
20
wave is illustrated in Fig. 3.5.2g. The data , taken
with an 11 inch diameter combustor in which a
16
bomb was used to initiate oscillations , show
12 several general properties. It appears that a single

equivalent wave surface is formed. The wave
pressure amplitude is greatest at the periphery
B
and decreases toward the chamber axis and to-

p =4 3 2
ward the nozzle . The wave front near the chamber
axis and near the nozzle precedes the wave front
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 at the wall near the injector end . Moreover, the
AP/AX ( psi /in) wave front does not appear to be normal to any
wall surface. From Fig. 3.5.2f it can be seen that
FIGURE 3.5.2e .-Base pressure amplification .
at low pressure amplitudes, which appear at the
nozzle end of the chamber , the waveform is
a liquid propellant rocket combustion chamber sinusoidal, whereas at the larger pressure ampli-
exhibits the following behavior. The wave amplitudes the wave fronts become quite steep and are
tude growth may go through a linear regime or followed by a strong damping.
spontaneously begin in the nonlinear regime. The It is observed from theoretical and experimental
resonant frequency is decreased by mean flow data that wave amplitudes are increased by the
effects ; no true standing wave occurs in the presence of mass and energy sources, which re-
experimental observations ( Sect . 3.4.3.2 ) . These

wavelets interact with the wave front and with
Pc 0000070 pc0000550 pc0001082
the chamber walls, producing raggedness of the
waveform . Another factor is the asymmetry of
pc0000284 pc0001348
pc0000816 the wave motion . That is, if the wave is not a
(a)
pure spinning tangential mode, reflections from
the chamber walls occur . Graphical construction
280 psi
of waveforms in which reflections from a cylindri-
Pc 0001348 cal wall occur contain many features similar to
55°
those observed experimentally.
370 psi The remaining nonlinear effect is the occurrence
Pc 0001082 of the steep wave front . There are several proc-
63° esses, both gas dynamic and chemical in origin ,
340 psi that can account for such a characteristic . Wave
pc 0000816 deformation of a gas dynamic origin is produced
1
57 ~ by the coupling of centrifugal effects with density
500 psi gradients that may occur in a wave. The more
pc 0000550 dense parts of the wave experience larger centrif-
45° ugal forces and thus larger pressure amplitudes
500 psi accrue than for the case where centrifugal effects
pc 0000284 ‫سماناست‬ MI are negligible or where density gradients are small .
15° For two-phase flow the centrifugal effects may
6μsec 540 psi cause the particles to move toward the periphery
pc 0000070 of the chamber. Hence zones of intense chemical
reaction can be formed that can be coupled to
426μsec(360°) the natural modes of wave behavior in the cham-
Time base m ber. Chemical reaction processes produce disper-
-Time sion , which may take the form of generating a
(b) 100 μsec
precursor moving at the frozen speed of sound
(a) Transducer locations . followed by a wave train near the equilibrium
(b) Wave shapes 25 milliseconds after bomb pulse. speed of sound, i.e. , a wave broadening process .
FIGURE 3.5.2f.-Experimental tangential wave shapes . On the other hand, where the reaction time ap-
proaches the characteristic time for the wave,
efficient coupling between the wave train and the
spond to the fluctuations in chamber conditions chemical energy may occur to produce detonation-
induced by the pressure waves. As noted previ- like behavior.636 Finally, wave coalescence due to
ously, the source strength depends on the pro- droplet burning may occur, thereby steepening
pellant injection distribution as well as on the passing waves .
dynamic response of the combustion process . For
transverse modes, the injection distribution is one 3.5.2.4 Nonlinear transverse gas displacement. * —
of the most important factors influencing the The gases in the rocket combustion will not be
wave-combustion interaction . In addition, centrif- homocompositional since mixture ratio is not uni-
ugal effects produced by the rotating gases during form throughout the chamber. Under pressure
the spinning tangential mode account in part for oscillations , the vaporized propellant will undergo
the high pressure amplitude . velocity and, therefore, displacement oscillations.
The generation of the ragged waveform behind Here, of course, the liquid propellants would not
the wave front can be due to several factors . One be displaced as much as the gaseous propellants
of these is the wavelets that result from changes and, to the first approximation , may be considered
in mass and/or energy source strengths, which
have been suggested both from theoretical and * W. A. Sirignano, Author.
90 80
70 50
60 Plotted data average values of 7
e
consecutive wave rotations ~ 20msec
circumferenc
50 40 from bomb pulse
Chamber
40 Run Peipsig Mixture ratio
30 ✓ 8974 308 1.29
wall
eg
30 301
Impingement O 8975 1.26
,d
plane 8976 304 1.28
20
20 ▲ B977 304 1.29
◇ B979 307 1.32
-O
10
T
ΙΟ Data referenced Tangential direction
to this station of wave travel
O
O
Wave travel
10 10
T
20 20
T
30
30-
40 Injector face ♡ Nozzle entrance
50
Nozzle 0t
440-
throat
60
70 50%
90 80 .I .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
Injector face Chamber wall axial position , /L
FIGURE 3.5.2g. Shape of wave front ; spinning tangential wave.
as stationary. Then , if these are transverse oscil- ment was determined by integration . Typical re-
lations, the vaporized propellant would move in sults are shown in Figs. 3.5.2h and i . For the
and out of regions of different mixture ratios. spinning wave case (Fig. 3.5.2h) , the trajectories
This could have a significant effect upon the com- are seen to be nearly elliptical orbits (the deviation
bustion response . from ellipses are second-order effects ) . In that
A certain amount of theoretical and experi- figure, &, is the radial displacement, ôt is the
mental work on the combustion response due to tangential displacement, and r is the mean radial
linear displacement effects has been performed . 583 location of the particle. All quantities are non-
Here the n, 7 theory was modified to consider not dimensionalized by the chamber radius. The ratio
only the pressure sensitivity of the combustion of the semi-minor axis to the semi-major axis
process but also the velocity and displacement decreases in a continuous manner from unity at
sensitivity. An additional study of the nonlinear the center of the chamber to zero at the outer
displacement , but without consideration of the wall. The angular position in the chamber pro-
feedback on the combustion process was made.18 186
duces only a phase shift and does not change the
In the latter study, combustion and mean flow orbit shape . The orbit is symmetric with respect
effects were neglected and the approach of Maslen to the 5 -axis only. Note that the maximum dis-
and Moore466 was employed to determine the placement increases as the radius decreases.
pressure and velocity solutions. That is, the non- For the standing wave case (Fig. 3.5.2i ) , the
linear, two-dimensional wave equation was solved particle paths consist of motion back-and-forth
up to and including second order in an amplitude along a curvilinear trajectory. There is a strong
parameter . In particular, the first tangential dependence on the angle as well as on the
spinning and standing modes were considered . radius r. Since the linear approximation gives
From these velocities, the gas particle displace- straight-line trajectories, it is obvious that non-
.14
.12
..10
.08
+.06
Sr +.04
-.02
St
+ + +
-14-12-10-08 -06 -04-02 02.04.06 .08 10 12 .14
02
r =.88
+ : 04
#.06 r = .66
+: 08
r=.44
.10
F.12 r= .22
14
FIGURE 3.5.2h.-Typical traveling wave displacement, where e = 0.5.
r= 1.0
‫ןי‬ ‫ןי‬
r = .88
Particle path
8 =0°
0 = 45 °
.I
r =.22
8=90°
FIGURE 3.5.21 .- Typical standing wave displacement, where e = 0.5.

linear effects are reasonably severe for the standing shows that droplet drag has no effect upon the
wave, more so than for the spinning wave . Since frequency.
a double symmetry exists, only one quarter of the There is a difference between the droplet drag
chamber is shown in Fig. 3.5.2i . effect predicted previously in Refs. 178, 187 , 582,
A more recent study190 shows that certain non- and 583 and that predicted here. In those papers,
linear terms were neglected in the original work a complex kt is defined which replaces the k used
and the particle paths in the spinning wave case here. The necessity of introducing this quantity
are not exactly closed. Rather, a second order was caused by an improper ordering of the equa-
streaming, in the direction of wave travel, occurs . tions and it is claimed the present results in this
The streaming, superimposed upon the closed article are correct . Perhaps these present results
orbit motion, results in a looping motion . This are also more intuitively appealing in that they
occurs in the irrotational case and differs from predict the droplet drag has only a damping
the streaming due to viscosity studied by Maslen effect and does not affect the frequency while the
and Moore.466 It is shown further that a net previous references predict an effect upon the
angular momentum exists with the spinning wave, frequency.
implying that the gas field must experience a net For purely transverse modes (j = 0 ) , the damp-
torque in order to initiate the spinning wave. ing added by droplet drag becomes
3.5.3 Damping Effects 1 Xe

kōL° dx
2xe o
3.5.3 (see also Sect . 3.5.1 ) :
On the other hand , for purely longitudinal or
a Fractional open area of liner mixed modes with the combustion concentrated
Χ Transverse eigenvalue for lined chamber near the injector face, the damping will become
** Transverse eigenvalue for rigid , impervious exactly twice the above value. Axial spreading of
chamber walls the combustion zone tends to reduce the damping .
However, this spreading may not be undesirable
3.5.3.1 Liquid and solid particle drag. *- Liquid since Eq . (3.5.1-21 ) shows that it also decreased
droplets are always present in liquid-propellant the combustion response term .
rocket motors and are moving at some relative An estimate of k can be made by considering
velocity to the surrounding gases. This velocity . the drag of a spherical body. Then
difference allows a flow of a viscous fluid over the
droplet and results in a drag force. This drag 3 μCDRе
k=
force is also present under oscillatory conditions. 4 dĹ PL
and results in a loss of energy from the oscillating
gases. The effect of this drag, then, is to stabilize where CD is the drag coefficient , di is the droplet
the oscillation . The mathematical representation diameter, PL is the density of the liquid, u is the
of this drag and its effect upon stability is given gas viscosity, and Re is the Reynolds number
by a linearized analysis in Sect . 3.5.1 . based on the gas properties and the relative
It is seen from Eq . ( 3.5.1-21 ) that the amplifi- velocity.
cation factor A ) is decreased by the negative Any solid particles formed as combustion prod-
quantity ucts would, of course, produce the same effect as
1 Xe liquid particles. The only difference between the
drag of the two types of particles would be due
2Axe [
-2xx 0** kip (1
(1++cos
com 2 )Xe
** ) dx
to internal circulation and distortion of the shape
due to the droplet drag effect . The negative value, in the liquid case. Very small liquid droplets would
of course, implies damping, rather than amplifi- be expected to act as solid particles since surface
cation , due to this drag effect . Eq . ( 3.5.1-22 ) tension and liquid viscous forces would dominate
inertial forces as the droplet size becomes very
* W. A. Sirignano, Author Sects . 3.5.3.1 and 3.5.3.2. small.
3.5.3.2 Acoustic liners and nonrigid walls.- Ys(0)Y

X(1) =
Acoustic liners and nonrigid walls have a damping Syn*
effect because they allow a normal velocity at the
f (S *) -f ( Sun )
wall which has a component in phase with the
pressure oscillation . This means that work is done ‫ע‬ 2 V 2
- f ( Svn * ) — Sv *)
over each cycle in moving the fluid back and * *
forth at the boundary. The work is equal to the
energy dissipated due to jet formation and friction . (3.5.3-4)
In the case of an acoustic liner, jet formation is where
the more important effect by at least an order of Y ,' (6)
magnitude. f(4) = (3.5.3-5)
J, (o) + B*Y, (p)
The effect of liners and nonrigid walls is con-
The effects of the wall admittance on the real
veniently given by an admittance coefficient y:
and imaginary parts of s ) are then found to be
y= YR + iYI = (3.5.3-1 ) **
p' wall X(1) = X(¹) Y=0"- *X1(1) (3.5.3-6)
w(0)
This boundary condition is a relationship between
**
the pressure and the average normal velocity. w(1) = w(1) Y_o +w(0) * XR (0) (3.5.3-7)
The averaging is performed on a length scale that
is large compared to the distance between liner where XR and x1 ) are the real and imaginary
orifice centers but small compared to the chamber parts of x , from the appropriate equation given
dimensions and, therefore, to the wavelength. The above . Since s(0) = iw ) the real part YR of the
boundary condition given by Eq . ( 3.5.3-5 ) intro- wall admittance will appear in the X relation
duces two effects on the eigenvalue x: (1 ) an and hence determine the stability. The imaginary
imaginary term is added, which means that a part y determines the frequency modification .
damping effect is present due to the dissipation No theory exists for calculating the admittance
in the liner flow, and (2 ) the real part is modified, coefficient of a nonrigid wall. A significant amount.
indicating a modification of the natural frequency of theory does exist , however, for the admittance
3 (0) of acoustic liners. At the resonant point (where
Denoting the eigenvalue for rigid , impervious the natural frequency of the liner equals the fre-
(unlined ) walls by x* , for the lined or nonrigid quency of the chamber oscillations ) the real part
wall, since the effects are of the order of the mean of the liner admittance coefficient can be approxi-
flow Mach number, x = x * + x ) . The correction mated644 by
term depends on the chamber geometry and on πα
YR = (3.5.3-8 )
the extent of the liner. Assuming that the lining 2√Ye
is uniform along all chamber walls and extends
from the injector to the nozzle entrance, the where is the mean-to-peak pressure amplitude
following results are obtained : divided by the mean pressure, a is the fractional
open area of the liner surface.
(1) rectangular chamber ( x *² = m*2 + n *²) :
As an example, consider e = 0.1 , a = 0.025 ,
-
2ys(0)y y = 1.2, first tangential mode operation in a circu-
X(1)
(m²+ n2) 1/2 ( 1+x)
Χ (3.5.3-2 ) lar chamber ( v = 1 , Sm = 1.84 ) , chamber radius
equal to chamber length, and u = 0.1 . The liner
(2 ) circular chamber (x* = Svn*) :
damping term in Eq . (3.5.3-12a ) is equal to 0.38,
1 and is substantially larger than the damping term
1) = YsY
x(
(3.5.3-3) (y +1 ) ue which equals 0.22 . The ratio of the liner
Sv * V 2
1- damping term to the latter term decreases mono-
*
tonically with increasing mean flow velocity and
amplitude of oscillation . Ife were 0.4 or u = 0.2,
(3 ) circular-annular chamber (x* = S ) : this ratio would be halved . This example illustrates
the fact that liners are more effective for lower be noted that the longitudinal modes are not
Mach number chambers. Also , they are more affected, and neither are the higher-order trans-
effective against spontaneous instability than verse modes that are compatible with the baffle
against triggered instability. The effectiveness of configuration. In the case shown in Fig. 3.5.3c, the
the liner increases in direct proportion to the ratio third tangential mode ( 3T ) is compatible with
of the lined surface area to the cross -sectional the six-blade baffle, whereas the first radial ( 1R )
area. In circular chambers , since v/s 1 as v→→→ ∞ , is not, because of the hub.
liners are most effective for the high transverse It has been shown that the amount of the fre-
modes. quency shift and the increase in the damping rate
both increase with increasing baffle length , as
3.5.3.3 Injector-face baffles. *-Transverse wave illustrated in Fig. 3.5.3d.11,331 An approximate
motion in a combustion chamber can be damped acoustical analysis, presented in detail in Sect .
by baffles on the injector face. A typical baffle 8.2.1 , indicates that the chamber length and di-
configuration is shown in Fig. 3.5.3a . The blades. ameter and the nozzle admittance (see Sect . 3.6 )
are usually planar and the hub cylindrical, and are also important factors in determining the
all surfaces are parallel to the chamber axis to amount of baffle damping . Since the analysis
minimize interference with the mean flow. Many assumes a large number of blades, such that only
different baffle configurations have been designed axial oscillations are possible in the baffle cavities,
and tested ; several are illustrated in Fig. 3.5.3b . it cannot predict the damping of modes that are
Most large liquid rocket engines have made use nearly compatible with baffle configuration . In
of baffles to prevent the occurrence of transverse- such cases, it can usually be expected that the
mode combustion instability.11,156 , 215, 331 damping in the baffled and unbaffled chambers
Because of the complex nature of the oscillation will be about the same. An example of this is
patterns in a baffled combustion chamber, the shown in Fig. 3.5.3d. As illustrated in Fig. 3.5.3e,
effects of the baffles on the wave motion are not the baffle blades of the " compatible baffle" ap-
fully understood . However, two effects have been proximate the streamlines of the first tangential
identified as being important in the suppression standing mode, imposed in the acoustic tests
of combustion instability: ( 1 ) the modification of represented in Fig. 3.5.3d.
the acoustic resonance properties of the com- Although it is convenient to discuss the reso-
bustion chamber, and (2 ) the alteration of the nances of a baffled chamber in terms of the acoustic
oscillatory flow patterns in the vicinity of the modes of the chamber without baffles, it must be
injector face. A third effect , which has not yet remembered, as Wieber737 has pointed out , that
been investigated in detail, is (3) the dissipation the correspondence exists only in an approximate,
resulting from the formation and destruction of gross sense. Complications enter also through the
vortices in the cavities between baffle blades. interaction of the different resonance character-
The acoustic resonance characteristics of a istics of the baffle cavities and the unbaffled part
typical combustion chamber, with and without of the chamber. For example , in an engine that
baffles, are shown in Fig. 3.5.3c . In these ampli- had a baffle consisting of a central hub with radial
tude-frequency plots, obtained by methods dis- blades extending outward from the hub, a coupling
cussed in Sect . 9.6.6, the peaks correspond to the was established between a longitudinal mode in
acoustic modes of the chamber. In general, the the baffle cavities and the first radial mode in the
higher peaks are associated with the more strongly unbaffled part of the chamber. As a result , the
resonant modes, which have the lower damping radial mode frequency was reduced to the extent
rates. The effect of the baffle is seen to be twofold : that it matched the resonant frequency of the
( 1 ) the frequencies of the lower-order transverse combustion process , thus producing instability. "
modes are reduced , and ( 2 ) the peak amplitudes Of equal importance to the problem of com-
of the same modes are lowered , that is , the damp-
ing rates of those modes are increased . It should
* Careful measurements show that there is a frequency
shift for longitudinal modes , due to the decreased cross-
* F. H. Reardon, Author. sectional area in the baffle part of the chamber. "1
Injector
Baffle blade
Combustion chamber
Baffle hub
FIGURE 3.5.3a.-Cutaway sketch of combustion chamber showing injector-face baffle.
(a ) (b) (c ) (d )
EGE
(e ) (f) (g )
(a) Radial blades ; (b) Radial blades ; (c) Diagonal blades, (d) Irregular blade
no hub. with hub. or "eggcrate." arrangement.
(e) Rectangular blade on (f) "Parallel" blade ; dished (g) "Wing" blade ; dished
planar injector face. injector face. injector face.
FIGURE 3.5.3b . -Typical baffle configurations .
IT
ITIL
IL 2T IL
2T 3T
2L IT2L IR
3L
Log frequency
( 1 ) No baffle
IT IT IL 2L
IL
IT 2L
2T IR 3L
2T IL
M
‫تشتر‬
Log frequency
( 2 ) 6 - Blade baffle with hub
FIGURE 3.5.3c .- Acoustic resonance characteristics of typical combustion chamber, with and without baffles. Modal
pattern identified for each resonance (L, longitudinal ; T, tangential ; R, radial) .
bustion instability are the oscillatory flow patterns The spatial region in which the baffle effectively
that can lead to an oscillating energy release rate, inhibits transverse flow depends on the length of
and thus contribute directly to the excitation of the blades, but also on the blade spacing and the
instability. In particular, the early experiments of wave pattern of the mode induced in the un-
Levine and Bambanek441 and Reardon582 demon- baffled part of the chamber. Although the flow in
strated that transverse velocity components , as- the baffle cavities has not yet been explored in
sociated with transverse modes of oscillation , have detail, the general picture has been established
a strong effect on the combustion process . This by several independent investigations. In the de-
effect is especially great in the region near the velopment of baffles for the second stage engine
injector face, where there are large temperature of the Gemini launch vehicle, it was found that
and concentration gradients, and for the spinning the size of the perturbation required to trigger
forms of tangential modes. * It is clear that within instability increased as the number of blades was
the baffle cavities the transverse flow patterns are increased, with the baffle length held constant.331
quite different from those in an unbaffled chamber. Similar results , in which the minimum baffle length
Since there is a velocity node at each baffle surface, required for stability increased as the baffle blade
the magnitude of the velocity oscillations is greatly spacing was increased, were reported by Hannum
reduced, effectively eliminating this type of excit- and Scott.312 These indirect observations of the
ation. baffle blocking effects have been confirmed by the
direct measurements of Crocco, et al. of the
* For further discussion of these effects, see Sections breakup of a freon jet subjected to transverse
2.3, 3.3, 3.4, and 4.2. nitrogen pulses.190
159
zed
DYNAMICS OF COMBUSTION AND FLOW PROCESSES §3.6

frequenc
Normali y
1.0 DD baffle cavity, it is to be expected that such vortices

D D
/f.fo
are also present, but unsteady in time, the di-

rection of rotation alternating in response to the
9
flow past the baffle. Such creation and destruction
DDDD
of vortices may provide a source of energy dissi-
pation that is significant in certain cases . Further
research is necessary to establish the validity of
6
this conclusion.
.2 .3 4 .5 .6 7 .8
3.6 UNSTEADY FLOW IN EXHAUST NOZZLES†
Baffle length/chamber radius
Full-scale chamber, hot firing For a proper understanding of the nature of

Full- scale chamber, acoustic test wave motion in a combustion chamber it is im-
dDamping
Half -scale chamber, acoustic test portant to know the behavior of the flow in the
,/cycle
Compatible baffle , half - scale chamber,

rate
exhaust nozzle under oscillatory conditions. In

b
acoustic test
particular, it is necessary to determine how a
DODO
Acoustic theory ( Sect . 8.2.1)

wave generated in the combustion chamber is
D
●
partially reflected and partially transmitted at

the entrance of the nozzle. In mathematical terms,
it is necessary to know the boundary condition
imposed by the nozzle on the oscillatory flow in
.2 .3 .4 .5 .6 the combustion chamber. This boundary con-
Baffle length /chamber radius dition takes the form of an admittance relation
between the various perturbations (e.g. , pressure,
FIGURE 3.5.3d .- Effect of baffle length on oscillation velocity, entropy ) . If the perturbations are suffi-
frequency and damping rate (adapted from Refs. 11 ciently small , so that the problem can be linearized ,
and 331 ) .
the admittance equation must also be linear. For
large-amplitude oscillations, nonlinear effects must
be taken into consideration.
If the flow in the nozzle is supercritical ( as is
normally the case in rocket engines) , for suffi-
-3 Baffles ciently small oscillations the supersonic portion of

the nozzle has no effect on the chamber conditions.
Downstream of the throat the oscillations must
always propagate downstream and cannot inter-
fere with the flow upstream. Hence the logical
choice for the surface on which a boundary con-
dition is specified would be the surface where the
sonic velocity is achieved , that is, for small oscil-
Circular- lations about an approximately one-dimensional
chamber flow, the throat itself. It has been shown179 that
the proper boundary condition at the throat is
FIGURE 3.5.3e .-"Compatible baffle" configuration.
that the solution remains regular there, even
though a singularity tends to result from the
Investigations of the steady flow past cavities inability of the disturbances to propagate up-
and around blunt obstacles indicate that a complex stream from the supersonic to the subsonic region.
vortex motion is set up within the cavity, con- In practice, it is useful to divide the chamber
sisting of a primary vortex approximately cen-
tered in the cavity, with secondary vortices at * References include 11 , 594 , 698, 725 and 751 .
the corners.* In the case of oscillatory flow past a † W. A. Sirignano, Author.
plus nozzle into two parts : the combustion cham- before the flow enters the nozzle so that there are
ber, extending from the injector to the nozzle no energy or mass sources in the nozzle . However,
entrance, where the combustion processes take allowance is made for the occurrence of entropy
place but the mean flow Mach number is rela- and vorticity waves in the nozzle due to the com-
tively low; and the nozzle, where no combustion bustion in the chamber. For an axisymmetric
occurs but the mean Mach number increases to nozzle, a convenient coordinate system is that
unity. The result of this subdivision is to move which employs the values of the velocity potential
the boundary of the combustion chamber from and stream function of the steady-state flow
the throat up to the nozzle entrance, where the in addition to the azimuthal angle ( Fig. 3.6.1 ) .
appropriate boundary condition can be obtained Since the value of the stream function is a con-
by studying the oscillatory behavior of the nozzle stant at the nozzle walls where the boundary con-
by itself. The admittance equation is obtained ditions are applied , separation of variables is al-
from the condition of non-singularity at the throat. lowed . Culick202 did not use this coordinate trans-
The following nomenclature pertains to Sect. formation and was forced to a more cumbersome
3.6 (see also Sect . 4.2.2 ) : analysis. Two dimensional nozzles have also been
analyzed ; the treatment is parallel to the axisym-
A, B, E, C Nozzle admittance coefficients
metric case and will not be given here .
f1, f2, f3
Under the assumption of small amplitudes, the
g, h , j , k Auxiliary functions
perturbations are governed by linear, partial
F(1), F(2)
k differential equations . These equations are sepa-
Scale factor for nozzle shape
rated on the assumption that the nozzle is suffi-
P Axial dependence of pressure pertur-
bation ciently long that the cosine of the semi-angle of
convergence may be approximated by unity . As
R Radius of curvature at throat (coni-
a result , the time and azimuthal dependencies are
cal nozzle)
given by sinusoidal functions. The radial* de-
U," V, W Axial dependencies of velocity per-
pendencies are expressed in terms of Bessel func-
turbations
α tions of the first kind, just as in the circular
Admittance coefficient for isen-
cylindrical chamber analysis ( Sect . 3.5.1.2 ) . The
tropic , irrotational or longitudinal
axial dependencies are related to the solution of
oscillations
DY
MX
a second-order, linear, ordinary differential equa-

Auxiliary function
tion with complex coefficients :
01 Semi-angle of conical nozzle
Χ Velocity gradient at throat. d2p 1 dū²
ū² (ã² -ū²) - ū² + 2iw
Σ Axial dependence of entropy per- dø²
turbation
Φ Function related to axial velocity 1 ū² dū²
+ -iw -Spūã²
perturbation 2 a² do
Velocity potential
== ã²f ( ) [ C₁F® ( $ ) + C₂F² ( p ) ] ( 3.6.1-1 )
Velocity potential, normalized
↓ Stream function where is related to the axial velocity pertur-
bation, ū and ǎ are the steady-state gas and sonic
3.6.1 Linear Nozzle Admittance Equation velocities (nondimensionalized by the sonic ve-
locity at the throat ath ) , w is the angular frequency
Only a brief discussion of the analysis leading
of oscillation (nondimensionalized by ath and the
to the admittance equation can be given here .
throat radius rth) , and S , is the eigenvalue for the
For details of the mathematical development, the
particular mode of oscillation. This equation is
reader should consult Ref. 196 .
To simplify the analysis, the steady-state flow
* The radial coordinate r is related in a simple manner
is considered to be one-dimensional, although the
to the steady-state stream function under the assumptions
perturbed flow may be three-dimensional . The of the analysis. Similarly, the axial coordinate x is related
combustion process is assumed to be completed to the steady-state velocity potential.
=constant
wall
V= constant
Flow direction
Nozzle throat
Nozzle entrance
FIGURE 3.6.1 . - Coordinate system used for the solution of the oscillatory nozzle flow.
singular at the throat ; one of the homogeneous

solutions will be regular there and the other one iwf2
will be singular. Discarding the singular solution (10)
2 2 +
has been demonstrated to be equivalent to dis- X (3.6.1-5)
allowing perturbations to propagate upstream iw°
ū² (ã²f₁--
from the supersonic portion of the nozzle.179 The 2
solution of Eq . ( 3.6.1-1 ) can only be obtained in
exact form by numerical integration . The admittance coefficients are complex numbers
The linear admittance condition can be written because the auxiliary functions f35° , fi, f2, and f3 are
as complex. To determine the variation of the flow
U + aP+ ®V + CΣ = 0 (3.6.1-2 ) property perturbations throughout the nozzle, it
would be necessary to integrate the second -order
where U, P, V, and Σ are the axial dependencies
equation for 4, Eq. ( 3.6.1-1 ) . However, since the
of the nondimensional perturbations of axial ve-
locity, pressure, radial velocity, and entropy, re- interest normally lies in the prediction of overall
stability characteristics and not in the details of
spectively. The admittance coefficients a, B, and
the flow itself, such an approach is not necessary.
e are given by
The auxiliary functions satisfy first-order equa-
1 /r + (y+1) /2(y- 1) ū tions obtained by reduction of Eq. (3.6.1-1 ) :
a
γ 2 (ā) 2/(x−1
dš°
dø° + 5 °² = (y + ih ) 5 ° — ( j +ik )
doo (3.6.1-6 )
a²f₁- °
X (3.6.1-3 )
iw° 2
ū² (ã²f₁- °) -: _d = [ (1 −ã
- 0³)) fm] - iw " [ 24² + (x + 1 ) ( 1-0 )
{ "°—i«°
] + {8
= }+
2 dø° 2ū² ' ū²)
X [ ( 1 - ū² ) fm]
iw°xū¹/2 a²f₁
B= (3.6.1-4)
(ā) /( -1) 2
iw° F(m) ; m = 1,2 (3.6.1-7)
ū² (ã²f₁- °) - Y+1
2
d iw° 1 dū²
1/2 ( ā²ƒ³ ) - (ā²f3) = (3.6.1-8)
= dø° 2ū2 2 dø°
e- ( 21) üz
where
ū² dū² and G defined in Sect. 3.6.1 , two other complex

છેઃ admittance coefficients are useful and have been
= ( 2 ) a² dø° calculated. One of these coefficients is
h = w°ū²
(y+1)/2(y-1) ū 5°
02 α= —
w S° ²ū (ā) 2/(x−1) 2
j= (造) iw°
4 (ā) /( -1 ) ū² ° +
2
Y- ū² dū²
k=- 30
ã² do° (3.6.2-1)
which is the admittance coefficient to be used in

Som²(a) 2/( -1) the relation
F(1) =
4ū
α
U=- P
dfз νη (a)
su 2/( -1)) (1 - ū² ā²
( ā ) ²/(r−1 Y
F(2) = +. + f3
dø° 2iw 2ū2 ū²
in the absence of vorticity and entropy pertur-
bations. When S, 0, a is also the admittance
coefficient for isentropic longitudinal oscillations.
31
X
The other special coefficient is
Syn B
ε = ya- (3.6.2-2)
iwe
F
dū where we is the nondimensional frequency ap-

x= propriate to chamber oscillations (i.e., reference
dx th
quantities are stagnation speed of sound and
X nozzle entrance radius) . The combined admittance
° = 2x ( th ) = 2x ù dx' (3.6.1-9 ) coefficient & is important in transverse-mode com-
bustion instability applications (Sect. 4.2.2 ) . For
The admittance coefficients for a given nozzle low Mach numbers, a and - & are approximately
geometry can thus be calculated as functions of equal. That is, at low mean-flow Mach numbers
the velocity potential °, which can readily be & becomes very nearly independent of f₁ even
converted to the axial coordinate x or the local , though a and B are dependent on it.
mean-flow Mach number ( ūā) . That is, when The steady-state velocity profile ū ( ¿ ) must be
the admittance coefficients at the nozzle entrance determined for the given geometry of the con-
are desired, the axial coordinate at the entrance vergent part of the nozzle . A first-order differ-
or the entrance Mach number must be known ential equation governs ū , and this equation can
before the admittance coefficients can be de- be solved simultaneously with the equations for
termined. 5°, fi , f2, and fa. The most systematic and compre-
hensive calculations of nozzle admittance coeffi-
3.6.2 Calculation of Admittance Coefficients
cients196 have been performed for a nozzle with
Eq . (3.6.1-6 ) is a complex Riccati equation and the generatrix shaped as a circular arc with radius
can only be solved by numerical integration . Once of curvature R near the throat and with a smooth
this is done the linear, first -order equations for transition to a conical nozzle of semi-angle ₁ in
fi , f2, and f3 can be solved obtaining the standard the remainder of the convergent portion . The
integral forms . However, rather than evaluating value y = 1.2 was used ; w values were in the range
the integral solutions numerically, it is more con- 0 to 10 and S values were in the range 0 to 9 .
venient to solve all four complex (or eight real) For each combination of w and S , the system
equations simultaneously by numerical inte- was integrated along the nozzle length beginning
gration. at the throat and extending to the point where
In addition to the admittance coefficients a, B, the Mach number is 0.05 . The solutions were
2.5
determined at certain specified values of Mach
number by interpolation and then the admittance
W = .5
coefficients were calculated at these specified 2.0
Syn =1.00
points.
In using these results, one would take the values 1.5
of the admittance coefficients at the Mach number
equal to the entrance Mach number of the par-
1.0
ticular nozzle of interest. Thus, by the method
used in Ref. 196, one integration was able to pro- 5.
vide information for an infinity of contraction .5
ratios. Of course, the calculations were made for
a conical nozzle joined directly to a cylindrical
chamber, whereas in practice a smooth transition
would occur between the conical and cylindrical -.5
portions. However, an exact calculation of this
actual situation would require one integration for -1.0
each contraction ratio ; the approximation em- -5 -3 -2
ployed in Ref. 196 represented a large time-saving
technique. An alternative approach has also been X
used ; that is, the calculation of admittance coeffi- FIGURE 3.6.2a.-Real part of ° versus axial distance.
cients has been incorporated into the chamber
stability analysis.650
3
One of the most interesting results is that the
nozzle may have a destabilizing effect on the
transverse modes of oscillation . This is indicated 2
by negative values of the real part of a or positive
values of the real part of E. Negative aR and
positive ER generally occur in the range of "purely"
transverse modes , where we is close to s . For such
f2R
modes the nozzle would have a destabilizing
effect . On the other hand, for longitudinal modes
and those mixed modes where the longitudinal
dimensions are most significant in determining
the frequency (we>>Sm) , ar is positive and ER is
negative, so that the nozzle has a damping effect
on the oscillations . -2 w = .5
=
The admittance coefficient C is generally quite Sun-1.00
small compared to the coefficients & and B. This
-3
result and the fact that the amplitude of the -5 -3 -2
entropy oscillation is small compared to the ampli-
X
tude of the pressure and velocity oscillations in
most situations of physical interest mean that FIGURE 3.6.2b.-Real part of fan versus axial distance.
usually Eq . (3.6.1-2) may be simplified to
U+ QP + & V = 0 (3.6.2-3) (w = 0.5 , Sm = 1.0 ) . Fig. 3.6.2a , in which R is

plotted against axial distance, shows a gradual
It should be noted that B = 0 whenever S = 0 . change in R due to the relatively long pressure
Furthermore, fi also equals zero , and it follows wavelength. Fig. 3.6.2b shows f₂R to be undulating*
that a/y and a are identical in that case.
Figures 3.6.2a through 3.6.2d show results of * As used here, "undulation" pertains to spatial varia-
the numerical integration for a sample case tions, whereas "oscillation" is used for temporal variations.
.2 whereas entropy and vorticity waves propagate

W = .5 with the subsonic gas velocity. Figs . 3.6.2c and
3.6.2d show the admittance coefficients AR and
Syn = 1.0
Br (which are the most pertinent from a stability
viewpoint ) plotted against axial distance. Super-
imposed on a gradual change due to the pressure
O
waves there is a rapid undulation due to the

entropy and vorticity waves. At higher frequencies
the oscillations become more severe since the
Que
undulations in the admittance coefficients also

occur due to pressure waves. The undulations due
-2
to entropy and vorticity waves become still more
rapid.
-3 A limited number of calculations have been
performed wherein the throat wall curvature, the
cone angle, and the ratio of specific heats have
4 been changed . It was found that changing y from
the standard value of 1.2 to 1.4 generally produced
a change in the admittance coefficients of only a
5
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 O few percent . The other two parameters affected
the results more significantly.
X
Calculations were made with R = 3.0 ( compared
to R 2.0 in the standard cases) and 0₁ = 30°, and
FIGURE 3.6.2c.-Real part of pressure admittance coeffi-
cient versus axial distance. also with R = 2.0 and 0₁ = 15 ° ( 0₁ = 30 ° in the
standard cases ) . When R was changed and 01
left constant, the results changed most signifi-
cantly in the high Mach number range near the
.0 throat. A slight increase in ER and & was observed
with increasing R, but only for the smaller values
of Sn (corresponding to lower-order modes ) . Fur-
ther upstream, in the low Mach number range,
the difference between the R = 2 and R = 3 cases
-.2 was smaller. On the basis of this small amount of
B₁ evidence, it seems that far away from the throat
I
-.3 the results do not depend very strongly on the
particulars of the nozzle shape at the throat .
-.4 w = .5 When ₁ was changed and R left constant , the
Sun = 1.0 solution near the throat did not change, of course .
Only in the conical part of the nozzle was a change
-.5
produced. Decreasing the angle ₁ produced small
increases in ER and & for purely transverse modes.
-.6 For combined longitudinal-transverse modes &R
-5 -3 -2
X became more negative for smaller 01. Again , sig-
nificant effects were obtained only for small S
FIGURE 3.6.2d . -Imaginary part of radial velocity ad- It should be noted that the results of the calcu-
mittance coefficient versus axial distance.
lations for the standard three-dimensional axisym-
metric nozzle may be scaled for use with certain
rapidly due to the relatively small entropy and annular nozzles . The major restriction is that the
vorticity wavelengths. It should be noted that inner wall of the annular nozzle must have the
pressure waves propagate with the speed of sound same shape as a stream tube contour in the
three-dimensional nozzle . This implies that the

two nozzle flows are identical in the steady state a (ū , w, Sm) = αref ū,
k' k
(that is, of course, only in the common region
where both flows exist ) . Also, under the long- A scale transformation of this type is merely a
nozzle, one dimensional steady-state flow assump- linear deformation of the nozzle walls in the axial
tion this means that the ratio of the outer wall direction. Scaling in the radial direction is trivial
radius to the inner wall radius is constant along since all lengths have been nondimensionalized
the convergent section of the nozzle. with respect to the throat radius.
The equations for the annular nozzle may be
separated in the same manner and the same 3.6.3 Experimental Verification
differential equations remain to be integrated as
in the three dimensional case . However, now S is Verification of the linearized nozzle theory has
determined by the equation been obtained for longitudinal mode oscillations ;
no verification , however, has been attempted for
dJ, dY, dJ dY, transverse oscillations or nonlinear longitudinal
(x) ( x)· ( x) (x) = 0
dx dx dx dx oscillations .
The earliest measurements by Lambiris418 were
where J, and Y, are Bessel functions of the first
successful in demonstrating that the oscillatory
kind and second kind , respectively, and § is the behavior in a constant section duct joined to a
ratio of the inner to outer wall diameter (v is an
choked nozzle would be accurately predicted if the
integer, here) . So using the proper value of S nozzle boundary condition were applied at the
the results of the three dimensional nozzle calcu-
nozzle entrance . This demonstration was not com-
lations for both admittances and flow properties pletely satisfactory since it was indirect and many
may be used for the annular nozzle . The values of
other factors affect the flow in the duct . Crocco,
Sy for various annuli may be found in Ref. 120. *
Monti, and Grey195 later performed a more satis-
The admittance coefficients for a whole family factory experiment whereby the oscillatory flow
of nozzles may be obtained by scaling the results properties at the nozzle entrance were measured
calculated for a particular reference nozzle . If k with a pressure transducer and a hot-wire ane-
is the scale factor and if a nozzle has a velocity mometer. From these measurements, admittance
distribution
coefficients were calculated and compared with
u (x) = ūref (kx) the theoretical predictions.
then the admittance coefficients for this nozzle Overall accuracies were limited by turbulence
have been found196 to be given by the following noise and the generation of higher harmonics ;
formulas however, the theory and experiment were in funda-
mental agreement . The data reduction required a
Svn
A ( ū , w, Sm ) = Aref (0,
| ū , U Sm) relationship between pressure and density. The
k' k
isentropic assumption was found to be improper
but a more general polytropic relationship pro-
W Svn
B ( ũ, w, Syn) = kⓇref ( ū , duced a good fit between theory and experiment.
k' k
3.6.4 Nonlinear Effects
W Syn
C (ũ, w, Syn ) = Crefū, The linearized analysis which has been per-
k' k
formed applies to small-amplitude oscillations and
is most useful in the treatment of spontaneous
E (ū, w, Syn) = Erefū , instabilities. It can be used in the prediction of

Evet (0, k'
2 k) the stability of the steady-state operation and, if
the regime oscillation in the unstable situation has
In the reference , ẞ is defined as the reciprocal of our §; a small amplitude , it can be used to predict some
therefore their value of s , must be multiplied by their ß characteristics of the oscillation . However, if the
to obtain our value of S. oscillation does not initiate spontaneously but
instead requires a finite-size disturbance to the left the nozzle oscillation problem coupled to the
steady-state operation in order to excite an oscil- chamber oscillation problem. A preferred method
lation , the linearized analysis is not sufficient . which uncouples the numerical integration of the
Also , if the regime oscillation does not have a nozzle equations from the chamber flow has been
small amplitude ( as is often the case ) , the linear- suggested.196
ized analysis does not accurately predict all of the
characteristics of the oscillations. In these situ- 3.6.5 Other Effects
ations, a nonlinear analysis is better suited on the
basis of accuracy . The effects of condensed phases and combustion
The analysis of the axisymmetric nozzle was in the nozzle upon the oscillatory behavior of the
extended to include nonlinear effects by Zinn.771 nozzle have always been neglected under the as-
A perturbation series was employed whereby the sumption that in a well-designed motor essentially
perturbation parameter was a measure of the all of the combustion occurs prior to the nozzle
amplitude. Of course, the first order solution is entrance. In the absence of any theoretical pre-
identical to the linearized solution discussed in diction or experimental evidence , one can only be
previous sections. The second and third order guided by intuition . It would be expected that the
solutions , which represent nonlinear effects, were presence of a condensed phase in the nozzle flow
obtained by the technique of eigenfunction ex- would result in a stabilizing effect since droplet
pansion. The nonlinear case differs from the linear or particle drag implies a loss in momentum for
case in that the nonlinear standing and travelling the gases. Also, the presence of energy addition
waves in the tangential mode must be treated due to combustion would have a destabilizing
separately ; the standing wave cannot be con- effect if the energy were added in phase with the
sidered as the superposition of two travelling oscillations . These are the same effects that would
waves . Calculations were made only in the irro- occur in a constant diameter motor . It is not
tational case although the analysis is more general . clear how these opposite effects will modify the
Zinn treated the problem in such a manner that oscillatory behavior when combined.
CHAPTER 4
Analytical Models of High Frequency Combustion Instability
4.1 INTRODUCTION * emphasis here is on the interaction between com-

bustion and wave processes that results in oscilla-
4.1.1 Scope of Current Analytical Models
tory operation of the combustor . At present , there
The task of achieving a quantitative knowledge are two types of approach that predominate. The
of the unsteady behavior of the phenomena taking first (chronologically) is that employing the sensi-
place in a liquid propellant rocket combustion tive time lag concept set forth by Crocco. 179 The
chamber is indeed a formidable one. In the last second type of analysis involves the study of
few years substantial advances have been made certain combustion mechanisms and modified
in the formulation of analytical models of high equations of gas motion as posed by Priem and
frequency combustion instability. However, the Guentert.563 In addition to these more-or -less
mathematical difficulties are such that solutions comprehensive theories, there have been studies.
are difficult to obtain, even with the simplest concentrated on the response characteristics of
models. As a result, the ultimate goal of estab- one or more combustion processes, as well as
lishing quantitative connections between the ob- empirical and semi-empirical similarity ap-
served instability phenomena and the basic phys- proaches. These various types of analyses are
icochemical and geometrical elements of the com- presented in this chapter. The discussion of their
bustion process is still far from being reached . application to engine design and development is
The unsteady operation of a combustor can be deferred to Chapter 6.
divided into two parts, the interaction of which is The approach of Crocco and his collaborators
somewhat analogous to that of the forward and is based on the consideration that there exists a
feedback loops of a servo system. The first part characteristic time (a relaxation time) for the
involves the oscillatory behavior of the combustion combustion mechanism. Therefore, the combus-
processes , such as liquid propellant injection , tion process does not respond immediately to
atomization, and vaporization and mass and perturbations in pressure, temperature, and ve-
thermal diffusion and chemical reaction in the locity, but instead the response occurs after a time
flame region . The second part involves the oscil- lag. This time lag is represented by a certain
lations of the two-phase flow that is confined by analytical form discussed in Sect . 4.2 . This is a
the combustion chamber walls. This confinement heuristic approach since the combustion mecha-
leads to the existence of certain natural modes of nism itself is not analyzed to determine its dy-
oscillation that resemble the acoustic modes of namic response . Instead, certain relations are
the chamber. These modes may be described as postulated that contain what is intuitively be-
longitudinal, transverse, or combined (i.e. , longi- lieved to be the proper qualitative characteristics
tudinal-transverse) on the basis of the orientation of the dynamic response. Experiments have indi-
of the oscillation relative to the axis of the cated that the quantitative behavior is also well
combustor. characterized, at least in the linear case . 180,583 Be-
The dynamics of the component processes in- cause of the time lag in the combustion response,
volved in high frequency combustion instability instability is more probable in certain frequency
are discussed in some detail in Chapter 3. The ranges, where the period of oscillation and the
characteristic time of the combustion process are
* W. A. Sirignano, Author. commensurate.
167
The Priem approach, on the other hand, is have not been justified by any mathematical
based on the examination of actual combustion limiting processes, but by the simplifications that
mechanisms . So far, only quasi-steady analyses they produce.
have been performed ; therefore, no time lag exists The response function models of the instability
and the combustion response is instantaneous. phenomenon , discussed in Sect . 4.4, differ from
Obviously, no frequency dependence occurs with the Crocco and Priem models in that certain
this type of response . Initial efforts were concerned aspects of the problem, such as the combustion
with vaporization and chemical kinetics as rate- process, are emphasized , and the coupled problem
controlling processes. 556 More recently, other ef- is not treated . Also included in Sect . 4.4 is a
fects , such as atomization and jet breakup , vortex discussion of similarity methods , which have been
flow in the chamber, and droplet motion, have employed in the attempt to circumvent the com-
been included in the theoretical model.91 , 136 plexities of the comprehensive mathematical
There are other differences between the Crocco analysis.
and Priem approaches than those involving the
treatment of the combustion processes. In the 4.1.2 General Conservation Equations
development of the sensitive time lag theory,
The conservation equations for the two-phase
both longitudinal179,488,645 and transverse modes¹87,
583,630,771 have been considered . The transverse flow in the combustion chamber will now be
written, assuming that most of the chamber vol-
mode analyses introduce two additional space di-
ume is occupied by gases and a smaller portion
mensions ; the longitudinal analyses require the
study of shock-wave oscillations. Two different is occupied by liquids, mainly in droplet form. A
control volume is chosen that contains gases and
mathematical techniques have been used : ( a )
small perturbation analysis ,179 , 187, 583, 630 in which many droplets , and each liquid and gas property
is represented by an average value taken over the
the equations are linearized , allowing the study
volume. As the volume shrinks to a point , it is
of the stability of steady-state operation , and
(b ) nonlinear analysis ,645, 488,771 valid for finite assumed that both liquids and gases exist at that
point.
amplitudes that are not too large, yielding limit-
cycle solutions. In addition , the time lag theory
4.1.2 :
includes a careful analysis of the effects of the
injector-face boundary conditions and the oscilla- E Energy release rate per unit volume due to
tory flow in the nozzle on the solution in the chemical reaction and phase change
combustion chamber. F Force per unit volume exerted on gas by
Most of the analyses that follow the approach liquid
of Priem have considered a one-dimensional model G Combined energy release rate defined in
of the tangential mode of oscillation, with ampli- Eq . (4.1.2-6)
tudes of any size. No restrictions are made on the k Momentum interchange coefficient , defined
amplitude because numerical integration is used in Eq . (4.1.2-3 )
and the nonlinearity offers no special difficulty PL° Mass of liquid per unit chamber volume
as it would in an analytical approach. When at-
The conservation of mass implies that the net
tention is confined to thin , circular annuli , it is
mass leaving the liquid phase must equal the net
clear that radial and longitudinal wave motion
mass entering the gas phase. Using the subscript
cannot be considered . Also , in this approach the
radial motion associated with tangential waves L to indicate liquid quantities and the absence of
has been neglected . Solutions for these thin annuli subscripts to indicate gas quantities, this state-
ment may be represented by
have been combined into quasi-three-dimensional
models. With the isolation of each thin annulus, др θρι
the effect of any boundary conditions at the + V • pV = - V • PL°VL = M (4.1.2-1 )
at at
nozzle, injector face , or chamber walls is not con-
sidered . Rather , certain assumptions are employed The quantity M has the role of the mass source
in order to solve the equations . These assumptions in the continuity equation for the gas flow. It
ANALYTICAL MODELS OF HIGH FREQUENCY COMBUSTION INSTABILITY §4.1 169
should be noted that PL is the mass of liquid per (including vaporization ) have a negative contri-
unit chamber volume (mass concentration ) rather bution. By definition,
than liquid density.
e = e + V.V
For most applications, the gases may be taken
to be inviscid, except as they exchange momentum Combination of Eqs . (4.1.2-1 ) and ( -5 ) , together
with the liquid phase. Therefore, the conservation with the definition of the stagnation enthalpy,
of momentum for the two-phase flow implies that
= +p
hses
Ə (pV) ƏρL VL P
+ V • pVV + Vp = - - -V.PL VLVL
at at
yields another form of the energy equation
which may be combined with Eq . (4.1.2-1 ) to
ah, ap O Jels
yield Ρ +pV.Vhs-- = E -PL -PLOVL VELS
Ət at at
av
Pat + pV • VV + Vp + M ( eLs - hs ) = G (4.1.2-6 )
where G is a combination of energy release rate

ᎧᏙᏞ
PL VL.VVL due to chemical reaction and phase change and a
= M (VL - V) - PL°
at rate of energy exchange between the two phases.
=F Equation (4.1.2-3 ) may be used to show that
(4.1.2-2 )
Jels JeL
In this equation , F is the force per unit volume + VL • VeLS = '+ V₁ • VеL + kVL • (V − VL)
exerted on the gas due to momentum exchange at at
with the liquid phase. If the relative velocity
If the droplet temperature varies only slightly
between liquid and gas is sufficiently small, low
through most of the droplet lifetime and both
Reynolds number flow occurs and
liquid and gas velocities are small compared to
ᎧᏙᏞ the speed of sound in the gas, the above terms
'+ VL • VVL = k (V - VL ) (4.1.2-3 )
at may be neglected, so that
where k is independent of velocity and may be G≈E + M ( eLs - hs ) (4.1.2-7 )

determined exactly (following Stokes) for certain
Certain other interesting relations may be de-
shapes in laminar flow. In turbulent situations,
rived that govern the generation of entropy and
it may be considered as an empirical factor . Since
vorticity. One might expect that , since terms
k depends upon droplet radius, which varies with
representing viscosity and thermal diffusion have
droplet location in the chamber, it actually is a
variable . However , for simplicity, an average been neglected in the equations given here, the
generation of vorticity and entropy due to these
value is often taken . Obviously, the choice of this
effects must have been neglected also . This is not
average can significantly affect the results. From
the case ; the terms representing momentum and
Eqs . (4.1.2-2 ) and (-3) it is seen that
energy exchange between the phases do produce
F = (M +kpL ) (VL - V) (4.1.2-4) generation of entropy and vorticity. Therefore,
the effects of viscosity and thermal diffusion in
The conservation of energy states that
the gas film surrounding the droplets and in the
a a wake following the droplet have been included in
(peg ) + ▼ • (pe¸V ) + = ( PL ° eLs ) the conservation equations in an implicit manner.
at at
In particular, the curl operation on Eq . ( 4.1.2-2 )
+ V . (PL°CLVL) + V.pV = E (4.1.2-5 ) divided by the gas density yields
where E is the energy released per unit time per ar F
unit volume due to chemical reaction and change + V • v¿ -
— ¿ • VV + ¿ ( V • V) + V XVp =VX-
at P
of phase. Exothermic reactions have a positive
contribution to E whereas endothermic reactions
(4.1.2-8 )
where the vorticity is defined as curl V. Since Ei

Level of intermediate process accumulation
there is no basis for assuming that F/p is the in definition of time lag
gradient of some scalar function , a nonzero F leads J Rate of intermediate processes
to the generation of vorticity since L Chamber length
m Displacement sensitivity index
ar
+ V • V&#0 n Interaction index
at δ Gas displacement
Injection density
even if the initial vorticity were zero and the
T Variable part of total time lag, "sensitive
density were represented as a function of pressure
time lag"
only. The laws of thermodynamics together with
TT Total combustion time lag
Eqs. (4.1.2-1 ) , ( -2 ) and ( -6 ) result in
θσ Subscripts :
PT Vo)
+ V • Vo =G
) = G --V.F
V.F (4.1.2-9) r Radial direction
at
Ө Tangential direction
from which it is seen that the entropy change in
4.2.1.1 The sensitive time lag. Suppose that it
the gas is caused by energy release in the com-
is possible to follow a small parcel of propellant
bustion process and by energy exchange with the as it undergoes the series of transformations neces-
liquid phase, including work done in momentum sary to take it from its initial liquid conditions to
exchange . Normally, the energy release in the
its final merging into the gases of complete com-
combustion process is the most important phe- bustion . In the course of these transformations its
nomenon which generates vorticity and entropy . presence in the chamber is felt through the mo-
mentum and energy exchanges with the rest of
4.2 THE SENSITIVE TIME LAG THEORY* the material filling the chamber. With respect to
combustion instability, the most important are
4.2.1 Basic Concepts the energy exchanges, particularly in the form of
work (originating in the chemical energy of the
The Sensitive Time Lag Theory was originally
propellants ) developed against, or absorbed from,
formulated with the sole intent of gaining an
the surrounding gases. Since the work exchanges
insight into the essential features of the phe-
increase with the volume of the propellant parcel,
nomenon of high frequency combustion insta-
its contribution to the general picture will become
bility. However, it was found that analyses based
especially important toward the end of the trans-
on the theory were able to predict accurately the formation into combustion gases.
quantitative behavior of combustion systems in
At this point , the simplifying assumption can
quite a few cases. As a result , the mathematical
be made that this transformation is discontinuous.
developments and engineering applications have
That is, it can be assumed that the whole gasifi-
been extended far beyond those that were expected
cation process , from the liquid propellant to the
from this simple, heuristic approach. In this sec-
final combustion products, is collapsed into a single
tion , the main features of the time lag concept
instant . Then the only information needed to
and theoretical approach are summarized . The
describe the process is the time and location corre-
linearized analysis is presented in Sect . 4.2.2 ;
sponding to the gasification of each parcel. The
methods of solving the nonlinear problem are
discussed in Sect . 4.2.3. fact that the gas generation is assumed to be a
discontinuous process does not imply that the
combustion is not distributed throughout the
4.2.1 (see also Sect. 4.1.2 ) :
chamber volume, since the time and location of
A; Injection port area (per unit injector sur- the gasification of various propellant parcels will,
face area) in general, be significantly diversified . A useful
D Droplet drag term, kpl (V - VL) consequence of this assumption is that the ma-
terial filling the chamber consists only of gases of
* L. Crocco, Author. complete combustion and of ungasified liquid
ANALYTICAL MODELS OF HIGH FREQUENCY COMBUSTION INSTABILITY $4.2 171
propellants, the intermediate substances occupy- ln

In f
ing a negligible fraction of the volume. Neglecting n =(37)
ln p
also the volume of the liquid phase, there results
the simplified picture of a chamber filled with which is constant during the "sensitive time lag"
gases of complete combustion continuously gener- 7. Then, when chamber conditions are varying, *
ated throughout the volume by gas sources , and
(p-
continuously exhausted through the nozzle. The (4.2.1-2 )
} =} [ 1 + n (P = P) ]
strength of the gas sources may be variable in
time, in response to time-varying conditions in so that Eq. (4.2.1-1 ) can be written
the chamber, thus providing a feedback mecha- t t
(p - p)
nism for the occurrence of combustion instability. [** } dt, +n [* 3
_} p (P P ) dt. = ["__ } dts
t- T St-T t-TT
Since the location of the propellant parcel at
the time of gasification can be related to the time Making the further assumption that ƒ is constant
through the knowledge of droplet motion , only during 7, it is possible to relate the sensitive time
the time really needs to be known , for instance in lag to the pressure by
the form of a time delay from injection to gasifi-
p-p
cation of each parcel. This time delay TT must be dti (4.2.1-3 )
Ľ
t-7 P
different for different parcels , but it also must be
a function of time in the case that chamber con- T allows
The knowledge of the sensitive time lag 7
ditions are varying. To obtain a quantitative the determination of the combustion rate . The
representation of the response of the combustion propellant gasified in the volume element under
time delay to varying chamber conditions, one consideration during the time interval dt is Mdt.
can reason in the following way. * The gasification This same amount was injected during the interval
takes place because certain intermediate processes d (t - 7) . Assuming that the injection rate is un-
have accumulated to the proper level. Denote the affected by the chamber conditions ,
gasification instant for a given parcel by t, and
Mdt = Md ( t − 7)
consider the parcel at an instant t₁ such that
Hence,
t - T < t₁ < t
Эт
The process accumulation condition can be written M - M = -M
at
as
Therefore , assuming that the spatial displacement
fdt : = Ea (4.2.1-1 )
of the propellant during T can be neglected,
differentiation of Eq . ( 4.2.1-3 ) gives
where indicates the time rate at which the
M- M p (t ) —p (t − 7 )
relevant process is accumulated and E is the = +n (4.2.1-4)
M at p
level required for gasification . In general, ƒ de-
pends on the instantaneous ambient conditions This method of expressing the pressure sensi-
and on the particular phase of the time delay tivity can be applied to other variables as well.
through which the propellant is passing. However, Temperature oscillations can in many cases be
the simplifying assumption can be made that f correlated with pressure oscillations and need not
remains unchanged during the first phase of the be treated separately. Rather, the interaction
time delay and that only during the last phase, index n is defined to include the effects of both
of duration 7, it is uniformly sensitive to chamber pressure and temperature. This is not the case
conditions. Concentrating for the moment only
for velocity or displacement sensitivity , which
on the effects of the ambient pressure , an "inter-
may also be important, especially for transverse
action index" n can be defined by
modes. Such sensitivity results from the mixture
For a detailed discussion and a critical evaluation of
this reasoning process see Ref. 176 and for additional * A bar over a quantity indicates that it is evaluated at
background see Ref. 179. the mean, or steady-state, conditions.
ratio nonuniformities that commonly exist in

practical engines, and are most severe near the
injector face .582 ,583 The expression for ƒ can be 2n
ion
extended to cover displacement sensitivity by -Simplified
respons
combust e
adding a linear sensitivity to the radial displace- formulation,
Eq . (4.2.1-4)
Real
part
ment 8, and one to the circumferential displace-
of
ment d in the form
(p - p)
1 +n + m,ô, + mede (4.2.1-2a )
1-1+ p
with constant m, and me , and assuming a common

sensitive time lag. However, one could also make
the simpler assumption that the variation of the
O
mixture ratio resulting from the displacement pro-
duces an immediate variation in the burning rate,
without the time lag behavior.583 In any case, the
Sophisticated
linearization of the displacement sensitivity is formulation
only valid if the mixture ratio is stratified in the
-n
proper fashion . In general this is not true and πT 2π 3π 4πT
ωτ
nonlinear displacement effects must be expected .
Even when only pressure sensitivity is con-
sidered, the above formulation is based on several FIGURE 4.2.1 . - Response of pressure-sensitive combustion
restrictive assumptions . A more sophisticated process to a sinusoidal chamber pressure oscillation:
comparison of Eq . (4.2.1-4 ) and sophisticated formu-
formulation is presented in Ref. 176 ; it is shown lation (ref. 176 ) .
that a simple representation of the type of Eq.
(4.2.1-4) , illustrated in Fig. 4.2.1 for a sinusoidal
pressure oscillation , may generally be used only achieved. Added to the heterogeneity of the flow
near the energy feedback peaks . Also interesting is the complication of nonuniformity, resulting
to notice is the fact that whereas Eq. (4.2.1-4 ) from the fact that the propellants are not pre-
predicts, (as can be seen from the figure ) an mixed but are injected separately from a number
infinite array of peaks at frequencies such that of discrete ports. The mixing process, which must
wr varies by multiples of 2 , the more sophisti- in the end reduce this nonuniformity to an ac-
cated formulation predicts only one peak at one ceptable level, strongly depends on the turbulence
frequency, in agreement with the great majority level, which is, in turn , determined in a very
of experimental results. An exception , however, is elusive way by the combustion process itself. The
provided by the multiple peaks observed by turbulence probably is also related to the intensity
McBride and Veglia,474 results which are in har- of the recirculation currents produced by the
mony with the predictions of the more restrictive heterogeneity and nonuniformity of the flow.
Interference with the combustion process may
formulation presented here .
result from the application of film cooling, neces-
4.2.1.2 Theoretical approach .- Formulating the sary in most high thrust engines to reduce the
unsteady behavior of a combustion system in level of the heat flux to the walls. Another compli-
precise mathematical terms is a task of great cation comes from the unsteady behavior of the
difficulty because of the complexity of the phe- exhaust nozzle . Even if the combustion is com-
nomena taking place in the combustion chamber pleted before its entrance, the unsteady exhaust
and resulting in the final outflow of combustion flow may be substantially different from steady,
gases through the nozzle. The liquid propellants one-dimensional flow.
must undergo atomization , heating, evaporation , Although qualitative ideas about these phe-
mixing, and chemical reaction before the for- nomena may be gained without difficulty, the
mation of the final products of combustion is task of reaching a quantitative knowledge of them
and of their relative importance under unsteady av

conditions, is far from being completed . Sub- + pV • VV + VP = M (V₁ − V ) −D (4.2.1-7 )
at γ
stantial advances are being made in this direction ;
however, the importance of finding an engineering ᎧᏙᏞ
solution to the problem of combustion instability PL + PLVL • VVL = D = kpL˚ (V - VL) (4.2.1-8 )
at
justifies the use of a less fundamental, semi-
empirical approach. a
In the analysis presented here it is assumed that ( pes ) + ▼ • ( phsV) = MeLs (4.2.1-9 )
at
the combustion chamber is filled with the gases of
complete combustion and droplets of unreacted In these equations, the strength of the gas source
propellants, which act as gas sources . The com- has been divided by the product of the reference
bustion gases are assumed to be homocompo- density, reference sound velocity, and the re-
sitional, inviscid (except for the existence of a ciprocal of the reference length ; PL is not liquid
droplet drag) , and thermally and calorically per- density, but rather the mass of liquid per unit
fect. The liquid phase is assumed to be well volume, divided by the reference density; and
dispersed throughout the chamber, and the vari- the internal energy is defined so as to include the
ations of its energy eLs ( internal plus kinetic chemical energy. Because of the scheme used to
energy) are neglected . It would be possible, of nondimensionalize, the stagnation energy is
course, to take into account the heat exchanges
γ 1
with the droplets, which may in some cases play es = e+ V2
2
an appreciable role.
Although it is possible to carry out the analysis The energy equation can be simplified by noting
starting from the conservation equations in inte- that the normalized enthalpy coincides with the
gral form, 178 with certain simplifications in the
normalized temperature and the internal energy
order of magnitude considerations, in this dis-
(normalized by the reference enthalpy) is equal
cussion the more common differential forms will
to T/y. Also, by virtue of the simplifying assump-
be used, as in most of the published analyses. 179, 187, tion already discussed , the liquid energy eLs has
582, 583,630 The equations will be written in non-
the constant value of unity, i.e. , *
dimensional form. Pressure, density, temperature,
enthalpy, and sonic velocity are normalized in γ- 1
eLs = ēLs = hs = T+ √² = 1
such a way that they are unity in a chosen 2
reference state, viz, the state of the gas at the Thus, the energy equation becomes
injector face in steady conditions . Hence , the
a
equation of state is -γ - 1 p •
³, ( „ T, — ' ~ ' » ) + V · ( pT.V) = M
at ( 4.2.1–10 )
p = pT (4.2.1-5 )
where
The velocities are divided by the reference sonic
velocity, the dimensions by a chosen reference γ- 1
T₁ = T + V2
length, * and the time by the same reference length 2
divided by the reference sonic velocity. Using this
A comment on the droplet drag is in order here.
nondimensionalization scheme, the conservation
A momentum equation for the liquid phase could
equations , Eqs . (4.1.2-1 ) , (4.1.2-2 ) , (4.1.2-3 )
and (4.1.2-5 ) are be written to include the drag on a droplet in
terms of the local Reynolds number, the relative.
ap JPL velocity, the drop size, with also a drop size
+ ▼ • (pv ) = -V⋅ (PL°VL) = M (4.2.1-6 )
at at distribution characterizing the whole liquid spray.
However, in this heuristic model it is not desirable
to introduce such additional complications. For
* For longitudinal modes the reference length is usually
the cylindrical chamber length, whereas for transverse * Recent results suggest that eLs can be different from
modes the chamber radius is used. 1; see Sect. 7.2.4.
this reason, the more convenient formulation of are sufficiently close to being uniform and , on
Eq . (4.2.1-8 ) is chosen , with the assumption that the other hand, the convergence of the nozzle is
the coefficient k is substantially smaller than not too strong. Assuming, then, that the steady-
unity . 178,179 state flow is one-dimensional, V and VL are reduced
To complete the mathematical model, appropri- to their axial components ū and ūL and one
ate boundary conditions must be stated for both obtains
the liquid and gaseous phases. For the liquid
-
pū = PLI ULIĀL°ŪL := M dx' (4.2.1-11 )
phase, assuming that the injection process is un-
affected by the chamber oscillations, * it is suffi-
cient to assign the injection velocity uLi, and the
= A¡PLULI = PLI ULI, where A; p-1
injection density = PLI ULI - PL°ÜL²-pü²
γ
represents the injection port area per unit injector
surface area and PL is the normalized liquid = PL¡ °UL¡ ( UL¡ — Ū₁ ) + µū ( ŪL - ū ) (4.2.1-12 )
density.
p γ- 1
For the gaseous phase, the condition at the solid T= 1 ū² (4.2.1-13 )
P 2
surfaces is the vanishing of the normal velocity
component . More subtle is the condition con- These four equations , plus the differential equation
cerning the exhaust flow. The proper place to duL
prescribe that boundary condition is the sonic. ŪL '= k (ü - üL) (4.2.1-14 )
dx
throat, since perturbations downstream of that
surface cannot influence the upstream flow. In obtained from Eq . (4.2.1-8 ) under the present
practice, however, it is useful to divide the up- assumptions, are sufficient to determine the five
stream region into two parts : (a ) the combustion steady-state variables P, u, PL , UL, and p if M is
chamber (down to the nozzle entrance ) where the a known function of the same quantities, as it
processes of combustion take place and the Mach would be for a mechanistic model. On the con-
number is relatively low, and (b ) the nozzle trary, for the heuristic model under discussion
(down to the throat) where no combustion is here, the function M is not prescribed. Rather,
assumed to take place but the Mach number it is assumed that the steady-state processes result
grows to unity. The study of the oscillatory be- in a certain u (x ) , which is assigned . In this case
havior in the latter part is a problem of transonic the integration of Eq . (4.2.1-14) can be carried
gas dynamics, which may be solved separately to out independently of the other equations. Once
obtain a relation between flow perturbations at ŪL ( x) is known , one obtains
the nozzle entrance , the so-called admittance con-
p 1 + YPLI ULI (ULI - ŪL)
dition (Sect . 3.6 ) . This admittance condition is p=
then used as the boundary condition for the com- γ- 1 Y+1
1 ū² 1+ ū² —YŪĻŪ
bustion chamber flow, to be applied at the nozzle 2 2
entrance.
STEADY STATE : The conservation equations
PLI ULi -pū
apply, of course , also to the steady-state problem PL == (4.2.1-15)
ŪL
when the time derivatives are suppressed . Even
for this simplified system of equations a closed- and M can be determined by differentiation of īū .
form integration is generally impossible. However, The assumption that k is small has already been
the solution becomes simple if the chamber is as- stated. Equation (4.2.1-14 ) shows what this as-
sumed to be cylindrical and if the flow in the sumption means in terms of droplet penetration .
chamber and nozzle can be considered to be one- Taking u = 0 and integrating, it is seen that ŪL
dimensional. The latter is a reasonable assumption drops from uLi to zero in a distance ( called the
when, on the one hand , the injection conditions penetration distance ) equal to uLi/k. Hence the
penetration distance is of order unity ( comparable
* This is not a necessary assumption , it is used here to
simplify the presentation of the theory. The analysis by to the reference length ) if k is of a magnitude close
Waugh720 indicates how injection effects can be included. to uLi, which is generally a small quantity .
STABILITY ANALYSIS : In order to study A , B , Cm Eigenfunction expansion coeffi-

the oscillatory behavior of the system, each de- cients
pendent variable is split into its steady part, A, B, C Nozzle admittance coefficients
considered above, and an oscillatory perturbation , B Constant in radial distribution
the behavior of which is to be determined and function for annular chamber
provides the key to the problem of instability. Fr, Fo Combustion response functions for
The discussion in the section following (4.2.2) transverse gas displacement
will be concerned with the problem of " linear oscillations
instability" in which any perturbation , no matter GR Function defined in Eq. ( 4.2.2-
how small, is amplified with time if the combustor 23a)
is unstable. Expressions will be derived that relate j Index for longitudinal modes ;
the combustion and flow parameters at the bound- j = 0, 1 , 2 , ...
ary between stable and unstable operation . The lr, lo Transverse velocity sensitivity in-
case of "nonlinear instability," in which only dices
perturbations above a certain magnitude are Myn
νη Eigenfunction coefficient for burn-
amplified while below it they are damped , will be ing rate M'
discussed in Sect . 4.2.3 . mr, me Mean values of displacement
sensitivity indices
4.2.2 Linear Theory Combustion response function for
pressure oscillations
To consider only the conditions under which P Axial dependence of pressure
linear instability can appear, without being con- perturbation
cerned about the final situation created by the Poo Maximum amplitude of pressure
amplification , it can be assumed that the pertur- perturbation
bation magnitudes are infinitesimally small. This Syn Transverse mode eigenvalue
limitation has the great advantage that in the U, V," W Axial dependencies of velocity
mathematical developments one must keep only perturbations
the terms that are linear in the perturbations , W Dyadic defined in Eq . (4.2.2-14 )
whereas terms containing powers or products of X, Y, Z Functions defined in Eq. (4.2.2-
perturbations, being infinitesimal of a higher order, 14 )
can be dropped . As a result, the relations between α Included angle between walls of
the perturbations , unlike the original equations , sector chamber
are linear. η Integer index denoting number of
The most important consequence of the linearity nodal circles of a transverse
is that the principle of superposition can be ap- acoustic mode
plied , since the sum of two solutions of the equa- Ꮎ, Azimuthal (circumferential) dis-
tions is also a solution . This allows , for instance , tribution of pressure perturba-
the decomposition of an oscillation into its Fourier tions in circular chamber
components, each one of a different frequency. Index denoting number of nodal
Each Fourier component satisfies an equation diameters of transverse acoustic
that is independent of those satisfied by the other mode
components. The study of the equation will reveal Radial distribution of pressure
whether or not the corresponding component is perturbations in circular cham-
unstable. If it is , the whole oscillation will be ber
amplified with time regardless of the behavior of Subscripts :
the other components. Hence the study of stability eff Effective
can be performed on the individual components p, q Indices in transverse eigenfunc-
rather than on the most general type of oscillation. tion expansions
The following nomenclature pertains to Sect . ν, η Indices denoting a particular
4.2.2 (see also Sects. 4.1.2 and 4.2.1 ) : transverse mode
0, 1 , 2 , ... Indices denoting terms in series with

expressions T‚' = T' + ( y − 1 ) ▼ · V'
To study damped or amplified oscillations, the It is convenient at this point to introduce the
time dependence of the perturbations must be normalized entropy , defined as the entropy
exponential, rather than harmonic, as in Fourier variation from the reference state divided by cp.
analysis, that is, each perturbation amplitude is The relation between pressure , entropy, and den-
multiplied by exp ( st ) , where sity is
p=pl/re- (4.2.2–7)
s = λ+ iw
Eq . (4.2.1-5 ) and (4.2.2. -7) yield the pertur-
w being the angular frequency and A the amplifi-
bation equations
cation coefficient, both of which are nondimen-
sional (the normalization factor is the reciprocal γ- 1 =
of the normalization factor of the time) . ¿'T ' - ' - ' p' - po ' - " ' — Tp ' ( 4.2.2-8)
γ γ
Accordingly, the pressure perturbation is de-
fined by which can be introduced into Eq. (4.2.2-6 ) to
p = p + Re (p'est) (4.2.2-1 ) give the following form of the energy equation :
in which p' is the complex amplitude of the s [po' + ( y − 1 ) µÑ • V' ]
perturbation, that is, a quantity such that the + V • { V[po ' + (y − 1 ) p▼ · V′ ] }

real part of p ' exp ( st ) represents the actual in-
stantaneous perturbation . Similar equations define γ 1
▼ • (▼p ') ( 4.2.2-9 )
the perturbations of all other quantities, scalar or γ
vectorial . The complex amplitudes thus defined
The set of perturbation equations is completed
are functions of the location alone.
by rewriting Eq. (4.2.1-4 ) in the form
4.2.2.1 Governing equations . Substitution of
p' p'
the expressions like Eq . (4.2.2-1 ) into Eq. M ' = n[1 - exp ( −87 ) ]M ²- = @M (4.2.2-10)
p p
(4.2.1-6) produces, after subtraction of the corre-
sponding steady equations, the following equations which is applicable when only pressure sensitivity
of continuity : needs to be considered . For the more general case
Sp' + PV.V' + V'.Vp = M ' - V. (pv) (4.2.2-2) in which displacement effects must also be in-
cluded , Eq . (4.2.2-10 ) is replaced by
SPL +V · (VLPL°') = -M'- ▼ • (PL°VL') (4.2.2-3 )
M' = M ( @p '/p + Fror' +Fede ') (4.2.2-10a)
Similarly, the momentum equations are obtained where
from Eq. (4.2.1-7 ) and Eq. (4.2.1-8 ) as
F₁ = m,r [ 1 - exp ( −87 ) ] ;
Vp' (4.2.2-11 )
s (pV' + Vp' ) + = -S (PL VL' +VLPL ') Fe = m. [ 1 - exp ( −sī ) ]
γ
4.2.2.2 Method of solution .-The system of
-V. ( 2pVV' + 2pL°V₁VL' + VVp' + VLVLPL ')
perturbation equations governing the oscillatory
(4.2.2-4 ) flow in the combustion chamber consists of Eqs.
SV₁' + ( VL • V) V₁' + (V₁' • V) ▼L (4.2.2-2) , (-3 ) , ( -4 ) , (-5 ) , (-8 ) , ( -9 ) , and (-10 ) .
This complicated system can be solved using the
= k(V' -VL') (4.2.2-5 )
following technique . First , use Eq. (4.2.2-8 ) to
Finally, multiplying Eq . (4.2.1-6 ) by Ts (which eliminate the entropy perturbation σ' from the
equals 1 , as Eq. ( 4.2.1-13 ) shows) and subtracting energy equation, Eq . (4.2.2-9 ) , writing the latter
it from Eq . (4.2.1-10 ) gives in the form
7-1
p' ) + V (PVT ) = 0 (4.2.2-6) = (p'— '') = s [ ( 1 - T) p' + ( y − 1 ) pV · V′ ]
= ( FT. - γ ' p ') + v ( γ
+ V • { V[p' - Tp' + ( y - 1 ) pV · V' ] } (4.2.2-13 ) , it is found that the first two terms
are given by
(4.2.2-12 )
spo
Next, use Eq. (4.2.2-12) to eliminate p' in favor + V • Vo = 0
γ
of p' on the L.H.S. of Eq. (4.2.2-2 ) and (-4) ,
which then can be arranged as
Тро
SVO+ ==0 (4.2.2-15)
sp' γ
·+ V · V' = −sX + V • Y + M'
γ and
Ap' spi
SV'+ = -SZ - V.W (4.2.2-13 ) + V · V₁ = -SX₁ + V •Y₁+ M₁
γ γ
where
Vpi
- SVit = -SZ₁ - V.W₁ (4.2.2-16)
X = ( y − 1 ) pV · V' + ( 1 − T) p′ γ
Y = - Vp' + ( 1 - p ) V' — ( y — 1 ) µV (V' •V) where the subscript 1 applied to the quantities on
- the R.H.S. means that all terms of order higher
− ( 1 − T) Vp'
than ( e) have been suppressed from these ex-
Z = Vp' + PL°V₁' + VLPL°' — ( 1 − p ) V' pressions . The relevant forms of these quantities
are178, 179, 582
W = 2µVV' + 2µ₁°V₁V₁' + VVp'
X₁ = (7-1 ) ūlo
+ VLVLPL' (4.2.2-14)
Y₁ = -Vpo
In Eq. (4.2.2-14 ) W is a dyadic ,504 but VW is a ▼po
vector, and can be calculated by applying the rule Zi = +PLVLI
γ
V. (AB) = (AV ) B + B ( V.A)
W₁ = 2VVo (4.2.2-17)
where A and B are two vectors into which W can
The following items should be observed with
be split.
regard to Eq. (4.2.2-17 ) : The only component of
The form of the system of Eq . (4.2.2-13 ) allows
V is the axial component u. The perturbation PL'
an easy series solution when the gas and droplet
only enters in higher order terms and so does not
velocities are substantially smaller than the sonic
need to be computed. However, VL' is needed ;
velocity, that is, when u and ur (and, of course,
its lowest order term Vы can be obtained from
the nozzle entrance velocity ue ) are small com-
Eq . ( 4.2.2-5 ) . In the expression for Z1, po has
pared to unity. In this case , it can be seen from
been replaced by po y. Now from Eq . (4.2.2-8 ) ,
Eq. (4.2.1-12 ) and ( -13 ) that p - 1 , 1 - T, and
p' and p' are related to o' , which can be obtained,
1- are small quantities of ( ũ,²) , and M is of
independently of the series expansion , from Eq .
(ū.) , provided that du/dx is of ( ūe ) , that is, if
(4.2.2-9 ) , with the result.
the combustion is well spread out axially. In this
X du
case inspection of Eq. (4.2.2-14 ) shows that all (y - 1) ōūu' (y - 1 ) ap
21
σ' = dx tū ax'
7
(p²
%
terms on the R.H.S. of Eq . (4.2.2-13 ) are of p γαρ 0

( e) or higher when compared to the pertur-
bations. As a result , one can solve the equations
dx' (4.2.2-18 )
by expanding the quantities in series , e.g. , exp [- ] 4
p' Po +P + P₂ + ··· It can be shown that if dū /dx is of ( ū .) the

integral term is, like the other term, of (ū.)
V' = Vo + V₁ + V₂2 + ...
··
compared to the perturbations . Then the first
where Pi/po and V₁/Vo are of O (u ) , P2/Po and non-zero term in the series expansion for σ' is 01.
V2/Vo are of O ( u ) , etc. Hence, Eq. (4.2.2-8 ) gives po = Po/Y.
Introducing such series expansions into Eq. A different result is obtained for the o' series.
if the combustion is rather concentrated , so that where the quantities on the R.H.S. are still defined
du/dx is of (1 ) or larger. In that case, the by Eq . (4.2.2-17 ) . Since the solutions are some-
integral term of Eq . ( 4.2.2-18 ) is of 0 ( 1 ) , and the what different for longitudinal and transverse
To term is not zero . However, because of its modes, these are taken up separately in the next
oscillatory character, the contribution of the go two sections.
term that would appear in Z₁ is only of ( u.² ) in
4.2.2.3 Longitudinal mode solution. For purely
the final solution of Eq . (4.2.2-16 ) and hence
longitudinal oscillations the zeroth-order equations
can be neglected . This result applies also to the
are
other terms that have been disregarded in Eq.
(4.2.2-17 ) , which thus remain valid even if the Sopo duo
+ =0
combustion is concentrated. Y dx
The zeroth-order equations , Eq . (4.2.2-15 ) , are (
the equations of acoustics. Upon elimination of d Po
Sollo + =0
Vo they result in the wave equation dx
V²po + s²po = 0 (4.2.2-19)
Their solution is a neutral oscillation with
written in terms of the complex frequency s.
Particular solutions of this equation are known ; Po = Poo COS wox
once expressions for po and Vo are obtained, they P00

-i sin wox
can be inserted into Eq. ( 4.2.2-17 ) and then Eq . γ
(4.2.2-16 ) can be solved . One can require that
So = iwo = ij (π/L) (4.2.2-20)
the zeroth-order solutions po and Vo satisfy the
boundary conditions, in which case they are eigen- The eigenvalue so is always imaginary. Its value
functions and exist only for well defined values is determined from the requirement that uo vanish
So of s, called eigenvalues. Alternatively, one can not only at the injector face , x = 0, but also at the
apply to the zeroth-order solution all the boundary nozzle entrance, x = L. The integer j characterizes
conditions except the nozzle admittance con- the mode of oscillation and represents the number
ditions, in which case s remains undefined . In of pressure nodal sections . Poo is the maximum
this procedure, the complete boundary conditions. amplitude of the pressure perturbation.
are applied only to the combinations po + P1, The first -order correction u is found from Eq.
Vo +V₁, after which s will be determined . This (4.2.2-16a )
second procedure is preferable for the actual
yu₁ (x )
evaluation of the stability conditions. However,
P00 = y ( P − 1 ) cos woX
the first procedure allows a simpler discussion, 178
and so will be followed here .
Since the boundary conditions are to be applied -Pywo ū ( x' ) sin wo ( x - 2x ′ ) dx '
ƒ˜ũ
separately to the zeroth-order solution , it is neces-
sary to expand s in a series,
S = 80 + $1 + ••• + wo (x ')[sin wox
because, in general, s does not agree with the -

— ( 2 — y ) sin wo ( x --
— 2x' ) ] dx'
eigenvalue so. The zeroth-order equations are then
k X
written in the same form as Eq . (4.2.2-15 ) but
PL°(X') [ cos wox
with so in place of s . The first-order equations -2 S0
then become
·cos wo ( x − 2x' ) ] dx' - six cos wox
Sopi SiPo
+ V· V₁ = SoX1 + V • Y₁ + M, - (4.2.2-21 )
γ γ
where is defined by Eq. (4.2.2-10) . This expres-
Vpi sion for u can be inserted into the first-order
SoV1 + = -SoZ1 - V.W₁ - S₁Vo (4.2.2-16a)
γ nozzle admittance condition , *
u₁ ( L) = - apo (L) (4.2.2-22) GR are stabilizing. It is clear, therefore, that the

term in k, representing the effect of the droplet
The admittance coefficient & is complex, as is the
drag, is stabilizing. Since &R is generally negative,
combustion response factor P. For use in Eq.
the effect of the nozzle is also stabilizing, with a
(4.2.2-22 ) both of these quantities are evaluated
longer nozzle producing greater damping.
at s = so = iwo. Since Eq. ( 4.2.2-22 ) is a complex
Even if n/GR >0.5 , unstable operation occurs
equation , it can be used to determine the real
only when wor is in a certain range. That is, for a
and imaginary parts of s₁ = A1 + iw₁. The value of
given value of 7 , there is an wo-range corresponding
w₁ provides the frequency change with respect to
to instability, which means, according to Eq.
the acoustic frequency wo, and the value of A, the
(4.2.2-20 ) , that j/L must be in the corresponding
amplification coefficient, since λ = 0. The sign of
range. If there is an integer j for which this is true,
A establishes whether the operation is stable
the combustion will be unstable in the corre-
(A10) or unstable ( > 0 ) . The stability bound-
sponding mode . The order of the possible mode
ary, which divides regions of stable operation
increases with L, as illustrated by the experi-
from those of unstable operation , is obtained by
mental results shown in Fig. 4.2.2b . Similarly, for
setting λ = 0, with the result
a given mode (value of j ) instability is only
n ( 1 - cos w₁7 ) = GR (4.2.2-23 ) possible over a certain range of length for a given
where pair of values of n and 7. This theoretical result ,
L k L
Y ( Ū。 -— AR) — ( 2 − y ) wo ū sin 2woxdx + PL (1-2 cos 2wox) dx
* 0
GR = (4.2.2-23a)
L
ū sin 2wox dx
x (Je two/
Fig. 4.2.2.a illustrates the consequences of Eq. which can be seen in Fig. 4.2.2c , provides also the
(4.2.2-23 ) and the regions in which ≥0. The basis for the experimental determination of the
abscissa is the ratio of the sensitive time lag to empirical coefficients n and 7. The method , which
the oscillation period tw = 2π /wo . The maximum is described in detail in Ref. 180, involves the
tendency to instability takes place when 7 contains measurement of stability limits* in terms of the
an integral number of periods plus a half-period , chamber length and operating parameters . By
according to the simple formulation of the n, 7 measuring also the oscillation frequency near the
model under discussion here. If the more sophisti- lower stability limit (smaller L) , it was possible
cated treatment176 mentioned in Sect . 4.2.1.1 were to obtain a direct experimental verification of the
used, only the stability boundary curve with the theory.180 That is, inserting the measured fre-
minimum at 7 /tw = 0.5 would be obtained from quency and length of the lower stability limit into
Eq. (4.2.2-23 ) . Concentrating on this lowest- Eq . (4.2.2-23 ) , the values of n and were cal-
frequency loop, it can be seen first of all that culated as functions of mixture ratio and chamber
n / GR must be greater than 0.5 for instability to pressure . Then these n, 7 values were used in
be possible, and the larger GR is , the larger n Eq . ( 4.2.2-23 ) to predict the frequency and length
must be. Hence, terms producing an increase of at the upper limit . The good agreement obtained .
is shown in Fig. 4.2.2d.
* For consistency with the assumption u, (L) = 0, the It is clear from Eq . (4.2.2-23 ) that nм, the
admittance coefficient & should be of (UE ) . Actually it is minimum value of the interaction index for which
found that, although in some cases & is quite small, in
many cases it is of ( 1 ) . This is the reason that for accurate
calculations it is better to apply the nozzle condition in * When instability regimes overlap a frequency problem
the form u. (L) + u₁ (L) = A (w ) po (L) , as mentioned in Sect . in interpretation is present ; the wave characteristics and a
4.2.2.2, reserving the present procedure only for the pur- knowledge of boundary shape (based on nonoverlapping
pose of qualitative discussion. regimes) are helpful in this interpretation.
2
Unstable Unstable
( λ>0 )
Stability
limits
(λ =0)
GR
0.5 Stable
M
(λ<0)
O 0.5 1.5
2
tw
FIGURE 4.2.2a. Typical stability limits determined from Eq . (4.2.2-23) .

3.6
1.6
3.2
Stable
1.4
2.8
Equivalence
Mixture
Note : instability
Fundamental
Occurs in shaded
ratio
longitudinal
1.2 mode areas as indicated
,O
/
F
ratio
2.4 (IL )
2.0
Stable
0.8-
1.6
2nd harmonic
mode
(2L) 3rd harmonic mode ( 3L)
0.6 1.2
Stable Stable
0.4 0.8
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
Cylindrical length , L , inches
FIGURE 4.2.2b .-Experimental stability limits obtained with the Princeton University variable-length combustor. Pro-
pellants, LOX/ethanol ; chamber pressure, 300 psia ; S : = 0.05.
0.05
Axial velocity distribution: U (x)
2" 4" 6" 8"

2 X
L=8"
9"
10"
n | ‫"יוד‬
13"
15
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
FIGURE 4.2.2c .- Effect of chamber length on stability limits for first longitudinal mode .
2.8
Stable
1.2 Fundamental mode

2.4 experimental data
Equivalence
Mixture
ratio
1.0
ratio
20
(O
/
F
)
Unstable Theory
1.6
0.6-
1.2
0.4L 0.8
8 12 16 20 24 28
Cylindrical chamber length L ( inches)
FIGURE 4.2.2d . -Comparison of experimental and theoretical stability limits. Experimental conditions same as Fig.
4.2.2b ; theoretical upper limit determined from experimental measurements at lower limit.
instability is possible (n = 4GR) , is dependent on must be replaced with a more sophisticated one . 179
the axial distribution of combustion , represented An extensive discussion of the low-Mach-number
by u (x) . Increasing the axial spreading of the theory, including the effects of a 7 variation from
combustion increases nm (Fig. 4.2.2e ) and so is one propellant element to another, is given in
stabilizing. Since the frequency also enters the Ref. 179 .
combustion distribution terms of Eq. (4.2.2-23a) Recent attention has been given to the effects of
the effect of the shape of u (x) changes from mode large chamber Mach numbers on the stability of
to mode. As shown in Fig. 4.2.2e, the maximum the longitudinal modes.190 Typical results are
stability of the first longitudinal mode is obtained
. shown in Fig. 4.2.2f, in which stability limits for
(for linear u (x) ) when the combustion is spread the first and second modes are given for two
over about 80 % of the chamber length, whereas values of the Mach number and for short and
the greatest stability of the second mode occurs long exhaust nozzles. Earlier, low-Mach-number
when the combustion is spread over about 40 % analyses179 showed that increasing the length of
of the chamber length. Another source of the the subsonic portion of the exhaust nozzle is
different stability behavior of the two modes is the stabilizing, increasing the value of nм and reducing
nozzle admittance coefficient GR. In addition , for the frequency, in addition . As shown by curves
j >1 , the value of woL becomes large compared to (a ) and (b) of Fig . 4.2.2f, the effect of increasing
unity, and the treatment developed in this section the nozzle length is to shift the stability limit
curve on the n, 7 diagram up and to the right ,
although the shift in the 7-direction is much
smaller than the shift in the n-direction . For
high chamber Mach numbers , curves (c ) and (d) ,
2.8 the stabilizing effect of lengthening the nozzle is
much smaller than for low Mach numbers, and
the 7-shift is comparable to the n-shift. For a
given nozzle length, increasing the chamber Mach
2.4
number is destabilizing, although the effect is not
very large for a short nozzle (Fig. 4.2.2f ) . In
addition to the decrease in nм, there is a large
7M 2. 아
shift of the instability region to larger values of 7,
with a correspondingly large decrease in the
oscillation frequency. The latter effect results , of
1.6 2L
course, from the fact that the small perturbations
considered in the linear theory travel at sonic
IL
velocity with respect to the mean gas flow in the
1.2
chamber, so that the frequency of the first
longitudinal mode is given approximately by
(am/2Leff) ( 1 - um2) , where Leff is the effective
0.8
length of the chamber (including a part of the
u(x) ~ subsonic portion of the nozzle ) , am is the mean
Te =0.213 sonic velocity, and um is the mean Mach number .
0.4
It is interesting to note that even for nonlinear
waves, experimental frequencies are in good
agreement with the theoretical predictions.55
0.2 0.4 0,5 0.8 1.0
4.2.2.4 Transverse mode solution .- In the case
Xc/L
of transverse mode oscillations in a cylindrical
chamber, the reference length is taken as the
FIGURE 4.2.2e.-Effect of axial combustion distribution on
chamber radius, and the transverse coordinates
minimum point of stability limit curve ; first ( 1L) and
second (2L) longitudinal modes. are the azimuthal angle and the normalized
2
Curve Nozzle ūe
(a ) Short
0.2 /(b)
(b) Long } (a)
( ၁)
Short
0.6
(d) Long }
(c)
(d)
2L L
2 3
না
FIGURE 4.2.2f.-Stability limits for first ( 1L) and second ( 2L) longitudinal modes. Combustion concentrated at injector
end of chamber.
radius r. The velocity components in the x, r, two , such as sin ve or cos ve, corresponding to
and directions are u, v, and w, respectively . standing modes, with the integer v representing
The zeroth-order equations for this case are the number of nodal diameters of the particular
mode. The radial dependence is given by the
Sopo дио 1 ǝ (rvo) 1 Wo
+ + + =0 νη = (Sr) where s is any root
Bessel function YJ,
γ Эх r Ər r 20 of the equation*
1 дро 1 дро d.J.

1 дро =
Sollo + = Sovo + = SoWo + 0 (Z) = 0
Y ax Y dr yr 20 dz
There are an infinite number of such roots ,

(4.2.2-24)
distinguished by the integral index n, such that
For purely transverse (i.e., independent of x) 7-1 is the number of nodal circles of the solution .
oscillations, the acoustic solution is
Finally , the eigenvalue so is
Po = Poo¥νηn ( r ) O, (0) So = iwo = isn
uo =0 The first-order corrections are obtained from
Po d,,
Vo = - Ꮎ, (4.2.2-25) For an annular chamber, the radial dependence must
YSo dr
include both Bessel functions , viz , Jy (Svnt) +
BY, (Sr) where s is a root of the equation
Poo
00 Yn
νη de, dJ,
Wo = dJ dY, dY,
YSo r do (Z) ( Z) - (EZ) (2) = 0
d2 dz dz dz
where O, is either of the expressions in which = ri/ro is the ratio of the inner radius to the
outer radius of the chamber. The constant B is determined
exp ( ± ivo) from the condition
dJ, dY,
corresponding to waves spinning in the negative (Sun) + B (Sv ) = 0
dz dZ
or positive direction , or any combination of the
Eq. (4.2.2-16a) . When the combustion response is accurate calculations it is preferable to follow the
given by Eq. ( 4.2.2-10 ) that is, when only alternate procedure discussed in Sect . 4.2.2.3 .
pressure-sensitivity is considered , the variables Setting the amplification coefficient ₁ = 0 to
are immediately separated by taking obtain the equation for the stability boundary
yields Eq. (4.2.2-23 ) again , except that GR is
P₁ = P₁ ( x ) νη ( r ) O, ( 0)
now defined by
u₁ = U₁ (x) νη (r) , ( 0) (4.2.2-26) L
1 ER k
GR = 1 + - + PL dx (4.2.2-29 )
V₁ = √1 (x) (d¥vn/dr) O , (0)
γ γι yūe 0
W₁ = W1 (x) (V /r ) (do, /de)
when only pressure sensitivity is considered . For
thus converting Eq. (4.2.2-16a ) into a set of any given mode , the general picture of the
ordinary differential equations for P1, U₁, V1 , stability boundary, and the stable and unstable
and W. However, when Eq. (4.2.2-10a ) is used regions of operation given in Fig. 4.2.2a still
for the combustion response , to take into account holds . More accurate calculations for the first
the effects of displacement sensitivity, the three transverse modes are shown in Fig. 4.2.2g,
variables are not immediately separable, and only in which the strong overlapping of the instability
become so by expanding both the perturbations. regions can be seen .
and the combustion response terms in doubly Examination of Eq . ( 4.2.2 29 ) reveals that the
infinite series of the eigenfunctions pq (r) and droplet drag effect is stabilizing, as it was for the
Op ( 0) . For stability, it has been shown that only longitudinal modes (see discussion following Eq.
the term corresponding to p = v, q = ŋ is impor- (4.2.2-23 ) ) . Nozzle admittance calculations582, 196
tant.552 Actually, only the following expression for have shown that & , is generally small and positive
U₁, obtained by integrating the appropriate (Sect . 3.6 ) . Therefore, the nozzle is slightly
differential equation , is needed for the stability destabilizing. Although in the longitudinal case
analysis : the nozzle can supply an appreciable amount of
damping, no damping can be expected from it in
U1 (x) = √0* M.,dx
Poo X
PLᵒdx'
Pra
γ [ ( x + 1) (x ) + k √]0 m² ° dx² + 2 + x ]
3
(4.2.2-27)
νη is the p = v , q = ŋ coefficient
In Eq. (4.2.2-27 ) M,,
of the eigenfunction expansion of M₁ .
2
As in the longitudinal case, the above expression
for U , evaluated at x = L, is inserted into the
n
nozzle admittance condition . Taking into account
the fact that the effects of entropy are small at
these frequencies (as in the longitudinal case) ,
this gives
Poo Poo First tangential mode

U₁ (L) = − & (Svn) P00 + B ( Svn) = & (Svn) -Second tangential mode
iys γ -First radial mode
(4.2.2-28 ) 2 3
Τ
For the purpose of this discussion, it is assumed
that the admittance coefficients & and B and the
FIGURE 4.2.2g.-Theoretical stability limits for the three
combined coefficient & = ER + i&I are of (u ) , lowest-order transverse modes. Uniform injection ;
which is generally true . However, for more ue = 0.10.
the purely transverse case. Fortunately, the first length is dependent on both the chamber Mach
two terms of GR contribute strong damping number and the axial distribution of combustion.
effects . These terms can be traced back to the As shown in Fig . 4.2.2h (b) , increasing the length
original equations to determine the physical is stabilizing for low Mach number but is de-
nature of these effects . The first term comes from stabilizing for high Mach number, when the
the necessity of supplying extra "pumping work" combustion is spread axially. Zinn769 has obtained
when the gases are produced at a pressure different the same results for combustion concentrated at
from the steady pressure. The second term is due the injector except that the magnitude of the
to the necessity of supplying to the gas produced length effect is much reduced for the case of
the proper transverse momentum. These two concentrated combustion . In Ref. 7 it is shown
effects, in the absence of artificial means of that either spreading the combustion or moving a
damping, are the major sources of damping in concentrated front away from the injector is
transverse modes. stabilizing, with the effect being larger for shorter
The effects of several design parameters are chambers.
shown by the stability limit curves of Fig. Up to this point , the propellant injection dis-
4.2.2h.190 It can be seen that increasing the tribution has been assumed to be practically
chamber Mach number and concentrating the uniform. However, sometimes it is not feasible or,
combustion near the injector face are both possibly, not desirable to design for uniform .
destabilizing . However, whereas increasing the injection . In such cases, the injection density
Mach number shifts the instability zone to larger μ°= PLI UL¡ is an assigned function of r and 0. † The
7, concentrating the combustion has a small effect mean injection density μm can be obtained from
in the opposite direction . The effect of chamber 2
1
3 ƒ ƒª¨* µ° ( r , 0) rdrdə
ㅠSS
==
ue 0.1 Combustion 0 0
ue =0.3 concentrated at X = 0
and, assuming the combustion density to coincide
2- ue =0.3 , Axially distributed with the injection density, the combustion
n combustion response perturbation can be obtained by multi-
plying Eq. (4.2.2-10) or ( -10a) by u°/μm. Then
even in the absence of displacement sensitivity it
is necessary to expand M, in a series of eigen-
(a ) functions . For pure pressure sensitivity the
2
T stability boundary is still described by Eq.
(4.2.2-23 ) with GR given by
L
1 Er k
GR= 1+ — + PL dx
3
Am γ Yūe γιλε
L = 1.01
L=20} ue u₂ =0.1 where
2 L= 1,0 -2
L=2.5 e =0.3
n [ [ μ° popo*rdrde
0
Ar = (4.2.2-30)
1 2=
μm Popo *rdrde
(b ) 0 0
2 3
τ
with the asterisk denoting the complex conjugate.
(a) Effects of chamber Mach number and axial combustion
distribution . L = 1. † This is, of course, inconsistent with the assumption of
(b) Effects of chamber length . Combustion spread axially. one-dimensional steady flow, but an inconsistency that
FIGURE 4.2.2h.-Parametric studies of first tangential must be accepted in view of the difficulties involved in a
mode stability limits. three-dimensional steady-state analysis.
2.0
Fig. 4.2.21 shows the values of A, for the first
three transverse modes, calculated for the extreme First tongential mode
case of combustion concentrated on a single --- Second tangential mode
circle of radius r₁. First radial mode
When displacement sensitivity is present in
addition to the pressure sensitivity, it is con- 1.5
venient to define mean values of the displacement
interaction indices by
1 2T Ανη
μm ,dropo*rdrdo
0 0
10
m.= (4.2.2-31 ) 1.0
1 2T
μεm Popo*rdrde
2T
μmedeopo*rdrde 0.5
[Ser
0
me =
1 .2#
Popo*rdrde
*S
40 m [ **
where the zeroth order displacement components .8 1.0

are given by
Vo Poo dynνη
бто = Ꮎ, (4.2.2-32 )
So YS²2 dr
FIGURE 4.2.21 . —Injection distribution coefficient A,, for
pressure sensitivity. Injection concentrated on a single
Wo Poo Ψη
I ,, d Ꮎ, circle of radius ri.
δρο =
Ξ
So YS²2 r de
coefficients (similar to A ) for the combustion
The stability boundary condition is expressed by response to radial and tangential gas displace-
ments-Eq . (4.2.2-33 ) then becomes
Re[ (nA, + m,r +m̃, ) ( 1— exp [ -807 ]) ] = GR
Re [(nAm + m, B, + moСνη ) ( 1— exp [ -807 ]) ] = G,
(4.2.2-33 )
(4.2.2-33b)
and GR is given by Eq . (4.2.2-29) . If the dis-
placement response of the combustion process is Eq. (4.2.2-33b) can be also written in terms of
assumed to be instantaneous, rather than with the the velocity indices l , and le,582, 187 where
same time lag as the pressure response , the
Mr
stability boundary equation becomes 1, =
iwo
Re[AP +m,r +m̃e ] = GR ( 4.2.2-33a )
me
If the displacement indices m, and m, are the le ==
same for all injector sprays, the mean values iwo
mr, me can be written in the form
From Fig. 4.2.2i it can be seen that the tangen-
m, = m,B (4.2.2-31a) tial modes are especially sensitive to combustion
at radii greater than about of the chamber
me= moC
radius, whereas radial modes are most sensitive
where B νη and Cνη are eigenfunction expansion to combustion near the center of the chamber.
Thus , if both radial and tangential modes are values obtained from longitudinal mode testing.187
likely, the stability of an engine will be enhanced Transverse testing in the same program also
by varying the injection density across the indicated the strong spin direction preference of
injector face such that the largest value occurs certain injector patterns. This is illustrated in Fig.
at a radius about half that of the chamber. The 4.2.2k, where a pulse gun directed opposite to the
practical application of this principle was success- preferred spin direction causes only a momentary
fully demonstrated on the GEMSIP program¹¹ spinning wave before the wave reverses to the
and is the design basis for the injector of the LM preferred direction . The mechanism for such
descent engine (see Sect . 7.4.5 ) . preferences is the velocity/displacement effect and
The linear transverse-mode theory has been is described in Sect . 3.3.2.2.
verified by several experiments. At Princeton An experimental program conducted at Aerojet-
University, a variable-angle sector chamber was General encountered combined longitudinal-
used to measure stability limits of tangential transverse modes." The extension of the transverse-
modes.582, 187 The test results showed the expected mode theory to cover the combined longitudinal-
close similarity to the longitudinal mode (variable transverse modes is straightforward, although
length, Fig. 4.2.2b ) results. A typical example of care must be taken in the order-of-magnitude
the transverse stability limits is given in Fig. analysis required by the series solution method
.
4.2.2j , for injection concentrated near the outer (Sect . 4.2.2.2 ) . The excellent agreement between
periphery of the chamber. Testing with the same theory and experiment obtained on this program
injector pattern, but with the injection near the is illustrated in Fig. 4.2.21 . * The theoretical
half-radius , resulted in complete stability over the stability limit curves for modes which were
entire range of mixture ratio and sector angle. 582 unstable, either spontaneously or as a result of a
In addition , values of n and 7 obtained from the tangential pulse (Sect. 10.3 ) are shown by a solid
experimental results of Fig. 4.2.2j were found to line, whereas a dashed line is used to show the
be in excellent agreement with corresponding theoretical stability limits for modes that were not
found to be unstable. Velocity or displacement
effects were not considered in the calculation of
these limit curves . In agreement with the results
9" for purely transverse modes ( Fig. 4.2.2h ) , in-
8" creasing the chamber Mach number was de-
stabilizing, especially for the higher-order modes .
The incidence of higher-order modes at the larger
Mach number indicates an interaction between
the combustion dynamic response and the mean
flow in the chamber. It should be noted that the
linear theory is quite useful in guiding and
interpreting the results of pulse tests as well as
240° linear stability limits tests .
Second tangential
180° 4.2.3 Nonlinear Theory
First tangential
α 120° The theoretical treatment described in the
60° preceding Section 4.2.2 is based on the assumption
Stable of infinitesimal perturbations. In that case it is
0° meaningless to speak of the actual perturbation
.6 1.0 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6
Mixture ratio , O/F amplitude, since the amplitude is either undefined
.
(for neutral oscillations ) or grows to infinity (in
FIGURE 4.2.2j .- Experimental stability limits for tangen- the unstable case ) . Of course, this infinite growth
tial modes obtained with Princeton variable-angle sector
chamber, unlike-doublet injector, 150-psia chamber * A range of operating conditions was used to obtain
pressure, and LOX/ethanol propellants . these data and hence varied over a range of values.
50 msec-
P₁
P₂
-Region 2
Region I
Region 3 Region 4
Nonsteady pressure recorded on two pressure transducers

(spaced at 90° ) for a fuel - to - oxidizer oriented pulse
90°lead 90°lag 375psi (typ)

P₁
wwwww
w
P₂ wwww
w Pi
Imsec
Region I - Pulse disturbancerSpinning wave
approx180° 54 psi
P₁
Q
P₂ wwww www
при
Imsec 124 psi
Region 2 - Standing wave pattern Imsec
90°lag Region 4-Full amplitude Spinning wave
P
Pi
Initial wave travel
P₂ мими due to pulse
Imsec
Region 3 -Increasing amplitude /spinning -Final wave travel
wave
FIGURE 4.2.2k. -Preferred spin direction for one injector design .
is fictitious, since it violates the initial assumption with finite amplitude, the magnitude of which is
that has allowed the equations to be linearized . related to the nonlinear effects. Or, for linearly
In reality, as soon as the amplitude grows beyond stable operation , there may be an inversion of the
a certain level nonlinear effects become important. balance between energy feedback and damping
Eventually they dominate the whole process. when a certain amplitude level is reached , again
For example , for linear instability, that is, as a result of nonlinearities . Perturbations below
oscillations growing from infinitesimal perturba- that level are damped, in agreement with the
tions, nonlinear effects prevent the indefinite linear behavior, whereas perturbations above that
growth and determine some kind of limiting cycle level are amplified , eventually reaching a limiting
0.8r Incidence , % of tests

---ÍTIL Mode Spont.+
Spontaneous pulsed
0.6H IT 20 40
ITIL O O
n0.4 IT2L 20 60
2T2L
IT2L 2T O O
2T3L 2T2L 20 60
2T3L 20 20
0.05 0.10 0.20

T , millisec
a) Ac/A+ = 4.2 ; ue = 0.14
Incidence ,% of tests
0.8 Mode Spont.+
Spontaneous
2T2L pulsed
0.6- IT 27
2T3L IT ITIL O
T IT2L
2수
n 0.4
IT2L O 13
2T O
2T2L O O
2T3L O O
0.2
0.05 0.10 0.20
T, millisec
b) Ac /At = 46.6 ; ue = 0.01
FIGURE 4.2.21 . — Experimental and theoretical results for tangential and tangential-longitudinal modes. Propellants,
O2/H2 ; coaxial-element injection ; chamber pressure, 1000 to 2500 psia ; chamber diameter, 14 in .; chamber length, 24 in.
cycle of larger amplitude . The latter example is Fp, Fr, Fe Nonlinear combustion response
characteristic of nonlinear instability, also called functions
triggered or pulsed instability. fp , fr, fe Describing functions used to
Nonlinearities in the oscillatory operation of linearize nonlinear combustion
liquid propellant rockets derive from two sources . response functions
First , the combustion processes themselves may
present important nonlinear effects. This is gr, gs First order perturbation shape
functions
especially true of the displacement-sensitive
processes, as mentioned in Sect . 4.2.1.1 . Second, g Wave amplitude
independently of the behavior of the combustion Ag Shock amplitude
processes, the wave motion is characterized by the
K, Ko, Ki Constants in periodic wave condi-
well known nonlinear effects of steepening and
tion
dispersion, culminating in the appearance of
y Peripheral distance
shock waves. These two sources of nonlinearity
are discussed separately in the following sections. a =t- y Independent variable in annular
The following nomenclature pertains to Sect . chamber analysis
4.2.3 (see also Sects . 4.1.2 , 4.2.1 , and 4.2.2 ) : δ Displacement of nonlinear stability
limit from linear stability limit to unity when Fp , Fr, and F. coincide with their
on n, 7 plane arguments. The stability boundary is given by
Dimensionless amplitude parameter Eq . (4.2.2-33 ) or (-33a) , as before, but with the
describing functions introduced into the integrands
4.2.3.1 Nonlinear combustion response . - For this of the numerators of Eq. (4.2.2-30 ) and (-31 ) ,
discussion, it will be supposed that the only e.g. , for the nonlinear case , A, is given by
nonlinearity is that associated with the combustion
2
response. Aside from the obvious analytical
μ°fppopo*rdrde
simplification, this case has some practical
significance, as shown by numerical calculations Ar = (4.2.2-30a)
1 2x
of combustion instability (see Sects . 4.3 and 6.4 ) .
To insert a nonlinear combustion response into μ m[*[* Popo*rdrde
0 0
the framework of the linear theory, some method
of equivalent linearization must be used . The rather than Eq . (4.2.2-30 ) .
approach chosen by Reardon 11,650 makes use of Because of the nonlinear functions Fp, Fr, and
the well-established describing function method of Fe the coefficients A , mr, and m, depend on the
nonlinear mechanics , 138 actual amplitude of the perturbations. Therefore ,
If the perturbation of the rate function ap- the stability boundary will be obtained from Eq .
pearing in Eq. (4.2.1-1 ) is taken as (4.2.2-33 ) or Eq . (4.2.2-33a ) as a function of
perturbation amplitude. For example, stability
Re = nF, + m ,F , + m.F. (4.2.3-1 ) limits are shown in Fig. 4.2.3a for a deadband type
H
of nonlinear combustion response to a tangential
where Fp, Fr, and F, are nonlinear functions of the displacement (the pressure sensitivity is assumed
perturbations of pressure, radial displacement , linear , and radial displacement effects are
and tangential displacement , respectively, it is neglected ) . The unstable operating region above
found that only those Fourier components of Fp, the stability boundary is seen to enlarge as the
Fr, and F. that oscillate at the same frequency and amplitude is increased, leading to the possibility
in phase with the argument affect the stability. of nonlinear triggering as a direct result of the
As a result , the following equation is obtained for combustion response nonlinearity.
the "effective" part of the burning rate per- It should be observed that any nonlinear
turbation M₁ : function F ( x ) can be split into a symmetric part,
for which F , (x ) = F , ( - x) , and an antisymmetric
Mieff= M₁ ( Pfppo + Frdro + Fede ) (4.2.3-2) part, for which Fa ( x ) = − F₁ ( −x) . The symmetric
where the describing functions fp, fr, and fe are part does not contribute to the value of the
defined by corresponding describing function . However, it
270 does produce a variation of the mean burning rate
ωρ
fp = with respect to the steady burning rate, and
* Fp [Re (Poesot) ]
проро 0 hence a shift of the mean chamber pressure . There-
fore, this approach to nonlinear instability
• Re (po exp [ Sot ] ) dt
analysis should be used only for combustion
-2π/w0
ი response functions with a relatively small sym-
f₁ = Fr [Re (droest ) ]
πôrodroo metric part. Such mechanisms as nonlinear
vaporization (relative velocity effect ) , and liquid
• Re (dro exp [ sot ] ) dt (4.2.3-3) jet or droplet shattering cannot be treated by this
-2x/w method, whereas the temperature dependence of
wo
fg = chemical reaction rates and the enhanced mixing
πδιοδου * [0*** Fo [ R€ (d‰ ¤¹) ] due to vapor displacement are amenable to
analysis by the describing function method .
Re (deo exp [sot ]) dt
Finally, it should be observed that the formulation
It can be seen that the describing functions reduce given here ignores the effects of interactions
proper scale is found to be proportional to the

Re [ = ]
injection density , although with other models the
-8Ref choice may be different . Thus the perturbations
SRef can be expressed as
(a )
V' = µ°V₁1 + µ°²V₂2 + • • ·
where the primed quantities now represent the

entire perturbations rather than just their
amplitudes, and μ° = PLUL; is the injection density.
The steady-state quantities must also be
8908 Ref
expanded in powers of μ°. Making use of Eq .
800-28Ref
2+ 880-48Ref (4.2.1-11 ) through ( -15 ) , and taking PL to be
of ( 1 ) , as before, this procedure gives
ก ū = µ °ũ₁ +µ°²ū₂ + ...
••
C
p= 1 + μ°²p₂+ ...
880/8Ref ∞
p = 1 +μ²p₂ + ...
(b)
2 σ = μ²σ₂+ ••
Τ
In these expansions all the coefficients are of
(a) Combustion response function . 0 (1 ) and do not depend on u°. Ifthe combustion is
(b) Stability limits on n,r diagram . well spread along the length of the chamber,
FIGURE 4.2.3a .-Stability limits for deadband combustion du/dx is of (μ°) , hence,
response to tangential displacement. First tangential
mode; m = n ; m, = 0. M = µ°M₁ + ...
·
between different sensitivities. Although in the with M₁ = dū₁/dx.

linear case this procedure is always correct, in the The case of pure pressure sensitivity will be
nonlinear case such interactions are possible , and considered here, to show the method of solution
may be quite significant . and typical results . From Eq. (4.2.1-4 ) , the burn-
ing rate perturbation is obtained in the form
4.2.3.2 Nonlinear wave motion . The treatment
M' =μ°²M₂ + ...
of the nonlinear effects originating from the wave
with
process itself is by its very nature more com-
M₂ = M₁n [ p₁ ( t ) —p₁ ( t - 7 ) ] ( 4.2.3-4)
plicated. In this case it is definitely wrong to
start with the assumption of infinitesimal per- The derivation of the nozzle admittance
turbations, and one must actually establish a equation discussed in Sect . 3.6 is subject to severe
scale to which the amplitudes can be referred . limitations that make it inapplicable to the case
Also, it is wrong to prescribe the form of the time in which shock waves are present . This difficulty
dependence of the perturbations, since their can be circumvented by choosing a special nozzle
various Fourier components may interact . geometry, consisting of many orifices. 197 If a large
Concerning the scale for the perturbations, it is number of very small, individual nozzles are
evident that this scale should be related to the distributed uniformly at the exhaust end of the
injection density such that the amplitudes chamber, the oscillatory behavior can be approxi-
increase with the amount of combustion energy
mated in all cases by quasi-steady flow. 179 In this
available . With the sensitive time lag model , the case, the nozzle condition gives
tions, the first-order solution may be taken as

γ- 1
u₁ =0 ; U2 - Pi+ 101
2γ u₁ = V₁ = 0
as the boundary conditions at x = L, both for W₁ =P1/Y = pi =g (a) (4.2.3-6)

longitudinal and for transverse oscillations.
a= t- y
To simplify the discussion , the effect of the
droplet drag will be neglected in the present Introducing Eq . (4.2.3-6 ) , with g (a ) arbitrary,
analysis. That is , the coefficient k = 0 and uL = ULi into the second-order equations , which are of the
everywhere, so that UL , = ULI/μ° is constant. same form as Eq . (4.2.3-5 ) , but with terms on
The expansions in powers of u° given above for the R.H.S that involve the first-order solution,
the steady-state and perturbation quantities are the result is obtained that p2, V2, ... , are not
substituted into the conservation equations. periodic in general. Indeed , the second-order
Then the equations corresponding to each power solution is periodic only when a certain balance of
of μ can be satisfied separately. The first-order terms takes place, which can be expressed by the
equations show that σ = 0, so that p1 = YP1, and following equation :*
that the first-order perturbations satisfy the dg
partial differential wave equations L (y + 1 ) (g − K) da
a
+ V.V₁ = 0 (4.2.3-5 ) -
at = g- M2dx (4.2.3-7)
- (x + 1 + 2=
2 1) 0 - S
a
~ (H) -=0
(V₁) +V Substituting for M₂ from Eq . ( 4.2.3-4 ) , and
at noting that
The general solution of Eq . (4.2.3-5 ) is known

for the longitudinal modes, viz. , /* M‚dx = û , (L) — ū , (0 ) = 1
u₁ =g, (t - x) -gs (t + x ) Eq. (4.2.3-7) becomes

V₁ =W₁ = 0
dg dg
(y + 1 ) Lg - ( +1) LK
Pi da da
=gr (t - x) +g , ( t + x )
γ
where g, and g, are arbitrary functions of their = (1 +1 + 2 ½

2 ¹³) ( a) — ru [0 (a) − g (a− † ) ]
arguments. The solution is also known for the
purely transverse case in a thin annular chamber : (4.2.3-8)
U₁ = V₁ = 0
) The constant K is related to the first-order
perturbation of the frequency (the zeroth-order
W₁ gr (t - y) -gs (t + y ) value is unity) . In the case that a shock exists ,
Pi K must coincide with the mean value of g at the
= gr (t - y) + g , ( t + y) shock, that is , taking the shock location as
γ
απ
a = 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
where y is the peripheral variable. In this case it is K = 9m = [g ( 0 ) + g ( 1 ) ]
clear that g , and g , must be periodic , of period
unity if the reference length is chosen to be the Hence, the balance condition , Eq . (4.2.3-8 ) ,
wave length. In the fundamental mode, this contains only g as a dependent variable . Any
length would be the periphery of the annulus. In solution of this equation represents the wave
the longitudinal case the functions g. and g.
* The details of the derivation are given in Ref. 177 and
must be periodic also if it is required that the
Appendix I of Ref. 650. The analysis makes use of the
oscillation be periodic . Considering separately the method of coordinate stretching, which is quite helpful in
two transverse waves spinning in opposite direc- the solution of nonlinear partial differential equations451,706¸
ANALYTICAL MODELS OF HIGH FREQUENCY COMBUSTION INSTABILITY §42 193
shape of a possible periodic oscillation . Any other tions, it is found that solutions with finite e exist
wave shape is subject to distortions. In the first- only for n > no if < 7 < and for n < no outside of
order solution , Eq . ( 4.2.3-6 ) , the shock position that r-range. This e-expansion method is used in
is independent of x and so the shock is planar. References 645 and 143 to determine solutions of
However, to second order the shock is curved ; its the longitudinal-wave problem, but without the
shape can also be obtained from the second-order assumption of small u. and UL . The results are
solution.177 more complicated, but are in substantial agree-
The physical interpretation of the various ment with the results obtained for transverse
terms of Eq . (4.2.3-8 ) is instructive. On the modes by the combined - and e-expansion
L.H.S. , the first term represents the effect of the approach . 488, 489, 194
nonlinear wave shape and the second term the If there is a shock, Eq . (4.2.3-8 ) must, in
effect of the frequency shift. On the R.H.S. , the general, be solved numerically.488 Typical results
first term, vg, corresponds to the perturbation of are shown in Fig. 4.2.3b and the shock amplitude
the pumping work that the gases have to do Ag and wave amplitude ğ are illustrated in Sketch
against the prevailing pressure at the act of (c ) of Fig. 4.2.3b . The solid line representing
generation . The second term , g, represents the no ( ) is symmetric with respect to 7 = 0.5 , where
work required to produce the transverse momen- no is minimum . At this value of any n > no
tum of the generated gases . The third term , provides a shock-type solution. The behavior of
(y- 1 )g, corresponds to the perturbation' of the the shock amplitude Ag and the wave amplitude ğ
work spent in pushing the gases through the with respect to the distance d = n - no from the
nozzle. These three terms are of the same sign ; no (7) curve is qualitatively shown in an expanded
they are damping terms and cannot sustain scale by Sketch (a ) of Fig. 4.2.3b . In the range
instability. Therefore, instability must come from << , the typical behavior of the solutions with
the remaining term, which must provide the the normal distance & is expanded in Sketch (b )
combustion energy feedback necessary to balance of Fig. 4.2.3b . In this region , the shock amplitude
the damping terms . Ag goes to zero for some finite ds, at which ğ is
Shockless solutions of Eq . (4.2.3-8 ) can be still finite . For & < 8 , the oscillations are shockless
obtained650 by introducing the expansions and coincide with the shockless waves discussed
above. Finally, when 7 < or 7 > , the solutions
g = eg₁ + e²g2 + ··
behave as shown in Sketch ( c ) . As d→ 0 from
n = no + enit .... above ( i.e. , within the linearly unstable region ) ,
the shock and wave amplitudes tend to finite
K= Ko + eK₁ + ... values, so that solutions exist also for & < 0 , that is,
in the linearly stable region , down to a certain
in terms of an amplitude parameter that is
independent of μ.. The resulting first -order negative 8min. Between 8min and a certain (nega-
tive) 8 , two shock-type solutions are obtained .
equation is linear, and is satisfied by
For 8 , << 0, one shock-type and one shockless
91 = sin 2πα solution exist , the latter coinciding with the
for the zeroth-order values of n and K given by shockless solution discussed previously. This
result can be interpreted , by extension of the
3y+ 1 studies of Ref. 645 , or by direct investigation , or
no =
2у ( 1- cos 2πi) by topological considerations, as follows . Only
the upper branches of the curves of Sketch (c ) of
3y+ 1 Fig. 4.2.3b provide mathematically stable and
Ko =
4L ( +1 ) tan π7 physically possible periodic solutions, in the
sense that any distortion from the corresponding
For = 0 , n = no ( 7 ) . This result represents the wave shape tends to die out with time. The lower
linear stability limit, and can be obtained directly branches are mathematically unstable, and cannot
from the equations of Sec . 4.2.2.4 for k = 0, correspond to a physically possible periodic
μ = Ūe, &r = - (y - 1 ) ue. For higher-order solu- solutions. However, the lower branches do provide
g
Ag
s Longitudinal , uniformly
5 Shockles (c ) distributed combustion
8
8min 8s/0
4
(b )
s
kles
(a)
Shoc
67-
n 3-
8o
=
n
-
Nonlinear
Transverse
stability limit 20
85
2+
Ο
Linear stability
limit , no (T) T==2/ 31
= 2/3
Longitudinal
T 2x+1 concentrated
3y+1
21 combustion
3x-147
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
T
FIGURE 4.2.3b .-Stability limits and behavior of solutions for nonlinear wave motion.
a "triggering limit " for the perturbation ampli- reason that although a nonlinear instability
tude. That is, below this limit the perturbation region exists within the linearly stable region of
decays, whereas above the limit the perturbation Fig . 4.2.3b , it does not extend over the whole
is amplified, and tends with time to the solutions range of 7, for example by decreasing the minimum
of the upper branch . This behavior is, of course, value of n for which instability can be produced .
only possible for the region above the dashed line If the nonlinear combustion response were in-
of Fig. 4.2.3b , which can appropriately be called cluded in the treatment along with the wave
the nonlinear stability limit. motion nonlinearity, the two effects would re-
The preceding discussion of the behavior of inforce each other, resulting in a nonlinear
transverse oscillations applies also to longitudinal stability limit nNL < no for all values of 7.
oscillations, for which an equation similar to
Eq. (4.2.3-8 ) can be derived.630,769 On the right
4.3 NUMERICAL INTEGRATION METHODS*
side of Fig. 4.2.3b are plotted the linear and
nonlinear stability limits for two limiting cases of Other sections of this chapter show how
longitudinal-mode oscillations : ( 1 ) the case of stability limits and wave characteristics of
combustion concentrated within a very short pressure oscillations in combustion chambers can
distance of the injector, and (2) the case of be determined analytically. Such approaches
combustion distributed uniformly along the have to make some assumptions to obtain a
length of the chamber. The similarity of the solution , e.g., ( 1 ) small-amplitude oscillations
longitudinal and transverse cases is apparent (except for some of the nonlinear theories) , ( 2 )
from this illustration. single-frequency sinusoidal oscillations, (3 ) burn-
A final observation is useful . Since Eq. (4.2.3-4) ing rate linearly proportional to pressure and/or
is linear in p₁, the effects of the combustion
response nonlinearity are excluded . This is the * R. J. Priem, Author.
velocity. These assumptions are not always describe the unsteady combustion process by the
consistent with observed instability phenomena. equations presented in Chapter 3, retaining the
That is, finite disturbances are often required to nonlinear relationships. These combustion process
excite instability ; waves are usually steep- equations define the mass , momentum , and
fronted ; and the burning rate is inherently non- energy sources included in the conservation
linear . This section describes a technique for equations discussed in Sect . 4.1 . The source terms
determining stability characteristics without the are coupled to the conservation equations , since
assumptions stated above. It should not be the combustion rates are dependent on gas
inferred that the technique presented in this velocities, pressure, density, etc. , specified by the
section gives the complete answer, since other conservation equations. Therefore, simultaneous
non-realistic assumptions are made to obtain solution of all equations is required. Because of
solutions. Rather, the numerical integration the complexity of the equations the only practical
method should be considered to be complementary method of solution appears to be numerical
to the others, each providing information that integration .
cannot be obtained by another approach because A numerical solution begins with specified
of basic assumptions and limitations . conditions at some starting time. These initial
The following nomenclature pertains to Sect . 4.3 : conditions are usually assumed to correspond to
B Pre-exponential factor in Arrhenius rate the steady-state solution. Having specified all
properties at numerous positions in the combustor
expression
C Instantaneous concentration of vaporized at this initial time, the governing equations, in
but unreacted propellants difference form, are integrated at each position
Eact Activation energy to determine time histories. The accuracy of the
F
F solution depends on the number of positions

Drag force per unit volume exerted on
selected in the chamber at which histories are
gas by liquid
២០ គឺ ៖
obtained . If the combustor is spontaneously

Viscous dissipation parameter
Burning rate parameter unstable, any deviation from the exact steady-
My Fractional burning rate per unit length. state solution of the equations will result in
M Dimensionless mass accumulation oscillations that grow to a finite amplitude. If the
combustor is not spontaneously unstable, a
mace (t) finite-amplitude disturbance may excite insta-
parameter ,
macc bility. By introducing disturbances at the initial
Ma conditions it is possible to determine whether the
Mass injected but not atomized
ML Mass of liquid drop combustor can be driven unstable by a finite
Mv disturbance.
Mass atomized but not vaporized
Macc
Mass accumulated prior to either atom-
ization or vaporization 4.3.1.1 Approach and assumptions. In prin-
n Order of chemical reaction ciple, it is possible to follow the complete time
Ap Instantaneous difference between maxi- history of an engine firing, including starting,
mum and minimum pressures in full-thrust operation , throttling, and shut-down,
chamber to determine conditions at all positions in the
tb Breakup time of liquid jet or drop engine. At present this procedure is impossible
Ꮎ; Angular calculation location for numerical because of the excessive computer size and time
integration required to perform the calculations. Although it
〈〉 is possible to follow the complete buildup of an
Average value (of quantity enclosed )
oscillation and to determine the equilibrium
4.3.1 Basic Concepts* amplitude and wave shape, it is difficult and time
The numerical integration approach to com- consuming.13 Therefore, it has generally been
assumed that if a disturbance initially grows in
bustion instability originated from the attempt to
amplitude, the system is unstable ; whereas if a
* R. J. Priem, Author, and D. T. Campbell, Contributor . disturbance initially decays, the system is stable to
this disturbance. These assumptions save con- TABLE 4.3.1b. -APPROXIMATE TIME TO COMPUTE
100 TIME STEPS
siderable computing time, since only a few periods
of oscillation must be computed . However, this
assumed rule of stability is not always valid. Number of
Engines have demonstrated oscillations that grow Number of subdivisions in Computing
space dimensions each space time
for a short time and then decay ; others first decay
dimension
and then become very large (see Chapter 10 ) .
The magnitude of the problem of obtaining a
numerical solution for instability can be illustrated 1 10 1 min
by use of Tables 4.3.1a , b, and c.276 The number of 100 1 hr
1000 1 wk
subdivisions in each space dimension determines
the amount of detail in the solution . Using 10
subdivisions gives only a sketchy picture of the 2 10 6 min
oscillations. An adequate solution can be obtained 100 1 wk
with 100 subdivisions, but 1000 are required to 1000 10 yr
describe clearly a steep-fronted wave. Present -day
computers have internal storage capacities of the 3 10 1 hr
order of 105. It can be seen from Table 4.3.1a that 100 1 yr
detailed two-dimensional solutions and other than 1000 10 yr
rough three-dimensional solutions cannot be
accomplished without auxiliary storage. The times
required to compute 100 steps listed in Table
TABLE 4.3.1c. -APPROXIMATE TIME TO COMPUTE
4.3.1b are based on an IBM 709 class computer.
ONE PERIOD OF OSCILLATION
It is clear that the computing time increases
rapidly as the number of dimensions or sub-
divisions is increased. Perhaps a more meaningful Number of
Number of subdivisions in Computing
time for combustion instability studies is the time.
space dimensions each space time
required to compute one period of oscillation . For
dimension
TABLE 4.3.1a. -APPROXIMATE COMPUTER STORAGE 1 10 0.1 min

REQUIRED FOR NUMERICAL SOLUTION 100 1 hr
1000 10 wk
Number of
Number of subdivisions in Required 2 10 1 min
space dimensions each space storage 1 wk
100
dimension 1000 100 yr
1 10 10
3 10 10 min
100 102
100 1 yr
1000 103 1000 105 yr
2 10 102
100 104 numerical stability, the number of time steps for
1000 106 one period is related to the number of space
subdivisions. Hence, the information in Table
3 10 103 4.3.1b can be used to generate Table 4.3.1c ,
100 106 which shows that a three-dimensional analysis
1000 109 with adequate detail would be extremely costly
and time-consuming. Therefore , work performed
using numerical integration methods has been formulation allows the treatment of fuel and
limited to one- and two-dimensional systems . oxidizer sprays with quite different characteristics .
The forces FF and Fox are the drag forces acting
4.3.1.2 Governing equations. -The equations on to accelerate the unburned propellants .
which the numerical stability analysis is based The stability analysis can be performed using
can be derived from the conservation equations the equations in either dimensional or non-
written for a parcel of gas through which liquid dimensional form. Nondimensionalization has the
propellant droplets move as they are converted advantage that parameters that control stability
into combustion products. These conservation appear in groups rather than as individual terms.
equations are essentially the same. as Eqs. Typical reference quantities are : combustor
(4.1.2-1 ) , (4.1.2-2) , and (4.1.2-5 ) , but are radius or length, speed of sound of the combustion
presented here in a somewhat different form and gases, and appropriately selected steady-state
with viscous effects and heat conduction in- values of pressure, temperature, density, and
cluded : 359 burning rate.
Mass : Solution of the governing equations requires the
establishing of initial and boundary conditions.
ap
= -V.pV+ Mr + Mox (4.3.1-1 ) The usual approach is to specify the initial
at conditions as the steady-state values modified by
Momentum : an arbitrary disturbance. The boundary condi-
tions ( spatial ) are largely dependent on the
av
P -- ·p (V · V ) V — Vp - V.T combustor geometry. For a full, three-dimen-
at sional chamber, the appropriate conditions are
(a) no flow through the solid walls of the chamber
-- (V - VLF) MF- (V - VLOX) Mox
and injector, (b) specified propellant flow through
-FF- Fox (4.3.1-2 ) the injector orifices, and (c ) sonic flow at the
nozzle throat . Boundary conditions for other
Energy :
configurations are given in Sects. 4.3.2 and 4.3.3 .
ƏT In specifying the boundary conditions, one must
PCv = pcv (V.V) T + RVT - pv.V - T : VV
at be careful not to give too many or too few condi-
tions or to use unrealistic conditions . A good
+ MF ( eLF - CT) + Mox (eLox - CVT)
understanding of the physical phenomena asso-
+ FF (V - VLF) + Fox (V - VLOX) ciated with combustion instability is the best
guide to establishing the proper boundary condi-
+ MF (VLF - V ) · (VLF − V) tions.
+ MOX (VLOX - V) (VLOX - V)
4.3.1.3 Burning rate models. The driving
(4.3.1-3)
energy for combustion instability comes from the
The gas is assumed to be perfect , so that
combustion process , whereby chemical energy is
T expended to gasify the liquid propellants and heat
p=p (4.3.1-4 ) the reaction products . In the numerical integration
2
methods the local, instantaneous rate per unit
and
volume at which these processes occur is described
e = c ,T by a burning rate M, which may be different for
or
oxidizer and fuel. It is important that the depend-
de ence of the burning rate on both the local reactant
Cy = = const. (4.3.1-5 ) character (propellant spray drop size distribution ,
dT
velocity, concentration , etc. ) and the local gas
It should be noted that the burning rate is dynamic environment be adequately represented.
written as the sum of the fuel and oxidizer When time derivatives are suppressed, the
burning rates, MF and Mox, respectively . This burning rate equations must reduce to the same
equations used to define the steady-state char- concentration of unatomized propellant m, by the
acteristics of the combustor. breakup time. When normalized by the appro-
The steps that are normally considered to priate steady-state quantities , the result is
make up the combustion process for a liquid
M Ma 5/12 5/4
propellant rocket are atomization , vaporization , = Ρ
(4.3.1-7)
gas-phase mixing, and chemical reaction . * A M ma (N )
single step is usually assumed to control the
overall combustion process . For example, Priem563 Other atomization rate or breakup time equa-
employed vaporization- and chemical-reaction- tions can also be used . For example, the breakup
controlled burning rate expressions in the original time derived by Wolfe and Anderson755 specifically
development of the numerical integration tech- for the secondary breakup of droplets in a gas
nique, and subsequently added atomization as a stream would lead to an equation similar to Eq.
possible controlling mechanism.556 Based on his (4.3.1-7 ) but with slightly larger exponents for
theoretical studies he concluded that chemical both gas density and relative velocity factors.
reaction is normally so fast that it would not be Campbell135 introduced a droplet shattering rate
controlling, except possibly for gaseous propellant into a vaporization-limited combustion model.
rockets . In most of the numerical stability The secondary droplets are considered small
analyses the burning rates have been treated as enough to burn as soon as they form. This model
being vaporization -limited , although a gas -phase is based on a capillary-wave breakup mechanism.
mixing limitation on the burning rate has recently After local achievement of gas dynamic conditions
been used.135 In the following paragraphs the suitable for breakup ( viz , We/ (Re ) 1/2 > 10 ) , there
various burning rate equations are presented , with is an induction period134 followed by capillary-
a brief description of their origin . The experimental wave breakup, 500
data and analytical assumptions can be found in A major unanswered question in the use of any
the references quoted. of the droplet breakup equations is the importance
ATOMIZATION- LIMITED BURNING of the sheltering of a given drop by clouds of
RATE : The burning rate equation used by neighboring droplets . The available equations
Priem563 was obtained by use of the breakup time were obtained by observing the shattering of
measured by Morrell500 for a water jet in a trans- isolated droplets and may well predict breakup
verse shock wave : rates too high for dense propellant sprays .
2/3 1/3 VAPORIZATION- LIMITED BURNING
dL PL (Re/2 ) 3/4
tb = 1.91 (4.3.1-6 ) RATE : The vaporization-limited burning rate
AV ( ) ( )
1 (We) 1/2 equations all derive from the equation given by
where Priem and Heidmann564 for the case of simul-
taneous energy and mass transport between a
djpAV djp (AV)²
Re = ; We = spherical droplet and the surrounding gas :
μ S
dm L 2πгLWLDрNum
Morrell's data were obtained from high-speed In (4.3.1-8 )
dt Ꭲ. P - Pv
photographs of the liquid deformation and
breakup . Jet velocities were relatively low (20 to
Although this equation is quasi-steady in nature,
46 ft /sec ) unlike the gas velocities (up to 1000
it does allow for droplet heating and thus differs
ft /sec ) . An average atomization rate was then
from many well known combustion models , such
obtained by dividing the instantaneous mass
as those of Godsave,290 Penner,536 and Williams.740
The dimensionless forms of the burning rate
* Where liquid-liquid reaction occurs, as with hypergolic actually introduced into the numerical integration
propellants, some of these steps may be bypassed. Such differ rather widely. Using the Ranz-Marshall
reaction may have a profound effect on spray formation
expression for the Nusselt number, and using the
through the phenomenon of stream separation ( Sect . 2.3 ) ,
approximation Dp T7, the nondimensional
but is generally considered to account for a very small
fraction of the overall energy release . form of the unsteady burning rate is
Μ 0.7 for such a spray, account must be made for

2 +0.6Sc / Re1/2
= contributions to the burning rate of drop sizes
M
Μ - (+) (
+) 2 + 0.65c1/ Re¹/2
over the whole range . Because the burning of
small droplets generates gas that accelerates the
In ( 1 - pv/p )
(4.3.1-9) burning of larger drops, the spray cannot be
In (1 - pv/P) .
simulated properly by a single mean size. Two
where approaches have been used to solve this problem.
Re =2гLPAV /μ In the first, a moderate number (e.g. , 10 to 20)
of discrete drop size groups is used to simulate the
If it is assumed that the ratio of vapor pressure
actual spray.135 The local drop size distribution
to static pressure always remains at the steady- must first be obtained from a steady- state
state value and that variations in film temperature combustion calculation. The burning rate equa-
T are insignificant, Eq. (4.3.1-9) reduces to135
tion is applied separately to each drop size group
M TL2 + 0.6Sc¹/3Rel/2 and the contributions of all of the groups are
= (4.3.1-10 ) summed to obtain the overall rate of gas genera-
M FL/ 2 + 0.65c1/3Rel/2
tion and energy release .
Kosvic et al. , 410 neglected the droplet radius In the alternate approach, the burning rate is
variation, and introduced a droplet "Reynolds expressed as a function of drop radius, weighted
number based on the speed of sound" * so that AV by a distribution function , and numerically
could be expressed in terms of velocities normalized integrated over all drop radii. 358 This approach
by the sound velocity. The resulting burning rate has the advantage of considering all sizes and of
equation is providing a convenient means of varying mean
drop size and variance to determine their effects.
M 2 + 0.6Sc¹/3 (p/p) 1/2 ( AV/a ) 1 /2Rea1/2
= on stability. However, it is more restrictive in
M 2 + 0.65c1/
3 (AV/a ) 1/2Rea1/2 that the distribution may not vary from steady
(4.3.1-11 ) state, and it would not be convenient to use when
where variable factors that are implicitly dependent on
drop size (e.g. , droplet velocity, temperature,
2гLpa
Red = vapor pressure ) are included in the burning rate.
μ This approach also gives undue importance to the
It is of some interest that the effect of pv/p small drop sizes, since it is assumed that they are
variations, which is neglected in most of the never burned but always exist as in steady state.
GAS- PHASE-MIXING -LIMITED BURN-
numerical studies, is of primary interest in the
analytical model of Dykema (Sect . 4.4.1.3 ) . ING RATE : When the vaporization rate becomes
Also , in the studies of Heidmann and Wieber,346, 347 extremely high, it is possible that small pockets of
both the p /p and T terms were considered unmixed propellant vapors may form. Such might
important, and produced a burning rate that was be the case when a droplet is heated rapidly
frequency dependent . Thus , the vaporization through its critical temperature, or with droplet.
models used in the numerical integration methods shattering, in which clouds of the very fine
have ignored the frequency dependence of the secondary droplets are rapidly gasified. In such
burning rate, a dependence that is of primary cases, the burning rate could be controlled by the
importance in the theories discussed in Sections rate of gas-phase turbulent mixing . Unfortunately,
4.2 and 4.4 . there does not appear to be a suitable model
POLYDISPERSE SPRAYS : The actual in- available to describe such mixing under highly
jection spray in a liquid rocket engine consists of convective conditions. Even if such a model were
a wide range of drop sizes . To provide a valid available, the required experimental turbulent
description of a non-steady combustion process diffusivity data does not exist at the present time.
However, as a first step in describing local gas-
This Rea is actually equivalent to 2/Kn, where Kn is phase mixing rates , a model developed by
the Knudsen Number. Spalding-662 has been modified and introduced into
a numerical integration burning rate model.135*

Spalding's derivation assumed spherical sym-
metry, uniform gas density, and no convection.
The modifications included approximate correc-
tions for bipropellant combustion and a Nusselt
number factor to account for convective effects.
CHEMICAL-REACTION-LIMITED BURN-
ING RATE : As an alternative to the vaporiza-
tion-limited burning rate, Priem and Guentert563
FIGURE 4.3.2a .- Cylindrical coordinate system for sta-
examined a model in which the burning rate was bility analysis.
equal to the chemical reaction rate, as given by
M n Eact Hence only the steady-state values of the param-

= (4.3.1-12 ) eters can be used in the other dimensions . How-
M ( ) exprᎢ (1-3
) ( )] ever, in using the tangential or radial models with
where the instantaneous concentration of va- nonlinear burning mechanisms, if steady-state
porized but unreacted propellants was determined. values and derivatives in the axial direction are
from used at all times, the average pressure of the
t system will continually increase. That is, the
L
dt (4.3.1-13 ) nonlinear burning rate increases the amount of
E =1+ C 0 (1 - M )α propellant burned in the volume under considera-
The steady-state concentration of unreacted tion , whereas using the steady-state axial deriva-
tives leads to constant mass flow out of the
propellants, C, related to the burning rate M by
the Arrhenius expression volume. To compensate for this result, the mass,
momentum, and energy equations are integrated
M = (Cō ) ¹B exp [ -Eact/ T] (4.3.1–14 ) over the space dimension at each instant . By
is the primary controlling factor for this model . assuming no change with time of the mass ,
momentum , and energy in the control volume,
4.3.2 One- Dimensional Analysis † average axial velocity, density, and temperature
gradients are obtained . This approach is clearly
As discussed in Sect . 4.3.1.1 , reducing the
not exact . Experimental engine tests and two-
number of space dimensions to one drastically
dimensional analyses show that at any axial
reduces the storage and time requirements for a
position the volume averages do not remain
numerical integration stability analysis. There-
constant with time . This is one of the shortcomings
fore , one-dimensional models have been the
of a one-dimensional model ; information is
most commonly used . Starting from a cylindrical needed in other dimensions and is not available .
coordinate system ( Fig . 4.3.2a ) , the coordinate
retained could be x, 0, or r, corresponding to axial,
4.3.2.1 Simplification of equations. -To illus-
tangential, or radial oscillations, respectively. trate how the equations are simplified for a one-
One-dimensionality implies that nothing is known
dimensional analysis the continuity equation will
about the variables in the other dimensions.
be derived for a tangential ("0" ) model . The
* The form of this relationship is control volume for this analysis is an annular
2/3 ring, as shown in Fig . 4.3.2b . In cylindrical
p(r - rst)
M = 2πNamaqD(2 + 0.6 Re¹²Sc¼/3) coordinates the continuity equation is
mdor( 1 + rst)
where Na is the number density of droplets , mao is the ap -ə (pu) d (pv) pv 18 (pw)
=
initial mass of a single droplet, D is the diffusivity, r is the at Əx Ər r r 20
instantaneous mixture ratio, Tst is the stoichiometric
mixture ratio, p is the gas density, Re is the Reynolds + MF + Mox (4.3.2-1 )
number and Sc the Schmidt number.
† R. J. Priem, Author, with T. C. Kosvic and R. Van where u, v, and w are the velocity components in
Wyk, Contributors. the x, r, and directions, respectively. With the
a (pu) = ǝ (pu)
Əx ax
the continuity equation is

Ic
ap 1 d ( pw)
=- + (MF - MF ) + ( Mox¬Mox)
at r 20
(4.3.2-7)
FIGURE 4.3.2b .-Annular-ring control volume for one- Alternatively, if the total mass flux in the control
dimensional stability model. volume is assumed to be constant, the local mass
flux can be equated to the average value from
one-dimensional model, nothing is known about Eq . (4.3.2-6 ) to give
the radial direction . Therefore , all radial velocity
ap 1 d ( pw)
components and radial derivatives must be taken = + Mr + Mox
to be zero : at r 20
ap V av 2T
V = = =0 1
(4.3.2-2)
Ər ər (4.3.2-8)
2π [0** (Mr+ Mox) d@
In the axial direction there is additional informa-
Similar procedures are used to simplify the
tion , from the steady-state equation
other governing equations.563 Caution must be
1 a (pw) a (pu) used in deriving the burning rate equation for a
0 - + ME + Mox (4.3.2-3 )
r ᎧᎾ дх one-dimensional analysis. Many of the terms in
the burning rate equation are functions of time ;
and with no tangential flow in the steady state, it is always desirable to retain these variables .
However, since the burning material is moving
a (pu) =
MF +MOX (4.3.2-4 ) axially, a knowledge of the oscillations in that
дх
dimension is required . Hence the only one-
This is all the information known about the dimensional model that can truly include time.
axial direction unless it is assumed that the total dependent burning rates is an axial model.
mass in the annular ring remains constant. Then
-2x др 4.3.2.2 Method of solution. Several techniques
1 2= a (pw)
d0 = 0 == do are available for the numerical integration of
Ət !
r"
0 20 differential equations.276 Two basic types of
solution have been used in stability analyses , the
2π
2 a (pu) first-order explicit method563 and the predictor-
do+ (Mr + Mox ) do
" ax 0 corrector method . 91, 131, 135
In the first-order explicit scheme the spatial
(4.3.2-5 )
derivatives of all quantities are determined at
The first term on the RHS of Eq. (4.3.2-5 ) is time t from known values at adjacent calculation
zero, since it is a closed integral. Then from Eq. locations. Thus,
(4.3.2-5 ) the average axial mass flux (pu ) is
ap p(t, 0, +40) -p (t , 0; -A0)
related to the burning rates by = (4.3.2-9a)
20 (t, j) 240
2T
ǝ (pu ) = 1
(MF + Mox) do (4.3.2-6 ) where the 0 are the locations at which the cal-
дх 2π 0
culations are performed . From the conservation
Thus, there are two possible continuity equa- equations, the values and spatial derivatives of
tions. If the local axial mass flux is taken to be the dependent variables are used to determine the
equal to the steady-state value, or time derivatives at time t :
Numerical stability is of paramount importance

ap
at ( t, 0 ,)1 -f ap ( 1 , 0 ) , --- ]
= f [ p ( t, 0, ) , 00 (4.3.2-9b) in this approach. With numerical instability the
calculated results oscillate with growing amplitude
Then the values of each variable at time t + At about the true solutions. Since the objective of the
are found by adding the product of the time. combustion stability analysis is to determine the
derivative and the time increment to the value level of disturbance (superimposed on the steady-
at time t, state solution ) required to produce oscillatory
ap flow in the combustor, numerical instabilities
p ( t + At, 0; ) = p ( t , 0; ) + (t , 0; ) At (4.3.2-9c ) cannot be distinguished from actual combustion
at
system instabilities. Numerical stability is usually
In the predictor-corrector method the value of verified by observing the behavior of the cal-
each variable at time t +At is first predicted or culated results when the burning rate is held at a
assumed . Then mean values of the variables (at a constant value. With a numerically stable method
mean time tm) the disturbance will decay when the burning
rate is constant .
p ( tm, 0j ) = g [ p (t , @; ) , p ( t + At , 0; ) ] ( 4.3.2-10a )
are used to obtain spatial derivatives at the 4.3.2.3 Typical results.- The output of a
mean time, numerical integration stability analysis computer
program generally lists flow characteristics at each
ap p (tm, 0 + 0 ) -p (tm, 0; -A0)
( tm, j ):= spatial location for selected times. One way to
20 240 analyze the results is to plot the important flow
variables as functions of time. For example , Figs.
(4.3.2-10b)
4.3.2c and 4.3.2d show pressure-time plots for one
The mean quantities are used in the conservation location . In these plots, the variables are given in
equations to determine mean time derivatives, dimensionless form : the " reduced" pressure is the
ap ap actual, instantaneous pressure divided by the
(tm, 0j) =fp (t , j ) , (tm, Øj ) , steady-state pressure ; the reduced time has been
at Ət
normalized by use of the mean radius of the
(4.3.2-10c) annulus and the speed of sound. Overall stability
The value of each variable at time t + At is then determination usually requires an examination of
found using the mean time derivative . If the the oscillations at all spatial locations. It is con-
calculated value does not agree with the predicted venient to use the difference Ap between the
maximum and minimum pressures in the annulus
value a new (corrected ) prediction is made for the
variable at time t +At and the cycle is repeated . at each instant as the dependent variable . Figs .
4.3.2e and 4.3.2f show the pressure difference
When agreement is reached within the desired
accuracy for all 0 , the calculation is advanced to (reduced by the steady-state pressure ) for the
the next time step. same two cases as Figs. 4.3.2c and 4.3.2d . It is
The determination of the mean values is an clear from these plots that the disturbance with
important part of the predictor-corrector method. initial amplitude equal to 1 % of the steady-state
pressure was damped, whereas the disturbance
The simplest technique is to use an arithmetic
mean.136 In correcting the predicted values , with 5 % initial amplitude resulted in oscillatory
several techniques have been used , including the combustion . By performing such calculations for a
series of initial disturbance amplitudes , the
complex Gauss- Seidell method136 and the Crank-
Nicholson method. 91 , 410 The more complex methods stability boundary for the given steady-state
operating condition can be determined .
minimize the iteration steps needed to obtain
agreement between predicted and calculated To give a more general understanding of the
values at t + At . A variation of the method factors that control combustion instability it is
described above is to convert the conservation
* However, in general, it is difficult to distinguish posi-
equations to finite difference form right at the tively between numerical instability and physical in-
beginning . 131 , 135, 136 , 359 , 410 stability.
1.006
1.004 1.6
Reduced
pressure
1.002
Reduced
pressure
1.4
1.000
.998-
1.25
996
.994
1.0
.992
.990 1 0.88
O .2 4 .6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Reduced time
FIGURE 4.3.2c .-Typical pressure history with initial .2 .6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
disturbance amplitude of 0.01 . Annular-ring model. Reduced time
helpful to conduct parametric studies, using FIGURE 4.3.2d .-Typical pressure history with initial
disturbance amplitude of 0.05. Annular-ring model.
dimensionless quantities. Three such dimension-
less parameters result directly from the non-
dimensionalization of the conservation equations .010
for an annular-ring control volume : a burning rate
parameter,
.008
r.Mx
= (4.3.2-11 )
ed
Reducure
Ec
press
.006
a viscous dissipation parameter ,
*on
J= (4.3.2-12 )
repe .004
and a velocity difference parameter ,
V – VL .002
AV = (4.3.2-13 )
ā
However, analyses of both one-dimensional and 1

4 6 8 1.0 1.2 1.6 1.8 2.0
two-dimensional models have shown that large. Reduced time
changes in 3 have negligible effect on the stability
boundaries . Hence the viscous dissipation param- FIGURE 4.3.2e . - Pressure difference history . Initial dis-
turbance amplitude, 0.01 .
eter is not usually considered . It should be noted
that for a given engine the values of these dimen-
sionless parameters depend on the location of the decreases the disturbance amplitude required for
control volume, since Mx, the fraction of propellant instability, for any value of the burning rate
burned per unit length, and AV, the relative parameter. However, it is expected that a mini-
velocity, vary along the length of the chamber. mum value of AV = 0.01 (approximately) exists ,
The influence of 2 and AV on the stability corresponding to the level of turbulence in a
limits for a simple vaporization-limited combus- typical rocket engine combustion chamber . The
tion model in which only the Reynolds number burning rate parameter for minimum stability is
variation was considered is shown in Fig. 4.3.2g. 563 seen to be 0.8 , for AV = 0.01 , and increases slightly
Decreasing the velocity difference parameter as AV is increased . The curves shown in Fig.
4.3.2g were obtained with the explicit integration maccā 2πmace

technique. Corresponding calculations using a Mv = = (4.3.2-14)
Mre Mtw
predictor-corrector method yielded curves slightly
higher in the low- region. where m acc is the mass concentration of atomized,
When other combustion mechanisms are con- but unvaporized propellants in the control volume.
sidered , additional parameters must be specified . From Eq. (4.3.2-14 ) it can be seen that the mass
For example, when mass accumulation is added to accumulation parameter can also be interpreted
the vaporization model, the additional parameter as the ratio of the time to burn the accumulated
is propellant at the steady-state rate, mace M, to
the wave time. Fig . 4.3.2h illustrates the effect of
mass accumulation on stability. The less mass is
accumulated, or the shorter the burning time of
2.4
the accumulated propellant , the greater is the
2.22 disturbance required to trigger instability.
2.아 For the purely atomization -controlled combus-
1.8 tion process, the mass accumulation parameter Ma
Reduced
ure
is defined also by Eq. (4.3.2-14 ) , except that the

1.6
press
quantity mace refers to the mass injected but not

1.4- yet atomized . Typical stability limits are presented
1.2 in Fig. 4.3.21 . The trends are similar to those
1.0 obtained with the vaporization model. Com-
parison of Figs . 4.3.2h and 4.3.2i shows that the
0.8
atomization process is more sensitive to dis-
0.6 turbances than vaporization for large and
0.4 small on.
Stability limits derived from the chemical-
0.25
reaction-controlled combustion model are shown
J
.6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 in Fig. 4.3.2j for limited concentrations of
Reduced time
vaporized but unreacted propellants. When an
FIGURE 4.3.2f.- Pressure difference history. Initial dis- unlimited supply of unburned propellant was
turbance amplitude, 0.05 . assumed , all disturbances examined excited insta-
disturbance
amplitude
Initial
1,0
,AcP
P
/
Unstable
1
AV=.04
02
/01
T
Stable
‫ليسيل‬
0.01
‫اسي‬ ‫اسي‬ ‫اسي‬

0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100
Burning rate parameter , L
FIGURE 4.3.2g . Stability limits for vaporization-controlled combustion . Annular-ring model.

disturbance
amplitude
1.0
‫سيل‬
,Initial
ce
Unstable
e
CP
,amplitud
distuban
A
/P
Unstable
Initial
/
P c
My-1
0.1
Stable
--- །
Unstable
Co =0.01 Co=0.1
‫ـلس‬
0.01
Unstable 3
Unstable
6 17-
‫لسيد السيد لسياسي‬ ww
Ō
0.001
—------
0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100

Stable
10 to ∞ Burning rate parameter , L
FIGURE 4.3.2j .- Stability limits for chemical reaction
model.
‫السبببسيين‬
.001 wwwww .
.01 .I 10
Burning rate parameter , L burning rate parameter values usually are found
only in small-scale research combustors .
FIGURE 4.3.2h .- Stability limits for vaporization-mass 4.3.3 Two-Dimensional Analysis *

accumulation model .
Only limited attention has been given to two-
dimensional stability analysis using numerical
disturbance
integration techniques. The primary reason , of

amplitude
course, is the very large computer size and time

Initial
requirements, as discussed in Sect. 4.3.1 . Two

,O
P
/ C
Unstable types of analysis have been carried out . The

www
circumferential surface (0 - x) model is based

Ma =0.5 atm
on a control volume extending the length of the
combustion chamber but having very small
thickness in the radial direction, as shown in Fig.
4.3.3a . The transverse plane (r - 0) model con-
siders a control volume that covers the entire
cross-section of the chamber but has a small axial
10 to co
wwwww
.이
thickness (Fig . 4.3.3b) . The third possible type of
two-dimensional model, the meridional plane
Stable
(r - x) model, has not received sufficient study to
be included in this discussion .
‫لس‬ www www.l 4.3.3.1 Circumferential surface (0 - x) model.-

.OI J 10
Burning rate parameter , L In the 0 - x model, the velocity components and
radial derivatives are assumed to be zero, just as
FIGURE 4.3.21 . - Stability limits for atomization model.
in the one-dimensional, annular-ring model.
However, it is not necessary to make simplifying
bility because of the extreme sensitivity of the assumptions about the variations in the z-direc-
exponential temperature dependence of the re- tion. Instead, new boundary conditions must be
action rate. However, for realistic values of the added at the injector and at the nozzle. One
average steady-state concentration of unreacted possibility for the nozzle condition is to extend the
propellant Co (viz, 0.1 to 0.01 ) the stability
limits occur at very low values of 2. Such low * R. J. Priem, Author.
conclusions drawn from these calculations was

8 Z
that the minimum disturbance that will excite
instability in the circumferential model is about
the same as that determined by the one-dimen-
sional, annular-ring model.
The circumferential model allows many aspects
of combustion instability to be examined that
cannot be treated by other one- and two -dimen-
sional models. An example is the combination of
FIGURE 4.3.3a .- Control volume for two-dimensional , longitudinal and transverse modes. In the cal-
circumferential-surface model.
culations cited above, longitudinal modes were
observed primarily when the ratio of chamber
length to radius exceeded 3 to 4. For shorter
lengths the oscillation was primarily transverse.
Also , with the -x model the time variation in
the burning process, which is accompanied by
axial movement , can also be included . Thus, the
frequency dependence of the burning rate can be
treated in a nonlinear analysis using numerical
integration .
The 0 - x model also allows the effects of radial
FIGURE 4.3.3b . - Control volume for two -dimensional, baffles to be studied by adding the boundary
transverse-plane model.
condition that tangential velocities must be zero
at specified tangential locations for specified
control volume all the way to the throat, taking lengths . A few calculations with such baffle
the boundary condition to be unity Mach number simulation led to the observation that the baffles
at the throat. A simpler approach is to end the were very effective in increasing the minimum
control volume at the nozzle entrance and to use disturbance levels required to excite instability.
the approximate boundary condition of constant However, because the length and cost of the
axial Mach number at the nozzle entrance .
disturbance
P,amplitude
Boundary conditions at the injector include zero 10

Initial
axial gas velocity and some means of defining the Growth constant , %/cycle
P
/ C
unburned propellants, e.g. , injection velocity

and/or flow rate. Other propellant injection.
boundary conditions depend on the burning rate 1-20 • 50 50
model used in the analysis. That is, a vaporization-
controlled burning rate requires the specification
of the drop size distribution , atomization requires
jet or drop size information, and chemical reaction
requires temperatures and concentrations. Turbu-
lent gas flow should also be accounted for by -20
Ō
T
adding vectorially the rms level of turbulence.

The additional boundary conditions for the
propellant and the added space dimension greatly 25 35 50 75 100 150 200 250
Injection velocity , ft/sec
complicate the task of obtaining general results
concerning the effects of design parameters on
.52 .26 .13 .06
stability. Calculations have been performed using Burning rate parameter , L
a vaporization-controlled combustion mechanism
with a turbulence level of 20 ft/sec.561 A typical FIGURE 4.3.3c .- Stability limits for vaporization-con-
result is shown in Fig. 4.3.3c . One of the general trolled, circumferential-surface model.
calculations rapidly become prohibitive , the and by avoiding the center of the combustor as a
circumferential-surface model is recommended calculation point.131 The latter studies also have
only when specific information is desired . shown that for some conditions a steep-fronted,
shock-type wave is produced .
4.3.3.2 Transverse plane ( r - 0) model. - With
the transverse plane model (see Fig. 4.3.3b ) , 4.3.3.3 Comparison with one-dimensional
radial velocity components and parameter changes model. -Comparisons between the one- and two-
in the radial direction are included . Axial gradients dimensional models are difficult because of the
are treated in the same way as in the one-dimen- very small amount of work done with the latter.
sional, annular-ring model. Hence many of the However, results of calculations based on a
complexities added in the -x model are not simple vaporization- controlled burning rate
present in the r- 0 model. However, the addition mechanism exhibited remarkable agreement , as
of the radial dimension permits the study of shown in Fig. 4.3.3d . The minimum perturbation
chamber wall effects, such as viscous boundary required to excite instability determined from the
layers and acoustic liners. Calculations of boundary 0-x model (circumferential surface) agrees
layer influence have shown that the viscous forces closely with that obtained from the model.
have an insignificant effect on stability.561 Acoustic (annular ring) . The stability limits for large
liners have not yet been incorporated into a obtained from the r- (transverse plane ) and 0
transverse-plane numerical stability analysis . The models are also in reasonable agreement . There
boundary condition imposed by a resonating liner are differences in the results , too , as Fig. 4.3.3d
is presented in Sect . 8.3.1 , and so could readily be clearly indicates . It would be worthwhile to make
incorporated into such an analysis . additional comparative calculations to gain a
Stability limits calculated with a simple. better understanding of the differences between
vaporization-controlled burning rate equation in the stability limits determined by the different.
the r- model are shown in Fig . 4.3.3d . The models. Additional comparisons based on more
explicit integration scheme was inadequate in the sophisticated combustion models would also be
low- range because of numerical instability. desirable.
Problems were also encountered in attempting to Two-dimensional combustion stability models
calculate properties at the center of the chamber. are valuable for investigating certain features of
More recent studies have eliminated these combustor design that cannot be included in a
problems by using an implicit integration scheme one-dimensional analysis. Examples of such
disturbance
amplitude
Initial
1.0
,C
P
/
P
2 - D circumferential model
10
T
.이 I- D model
2 -D transverse
plane model
‫بير‬ ‫اس‬‫ السيبي ا‬..‫السيبي اسيبي اسي‬

100°
‫س‬
.001 .01 0.1 1.0 10 100
Burning rate parameter , L
FIGURE 4.3.3d .- Stability limits for two- and three-dimensional, vaporization-controlled stability models.
features are injector-face baffles, axial combustion mental principles on which the response factor
distribution , and nozzle admittance for the 0- x and similitude analyses are based . The consider-
model, and acoustic liners, nonuniform injection ations involved in applying the analyses to design
distribution for the r- model. Otherwise , the and development problems are discussed in
information provided by a one-dimensional model Chapter 6 .
is about as good as that provided by a two-
dimensional model in the prediction of full, three- 4.4.1 Response Factor Approach
dimensional engine stability characteristics. Both
models require experience and engineering judg- 4.4.1.1 Basic principles.-As stated by Ray-
ment to extrapolate to actual, three-dimensional leigh, the general criterion for wave growth or
conditions. decay is, in the simplest terms, that a wave will
grow if heat or mass is added in phase with the
pressure. Conversely, the wave will damp if the
4.4 SIMILITUDES AND OTHER MODELS
addition is out of phase . When applied to a system
In the preceding sections of this chapter, com- in which several mechanisms are releasing heat or
prehensive analytical models of high frequency mass at once, the growth or decay of the wave is
combustion instability are developed . The ad- determined by the net in-phase or out-of-phase
vantages and disadvantages of each model are heat or mass addition. The response factor ap-
brought out there ; further comparisons are made proach is basically an application of this principle.
in Sect . 4.5 . The sensitive time lag theory and the Variations of this approach have been used by
numerical integration methods share one defi- several investigators to analyze unstable com-
ciency, namely, the inherent conceptual or compu- bustion systems and are presented in the following
tational difficulties tend to prevent the design or sections.
development engineer from achieving a practical An advantage of the response factor approach
understanding of the relationships between the is that it allows the designer to focus attention
physical and chemical processes , hardware design on the separate processes that influence the sta-
parameters, and the phenomenon of combustion bility of a chamber. The effect on stability because
instability. The approaches described in this sec- of changes made to any part of the combustor,
tion are aimed at removing this deficiency. such as the injector, can be evaluated by examin-
The response factor approach, discussed first , ing their relative effect on the response factors of
is admittedly not comprehensive or completely the various processes. The approach is general in
rigorous . In general, the various combustion and nature since the response factor of any process or
gas dynamic processes are assumed to interact mechanism of importance can, in principle at
only weakly, so that in the first approximation least , be determined.
coupling effects are absent . Primary attention is Three analyses of the response factor type are
given to intentionally simplified models of the described in the sections following. The Heid-
unsteady combustion process. However, allowance mann-Feiler analysis is based on an unsteady mass
is made for the effects of acoustic resonance and balance for an axial column (stream tube ) within
certain damping processes. the combustion chamber. Detailed consideration
The alternative approach of similitude is taken . is given to three processes affecting the combustion
up next . Recognizing that stable engines have been rate: vaporization , injection of a gaseous pro-
developed , one naturally asks how the experience pellant, and atomization. The Dykema analysis
gained in developing such engines can be used considers only a single process , that of unsteady
effectively in the future. Analytical similarity vaporization of a droplet in a region of the cham-
studies are reviewed first . Unfortunately, these ber where the liquid and gas velocities are ap-
studies have not been completely successful. proximately equal. Finally, the modal energy
Therefore, a recent empirical study, involving the analysis is expressed in terms of an energy balance
statistical analysis of experimental engine sta- for the "acoustic " modes of the combustion cham-
bility data, concludes this section. ber. Since this is a more recent development than
The emphasis in this section is on the funda- the two preceding analyses, it is formulated in
more general terms and has not been subjected are no axial pressure variations and the pressure
to extensive experimental checking . Also , further at any radial and angular position is time de-
analytical consideration needs to be given to some pendent only . A mass balance for the gas in an
of the terms in the energy balance . Application axial column can be expressed as
techniques and comparisons with experiment for
dm
all three response factor analyses are discussed in ·[ Σ m¡ ]in- [ Σm; ]out
Sect . 6.5 . dt
The summations in this balance are for a multi-

4.4.1.2 Heidmann -Feiler analysis. * - The fol- plicity of mass flow rates that may be entering
lowing nomenclature pertains to Sect . 4.4.1.2 : or leaving the volumes of gas. For small pertur-
b Ratio of nondimensional vapor-pressure bations, this mass balance is given by
perturbation to nondimensional liquid m dm' mj
temperature perturbation , pv /TL' = m m
mr dt MT
CD Drag coefficient [Σ ] in [Σ out
Capacitance of fuel manifold, pv/vm (4.4.1-1 )

L Inertance of fuel injection orifice , mL/AP2
Mass flow rate associated with jth process Assuming that gases in the volume are homo-
mj
N Response factor, ( m ° /pe ' ) cos & geneous and that they behave adiabatically, Eq.
(4.4.1-1) becomes
N; Response factor of jth process
S Critical distortion of jet diameter mj
1 m dpe' = m;
t50 Half-life of a droplet mj' mj
γήτ dt in -Σ M T out
uf Final gas velocity
Correction factor for heat transfer (4.4.1-2 )
β Vapor-pressure parameter, defined in Table
♡
2
For the conditions prescribed above, the chamber

4.4.1a
Ta pressure perturbation is assumed to be a complex
Atomization time
function given by
Tb Combustion time
Ө
Phase angle between mass flow rate and Pc' = pc° ' exp [ ( 1 + iwt ) ] = pe° ' est
chamber pressure perturbations
where X is a growth constant . Any mass flow rate
Subscripts : perturbation which results from a linear response
d Fuel injection manifold to chamber pressure perturbations will, in general,
1, 2 Entrance , exit of cylindrical part of fuel be phase-shifted with respect to the pressure
injection orifice ( see Fig . 4.4.1c ) perturbations. Thus ,
Superscripts : m' = mo' exp [ (X + iwt ) ] exp [id ]

)°
(
0° Maximum value (amplitude ) of an oscil-
where is a phase angle.
lating quantity
With these expressions for pressure and flow
The response factor used in the Heidmann- rate, Eq. (4.4.1-2) becomes
Feiler analysis is based on the mass flow rate and
1 m mj m
is the real, or in-phase , part of the nondimensional (X + iw) = Σ O/
γήτ mr Pe exp (iø;) ] in
mass flow rate perturbation with respect to the
chamber pressure perturbations. Attention is fo-
m¡ m °;'
cused on equilibrium conditions, that is, on the exp (io;)
Σ mr Po 1o.ut
stability limit . A stability criterion based on such
response factors may be derived in simple form (4.4.1-3)
by considering a purely transverse mode of oscil-
lation within the chamber. For this mode there Equating the real parts of Eq . ( 4.4.1-3 ) yields
an expression for the growth constant λ. The
* M . F. Heidmann and C. E. Feiler, Authors. stability limit is obtained when λ = 0 and is given
by the relation : the particular model formulation used for a vapor-

izing spray (see Sect . 3.4.2) . The analyses of
(4.4.1-4 ) Heidmann and Wieber346,347 are reviewed here be
[Σ ] in -ΙΣ
[ # ]out cause these results have been specifically applied
to the response factor approach. Other models.
where the response factor N is defined as
can be applied in a similar manner.
m° In a three-dimensional, nonlinear, numerical
N = Re =
0/ Cos & (4.4.1-5)
Pe Pe study,347 vaporization histories in the presence of
a traveling transverse acoustic mode were com-
The stability limit as expressed by Eq . (4.4.1-4 ) puted for uniformly injected n-heptane drops in
shows the effects of the various processes to be a cylindrical chamber. The local and volume
additive with the response factor for each process averages of that portion of the vaporization rate
weighted by the fraction of the total weight flow in-phase with the pressure oscillation were evalu-
entering into the process.
ated as a function of frequency using the expres-
This stability criterion for an axial column also
sions given in Table 4.4.1a . Drop size, chamber
applies to the entire chamber volume in most pressure, final gas velocity, pressure amplitude,
linear analyses because the response factors for
injection velocity, and initial injection temper-
such analyses do not depend on pressure ampli- ature were parametrically varied . A correlation of
tude. In the general case, when the response factor the results is shown in Fig. 4.4.1a . The abscissa
is not uniform across the cross -sectional area of
is essentially a frequency nondimensionalized by
the chamber , or the mass flow rate responds a vaporization time to where
nonlinearly to pressure, the response factor, N 3/2 1/3 1/3
1
can be determined by the relation t50 ~1200 (
5)"
50 300)'" (190
( Uf) 2
t
m'pe' dt dV with the droplet radius r, in microns, the chamber
pressure p. in psia, and the final gas velocity u
N= in ft/sec .
From these results , it is possible to estimate the
ƒ`ƒ (pe′) ²dt dV
' response factor for specific combustion variables.
These results are applicable only to n-heptane;
This equation reduces to Eq . (4.4.1-5 ) for sinu- however, from a consideration of steady-state
soidal perturbations in weight flow rate and correlation factors the relative effect of combus-
chamber pressure . tion variables on vaporization time is expected
The response factor given in Eq. ( 4.4.1-5 ) can to apply to other propellants.
be positive or negative, depending on the phase A linearized analysis346 of the same process,
angle between the pressure and flow rate pertur- performed by combining the pertinent equations
bations . The ratio m°'/p."' is the gain, or magni- of Table 4.4.1a, provides a relation between
tude , of the response and is independent of the vaporization rate and chamber pressure pertur-
phase angle. bations in the form of the following transfer
The combustion of propellants has been con- function:
sidered to be rate-limited by several processes ,
m' 1 2TVS [1+ ( 1-28) (cpTL/h , 8b)rs
including droplet vaporization , gaseous injection =
1
and jet atomization . The remainder of this section Pe 21 + 2TYS 1+ (cpTL/hvẞb ) s
will be devoted to presenting the response factors where
for these processes and examining their behavior. s = λ+ iw
The utility of the response factor model, however, The gain and angle needed to evaluate the
is not restricted to these processes or by the response factor,
specific forms of analysis performed. m°
DROPLET VAPORIZATION : The response N= 0/ cos o
Pe
factor for the vaporization process will depend on
TABLE 4.4.1a. - EQUATIONS FOR VAPORIZATION PROCESS
Nonlinear analysis Linear analysis"
dm L
Mass balance = m— mv TvML's -m
dt
2DWrLNumPe Pv
Vaporization rate mv = In- m√' = }{ m 1' + ßpv' — (ẞ — ½ ) pc'
RT Pc -Pv
C2
Vapor pressure Inpv = C₁ pv' = bTL'
TL-C3
dTL 1 CDTL
Drop temperature = TYTL'S = qin' - qout'
dt Cpm L (Jin -qout) hy
Heat transfer qin = 2rL (Tь - TL) zNuh qin'm'p '

- qout'my'
qout =hymy
duL P (Av)2
Drop motion = CD UL'S =0
dt PL IL
In the linearized equations, Num~ (rLPL) /2 ; Nuh ~ (гLPL) /2 ; D ~P¹ ; mi ~ rL³ ; Cp, (Tь - TL) , Z ,
hv, UL, min, CD, and AV are constant ;
Pv C₂TL
B= and b =
3- (PcPr ) /In (PcP
-Pv); (TL - C3) ²°
are given by for several propellants,564 are given in Table

4.4.1b.
m° 1 2TYW
- Frequency response curves based on these values
O/
Pe 2 [ 1+ ( 2Tvw) 2]1/2 are shown in Fig. 4.4.1b . The curves, although
more approximate than the nonlinear results , allow
(1 + [ ( 1−28 ) ( cpTL/h、8b ) T 、 w ]² \ 1/2 an estimate to be made of the response factor of
X (4.4.1-6a)
1 + [ ( cpTL/hvẞÞ ) Tvw ]² the various propellants. The mean vaporization
and time is related to the droplet half-lifetime t50
found in the nonlinear analysis, by r ~ ( 1/4.5 ) tso.
π The difference in these values exists because axial
--- tan-1 27,w
2 variation of the vaporization rates is not con-
sidered in the linear analysis.
CpTL CpTL GASEOUS INJECTION : It has been observed
+tan- (1-28) Tvw -tan Τγω
hyßb hysb experimentally that decreasing the hydrogen in-
jection temperature in a gaseous hydrogen-liquid
(4.4.1-6b)
oxygen rocket results in combustion instability.
The response factor is a function of certain This observation led to the suspicion that the
propellant properties at equilibrium conditions of gaseous hydrogen flow could respond to high fre-
vaporization. Typical values of these properties, quency combustion oscillations in the same way
established from previous steady-state solutions that a liquid flow responds to low frequency
oscillations. The particular injector element nation of these equations yields the following
modeled is shown in Fig. 4.4.1c together with the transfer function expressing the response of the
perturbation equations applying to each element. hydrogen flow rate to a chamber pressure pertur-
in the lumped parameter treatment.260 Combi- bation :
Pe P2 Apa
AP2 Api
Δρι
es exp ( -7ьs)
AP2 P2 Pd
mb
Pe'
Ap2 Ap2 P2 Api P2
1+2 1+
P2 A1P2 (M
Api-1)] estAD
ρα Api γ) ees
2-1
Pd (Δρι
Tb is an effective time delay between injection and combustion . The gain and phase angle for the
where 7
response factor,
N = (m °'/p。°' ) cos &
are
Pc P2 AP2
AP2 )
( (Api ( P2)
) 4Pd) eu
(
mo'b
0/ (4.4.1-7a )
Pe ° 2 1/2
Api P2 Δρι AP2 P2
([ 14
Pd (1
ΔΡ. ) ex² + (2 +2
)² [
Pd ( 1 +4P2
) ( -1)
γ cw}"
)"
and
Api AP2 P2
2 1+ ලය
π Pa P2 Api γ
=
-wть -tan -1 (4.4.1-7b )

2
Δρι P2
CLw2
1- AM (Api-1) cew!
M
A general response curve for a gaseous injection. response factor. The progression of the frequency
process cannot be presented because of the inter- of peak response with increasing density is a result
acting effects of changes in geometry, gas prop- of the effect of density on the reactance or tuning
erties and flow conditions on the response factor . of the flow system (for details see Ref. 260 ) .
Specific evaluations must be made for each design. The magnitude of the hydrogen flow response
The frequency dependence of the hydrogen re- factor is large compared to that for other processes
sponse factor for a typical injection design used considered in this section . The hydrogen flow
in a 20,000 pound thrust rocket engine is shown system would therefore be expected to have a
in Fig . 4.4.1d . Since the hydrogen injection tem- significant role in determining the stability of a
perature or density has been a primary variable hydrogen-oxygen rocket engine.
in the study of the hydrogen-oxygen propellant JET ATOMIZATION : The atomization proc-
combination, curves are shown for several hy- ess is of particular dynamic importance when
drogen densities . extremely small drops are formed in the vapor of
As shown in the figure, there is a frequency the partner propellant and cause rapid burning.
range at each density for which the response Atomization rate may then be the rate controlling
factor is positive . Also , as density increases, the process in the dynamic system and the response
coupling of the flow and pressure perturbations factor for the atomization process is required to
increases as indicated by the magnitude of the establish stability criteria.
.8 TABLE 4.4.1b. -PROPERTIES AT EQUILIBRIUM DROP

f -Frequency
150- Drop half - life VAPORIZATION TEMPERATURE
Response
L-Drop radius
factor
[pc =300 psi ]

ས་.
Pc-Pressure
Up-. Final gas velocity
O
Cp,
Propellant TL, Pv, Btu/ hv , β b
°R psia (lb - R) Btu/lb
-8 Heptane 845 133 0.701 93.8 1.36 8.1

102 103 104 105
3/2 1/3 1/3
fx( 50) (300) (0,0) 6.5
Oxygen 234 275 .421 63.8 4.43
10
Dimensionless time , * 50* f Fluorine 220 255 .376 47.8 2.95 6.9
FIGURE 4.4.1a.-Nonlinear frequency response for n-hep- Ammonia 554 205 1.152 48.3 1.88 8.8
tane vaporization process .
.6 Hydrazine 859 165 .754 1318 1.53 10.0

.4
Response
Hydrazine
.2
factor
element of liquid jet this time dependent atomi-

O
,N
zation mechanism is given by

-.2- t
2
-.4 S= dt'
Heptane
PLdL2 de S__ p (t" ) [ AV ( t ) ]² dt"
1
6
-.8 The following atomization rate expression is ob-

tained when a constant critical distortion , S , is
-1. 아
Fluorine assumed for all jet elements :
Ammonia
-1.2
-1.4 Oxygen t
10 100 p(t' ) [ AV ( t' ) ] dt'
Ένω
m' = 1
Ta { p (t - Ta ) [ AV (t − т₁ ) ]² }
FIGURE 4.4.1b .-Linear frequency response for vaporiza-
tion process of various propellants . For atomization within a traveling transverse
acoustic mode, the response factor obtained from
considering only first harmonic content of the
Analysis of liquid jet atomization,340 has pro-
applied force is given by
vided some insight into the magnitude and vari-
ations of the response factor for the atomization 1 UL - Ux2+3Û² + ¦Û ‚”12
½
N=
process. The results of the analysis have a degree. γ - 2
of applicability to liquid sheets , drops, ligaments
and possibly gaseous jets because a basic dis- sin wra
X COS wa (4.4.1-8 )
tortion or dispersion mechanism has been ana- ωτα
lyzed . The mechanism is that of liquid distortion
caused by forces related to environmental con- Properties of this function are shown in Fig.
ditions within the combustion chamber. Atomi- 4.4.1e . The periodic variation of the response
zation or breakup of a liquid mass occurs when factor with wr is characteristic of a time delay
this distortion reaches a critical value . For an mechanism . The response factor attains extreme
Capacitance = -m '
sp ; =
Ym
LOX
Resistance m' = 1/2 [ 0, på + ( 1/y −p₁ /Ap; ) Pi ]
CONST MIN
Pa V
ΔΡΙ m(L
/A,
)
Inductance P¦ - P2 = Sm'
2
Resistance m = 1/2 P2P₂ +

12 [ AP ( I/Y - Pc /AP₂ ) Pċ ]
A2, AP2 2
A₁
Pc Capacitance m = m'eTbs
FIGURE 4.4.1c.-Model for gaseous hydrogen injection process .
values of about 1 for small amplitude pertur- unit volume when the pressure is
bations (û and û ,' approaching zero ) . These greater than the mean
values are exceeded for finite amplitude oscil- Qo' Unsteady component of heat release rate
lations. For a particular frequency of oscillation, per unit volume near the injector face
the mean atomization time, Fa, determines whether YF Mass fraction of fuel
the process has a positive or negative contribution Y FL Mean mass fraction of species Fat droplet
to stability. For a liquid jet this time can be surface
estimated from the jet velocity and the mean B Frequency parameter, √w/2DF
breakup length.146 K Ratio of flame radius to droplet radius ,
Although this analysis depends on a simplifi- r /rL
cation of a very complex process , it shows the ΦΕ Phase angle between heat release and
significance of the atomization process in the chamber pressure oscillations
dynamic system , a probable magnitude of the ↓ Dimensionless parameter related to in-
response factor, and the relative effect of atomi- phase combustion gain ,
zation parameters.
VN, cos &
4.4.1.3 Dykema analysis . *- The following no- (cosh 2 VN, -cos 2 VN, ) 1/2
menclature pertains to Sect. 4.4.1.3 :
High-frequency combustion instability has been
ι Radial distance from drop surface to observed in large engines at frequencies as low as
flame 500 Hz , corresponding to an oscillation period as
NS Stability correlating parameter, long as 2 millisec . Instabilities of this type appear
f(r - rL) /DF to be wholly thrust-chamber-oriented, and appear
N Number of drops of mean-size dзo per unit to exhibit a time delay behavior, as evidenced by
22 2
volume near the injector face regions of stability and instability. Some process
N¡ Number of injection orifices or series of processes in the spray combustion ,
Q' Unsteady component of heat added per therefore , must be sufficiently slow to affect ap-
preciably the dynamics of spray combustion at
* O. W. Dykema, Author. frequencies as low as 500 Hz . The intent of this
10
Hydrogen
density , lb/ft³
8
2.89
1.48
Response
6H .753
factor
.384
2
-2-
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Frequency , kHz
FIGURE 4.4.1d . Typical frequency response for gaseous hydrogen injection process .
analysis was to develop an engineering model, of 1. The droplet is spherical and is surrounded
the response factor type, that can be used to by a concentric spherical flame.
correlate stability experience and serve as a guide 2. Droplet and flame radii and droplet tem-
for design and development efforts.236 perature are constant over the period of
It is assumed that the controlling process is the oscillation .
that of mass transfer from the liquid surface to 3. Liquid-vapor phase equilibrium is main-
the flame by molecular diffusion due to concen- tained at the droplet surface .
tration gradients. Mass transfer due to radial The following simplifying assumptions are nec-
pressure gradients in the region of the burning essary to apply the single droplet results to a
droplet is considered to occur much more rapidly combustion chamber :
than that due to concentration gradients , and is 4. Mass transfer by molecular diffusion is very
therefore neglected . One result of this assumption rapid if the boundary layer around the
is that the diffusion coefficient is a function of droplet is scrubbed thin by high relative.
the mean pressure level, but not of the oscillatory gas velocities . The chamber axial location
component of pressure. Similarly, the scale of the where this boundary layer is thickest is at
burning droplet is considered small compared to the region where the relative velocity passes
the combustion chamber dimensions and , there- through zero . This region has been found
fore, pressure gradients due to the oscillating to be close to the injector face and does
pressure in the chamber are assumed to be negli- appear to coincide with a region of greatest
gibly small in the region of the droplet . sensitivity to combustion instability . There-
In considering the unsteady burning of a single fore, this axial location , within the first few
droplet, the following assumptions are made in inches of chamber length, is assumed to be
addition to those presented above: the important region.
1.2
.8-
112314
lug
R
u
+
-
+
½
12
on
-.4
-
n
-.8H
N
=
-1.26 ㅠ 2π 3πT 4πT
ωτα
FIGURE 4.4.1e.- Frequency response of liquid jet atomization process .
5. As a result of assumption 4, only the initial ƏYF Ə²YF 28YF

spray size distribution is of interest . The == DF +- (4.4.1-9)
at r dr
decrease in spray mean size and/or the
change in distribution as the burning spray where the boundary conditions are
proceeds down the chamber can be ne-
YF = 0 at r = rf (flame)
glected.
6. Considering the accuracy with which a YF = YFL at rr (liquid surface )
spray mean size and distribution can be
Assuming oscillations of the form
predicted in a hot firing of a large rocket
engine using standard production injectors, Pe =Pe +pe'iwt
it is considered that only the variation of
YE = YF+ YE'piwt
the mean drop size with orifice diameter
and injection velocity can be assumed suffi- The solution of Eq . (4.4.1-9 ) can be expressed as
ciently general to be useful. Therefore, the
spray is considered to be of a single mean YF = YFL 1
( rf
size ,375 and the distribution of sizes is
ignored.
r, sinh [ 3 (r . − r) (1 + i) ]
7. Finally, for purposes of simplicity, the as- YF' = YFL' (4.4.1-10)
r sinh [ 3 (r {−rL ) ( 1 + i) ]
sumption is made that the axial velocity of
the spray near the injector face is constant where
and equal to the orifice exit velocity. 3
From the basic assumption that molecular dif- B=
2DF
fusion by concentration gradient is the important
mass transfer process, the unsteady-state equation
. Assuming that phase equilibrium is maintained at
for fuel vapor mass fraction Yr as a function of the droplet surface and that the chamber gases
radial position and time is are perfect ,
where xr /re. Thus, neglecting damping, insta-

YFL' Pe'
YF (4.4.1-11 ) bility will occur when Q'/pe' is positive . Since
L PERT
the term preceding the brackets is inherently
Then the perturbation of the mass flux into the positive , stability depends only on the value of
flame is given by the bracketed term , which can be written in the
form
dYF'
=-
=
mp4πrip eDr
dr (Ns)
4πгirlwŸ FL -exp (io )

where
RT. Bl (cosh 231 - cos 231) 1/2
π (B - 1 ) ²fr²
(4.4.1-12 ) N₁ = (Bl) ² = DF (4.4.1-14)
where
l = r ; ―rL is a stability correlating parameter, and
and
(N₂)
π
ΦΕ -tan-¹ ( coth ẞl tan ßl) VN, cos [π/4 -tan- 1 (coth √N, tan √Ñ, ) ]
4
(cosh 2 VN, -cos 2 √Ng ) 1/2
A solution can be obtained for the unsteady
component of the heat release rate in a unit. (4.4.1-15 )
volume of the chamber by summing the contri- The dependence of the combustion gain on the
butions of all droplets in the unit volume. Since parameter N, is shown by the plot of Q '/ Q'max
Eq . (4.4.1-12 ) includes a dependence on the drop in Fig. 4.4.1f . The first four zeros occur at 5.6,
radius, the drop size distribution of the spray at
30, 75 , and 140, with two ranges of positive gain ,
the particular location in the chamber should be 5.6 < N, < 30 and 75 < N, < 140 . These ranges cor-
included in the calculation. To simplify the anal- respond to potentially unstable operation . Damp-
ysis , the droplets are assumed to be of uniform ing can be considered semi-quantitatively by re-
size . Then the perturbation heat release per unit quiring the combustion gain to be sufficiently
volume is
large , i.e. , above some threshold value . The gain
Qo' = NhRMF' is so small in the range 75 < N, < 140 that most
where
systems should have enough damping to remain.
3 Ai stable under those conditions.
N
4π AerL³3 It can be seen from Fig . 4.4.1f and Eq . ( 4.4.1–14 )
that the frequency of greatest combustion gain
is the number of drops per unit volume.
increases with decreasing droplet size , which is in
According to the Rayleigh criterion, instability general agreement with other theoretical and ex-
will result if an excess of heat is added during the perimental evidence. Detailed discussion of the
time that the chamber pressure is greater than application of this analysis in the design and
the mean. Therefore, since the pressure oscillation
development of stable rocket combustors is pre-
is given physically by sented in Sect . 6.5.2.
Re (pe'eiwt) = po' cos wt
the stability criterion is obtained by integrating 4.4.1.4 Modal energy analysis. *-The following
(Qo'/pe') cos wt over the half-period nomenclature pertains to Sect . 4.4.1.4 :
-π/2 wt /2, Ak Cross-section of an equivalent one-

which yields dimensional mode
Bki Dimensionless shear coefficient
Q' A; K(k- 1) - COS OF
=6 hRYFL Cik Coupled work coefficient
Pe A. RT. LBI (cosh 281 - cos 281) 1/2
(4.4.1-13 ) * C. K. Leeper, Author.

218
combustion
LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET COMBUSTION INSTABILITY
maximum
Percent
gain
125
of
100+
75
50
25
O
-25
-50
5 10 15 20 25 30
Ns
FIGURE 4.4.1f. - Theoretical variation of combustion gain with the stability parameter N,.
Cki
poor
Energy density at position j on Ukj COS Øk

system boundary A; Outflow per unit area of boundary
22
BCP
Ek Energy stored in kth mode in phase with pressure oscillation

A
2
A
E
Gki Coefficient relating energy outflow VK Velocity oscillation amplitude ( in-

to pressure oscillation stantaneous) , kth mode
Hkj Coefficient relating energy outflow Largest value of V
to velocity oscillation Vkj Velocity oscillation at location j
Kk Ratio of k mode to one-dimensional- Wk Rate at which work is done by kth
mode average energy density mode
Volume-averaged correction for Wik Coupled work (of kth mode or ith
Кр
nonlinear compression mode)
Correction for kinetic energy re- α Specific admittance
siduals
Subscripts :
kk Number of wavelengths in kth mode k Mode under consideration
lwk Wavelength of kth mode, atwk
i Mode interacting with kth mode
Mai Mach number normal to boundary Position on boundary
j
at location j
Nozzle energy density coefficient The degree of stability of both high and low
Instantaneous pressure oscillation frequency oscillations of combustion systems may
amplitude, kth mode be analyzed by examining the mechanical energy
stored in each mode of oscillation of the system
Largest value of pk'
Radiant heat transfer coefficient and the growth or decay of this stored energy as
Qk Rate of heat transfer to kth mode a function of time. When the net gain rate for a
Logarithmic rate of divergence of mode is positive , it stores the excess by increasing
kth mode , its amplitude, a regenerative process that can
destroy the system .
10 lwk dEk The modal energy analysis describes the growth
Rk =
2.303/ or decay rate of stored energy, Ek , of the kth mode
) aEk dt
(2.303
in terms of system variables and loss and gain
dS Area element of boundary coefficients for the combustion process and the
several boundaries . Coefficients may be obtained summation index identifying a specific portion of
from full- or subscale experiments or theory . This the boundary S and the conditions there .
section derives general system equations from The heat transfer Q (which is normally negli-
postulated boundary gain and loss laws, and gible) consists of the radiant transfer from the
describes the use of these equations to obtain gas in the chamber to the chamber walls plus
coefficient data . shear losses at the walls :
The energy stored in the kth mode is obtained
(Êk') Kk
by integrating the potential and kinetic energies Qk= q (Aklwkkk)
2pa2
for all compliances and masses in the system .
The energy stored in the fluids, to which must be 2
Bkj (Vki ' )2 (p )
added the energy of vibration of walls and other dS (4.4.1-19 )
S 2pa
boundaries, if significant, is given by
Pk'²Kp , pVk' where the radiant transfer is taken to be linearly

Ek =
-S. dv (4.4.1-16 ) proportional to the potential energy. The second
2pa2 + 2 du
term represents the shear losses, and is written.
where p ' and VK' are the pressure and velocity in terms of a dimensionless shear coefficient Bkj
oscillation amplitudes. If one selects the time of and the local oscillating bulk velocity Vkj' . The
maximum pressure in the mode to perform the constant 2 results from using peak values (PK', ')
integration, the kinetic energy will be small and, rather than rms values.
in the absence of significant stored energy in the Work terms are provided by the combustion
boundaries, the system energy may be expressed zone, wall damping, nozzle damping and feed
as system damping. Each is considered to be a fre-
2 quency-dependent oscillating source which is pres-
Ek = [ ( ') ] ( +4 ) (
Aalaka) K , K , (4.4.1-17) sure-and-velocity-sensitive, but insensitive to the
2pa² 2
rates of change of the amplitudes of these quan-
The first factor in this equation is the potential tities . The general expression for work is given by
energy density at the point of largest k-mode.
Pk'Uk¡ COS k
pressure oscillation in the system (pk') . The second Wk = dS (4.4.1-20)
=√
!S 2A;
term relates the peak energy density to the average
for the mode , where Kk is the ratio of the average where (Uk; cos pk ) /A; is the in-phase outflow per
energy density for the k mode to that for a one- unit area of wall, injector or nozzle flow cross
dimensional ( sinusoidal) mode. The third term is section, which can be related to the pressure and
the mode volume, where A is the cross section velocity oscillations of the kth mode by
of an equivalent one-dimensional mode, and kk is
Uki cos Фk = Gki Hkj /Pk
the number of wavelengths in the mode . The Pkj'+ Vkj' (4.4.1-21 )
A; pa pa
coefficients K, and K, are the volume-averaged
correction for nonlinear compression and the cor- where Gk; and Hk; are dimensionless coefficients .
rection for kinetic energy residuals , respectively. The combustion zone normally produces an
In a linear, one-dimensional system, with velocity in-phase inflow, and does work on the system,
oscillation 90° out of phase with pressure, the K's leading to a negative value of G. Similarly, a
are all unity. portion of the stored energy being swept out the
The rate of divergence of the kth mode stored nozzle by the steady flow re-radiates into the
energy can be expressed in terms of heat transfer, system, giving a negative G. Wall work quantities
work, coupled work, and net outflow of material
for ablative chambers are usually positive and
dEk small. Tuned resonator (linear) wall work quan-
= - - ekjV dS (4.4.1-18 ) tities are positive and significant in selected fre-
dt - Qk — Ŵk — Wik — ↓↓S
quency ranges.
Here, the subscript i refers to any other mode that The feed system contributes damping or work
interacts with the kth mode, and j is a position input by oscillating the propellant feed rates at
the points of injection. If the combustion process - 10 1 Jkxlwk

output , resulting from the feed oscillations , is Rk = ( q + Σ Cik)
2.303 K, Kykk a i
180° out of phase with the chamber pressure , Pki' ,
then the resulting work output and G are positive 2
and damping is enhanced . The coupled work term + Mnj NkjKpjKvj +:/ Σ (4)
+ Σ (Α ) Kk
Wi = CikEk 2 2
k (4.4.1-22) kj
Bki+ Gki
KDKv
expresses the outflow of k-mode energy to each

+ Hki (4.4.1-25)
of the other system modes.
The nozzle work terms result from the sweeping
of material having energy density ek; out of the Note that the Gk; sum includes terms from the
combustion elements , wall absorption , feed system
chamber and the work done by this oscillating
material on the chamber contents as the material damping and nozzle traveling-wave feedback.
flows out (see Gk; above) . The energy density at Terms q and Cik are bulk terms, while Bkj , Hki
the nozzle control surface can be expressed in and Nkj express wall shear, combustion sensitivity
to oscillating velocity, and nozzle outflow of
terms of the pressure amplitude and the local
pressure and kinetic energy coefficients as energetic material, respectively.
To make use of Eq . (4.4.1-25 ) coefficients
must be obtained by comparison tests in sub- or
(Pkj′ ) ²Kp , p (Vkj ' ) ²
Ckj = + full-scale apparatus . The coefficient G for an ab-
2pa² 2
sorbing wall material is obtained by measuring
Rk (at the desired frequency ) for a test chamber,
Kk
= Nkj '(Îk' ) ²Kp ;Kvj (4.4.1-23 )
injector and nozzle, using first a hard wall chamber
2pa² as standard and then a chamber lined in whole or
in part with the absorbing material. The G value
Traveling waves, flowing in from the portion of for the hard wall is assumed negligible. The G
the nozzle not included within the control volume, for the absorber is calculated by eliminating
contribute energy influx. Crocco and Sirignano196 common unknowns from Eq . (4.4.1-25) for the
and Culick202 have derived theoretical expressions two systems. Relative G values for two types of
for these terms ( also see Sect . 3.6 ) . injection elements can be determined similarly,
The equivalent one-dimensional-mode cross sec- using R values from comparison firings of one
tion A is defined in terms of the system volume injector of each type in a common system , and
and the mode wavelength lwk solving, Eq . (4.4.1-25 ) for the change in G.
Coefficients Hk; are determined by comparing the
V V uncharacterized element with a symmetrical in-
Ak= - (4.4.1-24) jection element , for which Hk; is zero , in successive
lwkkk atwkkk
firings in a common system .
Measuring of absolute values for combustion
where twk is the k-mode oscillation period .
G's and nozzle G's and N's is more difficult .
The energy balance of the kth mode can be
Combustion G's can, of course , be based on
expanded by substituting Eq. (4.4.1-19 ) through
measured R values and calculated nozzle coeffi-
(-24) into Eq. (-18 ) and defining a logarithmic
cients. For example, the theory yields a nozzle
rate of divergence
conductance , Re ( a ) = N'kj , where Nk; combines
both Nk; and nozzle G effects. Further, if one can
+10 d in Ek +10 dEk lwk 1
RK determine one nozzle coefficient as a function of
2.303 dta/lwk 2.303 dt a Ek
frequency, all other nozzle and combustion coeffi-
cients can then be obtained by comparison tests.
where Rk has the units db/cycle . Thus , Cold-flow nozzle tests corrected for gain or loss
characteristics for the cold flow into the chamber 2. Simplified solutions , such as boundary-layer
could prove useful here . Or , the external acoustic theory
field of a nozzle could be integrated to determine 3. Similarities
the nozzle work output . Care is needed to assure 4. Dimensional analysis and rational scaling
negligible acoustic field radiation from the test or modeling
chamber in field tests of a nozzle . 5. Empirical scaling or modeling
Combustion element G values are best de-
termined by measuring Rk while firing the ele- The discussion of analytical models in this chapter
ments in chambers having simple geometry , known is organized, more or less, according to Weller's
wall absorption, and a nozzle having calibrated classification . There are no models existing today
losses . By using a series of chambers with one which can be regarded as complete solutions to
element type, a G vs. frequency plot can be ob- combustor dynamics. However, most of the models.
tained for the element . Simple geometries facilitate described in the preceding sections of the chapter
the calculation of Kk and minimize coupling can be regarded as simplified solutions or simi-
(Cik) . Values for Bk; and q can usually be as- larity solutions since, to varying degrees, they
sumed to be negligible . are based upon a priori knowledge of equations
The modal energy analysis has three principal governing certain aspects of combustor behavior .
applications : (a) correlating measured gain and In this section , we will review accomplishments
loss characteristics of system elements for com- in the last two classes, dealing first with analytical
parison with theories , (b ) assessment of stability similitudes or rational scaling, and second with
improvements to be realized by substituting one empirical similitudes .
(characterized ) element or chamber material for
another, and (c ) combining measured character- 4.4.2.2 Analytical similitudes. -A classical work
istics from a variety of sources to predict the on similarities in chemical systems, and one uni-
stability sign and magnitude for new designs. versally cited in subsequent works, is that of
Data from subscale systems may be used in all Damköhler.213 In his treatise , Damköhler specified
three applications. Knowledge of mode pressure a series of dimensionless groups of variables , or
and velocity distributions in the full scale ge- similarity parameters, as being important in scal-
ometry is necessary for the last application . This ing chemical reactors . The underlying principle
may be approximated analytically, or measured of the approach is that equality of the parameters
in an acoustical model . between a reactor model and prototype will assure
similarity of performance of the two systems .
4.4.2 Similarity Approach * Since the number of different processes occurring
in a chemical reactor is large , the number of
4.4.2.1 Similarity techniques.-In the most gen- parameters required to relate these processes also
eral sense, all approaches to the development of is large . Consequently, it is rarely, if ever, possible
models of rocket combustion can be regarded as
to achieve equality of all similarity parameters
similarity approaches. The universal objective is between the model and prototype systems . There-
to establish combustor characteristics which are
fore , in dealing with a specific reactor type , such
"similar" in all combustors exhibiting the same
as a rocket combustor , one must identify those
dynamic combustion behavior. The similarity
parameters which are most significant and attempt
characteristics may or may not involve geometric
to achieve similarity among this limited selection.
variables.
Penner 38 was among the first to utilize similarity
Weller, in his review of similarities in com-
parameters in developing scaling rules for com-
bustion,730 defines five classes of similarity tech-
bustors with similar steady-state performance
niques :
characteristics . Penner's set of parameters in-
1. Complete solution. cludes five groups associated with flow systems
without chemical reaction , viz . , Reynolds , Schmidt ,
Prandtl, Mach and Froude numbers, and two of
* E. K. Bastress, I. Miller, and G. H. Harris, Authors. Damköhler's chemical reaction parameters . To
achieve a workable set of scaling rules , Penner were successful in correlating stability data from
specified a constant chamber pressure and a fixed a series of oxygen-hydrocarbon combustors using
propellant combination, and ignored the Froude this approach .
and Mach numbers on the basis that chamber It would be difficult to comment on the validity
velocities are small . To extend the resulting rules of the approaches described as they remain largely
to cover dynamic behavior,537 i.e. , combustion untested , with the possible exception of the last
stability, he added a parameter consisting of a (Priem & Morrell ) . Effort on the development of
ratio of chemical time to wave propagation time. scaling rules in the manner of Penner and Crocco
However, this new parameter is incompatible with has declined in recent years. The following factors
the others , and Penner essentially concluded that have contributed to this decline :
dynamic similarity could be achieved only by 1. With increasing experience in combustor
abandoning the steady-state performance scaling development, high combustion efficiency is
rules. achieved more readily than in past years.
Crocco¹75 also developed combustor scaling rules Consequently, performance scaling rules are
for preserving steady and dynamic performance . no longer a significant goal of combustor
Instead of utilizing the Damköhler parameters, research .
Crocco defined simple ratios of relevant dimen- 2. Combustion instability, on the other hand,
sions , velocities, and times . He also assumed that continues to plague development efforts,
all significant chemical times are proportional to and has become the object of extensive
p ". Thereupon, Crocco established two scaling study more or less independent of per-
rules for steady performance consisting of relation- formance considerations .
ships between the dimension, velocity, and time 3. The availability of high-speed computers
ratios, and the pressure index , n. His first rule has caused effort to be directed toward
achieves fluid-mechanical similarity, but not com- more complete analytical solutions of com-
bustion similarity. His second rule achieves simi- bustion dynamics , i.e. , upwards on the
larity in combustion processes at the expense of Weller classification of similarity techniques.
Mach number similarity. The rules coincide for
It appears that , because of factors such as these,
cases where n = 1. In extending the rules to include
analytical similitude development offers less prom-
dynamic similarity, Crocco also encountered in-
ise than other approaches as a means of attaining
compatibilities which become increasingly serious
stable combustor performance.
as the value of n departs from unity . Since the
pressure dependencies of the complex reactions
4.4.2.3 Empirical similitudes.- The following
between rocket propellants are unknown, the
nomenclature pertains to Sect . 4.4.2.3 :
validity of the Crocco rules is equally uncertain.
Ross602 developed combustor scaling rules in- BF Baffle parameters : 1 if baffle
volving practical chamber design parameters. His present ; O if no baffle
treatment of dynamic similarity, however, is bo, b₁, ... bm Coefficients in regression equa-
limited to the identification of a critical diameter tion
beyond which unstable operation is anticipated. EPA Number of injection elements
More recently, Priem and Morrell566 developed per unit injector area, in. -2
a pair of similarity parameters for correlating FO2 Propellant parameter : 1 for
high-frequency instability behavior. The first is LO /RP-1 ; 0 for other
related to propellant burning rate and is regarded FO3 Propellant parameter : 1 for
as a measure of energy available for support of a NO /A-50 ; 0 for other
pressure wave . The second is related to viscous IDF Fuel injection distribution pa-
effects and is regarded as a measure of the rate rameter ( 1 for uniform in-
of energy extraction from a wave. On this basis , jection)
the stability of a combustor would be expected IDEF Fuel injection distribution eccen-
to increase with an increase in the ratio of the tricity parameter (0 for uni-
second to the first parameter. Priem and Morrell form injection)
LF Fuel orifice length lection system was developed consisting of a series

ᏞᎡ Liner parameter : 1 if acoustic of computer coding sheets and an instruction
liner present ; 0 if none manual. This system was adopted later by the
MPE Propellant mass flow per injec- ICRPG Working Group on Liquid Propellant
tion element , lbm/sec Combustion Instability as a standard data col-
PE1 Injector element parameter : 1 lection method.10 Using this system, data from
for coaxial ; 0 otherwise approximately 3900 engine tests were recorded by
PE2 Injector element parameter : 1 nine different organizations . These data then were
for unlike-impinging ; 0 for any filed on magnetic tape and analyzed by statistical
other methods to determine correlations between engine
R2 Coefficient of determination stability and design and operational parameters .
Sy2 Variability of y values The principal method used in the analysis of
Se Standard error of estimate data was regression analysis . This method is based
TPVM Thrust per unit chamber volume, on the assumption that a linear relationship exists
lb/in.3 between a dependent variable and a number of
X1, Xm Independent variables in regres- independent variables.
sion equation The dependent variable for the study was com-
y Observed value of stability in- bustor instability . In order to be able to assign a
dex : 0 for stable test ; 1 for numerical value to the level of stability of each
unstable test engine test, several approaches were tried . The
Ур Predicted value of stability index most satisfactory criterion of stability was a
y(s) Stability index for non-pulsed simple, two-valued parameter which was assigned
tests a value of zero for a stable test and unity for an
y (p) Stability index for pulsed tests unstable test . The assessment of stability was
different for pulsed and non-pulsed tests . In the
A purely empirical approach to the development non-pulsed case, if any high frequency pressure
of models of combustion instability was under- oscillations were reported , the test was deemed
taken in 1965.82 At that time , a vast amount of unstable. All other non-pulsed tests were con-
data on combustor performance existed in various sidered to have been stable . In the pulsed case , a
research laboratories and development centers . In test was considered unstable if a high frequency
preceding years, rocket engines had been de- oscillation developed subsequent to the pulse and
veloped over wide ranges of thrust level , pro- did not decay prior to the end of the test . If the
pellant type, and combustor configuration , and oscillation decayed, or if no oscillation was re-
these had exhibited an equally wide range of sta- ported, the test was considered stable .
bility characteristics. The project which was initi- In defining independent variables , it was ex-
ated was an attempt to derive meaningful stability pected, on the basis of past experience , that
models from this backlog of data. relationships between stability and combustor
The objectives of the project were to collect design would be complex and nonlinear. In order
experimental data from records of engine stability to introduce nonlinearity into the analysis, func-
tests , to use these data to derive empirical re- tions of design variables were sought which could
lationships between engine design and stability be used as independent variables in the regression
characteristics, and to establish criteria , based on analysis. Most of the functions used were taken
these relationships, for the design of stably oper- from earlier studies of combustion instability. Ad-
ating engines. In this section a brief description ditionally, a number of simple design variables
of the statistical procedures is given , together with and functions of these variables were utilized in
some of the resulting correlation equations. Com- the analysis .
parisons with experiment and possible methods of To facilitate the analysis, the data were divided
applying the correlation equations in engine design into groups based on major design features such
are discussed in Sect . 6.6. as injector element type . Also , engines containing
To facilitate the collection of data, a data col- baffles or acoustic absorption liners, and those
which were pulsed , were segregated into separate than with the results of a statistically designed
groups . A correlation , or stability prediction equa- experiment , it can be grossly misleading to isolate
tion, was developed for each data group , the a given coefficient and argue that its value ex-
equation incorporating variables appropriate to presses the effect of varying the associated inde-
the engines in that group . The stability prediction. pendent variable . This statement does not imply,
equation can be used to calculate a value of an however, that use of the entire equation for the
instability parameter for a new engine design. purpose of predicting values of the dependent
The lower the predicted value of the instability variable is invalid.
parameter, the higher is the probability that this Associated with a prediction equation are a
engine , if built , will be stable . number of statistical measures which describe its
In the development of a prediction equation , efficacy. Let us denote the original variability of
the problem is one of describing a complex multi- the values of y (the observed stability measure)
variate relationship. The resulting relationship , over all the data points entering the analysis by
expressed in the form of a "regression equation," Sy2 , and the remaining (residual) variability after
is determined from the observations by the method fitting the regression equation by S.2. If the re-
of least squares , which minimizes the sum of the gression equation is to be useful for prediction,
squared deviations between the observed values we would expect S.2 to be much smaller than Sy² ;
of the stability characteristic (y) and the pre- the quantity Sy2 - S2 measures the reduction in
dicted values (yp) . variability achieved by the equation . The relative
The prediction equations developed are of the reduction in variability ,
form
yp = bo + b₁x₁ + b₂x2 + ... + bmxm Sy2 - S.2
R2 =
S,2
In this equation, y, is called the dependent variable
(read "y-predicted" ) , and it is a measure of pre- is called the coefficient of determination and its
dicted stability (a value of a stability parameter) ; square root, R, is the multiple correlation coefficient
the variables , X1, X2, ... " Xm are called the inde- associated with the regression equation.
pendent variables, and they are measures of oper- The process of developing prediction equations
ating conditions and design parameters . This for stability, was guided by the principle that each
equation is linear in the coefficients bo, b1, b2 , . . . , equation should contain the least number of
bm but it may be nonlinear in one or more of the meaningful terms consistent with as high a value
x-variables. Nonlinearities can be introduced by of R2 as possible while containing correlations
means of such terms as log x , x², etc. among the independent variables (internal corre-
The coefficients bo , b₁ , ... " bm are constants , lations) that are as small as possible. The criterion
estimated from the data , which purport to give of "least number of meaningful terms" is a simple
the effects of the corresponding x-values on y as application of the philosophical principle of
approximated by yp. For example , b₁ gives the "Occam's Razor" which states in essence that of
effect on stability of a unit change in the operating two competing descriptions of nature which are
or design variable x₁ . If b₁ has a value not sta- equally verifiable , the simpler one is preferable .
tistically significantly different from zero , then The criterion of high R2 was adopted to assure
we say that x "has no influence" on stability. the maximum predictive power, and the criterion
Unfortunately, the interpretation of b₁ as the of low internal correlations was adopted to avoid
"effect of x1" is seriously clouded if x is highly the inclusion of grossly misleading coefficients in
correlated with , say, x2. The effects of two or more the equations .
highly correlated independent variables are di- These general criteria are in constant compe-
vided in some difficult-to -determine way among tition with one another. One can usually increase
the values of their coefficients. Thus, in a non- R2 by the simple expedient of including more inde-
orthogonal relationship (one with correlated independent variables (though the increase may be
pendent variables ) such as one ordinarily en- illusory ) ; even when the increase in R2 is signifi-
counters when working with historical data rather cant (though perhaps slight from a practical point
of view) , the inclusion of extra terms may "con- eters was "explained" by the regression equation.
found" the relationship by introducing high in- The standard error of estimate , S. = 0.278 , gives
ternal correlations. Thus, in the development of the amount of variability (as measured by the
prediction equations for rocket- engine stability , it standard deviation ) remaining in the value of the
was found necessary to pass through many iter- stability parameter after the regression equation
ations, and to apply both engineering and sta- has been applied .
tistical judgment at each step . The prediction equation derived for pulsed
The stability prediction equation derived for tests , shown in Table 4.4.2b is similar in form to
non-pulsed tests is given in Table 4.4.2a . The the equation for non-pulsed tests, but contains a
equation is based on 1105 observations ; the different set of independent variables. This equa-
coefficient of determination is tion is based on 1284 observations of pulsed tests,
and the coefficient of determination is
R2 = 0.592
R2 = 0.259
and the standard error of estimate is
The standard error of estimate is
S. =0.278
S₂ = 0.434
Thus, approximately 59 percent of the original
variability in the values of the stability param- Note that the predictive power of the non-pulsed
equation (R2 = 0.592 ) is considerably better than
that obtained for the pulsed equation. The reasons
TABLE 4.4.2a .-GENERAL EQUATION FOR
NONPULSED TESTS for this difficulty in describing the results of pulsed
[All logarithms are taken to base 10. ] tests are not clearly understood . However, lack of
knowledge of the exact positioning of the pulse,
yp(s) [0.49583-0.0014639 ( LR − 0.25068) difficulties in measuring the severity of the pulse,
-Pei -329.95023 ) and the resulting behavior of the engine probably
+0.024960 (Le - 16.24385)
-0.45096 (loge, −0.33429) TABLE 4.4.2b . -GENERAL EQUATION FOR
-7.15205 (BF - 0.36833 ) (log IDF + 0.01452) PULSED TESTS
+0.11250 (LR - 0.25068) (Le/De - 2.13785)
[All logarithms are taken to base 10]
-0.05177 (FO3−0.28507 ) (IDEF - 1.92209)
-0.27789 (FO3−0.28507)
-0.0006173 ( IDEF - 1.92209 ) ( EPA − 3.76607) yp(k) = [ − 5.56684−0.16675 ( Lc/Dc −1.45926)
+1.43317 (LR - 0.25068 ) (MPE − 1.93154) -0.26577 (LF/dir - 8.20992)
+2.09309 (LR − 0.25068) +0.03456 (TPVM - 4.40439 )
-0.30534 (BF − 0.36833) +0.00009267 (Viox - 1065.97697)
-0.80153 (PE1−0.16561) -13.67581 (log dir - 1.69583)
+0.001229 (Le - 16.24385)² +0.15923 (FO2 −0.12461 )
+0.002199 (MPE - 1.93154) 2 -74.95672 (LR − 0.08022)
-0.26849 (log Ec -0.33429)² -0.36162 (BF - 0.11682)
+0.00035321 (Pei -329.95023 ) (Lc/Dc - 2.13785) +12.57151 (LR − 0.08022 ) (PE1−0.14330 )
-0.087008 (L. - 16.24385 ) (log ec − 0.33429) +0.27624 (BF - 0.11682 ) (PE2−0.42991 )
-0.17222 ( Le - 16.24385 ) (log IDF + 0.01452 ) -0.003242 (TPVM −4.40439 ) ²
-0.000131 (Le - 16.24385 ) (MPE - 1.93154) -0.42891 (log dir - 1.69583)2
-0.81565 (log IDF + 0.01452) ( IDEF - 1.92209) -0.044068 (Le/De - 1.45926 ) (TPVM - 4.40439)
-0.030990 ( Lc/De - 2.13785) (MPE − 1.93154) +0.0003075 (Viox - 1065.97697)
-0.033444 (IDEF - 1.92209 ) (MPE - 1.93154) (log dir - 1.69583 )
+0.25448 (PE1-0.16561 ) ( Le/ De - 2.13785) -3.09641 (LR − 0.08022) (LF/d¡F - 8.20992 )
-0.90924 (PE1-0.16561 ) ( MPE − 1.93154) +0.0003577 (LR - 0.08022) (Viox - 1065.97697)
+0.17428 (PE1−0.16561 ) ( IDEƑ − 1.92209) -163.91664 (LR - 0.08022 ) (log dir - 1.69583 )
+0.0957 (PE1-0.16561 ) (log -0.33429) -0.12184 (PE1-0.14330 ) ( LF/dir - 8.20992 )
-0.0003465 (FO3-0.28507) (Pei - 329.95923 ) -0.15581 (PE2−0.42991 ) (Lc/De − 1.45926 )
+0.03243 (FO3−0.28507 ) (Le - 16.24385 ) -0.00002194 ( PE2−0.42991 ) (Viox - 1065.97697)
+0.00098624 (BF - 0.36833 ) (Pei - 329.95023 ) +0.03835 (PE2-0.42991 ) (TPVM - 4.40439)
-1.20213 (LR - 0.25068 ) (log -0.33429 ) ] -0.40008 (PE2-0.42991 ) (log dir - 1.69583 ) ]
contributed to the poorer predictive power of the Nevertheless , a great deal of understanding and
pulsed equation. intuition for the problem can be gained by study-
For certain engine types it was possible to find ing even restricted models. In this section the
special equations having better predictive power general features of the various analysis methods
than the applicable general equation. Data groups already covered will be discussed ; the differences
were defined by considering all 32 combinations and similarities will be exposed in some detail.
of the five variables : baffle , liner, pulsing, im- Perhaps the most obvious simplification of the
pinging jets, and annular jets. Based on the avail- general problem is the use of linearized equations.
ability of data, fourteen principal groups were For this reason, it is convenient to discuss linear
selected for individual study. A separate prediction and nonlinear models separately. However, many
equation was developed for each of these groups of the assumptions used in the linear models are
and compared with the applicable general equa- carried over into the nonlinear case.
tion. For certain engine types, these special equa- The following nomenclature pertains to Sect .
tions are recommended over the general equations 4.5 (see also Sect . 4.2.2 ) :
for design purposes. The special equations are Ã Complex quantity measuring time- aver-
similar in form to the general equations , but aged energy loss at exhaust nozzle
contain fewer terms. Details are given in Ref. 82 .
Complex quantity proportional to time-
averaged energy extraction by con-
4.5 COMPARISON OF ANALYTICAL MODELS * vection, momentum exchange, and vis-
cous losses in chamber
Analysis of unsteady behavior in a rocket com- EN² Quantity proportional to time- averaged
bustion chamber is, of course, a special problem total energy in chamber.
within the general field of fluid mechanics . Thus , k Complex wave number , w - iλ
it encompasses not only the difficulties associated x Complex quantity proportional to time-
with the nonlinear equations of motion, compressi- averaged energy addition due to com-
bility, and viscous effects, but also the added bustion
complications of chemical reactions and phase Subscript :
changes. Moreover, the behavior actually found N Denotes Nth natural mode
in a rocket engine, particularly in the case of a
liquid propellant rocket , is likely to be closely 4.5.1 Linear Models
related to certain peculiarities of the hardware
All of the linear calculations have been done for
involved (e.g., the geometry of the chamber and
harmonic motions in time . Concern is really with
nozzle and the kind of injection system used) ,
the linear stability problem; no truly transient
which cannot easily be incorporated into a formal
motions have been treated specifically. For ex-
analysis. The relatively idealized problems that
ample, the behavior subsequent to a small ampli-
can be treated must, therefore, be rather carefully
tude input pulse has not been analyzed , although
interpreted .
this would be an interesting problem to solve , and
It is perhaps not surprising that even with all
no particular difficulties should be encountered .
the effort that has been expended on analysis ,
observations and measurements contain much It is truc , of course, that for linear problems
almost all general information one desires can be
information that must be handled quite apart
obtained from analysis of harmonic motions . The
from formal or numerical results. This situation
reason for this is that any function of time that is
merely emphasizes the obvious fact that the pre-
dictive value of available theories is very seriously likely to arise in a physical problem can be decom-
limited . Even the similarity parameters provided posed into its harmonic components according to
the principle of superposition. Thus, for the study
by theory are insufficient for correlation of all
data. of the stability of small disturbances, an arbitrary
disturbance may be prescribed at an initial instant
as a function of position throughout the chamber.
* F. E. C. Culick, Author. Clearly, the disturbance is stable (i.e. , dies out
in time) if and only if all of the component modes mode will grow or decay in time if it is excited .
decay in time. Hence it is sufficient to examine In such a stability analysis it is convenient to use
only the harmonic natural modes. * This general exponential functions ; the time dependence is as-
approach to the problem of stability is exactly sumed to have the form exp (st ) , where s is the
the kind discussed by Crocco in Sect. 4.2 . The complex frequency sλ + iw. The decay or growth
results of such an analysis can yield no infor- rate is given by the real part A, and the principal
mation concerning the influence of the amplitude purpose of the analysis is to determine X.
of a disturbance . Observation of waves in the chamber, as well
as the organ pipe analogy, suggests that the
4.5.1.1 Characteristics oflinear stability models.- linearized problem should not differ very much
The simplest oscillation in a rocket chamber is a from the classical problem of acoustics in a closed
purely longitudinal wave in which the vibrations chamber in the absence of mean flow, combustion,
are always parallel to the axis. The standing-wave and all energy losses . Hence, one can find formulas
mode shape is only slightly different from the for the frequency w and the growth constant à in
standing wave in an organ pipe closed at both the following form
ends . At the injector face the fluctuating velocity MekN
vanishes, and at the nozzle it is not quite zero , w² = kN2+ ( r- Ar - C ) ( 4.5.1-1 )
EN2
corresponding to the fact that some energy is lost.
through the action of the exhaust nozzle . A non- Me
zero time average of the product of velocity and λ= (XR— ÃR — ČR ) (4.5.1-2 )
2EN2
pressure fluctuations means a flow of wave energy
out of the chamber due to "p-v" work done by where k is a complex wave number such that
the material in the chamber on that downstream . sik, Ex is a normalizing quantity proportional
Because the velocity fluctuation is nearly zero at to the time-averaged total energy in the chamber,
the entrance to the nozzle , it is not only con- the subscript N indicates the Nth normal mode of
venient but realistic to regard the nozzle as a the chamber, represents the time-averaged
boundary condition on the waves in the chamber energy addition from the oscillatory combustion
and hence break off the calculation of its influence process, Ã corresponds to energy extracted at the
as a separate problem ( Sect . 3.6 ) . If a steady wave chamber boundaries (including the exhaust noz-
exists, then the rate at which energy is provided zle ) , and Ĉ includes all other energy losses , such
by the combustion-wave interaction is just suffi- as the drag force on liquid drops and transfer of
cient to compensate the rate at which energy is momentum between the average and oscillatory
lost through the nozzle and due to other possible motions in the gas phase .
influences distributed throughout the chamber. The results of any linearized analysis can be
The latter include wave interaction with the mean put into this form, provided that the admittance
flow, viscous damping at the walls, and drag function is small. Otherwise the frequency must
forces between the gas and liquid phases. be found as the solution of a transcendental equa-
Now, as far as the stability problem is con- tion (Sect . 4.2.2.3 ) . For high contraction-ratio
cerned, one is not particularly interested in the chambers the frequencies of the natural modes in
mode shape, that is, the distribution of the ampli- a rocket chamber do not differ much from the
tude of motion in the chamber. The truly im- classical values (i.e. , w≈ky) , since x , Ã, and Č
portant quantity is the rate at which a particular all have the mean flow Mach number as a multi-
plying factor. In transverse modes the shift in
frequency is normally too small to distinguish
* In contrast , if nonlinear effects are studied , a dis- experimentally, owing to other uncertainties, and
turbance cannot be examined by studying only its har- is in any case not of practical interest . On the
monic components, although one may choose as a special other hand, for longitudinal modes the frequency
case a finite-amplitude harmonic motion. The failure of
shift , due primarily to nozzle effects, can amount
superposition accounts for the qualitative differences and
greatly increased complexities of nonlinear as compared to as much as 20 % .
to linear calculations . The general result for the growth constant ,
Eq . (4.5.1-2 ) , contains the stability criterion . In Sect . 4.2 both longitudinal and transverse
Since all fluctuations have the time factor modes are treated . Although the time lag model
exp (st) = exp ( ikt ) ~ exp (At ) , the necessary and of the combustion response is used , it is clear that
sufficient condition for stability of small dis- other models of the response can equally well be
turbances is λ < 0 , or used to compute x . However, it must be empha-
sized that numerical results and comparison with
XR < ÃR + ČR (4.5.1-3 )
data have been obtained only for the time lag
Thus , in order for a particular mode to die out , model. It is of interest to note that all of the
the contribution to the wave energy from the results of Sect . 4.2 have been used essentially in
combustion processes should be less than the dissi- an inverse way. That is, it has been supposed
pative contributions due to the nozzle ( AR) and that all other quantities are known, and the two
the volume contributions represented in Ĉ (e.g. , equations for the stability boundary have been
convection, momentum exchange , viscous losses) . used to compute values of the pressure index n
It should be noted that the quantities x, Ã, and the time lag necessary to satisfy the equa-
and Ĉ must account for all possible contributions tions . The internal consistency of this procedure
throughout the chamber and on the boundaries , has been checked by comparison with experi-
with the effects properly weighted according to mental results . An important assumption , which
the mode shape . The results , of course, are com- seems to be justified by the favorable comparison,
plex numbers having different values for each is that n and are supposed to be independent of
mode . Thus, as one expects, X is the sum of frequency. Thus it appears that the values of
fractional energy changes due to the processes these two parameters are indeed dominated by
accounted for in the particular model used . the fluid mechanical and chemical processes in the
By far the most uncertain contribution is that chamber. This is by no means obvious a priori ,
represented by x , which depends on the response for in spite of the heuristic argument leading to
of the combustion process to oscillatory motions . the response equation, Eq . (4.2.2-10 ) , the latter
It is clear that the distribution of the combustion is really a very special function of frequency.
response relative to the mode shape is an im- An obvious feature of the experimental results
portant factor in the stability of a mode. The that was predicted by the theory is the existence
phase relationship between the pressure and com- of both upper and lower critical lengths, as dis-
bustion response is expressed by the fact that x cussed in connection with Fig . 4.2.2b . The distri-
is a complex number. If, for example, the com- bution of combustion in the chamber is an im-
bustion fluctuation lags the pressure oscillation portant influence on that prediction . In fact , the
everywhere by 90°, then XR = 0 and combustion shape of the stability boundary depends mainly
cannot drive the wave. Maximum driving by the on the fact that combustion occurs in a region of
combustion process occurs when the fluctuations fixed length (independent of total chamber length)
are in phase with the pressure oscillations. This and on the particular function of frequency pro-
is true even if the response is sensitive to velocity duced in x by the time lag model. The results are
fluctuations . modified only in detail by the variation of the
nozzle admittance function with length and hence
4.5.1.2 Comparison of linear calculations.- with frequency .
Equations (4.5.1-1 ) and (4.5.1-2 ) can be used It is quite possible that other response functions ,
to show how the linear analyses presented in this when used in the general scheme for computing
chapter are related. In the first place , it must be stability, might also lead to the prediction of
observed that only the sensitive time lag analysis upper and lower critical lengths . Since the neces-
(Sect. 4.2) is complete in the sense that all of sary computations have not been carried out ,
the contributions discussed above are taken into however, it is not possible to assess quantitatively
account. Thus , only those results can be used to how the various models compare . Nevertheless ,
determine a stability boundary with reasonable some qualitative observations can be made . In
confidence that significant contributions have not the first place, it is clear that the combustion.
been ignored . response , and hence x , must be a complex number.
This simply expresses the fact that the conversion boundaries directly and avoid the inverse pro-
of liquid to gas and the associated , or subsequent, cedure followed by Crocco . There appear to be
energy release during combustion cannot follow no complete results of this kind, although some
pressure changes instantaneously. There must be values of n and were computed from the
locally a lead or lag, which is expressed for the Heidmann-Feiler model.347 This comparison is dis-
chamber as a whole by the integral x. cussed further in Sect . 6.3.3 .
The response factors discussed in Sect . 4.4.1 are Finally , the modal energy analysis of Sect .
essentially pieces of Eq. (4.5.1-2 ) , the formula. 4.4.1.4 is an approach leading to an expression
for A given above . They are all proportional to for the logarithmic rate of divergence of the
the ratio of a time-averaged energy input to the energy, Eq. (4.4.1-22 ) , which is essentially equiv-
time-averaged total energy in the chamber. Thus , alent to Eq. (4.5.1-2 ) . This correspondence is
the response factor introduced by Heidmann and easily seen, for as A was originally defined , the
Feiler, Eq . ( 4.4.1-5a ) , is practically the same as pressure amplitude grows as exp (At ) so that the
x /Ex² , except for possible numerical multipliers . energy E, proportional to the square of the pres-
Subsequently, they consider several specific con- sure , varies as exp ( 2t ) . Hence dinE/dt = 2x,
tributions to this response factor and correctly which merely reproduces the interpretation of A
emphasize the importance of the real part , i.e. , given above . Thus, the various terms of Eq.
the part that is in phase with the pressure fluctu- (4.4.1-22 ) can either be put in one-to -one corre-
ations, and therefore the part that appears in spondence with terms in Eq . (4.5.1-2 ) or else
Eq . (4.5.1-2 ) for the growth constant A: The represent contributions that can be added to λ by
response function for the nozzle suggested in arguments similar to those of Sect . 4.4.1.4. A
Sect . 4.4.1.1 corresponds to the factor Ã in Eqs . difficulty with the analysis proposed by Leeper is
(4.5.1-1 ) and ( 4.5.1-2 ) . that the correct form of the various convective
Similarly, the analysis by Dykema (Sect . and momentum exchange terms is far from obvi-
4.4.1.3 ) is also a computation of the real part of ous . It appears that the only way to handle these
x; the result is Eq. (4.4.1-12 ) . However , the terms, appearing as Ĉ in Eq. (4.5.1-2 ) , is to begin
calculation is restricted in an essential respect by with the full set of differential equations.
the assumption that the processes considered These brief remarks may serve to clarify the
respond instantaneously to changes of the en- fact that the various linear analyses are more
vironment . As a result , the response is always in closely related than perhaps appears at first to be
phase with the pressure oscillations (i.e., XI = 0) . the case . However, some of the analyses are
Recent work668 has shown some limitations of this limited to pieces of the problem. A truly compre-
assumption. In particular, it implies that a very hensive analysis of the stability boundary must
important resonance effect of transient heat con- be based on the full equations of motion and
duction in the liquid phase is eliminated , thus consideration of all contributions to the acoustical
reducing the magnitude of the response in the energy gains and losses. An alleged stability cri-
frequency range of interest for oscillations in terion based, for example, on the combustion
rocket chambers . This transient heat conduction response alone must be quantitatively in error
resonance is a well-known effect in the response of and qualitatively misleading .
a burning solid propellant to pressure oscillations ,
and has been found to be the dominant contri- 4.5.2 Nonlinear Models
bution to a peak in the response in the frequency Linear analysis provides a rather general under-
range of a few hundred Hz to several thousand Hz. standing, which is useful both for its own sake
Obviously, the results of the various compu- and as a guide to the study of nonlinear problems .
tations of the response can be related directly . Owing to vastly increased complications, the
For example , any model properly handled and analyses of nonlinear problems amount to exami-
integrated will give numbers for XR and I , which nation of quite special problems . The results are
in turn can, if desired , be interpreted as the pre- therefore useful mainly for particular cases and
dictions of the pressure index and time lag. In obviously provide some information that cannot
this way one could , in principle, compute stability be gained from linear calculations . Two approaches
to nonlinear aspects of the stability problem are sentially from that of Sect . 4.2 only in the repre-
presented in this chapter. Unlike the linear anal- sentation of the coupling between the burning
yses , these do not fit into a common framework. rate and the oscillations . The difference in that
First, the nonlinear computations discussed in respect is quite significant , for all of the compu-
Sect . 4.2.3 constitute natural extensions of the tations discussed in Sect . 4.3 are based on quasi-
comprehensive linear analysis discussed in Sect. steady models of the coupling processes. Thus, if
4.2.2 . An attempt is made to retain all the features. these formulations were linearized , one would find
that distinguish the problem of motions in a that for purely pressure-sensitive coupling the
rocket chamber from other nonlinear acoustics quantity x , defined in Sect . 4.5.1 , would be real ;
problems . It is clear from the discussion given. the fluctuations of energy release would always be
that one is forced to back away from that am- in phase with the pressure fluctuations. Any lags
bitious goal. The effects on the stability boun- in the response would arise only through de-
daries of nonlinearities in the time lag model of pendence on velocity fluctuations which, for stand-
combustion response are found without excep- ing acoustic waves, are 90° out of phase with
tional difficulty (Sect . 4.2.3.1 ) . However, in treat- pressure fluctuations. As remarked above in con-
ing the deeper nonlinearities associated with the nection with Dykema's calculations , such an as-
wave motion ( Sect . 4.2.3.2 ) , numerous approxi- sumption may exclude an important contribution
mations are required . For example, although the to the coupling, and one that would be strongly
presence of the mean flow and the nozzle are dependent on frequency. This must be regarded
accounted for, they are very much simplified . as a serious drawback of the numerical integration
The calculations of Sect . 4.2.3 are for steady approach as described in this Chapter. It is a
waves (i.e. , the solution does not grow or decay restriction , however, that can presumably be cor-
with time ) so that the results are valid only on rected within the framework of the numerical
the stability boundary . Although an unrealistic approach .
boundary condition is used at the exhaust end, A second limitation of the numerical results is
and the exchange of momentum between the the practical necessity of treating only one- or
gaseous and liquid phases is ignored, the results. two-dimensional problems . A treatment of a com-
do indicate the kinds of effects due to nonlinear plete problem accounting correctly for both the
behavior. Thus, both large amplitude continuous exhaust nozzle and three-dimensional features of
oscillations and solutions representing the presence the injection process and distribution of com-
of a finite discontinuity or shock wave appear in bustion has not been carried out . Although the
the n, 7 stability diagram, Fig. 4.2.3b , and direct favorable effects of both baffles and acoustic liners
comparison with the linear results is made. have been shown, * it is not clear how one can
The second approach (Sect . 4.3 ) is entirely confidently assess the stability of a three-dimen-
numerical. In contrast to the linear calculations sional chamber on the basis of the restricted
and the nonlinear analysis of Sect . 4.2.3.2 , an problems that have so far been handled . In view
initial value problem is treated . That is , a dis- of the assumptions used , it appears that the nu-
turbance is introduced and its subsequent growth merical results are useful mainly as an indication
or decay is calculated numerically. The only of local nonlinear effects associated with the
practical restriction on the information that can viscous processes and exchanges of momentum.
be obtained is the capacity of the computer. As Since the combustion processes have been assumed
the discussion of Sect . 4.3.1 emphasizes, this re- to respond quasi-steadily, any conclusions one
striction is so severe as to prevent examination of draws should strictly be limited to frequencies
the complete three-dimensional problem . that are low compared to the characteristic fre-
Initially, however, the same basic information quency of the controlling combustion process .
must be included : proper specification of the mean Unfortunately , the differences in detail between
flow, the nozzle, combustion, etc. In addition , the
viscous terms in the equations of motion are
retained in the general formulation . If the viscous * Certain aspects of baffles and liners can, of course, be
terms are ignored , this formulation differs es- examined within a linear analysis.
the two types of nonlinear analysis are such that complicated and involves so many variables and
the results cannot be meaningfully compared in parameters that one must settle for much less .
a quantitative way. In fact , complete analytical solutions cannot now
and probably never will be found . Nevertheless ,
4.5.3 Concluding Remarks even though short of this goal, modeling and
approximate analyses can provide useful under-
The ultimate value of an engineering analysis standing and perhaps scaling laws. At the very
derives from its success in accurate prediction of least, these analytical models can suggest ways of
results required for design and development . How- correlating and interpreting experimental obser-
ever, the problem of combustion instability is so vations.
CHAPTER 5
Analytical Models of Low and Intermediate
Frequency Instability
5.1 INTRODUCTION * Analyses of feed-coupled combustion instability

differ according to the theoretical treatment of
In this chapter, methods of analysis are pre-
the combustion process, and of the feeding
sented for those types of combustion instability
process, as well as in the method of obtaining a
that depend on the interaction of feed system and
solution to the governing equations . For example,
combustion process dynamics . Since various
one of the earliest theories of low frequency
aspects of the physical processes involved have
instability used a combustion response based on a
been discussed in some detail in Chapter 3 , the
single, constant time lag and assumed a non-
emphasis here is on constructing useful analytical
resonant feed line.673 Later analyses included
models for stability prediction . Examples of cal-
wave effects in the feed lines,622 a sensitive
culated stability behavior and some experimental
(variable ) combustion time lag,173 and separate
data are given , to enhance the reader's under-
time delays for fuel and oxidizer combustion.731
standing of the feed system-combustion process
For convenience in presentation, theoretical
interaction and to indicate the validity of the
models of the combustion response are considered
models. However, details of how the analyses are
first , followed by a discussion of methods of
applied to engine development are saved for
including feed system effects in the stability
Chapter 6.
In addition to the fact that acoustic modes are analysis. Finally, solution methods are presented
and compared .
not excited in the combustion chamber, two char-
For most low frequency applications , it is
acteristics of low and intermediate frequency
sufficient to regard the combustion response as
instability distinguish these types from high
dependent on a constant time delay between
frequency combustion instability . First , the feed
injection of the propellants and their conversion
system is an integral part of the resonant system,
to products . Theoretical treatments based on this
whereas in the case of high frequency oscillations
principle differ mainly in their assumption of
the feed system can usually be neglected . The
either a single time lag to represent both pro-
second characteristic is related to the first ; that is,
pellants or two time lags, one for each propellant.
because of the injection rate fluctuations , the
For intermediate frequency instability, it is
combustion response is associated primarily with
desirable to include the sensitivity of the time lag
the total time delay between injection and
to local changes in the state of the combustion
combustion, and only secondarily on the sensi-
gases. In this case, it is also important to include
tivity of this time delay to local chamber condi-
wave effects, in which phase and amplitude
tions . The distinction between low and inter-
differences between different locations in the
mediate frequency instability is made on the
chamber exert significant influence on the overall
following basis . "Low frequency" implies that
combustion gain.
wave motion in the combustion chamber is not
Solutions of the equations governing the
important . "Intermediate frequency" refers to the
coupled feed system-combustion process behavior
situation in which wave motion must be taken into
can be obtained either by analytical or analog
account, but the acoustic modes of the chamber
are not excited . methods. Analytical techniques include a modified
Nyquist criterion, evaluation of the conditions at
* F. H. Reardon, Author. the boundary between stable and unstable
233
operation , and frequency response calculations. 5.2.1 General Approach

Alternative to these analytical methods , it is
In developing a usable combustion equation for
possible to set up analog models of the engine
application to low frequency instability, the same
systems. The stability analysis then consists of
general scheme of analysis is employed regardless
introducing a disturbance and observing whether
of the model chosen to represent the actual
or not the disturbance grows or decays. By
combustion process . Equations are obtained for
varying the system parameters , the limits of
the variations in chamber pressure, mass flow rate,
stable operation can be traced, and the importance
and density. These quantities are then related by a
of the various parameters can be determined .
suitable burning rate equation. This set of equa-
Either analog or digital computers can be used for
tions is reduced to a single equation involving
obtaining such a solution .
pressure and injection rates by the application of
5.2 CONSTANT COMBUSTION TIME boundary conditions at the injector and nozzle
LAG MODELS * ends of the chamber. The unsteady flow in the
chamber is taken to be one-dimensional, con-
The analyses presented in this section have as sisting of small perturbations superimposed on the
their objective the determination of a realistic, steady-state flow . Other general assumptions
tractable representation of the response of the about the combustion chamber flow are the same
chamber pressure to variations in the propellant as those presented in Sect . 4.1.2.
injection rates , for use in predicting stability For low frequency oscillations, the basic
behavior. It must be remembered that the un- governing equation is the mass conservation
steady combustion process in a liquid propellant equation applied to the gas phase , i.e. , the rate of
rocket is extremely complicated and not com- increase of the mass of gas within the chamber is
pletely understood . For purposes of stability equal to the difference between the rate of produc-
analysis, it is not necessary nor desirable to tion of hot gases and the rate of exhaust of these
attempt to include all of the refinements currently gases . Stated mathematically,
available in steady-state models. It has been
demonstrated that the combustion time lag ap
V = mb( t ) — me( t ) (5.2.1-1 )
approach is satisfactory for feed-coupled insta- at
bility analysis . For most low frequency problems ,
where is the chamber volume, p is the gas
the use of a constant time lag, or lags , gives
density, and mь, me are the mass rates of gas
sufficiently accurate predictions.
production and exhaust , respectively. Eq.
The following nomenclature pertains to Sect . 5.2 :
(5.2.1-1 ) is based on the assumption that the
G Dimensionless injection admittance, volume occupied by the liquid is very small
p m' compared to the total chamber volume. Also ,
-
m p' this equation is valid only at low frequencies,
such that the period of oscillation is long com-
r Mixture ratio pared to the time required for a pressure wave to
0c Gas residence time in combustion chamber travel the length of the chamber and return .
мы Fractional burning rate perturbation , Thus, any small change in pressure will be trans-
(m /m ) e-st mitted essentially instantaneously throughout
TF Total fuel combustion time the chamber ; the flow is, therefore , taken to be
7m Mixing-combustion time quasi-steady.
TOX Total oxidizer combustion time Writing each quantity as the sum of a steady-
TT Overall (total) combustion time lag state part (-) and a perturbation (') , Eq .
Tv Atomization-vaporization time (5.2.1-1 ) can be rewritten as
p'e-st a mb' me'
$ Fractional pressure perturbation , 0 = (5.2.1-2 )
P at ( m m
* F. H. Reardon and J. Szuch , Authors . where

ANALYTICAL MODELS OF LOW AND INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY INSTABILITY §5.2 235
PV 1 T' C*/
θε (5.2.1-3 ) =
m 2T
is the chamber gas residence time, and m = Since c* is a function of both chamber pressure
mb = me. Assuming that the combustion gases and mixture ratio,
are perfect , the LHS of Eq. (5.2.1-2 ) is
C*/ rac*) pac* p'
= +
a a *2
c* dr p @* др
ap
0c Oc r.p
•2 at () -• 2 T
at (
1)
However, the pressure dependence of c * is nor-
Although the instantaneous pressure can be mally much smaller than the mixture ratio
assumed to be uniform throughout the chamber, dependence, so that the second term can be
the same cannot be said about the temperature . neglected . The burning rate m, can be written as
Because of mixture ratio oscillations produced by the sum of the oxidizer and fuel burning rates :
the different dynamic response characteristics of
the fuel and oxidizer feed systems, the tempera- ть = moxь + mFb
ture of the burned gases in the combustion zone

The perturbations in burning rate and mixture
also oscillates . After burning, each parcel of gas
ratio can then be written in terms of the oxidizer
can be assumed to flow isentropically through the
and fuel mass flux perturbations in the com-
chamber. Therefore, the temperature oscillation at bustion zone as
the nozzle entrance is not the same as that at the
combustion front . The mean temperature per- m = mox + MFD' (5.2.1-6 )
turbation should be obtained by integrating over
r' (1 +r) ( 1 +r)
the chamber volume.179 However, the usual •moxy- •MF (5.2.1-7)
rm m
procedure is to assume that the average chamber
temperature is approximately constant. Then the
Inserting the above relations into Eq. (5.2.1–7 )
LHS of Eq . (5.2.1-2 ) becomes simply
yields the governing equation for low frequency
a oscillations ,
0c
• at (p)
Oc
For the exhaust flow, the temperature varia- ¿ () + ()
tions can be taken into account, because of the
isentropic flow of each gas parcel downstream of = 1+ / dc *
+ moxь
the combustion zone . For very low frequency m ē* dr
oscillations, the exhaust flow can be assumed to be
quasi-steady, so that ř (1 + r) /dc *
+ MFb (5.2.1-8 )
C* ar
me~p/ √T
Hence, the exhaust mass flow perturbation is It remains to determine explicit relations
between the burning rates, the injection rates, and
mo p' 1 T' the chamber pressure . This is done in the following
= (5.2.1-4)
me p 2T two sections , using two combustion models
appropriate to low frequency instability. Both
Substituting this result into Eq . (5.2.1-2) gives
models are based on the concept of a combustion
a mb' 1 T' time lag, which is discussed in detail in Sect.
Oc - + (5.2.1-5 ) 4.2.1 . Here it will suffice to observe that for
• at () + () m 2T
analytical convenience, the gradual evolution of
for the chamber equation . gaseous combustion products from the initially
More commonly, the last term on the RHS of liquid reactants is represented as a sudden con-
Eq . (5.2.1-5 ) is expressed in terms of the char- version at a time TT after injection of the re-
acteristic exhaust velocity, c *, i.e. , actants. The time TT is variously known as the
combustion time delay, total time lag , or " dead" Then

time. For most cases of low frequency instability,
moxь' (t) = mFь' (t) p ' (t - TT)
it is sufficiently accurate to regard the total time (5.2.2-4 )
mGox mGr p
lag as a constant for a given engine operating
point . The consequences of a non -constant com- For this linearized theory, the perturbations can
bustion time lag coupled with oscillatory injection be assumed to have exponential time dependence ,
rates are explored in Sect . 5.3.
exp (st ) , where s is the complex frequency,
s = λ+iw. Letting
5.2.2 Single Time Lag Model
mb ' (t) p' (t )
The simplest combustion model is that in which =#best ; = pest
only a single time lag is considered . Since the time m p
lag can be envisioned as the time required for the Eq. (5.2.2-4 ) becomes
liquid propellants to travel from the injector to an
effective combustion "front," the use of a single μOXb μFb
= = exp [ -STT ] ( 5.2.2-5)
time lag implies either that the propellant in- Gox GF
jection velocities are equal or that only one of the
propellants controls the combustion dynamics . Substituting Eq . (5.2.2-5 ) into Eq . (5.2.1-8 )
yields
For example, with LOX/RP- 1 propellants, the
liquid oxygen vaporizes so much faster than the exp [-STT]
RP-1 that the fuel exerts control over the com- 1+ Gox
+1
(1C* )(act)]
1+s
bustion process rates . On the other hand , for a
combination such as N2O4/A- 50 , there is no such
ř (1 +r ) (dc*
large difference in vaporization rate to force one + GF (5.2.2-6)
C* c)] Gr} = -1
( ər
propellant to be controlling . Therefore, a single
time delay model would be reasonable only when which is the equation governing the stability of
the injection velocities are approximately equal or low frequency oscillations. That is , if a value of s
when one of the feed systems is designed to that satisfies Eq . ( 5.2.2-6 ) has a positive real
produce negligible injection rate oscillations in part ( X) , the oscillation will grow. On the other
response to chamber pressure fluctuations . hand , if X is negative, the oscillation will decay
The combustion time lag concept is expressed
and the engine system will be stable with respect
mathematically as to that oscillation .
mь (t) = m; (t - TT) (5.2.2-1 )

5.2.3 Double Time Lag Model
which introduces the dynamic responses of the
feed systems into the combustion chamber For more general application the double time.
analysis. The pressure dependence of the burning lag model should be used. In this model, each
rate would enter through the variability of TT. propellant is assumed to have its own time delay
However, in this section it is assumed that Tr = between injection and combustion . Thus,
constant . Therefore, the burning rate perturba-
moxь' (t ) = mox ,' ( t - Tox) ( 5.2.3-1a)
tions are given by
mFь' (t ) = mF ;' ( t - TF) (5.2.3-1b)
moxь' (t) = mox ,' (t - TT) (5.2.2-2a)
It is useful to separate the vaporization process
me (t) = mr,' (t - TT) (5.2.2-2b)
from the mixing and reaction , and to assume that
It is convenient to define injection admittances the total time lag is the sum of an atomization-
Gox and GF by vaporization time and a mixing-reaction time, the
latter being common to both propellants. In this
p moxi p MF,
Gox GF = way the individual atomization and vaporization
m p' m p'
characteristics of the fuel and oxidizer can be
(5.2.2-3) included explicitly in the analysis. Then since
TOX =Tvox + Tm (5.2.3-2a) most important type of instability (high fre-

quency) is based on the variability of the time
TF = Tvp + Tm (5.2.3-2b) delay under the effects of the oscillations of the
the stability condition expressed by Eq . (5.2.2-6) chamber conditions ( Sect . 4.2) . It is important,
becomes, for the double time lag model, therefore, to determine the effects on feed-coupled
instability when the time delay is not a constant,
exp [-STm] but is dynamically affected by the chamber
1 + se conditions. It has been found that the effect of
the time lag sensitivity on low-frequency insta-
bility can be neglected if the portion of the total
Gox exp [ -STVOX ]
{
[ 1+ (1+0) (~~) ] time delay that is sensitive is only a small fraction
of the total delay. However, for intermediate-
== frequency instability, in which both feed system
GF exp 1
+ [ 1 - F (1C*
+ 1) (acc) ] p [ -STvp ] } = response and wave motion in the chamber are
important, the variability of the time lag cannot
( 5.2.3-3 ) be neglected . The treatment in this section
Both Eq. ( 5.2.2-6 ) and Eq . ( 5.2.3-3 ) show that considers first the low frequency problem in
low frequency stability depends on the product of order to show the combustion response modifica-
a combustion chamber transfer function and a tions introduced by the sensitivity of the time lag.
feed system transfer function. In the double time. Then the case of intermediate-frequency oscilla-
tions is examined to show the wave effects . For
lag model, the vaporization time can be con-
sidered to be part of the feed system response. In simplicity, the latter discussion is concerned with
the case of a gaseous propellant, for example a single combustion time delay.
The following nomenclature pertains to Sect . 5.3
hydrogen fuel, the vaporization time vanishes.
Hence (see also Sects . 4.2.2 and 5.2 ) :
TOX = Tvox + TF
a, G Nozzle admittance coefficients
and the stability equation becomes Overall combustion rate
JC(s) Function representing effect of
exp [-STF 1 + r / ac* mixture ratio oscillations
1+ Gox exp [-STVOX ]
1+s . c* dr Ratio of fractional injection
J(s)
velocity perturbation to frac-
tional chamber pressure
+ = -1 (5.2.3-4)
+ [ 1_ F(1c* ər ) ] Gr}
+ 1) (305 perturbation
K (s) Function expressing effect of
mass flux oscillations
5.3 VARIABLE COMBUSTION TIME
k Momentum interchange CO-
LAG MODELS
efficient
The analytical treatment given in Sect . 5.2.2 is Μι Mass burning rate perturbation
based on the interactions of the feed system with (first-order approximation )
the combustion system when the dynamic. nr Mixture ratio "interaction
behavior of the latter is simplified to the point index"
that one parameter alone, the steady-state total P(s) Combustion response function
time delay, is sufficient to represent it. Certainly for pressure oscillations
this is not rigorously true, even within the W₁, X1 , Y1, Z1 Functions defined in Eq .
schematization of the time delay model. Even the (5.3.2-4)
improvement offered by the double time delay Xc Location of concentrated com-
concept (Sect. 5.2.3 ) falls well short of reality, bustion front
since the time lags are assumed to be constant. V Fractional injection velocity
Indeed , one explanation of the occurrence of the perturbation amplitude
T Sensitive (variable) com- is generally called the "pressure interaction

bustion time lag index. " Inserting Eq. ( 5.3.1-4 ) into Eq. (5.3.1-3 )
Ti Insensitive (constant) com- gives an expression for the sensitive time lag
bustion time lag perturbation
5.3.1 Low-Frequency Instability * 7-7 = -n

·S_p'/p (t') dt ' ( 5.3.1-5)
When the total time lag varies, the injection and
.
from which
burning rates satisfy the equation
dr p'
mb (t) dtm; (t - TT) .d (t - TT) ( 5.3.1-1 ) = (5.3.1-6)
dt ' (t) -
P
Assuming the perturbations from the mean flow to
be small, one obtains or, taking p'/p = pest,
mь' (t) m;' (t — TT) - dre dr

= (5.3.1-2 )
m m dt = -n[1 exp ( -s ) ]pest (5.3.1-6a)
dt
The first term on the RHS of Eq . ( 5.3.1-2 ) has The effect of mixture ratio oscillations on the
already been discussed in connection with the
combustion time lag is derived by noting that both
constant, single time lag model ; its influence on
the combustion rate ƒ and the threshold product
stability is included in Eq . ( 5.2.2-6 ) . In this fare actually functions of mixture ratio.630
section , the additional effects introduced by the Hence, Eqs. (5.3.1-3 ) and (5.3.1-4 ) become
second term are outlined and added to the
(considering only mixture ratio effects )
stability equation . For clarity, the effects of
.t
chamber pressure, mixture ratio, and injection ner' (t - ir)
dt'
velocity are examined separately, a procedure that [_ ¿[r( t') ]dt' = S_ } [1+ ]
is consistent with the linearized theory.
Following Crocco, 173 it is assumed that the nзr'
total time lag TT can be expressed as the sum of a =ji [ 1+ Mar ( t = 71) ] (5.3.1-7)
7
constant ("insensitive" ) time lag Ti
7 ; and a variable
("sensitive" ) time lag 7, so that drr/dt = dr/ dt . It should be noted that the mixture ratio per-
It is further assumed that the time lag is related turbation in Eq. (5.3.1-7 ) is evaluated at the
to the chamber conditions by instant of injection , since the integration is carried
out following a particular propellant parcel, and
... Jdt ' ( 5.3.1-3 ) the threshold is that appropriate to the same
[ _¡
t-T [p(t'), T(t '),
parcel. This model assumes equality of the fuel
where is an overall combustion rate. The and oxidizer liquid velocities . The treatment of a
more realistic case would involve substantial
product on the RHS of Eq . ( 5.3.1-3 ) represents
complication of the analysis and would still be
a threshold, defining the instant of conversion
from reactants to products in the time lag sche- based on quite arbitrary models of the actual
physical processes .
matization of the combustion process. For small
Since the mixture ratio perturbation is constant
perturbations the combustion rate can be written
as with respect to the integration in Eq . ( 5.3.1-7 ) ,
a relation for the time lag perturbation is obtained
(5.3.1-4) quite simply as
J=1 (1 + 0 )
(nз - n2 ) r' (t - IT)
where T-7= (5.3.1-8 )
ǝƒ ət Defining
n= + +
др aT ap
nrn3 -n2
* F. H. Reardon , Author. and using Eqs . ( 5.2.1-7 ) and ( 5.2.2-5 ) , the time
lag perturbation is given by

exp -s7T[ K (s) + (s ) ] − P(s)
== 1 (5.3.1-14)
n ,7 (1 + r) (1 +s )
7-7 exp [ -ST] ( Gox - IGF) pest
where
(5.3.1-9)
K (s) = ( 1 + SFT) ( Gox + GF) (5.3.1-15 )
from which the derivative is obtained as
(1 +r) (ac*
dr ( 1 +r) JC (s) = -n,si (Gox - IGF)
= —n‚s7 exp [ −sĪT] [ (30 ) -n.si]
(Gox - TGF ) pest
dt ř
(5.3.1-16 )
(5.3.1-10) -
(s) = n [ 1 exp ( −sī ) ] (5.3.1-17)
which is the contribution of mixture ratio oscil-
The function K ( s ) includes the effects of total
lations to the unsteady burning rate.
mass flux oscillations into the combustion zone ,
Finally, the effect of the injection velocity on 11268
which has been termed the "Klystron effect"
the total time lag will be evaluated. The analysis,
(see also Sect . 3.3.1 ) . 3C ( s ) accounts for the
consistent with the foregoing derivations , is effects of mixture ratio fluctuations on both
simplified by neglecting spatial variations in exhaust flow and burning rate. The pressure-effect
comparison with temporal ones. Although the
term (s ) is the same as that used in the analysis
spatial effects can be of comparable magnitude
of high-frequency modes (Sect . 4.2 ) .
locally, their influence on the overall stability is Typically, for low-frequency instability
always of higher order.630 Additional approxi- wir = 0 ( 1 ) . If the sensitive time lag is small
mations introduced here are (a) the combustion
compared to the total time lag, exp ( −sī ) will
is concentrated at a location x = xe (constant) , and
be about unity, so that the pressure effect will be
(b) the liquid velocity (0 <x <xe) is equal to the negligible, as will the factor n,s7 in 3 (s ) . The
injection velocity, which is the same for fuel and STT term in K (s) gives some increase in gain, but
oxidizer.
not a large amount, compared to the constant
The total time lag can be written as
time lag case. Hence, for low-frequency oscil-
Xc lations, if TTT, the models described in Sect.
rr (t ) == (5.3.1-11 )
VL (t- TT) 5.2 should be adequate. On the other hand, for
intermediate frequency instability, where
Letting 1 FT < w < 1/7 , the effects of the time lag variation
VL = VL ( 1 + vest) must be taken into account, with the Klystron
and neglecting higher-order terms, effect probably dominating.
It can be seen from Eq . ( 5.3.1-14 ) that the
- 7т ( 1 — v exp [ s ( t − 7т) ] )
Tr = ( 5.3.1-12 ) pressure-sensitivity of the combustion time lag
allows the possibility of low-frequency instability
For liquid propellants the fractional injection
even if Gox = Gr = 0 . This is the case of so -called
velocity perturbation is equal to the fractional
"intrinsic" instability ; the stability condition
injection mass flux perturbation . Therefore, Eq .
reduces to
(5.3.1-11 ) yields
n (1 - exp [ si ] ) = 1 + 80 ( 5.3.1–18 )
dɩr
= sir exp [ -sir] ( Gox + GF ) pest ( 5.3.1-13 ) Using this equation , Crocco and Cheng179 have
dt
shown that intrinsic instability can occur only if
for the linearized effect of injection velocity n > , and that there is a critical time lag for
perturbations . each n,
Combining the three effects just discussed ,
[ cos ( 1 - n/n ) ]
which are described by Eqs . ( 5.3.1-6a) , ( 5.3.1–10 ) , Ter - (5.3.1-19 )
√2n-1
and (5.3.1-13 ) , with Eq . ( 5.3.1-2 ) and the results
of Sect. 5.2.2 gives the variable-time-lag stability such that the combustor operation is unstable
condition corresponding to Eq. (5.2.2-6) : for T >Ter
5.3.2 Intermediate- Frequency Instability * Po - Poo cosh sx
Poo (5.3.2-3)
In the low-frequency analysis of the preceding
Vo =uo sinh sx
section, the effects of wave motion in the com- γ
bustion chamber were neglected . Such effects
cannot be omitted from the analysis of inter- To simplify the presentation , only those terms
mediate-frequency instability . Thus, in the latter will be retained that eventually provide first-order
case considered in this section , the chamber contributions. Accordingly, the functions on the
dynamics are governed by the equations developed RHS of Eq . (5.3.2-2 ) are
in Sect. 4.2.2 for high-frequency instability, dh
although in the present case there is no coupling X₁ = ( -1 ) uu + ( 1 +ř )
dr
with the acoustic modes of the chamber. The
combustion response must include the effects
M exp [-sir]
discussed in connection with low-frequency insta- ( Gox - TGF ) Poo (5.3.2-4a)
S
bility , viz. , mass flux oscillations, mixture ratio
oscillations, and the sensitivity of the combustion. Y₁ = -ūpo (5.3.2-4b)
rates to local chamber conditions ( Sect . 5.3.1 ) .
про
Since the chamber dynamics equations are the Z₁= +PLᵒULO (5.3.2-4c)
same as those used in the high-frequency analysis , γ
the series expansion method of solution is also W₁ = 2ūuo (5.3.2-4d)
applicable here . Thus, letting
Except for X1 , these functions are the same as
p' = Po + P₁ + ... those given in Sect . 4.2.2.2 . The new term in Eq.
V' = Vo +V₁ + ... (5.4.2-4a ) accounts for the fluctuating enthalpy
h of the liquid propellants resulting from the
the zeroth-order equations are the acoustic mixture ratio oscillations . The combustion re-
equations sponse M₁ is given (to first-order ) by
Spo -STT
+ V • Vo = 0 M₁ = Me¬T[K ( s ) + (s ) ] Poo - MP ( s) po
γ
(5.3.2-1 ) (5.3.2-5)
Vpo
SVO + =0 where K, K, and P are defined in Eqs . ( 5.3.1-15 )
γ to ( 5.3.1-17 ) . As a result of the oscillating flow in
the feed system, the liquid velocity perturbation
and the first-order equations are the corresponding
inhomogeneous equations. kuo ŪLi²
ULO = + 00
J(s) exp [ - (s + k ) TT ]Poo
S UL (x)
spi
+ V • V₁1 = −SX₁ + V • Y₁ + M₁
γ (5.3.2-2) (5.3.2-6 )
Vpi includes an additional term, not required in the

sV + •
high-frequency analysis of Sect. 4.2.2 . The func-
γ
tion J ( s ) is the ratio of the fractional injection
Considering only longitudinal oscillations , the velocity perturbation to the fractional chamber
zeroth-order solutions are pressure perturbation , and is given by630
(GoX - TGF ) ( Liox - ūF) + (rūLiox Gox + ūLiFGF )

(1++
r )
J(s) (5.3.2-7)
TūLiox +ŪLIF
where uLiox, ÜLiF are the axial components of the

* L. Crocco, Author. oxidizer and fuel injection velocities , respectively.
ANALYTICAL MODELS OF LOW AND INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY INSTABILITY $ 5.4 241
The first-order solution can be written as bility . However, a complete, systematic study of
follows: this type of instability has not been made.
u₁ = −ūpo + S* { [s (W₁ − X₁) + M₁ ] cosh s (x − x ′) 5.4 FEED SYSTEM RESPONSE
+ s (Y + Z ) sinh s (x − x ') } dx (5.3.2-8) In the preceding sections the equations governing

oscillatory flow in the combustion chamber were
P₁ = -2ūuo
presented . These equations included propellant
feeding effects by means of the normalized
-
- /0 {[ (W , −X ) +M ]sinhs(x − x ) injection admittances Gox and GF, defined by
Moxi Pe MF Pc
+s (Y₁ +Z1 ) cosh s (x - x') } dx' (5.3.2-9) Gox · ; Gr
p' m Pe' m
This solution already satisfies the boundary
condition at the injector face. At the chamber exit , In this section the general approach for cal-
x = Le, the solution must satisfy the nozzle ad- culating injector admittances for rocket engine
mittance relation feed systems is outlined, making use of the
material presented in Sect . 3.2 . Because of the
u' ( Le) + ap' ( Le) + Go ' ( Le) = 0 ( 5.3.2-10 ) complexities and design variations of typical
feed systems, it is not possible to give a single,
where a and G are the complex admittance
coefficients discussed in Sect. 3.6. The entropy generalized expression that will pertain to all feed
systems. However, several examples of simplified
perturbation σ' is given, to first order, by the
systems are presented to illustrate the approach
expression
and to point out some of the important influences
o ' = 00 + 01:=- Po of feed system response on stability.
1 {~~ )P
( The following nomenclature pertains to Sect . 5.4 :
)
dhr
( E Elastic modulus of pipe material
+ (1 +i) 00
(Gox -TGF) Poo G Dimensionless flow admittance ,
--
— (p/m ) (m'/p')
t Time constant (component indicated by
subscript )
exp [ -srr ] } M exp [ -3dx
x' " ] dx
tr Residence time (component indicated by
(5.3.2-11 ) subscript )
Ꮓ Characteristic impedance (component indi-
The first term in Eq . (5.3.2-11 ) coincides ( to
cated by subscript )
first order) with the result obtained in the high-
δω Feed line wall thickness
frequency analysis, Eq. (4.2.1-18 ) . The second
Ratio of line impedance to injector
term results from the mixture ratio variation
‫شده‬
introduced by the feed system response. impedance

Ratio of pump impedance to injector
When the perturbation expressions are inserted
impedance
into Eq . (5.3.2-10) , the result is a complex
Šv Ratio of valve impedance to injector
equation for s, from which it is possible, although
impedance
difficult , to determine the oscillation frequency w
Ratio of manifold volume to feed line
and the amplification factor X. A simpler procedure
volume
(used also in the high frequency analysis ) is to
set λ = 0 , regard was an independent variable , Subscripts :
and use Eq . (5.3.2-10 ) as a relation between two A Area change
of the engine design or operating parameters, C Chamber
holding at a stability limit . This is the procedure i Injector, injection orifice
followed by Scala,630 who was able to demonstrate Feed line
the possibility of intermediate frequency insta- m Manifold
Orifice G2
= 1+ (1 / G ,Z ) tanh st (5.4.1-2)
p Pump Gi 1 + GiZ , tanh str
t Tank
Valve where
V
8
Unconfined medium al m
Z₁= (5.4.1-3 )
At Pe
5.4.1 Calculation of Injection Admittance *
is the " characteristic impedance" of the line , and
A propellant feed system usually consists of a
l
series arrangement of various flow components, ti = (5.4.1-4)
such as pipes, valves, manifolds, and possibly a aL
pump . For each component, the admittance can is the time constant . In these equations the sub-
be evaluated at one end if its value is known at
script 1 denotes the upstream end of the line , aL
the other. Thus, if the admittance is known at one
is the effective speed of sound in the liquid , I is the
point in the feed system , it can be extended length of the line, A, is the cross-sectional area,
through the system to the combustion chamber,
and m , p, and s have the same meanings as given
thereby obtaining the injection admittance , by in Sect. 5.2.
use of the component admittance ratios :
The requirement of low flow velocity , i.e. ,
G2 Gm Gi VL
Gm)
(5.4.1-1 ) ML =
G₁ = G (
G ) (&
). (C -1/ (
& ) aL
Some feed systems, particularly those on static is normally met in rocket engine feed lines.
test stands, have branch lines, which may be However, it should be observed that the effective
closed off at some distance from the main feed speed of sound CL may be considerably smaller
line. Such cases can be treated by summing the than the sonic velocity in a liquid medium of
admittances of the main line and the branch line infinite extent, aL., because of the structural
to obtain the admittance just downstream of the compliance of the pipe walls. Thus,
branch point. The admittance of the branch line aL∞
is obtained in the same manner as that of the main аL = (5.4.1-5 )
√1 + PLAL D₁/Edw
line, requiring a starting value to be known at
some point in the branch line. The analysis of a p is the liquid density, D , is the mean pipe
where PL
dead-ended line is straightforward, but if the diameter, & is the wall thickness , and E is the
branch line returns again to the main line , the elastic modulus of the pipe material. If the flow
analysis is considerably more complicated . Addi- Mach number is appreciable, the admittance
tional complications are introduced if the branch ratio becomes586, 721
loop contains another combustor, as in the staged
combustion cycle (Sect . 1.1.2 ) . ( 1 — MÎ² — G₁Z ,ML) sti
1+ tanh
In the following paragraphs admittance ratios G₁Zi √1 - ML²
G2
are given for several common feed system com-
Gi
ponents . The reader is referred to Sect . 3.2 for a sti
1+ (GiZ + ) tanh
general discussion of unsteady flow in feed systems , √1 - ML²
including techniques of analysis. Special sta-
bilizing devices for feed system application are (5.4.1-2a)
considered in Sect. 6.2.3.
Eqs. (5.4.1-2 ) and (5.4.1-5 ) imply that the
liquid temperature and density are constant over
5.4.1.1 Constant-area feed line. -A large portion
the length of the feed line . If these properties
of any feed system consists of tubing with constant
vary appreciably, it may be necessary to sub-
cross-sectional area. The admittance ratio for
divide the line into several shorter ones, for each of
low-speed flow in a lossless line is479
which suitable average properties may be chosen
* F. H. Reardon , Author. to represent that line section.
ANALYTICAL MODELS OF LOW AND INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY INSTABILITY $5.6 243
5.4.1.2 Line with area change.—In general, the given by Eq. ( 5.4.1-9 ) or ( 5.4.1-12 ) . In some
problem of oscillating flow in a line with variable cases , however, there is a capacitance associated
cross-sectional area must be solved numerically. with the valve . Such a valve can be considered as
Hence the admittance ratio cannot be given in a a series combination of a manifold (Sect . 5.4.1.5 )
form applicable to all systems . However, for and an orifice .
incompressible flow in a rigid-wall pipe , the
5.4.1.4 Pump. - Based on the discussion of Sect.
governing equations are greatly simplified , and
3.2.2 , the admittance ratio for a high speed
yield the expression ¹³
propellant pump can be written as
G2 1 G2
= 1 + sep/ G₁
( 5.4.1-6 ) - (5.4.1-13 )
G₁ 1 + ZAG₁ (1 + sta) G₁ 1 - ZpG₁ ( 1 + sep/ G₁ ) ( 1 + stp )
with where
m V LI
ZA= (5.4.1-7) PLUp Pe
A1 (A² - 1)
1.Yu
Pc Cp = (5.4.1-14 )
KL m
and
m (dp
ML dx Zp= (5.4.1-15 )
ta== (5.4.1-8) Pe dm, p
24p1 A (x)
dp
where m is the liquid flow rate through the line tp = (5.4.1-15a)
) /
(3 dm
2).
(not to be confused with m , the total propellant
flow to the engine ) and Ap is the steady-state The effective pump capacitance Cp, the slope
pressure change (pi - p2) from the upstream end (dp/dm ) , of the pressure-flow characteristic , and
to the downstream end of the area change. the inertance (1/A) , must be determined from
5.4.1.3 Orifice or valve. -An orifice is essentially experimental data.
a special case of a line with area change, in which
there is a reduction in area very close to the 5.4.1.5 Manifold. - For a low-frequency sta-
upstream end. For a long orifice, bility analysis , it is appropriate to assume that the
fluid in a manifold undergoes a bulk oscillation.
G2 1 Hence the admittance ratio across a manifold
= (5.4.1-9)
‫حاق‬
Gi 1 + Z.G₁ (1 + sto ) takes the form
G2 sem
with
= 1+ ( 5.4.1-16 )
m Gi G1
= 24p •
Z。 = (5.4.1-10)
mL Pc where the normalized manifold capacitance is
given by
and
1.mL Cm= PLUmpe (5.4.1-17 )

to = (5.4.1-11 ) Kim
24pA.
in which Um is the manifold volume and KL is the
where lo is the effective orifice length* and A. is
bulk modulus of the liquid propellant .
the orifice cross-sectional area . Since the time
In the case of intermediate-frequency insta-
constant to is directly proportional to the orifice
bility, it may be necessary to consider the effects
length, for a short orifice, Eq . ( 5.4.1-9 ) reduces to
of wave motion in the manifold . For such an
G2 1 analysis the manifold would be divided into a
= (5.4.1-12 )
G₁ 1 + ZoGe number of interconnecting flow paths, as outlined
in Sect. 3.2.2 . Since the mathematical model of the
A valve is most commonly treated as an orifice ;
manifold flow is directly tied to the design
hence the admittance ratio across a valve is
features of the manifold under study, it is not
* See Sect . 3.2.2. possible to derive general admittance relationships .
5.4.2 Injection Admittance for Simple 5.4.2.1 Pressurized-tank feed system . The
Feed Systems * system considered is made up of a propellant tank,
a constant-area line, a manifold , and injection
The procedure and equations discussed in the orifices, as shown schematically in Fig. 5.4.2a . The
preceding section can be illustrated by applying admittance ratios for these components are given
them to simplified systems . Although systems in Eqs. (5.4.1-2 ) , (5.4.1-12 ) , and ( 5.4.1–16 ) .
actually used are considerably more complex than The system dynamic parameters (normalized by
those discussed here, the admittance calculation the steady-state chamber pressure and total flow
method and some general characteristics of feed rate ) are also defined in Fig. 5.4.2a in terms of the
system dynamic response are more effectively line length and cross-sectional area A1, the tank
shown by the simpler systems. Three examples and manifold volumes Ut, Um, and the propellant
are considered : pressurized-tank, constant-rate, properties PL, aL, and KL. It should be noted that
and centrifugal pump . The influences of feed in a bipropellant rocket engine the flow rate
system components are shown by examination of mL of the propellant under consideration is less
certain limiting cases. Only a single propellant than the total flow rate m of both propellants.
feed system is considered, since the equations The starting point for the admittance cal-
presented in Sect. 5.2 and Sect . 5.3 indicate how culation is taken at the top of the propellant tank,
the individual systems interact with the other where there is no propellant flow. Hence G。 = 0.
parts of the engine. Working progressively through the feed system,
the injection admittance is found to be
1 sZi (C + m) + [ ( Zi/ Z ) + semeZiZ ] tanh st

G₁ = (5.4.2-1 )
Zi [ 1 + sZi( + m) + [ ( Zi/ Z ) + se+ Z + semZiZi ] tanh st
Since the propellant tank is usually very large

and
compared to the other system components, the
tank capacitance et is much larger than the other CmZi Vm
v= = (5.4.2-5 )
system parameters . For simplicity, assume C₁ = ∞ , ti Vi
which corresponds to a constant tank pressure .
Then Eq. (5.4.2-3 ) can be written as
1 - wt tan wti
1 1 + smZ , tanh st G₁Z₁i =
Gi= (5.4.2-6 )
1 - vwtɩ tan wti +iš tan wtɩ
ZiL1 + [ ( Zi/ Z ) + semZ ] tanh st
(5.4.2-2 ) The feed system response is thus governed by
four parameters : the injector impedance Zi, the
The frequency response of such a constant- feed-line time constant t , the velocity parameter
pressure feed system is obtained by setting , and the manifold-to-line volume ratio . For a
s = iw (λ = 0 ) in Eq . (5.4.2-2) : very large manifold, → ∞ , and G.Z ; → 1 , i.e. , the
feed system response is controlled entirely by the
1 1 - wemZi tan wti
G₁ = injector orifice design . The same result is obtained
Z; 1 - wemZ, tan wt +i ( Z / Z ; ) tan wtz ]
for very low line velocity or very high injection
velocity, so that →0. For most systems, however,
(5.4.2-3 )
Defining = 0 ( 1 ) and 7 = 0 ( 10 ) . A typical injection ad-
mittance function is shown by the frequency
Zi ǎLVI
F= = = (Vi/aL) (5.4.2-4)
response curves (magnitude and phase ) of Fig.
Ꮓ; V₁2 (Vi/aL)2 5.4.2b . The injection admittance is appreciable
only near the half-wave (open-open ) resonances of
the feed line. At the quarter-wave (open-closed )
* F. H. Reardon, Author. resonances, the admittance vanishes, since the
Volume Vt
Phase
of
Gi
Zi
Propellant tank
PVt PC
O
Ct=
Κι τη
- πT
AR 1.0
Constant - area line v=1.5=10

ā,L m ----0.5-10
Magnitude
0.8
Ze=
Al Pc
of
Zi
G¡
Te= 6
Injector manifold
RVmPC
Cm =
KLm
Volume Vm 0.2
Injector orifices
24p; m 0.5 1.0 1.5

Flow of one Zi =
propellant mi Pc
Pc
FIGURE 5.4.2b .-Injection admittance for constant-pres-
sure feed system, showing effect of manifold volume.
Total flow
FIGURE 5.4.2a. -Schematic of pressurized-tank feed does not affect the resonant frequencies, but
system. narrows the half-wave peak, decreasing the
magnitude of GiZi , except at the resonances.
injector is at a velocity node . The effect of the Thus, increasing will have, in general, a sta-
manifold can be seen by comparing the curves for bilizing effect on feed-coupled oscillations, pro-
= 0 (negligible manifold volume ) with those for vided that Z; is not decreased at the same time.
= 1 , in Fig. 5.4.2b. The quarter-wave resonant If a valve is added to this simple feed system,
frequencies are lowered , but the half-wave fre- dividing the propellant line into two parts ( Fig.
quencies are not altered . The effect of the velocity 5.4.2d ) , the injection admittance for a constant
parameter is shown by Fig. 5.4.2c . Increasing tank pressure is found to be
1+ , strm + ñst , tanh stu + h ,/ * 2 tanh st , tanh st + (Pstuz + Šv / Š2 ) tanh st

G₁ =
Zi/ 1 + Fv + M²strm + (} + ñıstı , ) tanh st₁₁ + 1/32 tanh stɩ , tanh st₁₂ + (Š2 + »½St¿½ +Šv/Š2) tanh st12
(5.4.2-7)
where PLUM
trm = (5.4.2-9)
Z12 m
CmZ11 ; CmZ12
}₁1 = 74 32:
F2= ; 1 ; 2:
Zi Ꮓ; ti t12 which is the residence time of the propellant in
the injector manifold.
are similar to the parameters involved in Eq.
The effect of the valve can be seen, at least
(5.4.2-6) . Additional parameters are
qualitatively, by assuming that Z1 , = Z₁₂
12 = Zı,
Zv Vv so that
v= = Apv ; Mv = (5.4.2-8)
Zi Api aL }1 = F2 = }
where V V is the exit velocity from the valve Vm

V₁st₁₁ = 2sti₂ = S Ο • ti
(orifice) , and ι
then
Vm
My²strm+ (Fv/F2 ) tanh sti₂
1+ -st , tanh st +
Vi 1+ tanh stz 1, tanh stu
G₁ = (5.4.2-10)
( ) Vm Fv +Mv²Strm + (Šv/52) tanh stɩ,
' st, ) tanh stt
1+ (3+ Vi st .) 1+ tanh stu tanh st
where t = t + ti₂ and V - A1 ( + ) . Thus , if

Fv = Mv = 0 , Eq . ( 5.4.2-8 ) reduces to Eq . (5.4.2-2 ) , Gi = Mi's (trm + tri) (5.4.2-12 )
the admittance ratio for a single, constant-area ( )
line . As and My become large, corresponding
where t₁ = l/V is the feed line residence time .
to a large pressure drop across the valve, the Defining
influence on the injection admittance of the
feed line downstream of the valve is increased , PL Pe
Cefi ( Vm + Vr) •
and the line upstream of the valve becomes of KL m
lesser importance. it can be seen that
G₁ = SCeff (5.4.2-12a)
5.4.2.2 Constant-rate feed system . - Returning
now to Eq. (5.4.2-1 ) , the case of Ct = 0 corresponds That is, if the acoustic resonances of the feed line
to a feed line supplied from a constant-rate are not excited, the whole feed system acts as a
source, such as a constant-rate pump or cavitating capacitance.
venturi . In this case the injection admittance is On the other hand, for a long feed line , the
acoustic properties of the feed line lead to resonant
ist + tanh st peaks in the frequency response of the feed
G₁ = (5.4.2-11 )
Ziltis tit tanh st system. Typical magnitude and phase curves for
GZ; are shown in Fig. 5.4.2e . Two cases are
which can also be written in the form
presented : a relatively large injector manifold
1 (solid lines) and a vanishingly small manifold
Mistrm+ tanh sti (dashed lines) . These results are similar to those of
Fig. 5.4.2b , except that in the present case, the
G₁ = (5.4.2-11a)
( venturi or pump acts acoustically as a closed end.
1
1 + Mistr + tanh st Hence the quarter-wave ( closed-open ) resonances
give the admittance peaks. As before, the effect of
the injector manifold is to lower the resonant
where W₁ = Vi /aL and trm is the injector manifold frequency of the zero admittance (closed -closed )
residence time defined in Eq . (5.4.2-9) .
resonance. In addition, increasing the velocity
For a short feed line or very low frequency parameter will reduce G; for all non-resonant
oscillations , Eq . (5.4.2-11a ) simplifies to frequencies.
ANALYTICAL MODELS OF LOW AND INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY INSTABILITY $5.5 247
Phase
Propellant tank
ZI
G₁
of
P. Vi P
C+
KLm
O
Line #1
ativă
ām
e₁=A₁₁Pc
Z&
Z
1.0 Al,
10
y=1, ξειο
=1, = 30 Valve
0.8
Magnitude
2 ΔΡγ ή
Zv
=
mi
0.6
Zi
of
Gi
10
Line # 2
вг 42 āṁ 12
21 tez ál
2AR Po '
2
0.2
0.5 1.0 1.5 Manifold

wte
ㅠ PVm Pc
Vm Cm
Κι ή
FIGURE 5.4.2c .—Injection admittance for constant-pres-
sure feed system, showing effect of velocity parameter §.
Injector orifices
5.4.2.3 Centrifugal-pump feed system . The 25pm

Zi= Fri Po
final example is that of a centrifugal-pump feed
system in which, for simplicity, the manifold
volume is zero ( Fig. 5.4.2f ) . From the relations
given in Sect . 5.4.1 , the injection admittance is
m (Total )
determined to be
N(s) FIGURE 5.4.2d .-Schematic of pressurized-tank feed sys-

G₁ = (5.4.2-13 ) tem with valve.
( D (s)
where
N (s ) = 1 + Distrỗi tanh stu D ( s ) = 1 − šp ( 1 +stp )
+ š₁[ 1 + M;²strp ( 1 - šp [ 1 + strp ] ) ] tanh st₁₁

-
( 1 + st , ) tanh st 12
+ [8₂- 39 ( 1 + Stp ) tanh sti

$2
[ 1— Mi²strpp ( 1 +stp ) ]
+
+ [1 +M;²srtip ( Šiš2 − šp [ 1 + stp ]) ]
Xtanh st , tanh st (5.4.2-13a) Xtanh sta , tanh sta (5.4.2-13b )

+ πT
Propellant tank
Phase
Zi
of
Gi
Suction line
= ām l,
2 aL
-π l,
1.0
mit = 0.1
Pump
PLVP PC
0.8
Magnitude
= Cp =
Κι
(L/A)
of
Zi
dp) itp
Zp =th(
G¡
0.6
1
(品 )。
ег Discharge line
0.4
T
Zez= āli
Al2 P = 12
c
0.2
Injector orifice
1-E41
0.5 1.0 1.5 12º
24pi m
wte P Zi=
π m; Pc
FIGURE 5.4.2e .-Injection admittance for constant-rate

feed system .
m(Total)
The parameters controlling the response of this
FIGURE 5.4.2f.-Schematic of centrifugal-pump feed
system are Zi, Mi, F1 , F2, ti , ti , all defined pre-
system .
viously, the pump/injector impedance ratio
ZD analysis feasible. Accordingly, in the following

=
Zi discussion it is assumed that F₁ = 2 = F.
The effect of the pump capacitance is to reduce
and the residence time of the propellant in the the influence of the suction line on the feed system
pump response. In the limit trp→ ∞ ,
PLUP KL m
trp - = Cp
GiZi =
1 – Š / j( 1 + stp ) tanh st ,
mi Pc mi
1−5p ( 1 + stp) + [š− (šp/š) ( 1 + stp) ] tanh stɩ₂
The pump impedance Z, and the time constant (5.4.2-14 )
tp are defined in Eqs . ( 5.4.1-15 ) and (5.4.1-15a ) .
Eq . (5.4.2-13 ) illustrates one of the major The admittance thus depends on the interaction
of the pump pressure-flow characteristic and the
difficulties of feed system response analysis . That
is, the complexity of the admittance function and discharge line acoustic resonance properties . It
the large number of controlling parameters makes can be seen that p = 0 corresponds to a simple
it virtually impossible to obtain general results. constant-pressure feed system (Eq. (5.4.2-2 )
Only by drastic simplification is a generalized with Cm = 0) . At the other extreme, p = ∞ for a
constant-rate pump , in which case Eq. ( 5.4.2-14 ) observed that increasing was stabilizing. Thus,
reduces to it can be expected that this result will hold also
for values of p of the order of unity, such as
( 1 /ỹ) tanh st 12
G₁Z; = correspond to centrifugal pumps .
1+ ( 1 /j) tanh st For the case of negligible pump capacitance,
which can also be obtained from Eq . ( 5.4.2-11a) the injection admittance can be written in the
for tr = 0 . In both of the previous cases it was form
( 1/5 ) tanh st
1 - p ( 1 + stp )
+ tanh st , tanh stu
1+
G
G₁Z ; = (5.4.2-15 )
1+ ( 1 ) tanh stu
1-+ f tanh s (t , +tra) –Š, ( 1+ st , l1+ tanh stu tanh stu
It is evident that p = 0 corresponds to the case if the injection pressure is exactly in phase and
of a constant-pressure feed system with line. equal in amplitude to the chamber pressure will
length = 1 + 2, whereas p∞
p= corresponds to a the injector flow oscillation have zero amplitude
constant-rate feed system with line length = l2. and the system be conservative . In this special
Fig. 5.4.2g illustrates the nature of the injection case the injector is a flow node but correspond-
admittance frequency response for an intermediate ingly the flow input to chamber pressure is also
value of p. For the particular case shown, zero .
= -1 , ½ = 241, tp = 0 , and = 10. For comparison , Similarly, if the injection pressure amplitude is
the dashed lines in Fig. 5.4.2g give the admittance zero, the orifice flow oscillation can be large, but
for a constant-area line without a pump (Fig. the rate of energy supply to the passive elements
5.4.2b) . of the feed system is zero ; all of the input energy
is absorbed by the injector orifices. The feed
5.4.3 Stabilizing Effect of the Feed System * system as a whole is therefore not conservative .
At frequencies other than those at which the
The feed system nearly always adds a stabilizing
injector pressure oscillations are zero the feed
influence to the combustion chamber dynamics .
In a pressurized feed system it is obvious that the system inhibits flow variations. This inhibiting of
flow oscillations adds stability to the combustion
dynamic elements (inertia and compressibility)
chamber since the combustion process cannot
can only provide transient storage for energy
couple to the feed system unless a flow oscillation
input to the system. The injector orifices remove
exists. Hence only certain discrete frequencies are
energy at a rate of (pi - pe ) mi/pL. Hence the rate
left without benefit of external stabilization due to
at which energy is supplied to the passive elements
of the feed system is p¡m;/PL. the feed system, and in general, at no time can the
feed system destabilize an otherwise stable
When driving the feed system with chamber
combustion process .
pressure at any frequency, sufficient energy must
be supplied to the system across the injector
orifices to account for the energy losses of the 5.5 ANALYTICAL METHODS OF SOLUTION *
orifices themselves and to result in steady-
The stability of an engine system is examined
amplitude forced oscillations . Assuming the only
analytically by solving a characteristic equation ,
system loss to be the injector orifices , the feed
e.g. , Eq. (5.2.2-6 ) , (5.2.3-4) , or (5.3.1-14) .
system could be dynamically conservative at a
That is, the unsteady operation of the engine is
given frequency only if the sinusoidal component
described by equations such as
of the injector flow rate had zero amplitude . Only
* F. Reardon and J. Szuch, Authors of Sects. 5.5.1 and
* J. A. Nestlerode, J. R. Fenwick, L. E. Sack, Authors. 5.5.2.
unstable operation . These two approaches, to-

+π
gether with some open-loop and multi- loop
techniques, are discussed in this section.
Phase

of
Zi
Gi
5.5 (see also Sect. 5.2) :
S Contour on s-plane used for

O
Nyquist criterion
Šp = -1 Domain of s-plane bounded by

contour C
10 =0
D (s) Denominator of g (s)
112 =21 , Functions defined by characteristic
F ( s) , f (s )
ξενο equation of engine system,
No pump f (s ) =F (s ) -1
Magnitude
G (s ) , g (s ) Functions used in Satche tech-

nique, g(s) = G (s ) + exp ( STT)
of
Zi
Gi
1.5 K Injection rate sensitivity factor
imaginary
00
s-plane
+ i∞
0.5
2 3
wite, + tl₂)
π
FIGURE 5.4.2g.-Injection admittance for centrifugal-

pump feed system. D
K
Pe = pe + Σp; ' exp sit

j
where s;; + iw; are the roots of the char-

+∞
acteristic equation. If all roots have λ; < 0, the
real
perturbations from steady state die out and the
system is said to be stable. However, if any of the
roots s; has a positive real part, the corresponding
perturbation term describes an oscillation that
grows with time. Such a system is termed un-
stable. To ascertain whether a given system is
stable or unstable, it is not necessary to obtain all
roots of the characteristic equation . It is sufficient,
for a stability analysis, to determine whether or
not there are any roots of the characteristic
equation in the right half-plane . Such information
can be obtained graphically by use of the Nyquist
method . Alternatively, by setting λ = 0 ( s = iw ) in
the characteristic equation , one can derive - i∞
relationships between design and/or operating
parameters at the boundary between stable and FIGURE 5.5.1a.- Nyquist contour C in s-plane.
81, 82, 83 System parameters controlling sta- half-plane connecting , as shown in Fig.
bility 5.5.1a. The plot of F ( s ) in the complex plane is
Phase margin known as the Nyquist diagram. If F (s ) is analytic
everywhere inside D, the stability criterion is that
5.5.1 Nyquist and Satche Methods the Nyquist diagram of F (s ) should not encircle
the origin .
The Nyquist stability method699 is based on the
Since the characteristic equation is typically
theorem of Cauchy which states that if a function
of the form
F(s) is analytic inside a given domain bounded
by a contour C, except for a finite number of F (s) = f (s) + 1 = 0
poles in D , then when s traces the contour C in a
an alternative procedure is to plot f ( s ) on the
clockwise direction , the vector representing F (s )
complex plane and to observe the rotation of the
in a complex plane will rotate about the origin ,
vector drawn from the point -1 + 1.0 to f ( s ) .
and the number of complete clockwise rotations
This procedure is entirely equivalent to that
that F ( s) makes is equal to the difference between
described in the preceding paragraph (see Fig.
the number of zeros and the number of poles of
5.5.1b ) . If f (s ) is analytic in D, the stability
F (s ) in D. For a stability analysis , F ( s ) is
criterion is that f ( s ) must not encircle the point
obtained from the characteristic equation , written
-1 + 1.0. In this case it is convenient to define the
as
"phase margin" 4, which is the angle between
F ( s) = 0
the vector f ( io ) and the negative real axis, i.e. ,
The domain is taken to be the right half-plane ,
= arg f (iw) — 180°
and the contour C consists of the imaginary axis
and an infinitely large semicircle in the right The stability criterion can then be expressed in
F (s)-plane f (s)-plane
iF (s) \F(s)
FIGURE 5.5.1b.-Nyquist diagrams in F(s) and f (s) planes.

terms of . At the frequency w for which the half-plane ) . However, a finite number of poles
magnitude | f ( iw ) | = 1 ( called the "gain cross- may have been introduced , corresponding to the
over" ) , the phase margin & must be positive. zeros of D ( s) .
This criterion is illustrated in Fig. 5.5.1c. Rather than plotting F ( s) , the Satche method
In rocket engine systems, the function f ( s) involves plotting g (s) and the unit circle,
includes the factor exp ( STT) , which complicates exp ( -iwrт) . The vector G (s ) is the difference of
the Nyquist diagram by introducing a number of the vectors g (s ) and exp ( -STT) . That is, the
loops. Because of these loops it is necessary to use vertex of the vector G (s ) is on the line g ( s ) and
very small steps in the frequency when cal- the origin is on or within the unit circle, as shown
culating f (s ) , in order to have a reasonably in Fig. 5.5.1d . The system is stable if the vector
accurate plot.179 In this situation , the modified G(s ) makes as many clockwise rotations (when s
Nyquist technique originated by Satche626 is traces the contour C) as there are zeros of D ( s) in
helpful. The characteristic equation is written in D. The number of zeros of D ( s ) can be deter-
the form mined by making a separate Nyquist plot. Thus,
G(s) = g(s) exp ( STT) the Satche method involves the examination of a
where "Satche diagram" ( Fig. 5.5.1d ) for G (s ) and the
associated Nyquist diagram for D (s ) . In general,
exp ( -STT) = N (s)
g (s) - it is necessary to investigate the rotations of the
f(s) D (s) vectors G (s) and D (s) . However, in the case that
Since
exp [-STT ] F (s )
G(s) = -
F ( s ) -1
the stability condition is still the same, that is, no

zeros of G (s ) may exist in the domain D (right g (s)
G (s,) e - ίωτ.
Unit circle
Unstable
f(iw)
<0
+1
$>0
G (S2)
-Stable
f(iw)
FIGURE 5.5.1c .-Phase margin and Nyquist stability

criterion . FIGURE 5.5.1d .—Satche diagram (schematic) .
D (s ) , on the Nyquist diagram, does not encircle the g (s) curve (compared to f ( s) in Fig. 5.5.1e)
the origin, the system will be stable uncondi- can be seen. It is clear that the system is un-
tionally if g ( s ) , on the Satche diagram, does not conditionally stable for K <1 , as in the present
encircle nor intersect the unit circle . example for Apox/pe = 0.5 (the solid curve
labeled g₁ ) . For the case of Apox/pe = 0.3 ( dashed
5.5.1.1 Example (single time lag model) .- To curve ) the Satche curve intersects the unit circle,
illustrate the Nyquist and Satche methods , a and unconditional stability is not possible.
simplified O2/H2 engine system is considered . For However, stable operation of this engine can be
this engine, the manifold capacitances are very achieved for certain values of TT and 0. It can be
large , effectively decoupling the feed lines from shown179 that the engine will be stable if
the combustion chamber dynamics. The injector TT
ート
tan-¹ √K²- 1
orifice impedances are purely resistive, with the (5.5.1-6)
0c √K²- 1
fuel injector pressure drop equal to 80 % of the
mean chamber pressure and the oxidizer pressure For the example under consideration , with
drop equal to 50 % of the chamber pressure. It is K = 1.372 , 0 = 0.7 millisec, TT < 1.78 millisec
assumed that the combustion dynamics can be corresponds to stability and TT > 1.78 millisec, to
represented by a single, constant time lag of 2.75 instability. Moreover, it can be seen that for such
millisec. At a mixture ratio of 5.2 , c * = 7920 a simple engine system increasing either the
ft/sec, (ac*/ar) - - 185 ft/sec, and the chamber combustion time lag TT or the injection rate
gas residence time 0 = 0.7 millisec . Using Eq. sensitivity K is destabilizing, whereas increasing
(5.2.2-6 ) , the functions f ( s ) and g ( s ) are given by the residence time 0, is stabilizing. These effects
are shown much more clearly on the Satche
K exp ( STT) 1 + se
f (s ) : ; g (s) = - diagram than on the Nyquist diagram.
1 + 50 K
where 5.5.1.2 Application to other engine systems.—

The Satche method can also be applied to more
r Pe complex engine systems, such as those with small
K=
C* Ər injection manifolds that allow the feed line
- [ 1 + 1++(06 )] (1 +1) 23 pox
dynamics to be coupled with the combustion
/dc** 1 Pe chamber oscillations. 179 However, looping of the
C* (ac*)] Satche diagram may be introduced by the feed
+ [1- (1+0) (100)] [(1 + 0) 24pr
system resonances, requiring calculations at
= 0.894
smaller frequency intervals and hence adding to
The complex-plane plot of f (iw) is shown by the the time and cost of the stability analysis . Similar
solid line labeled fi in Fig. 5.5.1e. The looping looping effects are obtained with use of the
introduced by the exponential factor is apparent. double-time-lag combustion model (Sect . 5.2.3 ) .
It can also be seen that the phase margin at the For example , with a liquid oxygen/gaseous
gain crossover is approximately + 90° , indicating hydrogen engine in which feed line effects are not
a stable system. That is , since there are no poles important, Eq . ( 5.2.3-4 ) gives
and no rotations of the vector drawn from the
exp (-STF)
point - 1 + 1.0, there are no zeros of F ( s ) in the f(s) = [Kox exp ( −STVOX ) + KF ]
1 + se
right half-plane. It is clear that this result holds in
general when K < 1 . However, if the oxidizer or (5.5.1-7 )
pressure drop is reduced to 30 % of the chamber.
1+ s
pressure , K is increased to 1.372 . For this latter g(s) = (5.5.1-8 )
Kox exp ( STVOX ) + KF
case, illustrated by the dashed line in Fig. 5.5.le,
there are two rotations, hence two zeros ( complex where
conjugates) of F ( s ) exist in the right half-plane.
1 +r /dc* ř Pe
The corresponding Satche diagram for this + 1 (0ər )] [(1 + 1)
x = [ 1 + 1 C* 23pox
engine is shown in Fig. 5.5.1f. The simplicity of
Unit circle-
W =0
-14
ng
asi
c re
w in
FIGURE 5.5.le.- Nyquist diagram for rocket engine characterized by a single combustion time lag.
1 drawn for particular cases, and much of the ad-

F (1 +r) /ac * Pc
vantage of the graphical method is lost .
Ky= [1– c* 2Apr
( % )] ( 1 +r)
(5.5.1-9) 5.5.2 Stability Limit Approach
If Kox is small compared to KF, but not negligible, When it is desired to investigate the trends of
moderately-large loops are introduced into the stability behavior of an engine with various
Satche diagram, as shown in Fig. 5.5.1g. However, design or operating parameter changes, the
if Kox >KF, the Satche diagram spirals outward, stability limit approach is most useful. For a
as illustrated by Fig. 5.5.1h . In the latter case the given type of oscillation , the stability limit is
associated Nyquist diagram for D ( s) encircles the specified by a relation between the controlling
origin. Prediction of stability thus involves rather parameters such that the oscillation is neither
careful study of relatively complicated diagrams, stable (decaying) nor unstable ( growing) . In
255
ANALYTICAL MODELS OF LOW AND INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY INSTABILITY $5.5
|w=0
w =0
είωτα
g₁ 92
-1x
FIGURE 5.5.1f.-Satche diagram for same rocket as Fig. 5.5.le.
other words, A, the real part of s, vanishes. The engine operation is unstable ( X >0 ) . If the varia-
stability limit is thus a hypersurface that divides tion of a certain parameter shifts the stability
the hyperspace formed by the engine parameters limit so as to decrease the size of the unstable
into two regions. In one region the operation of region, that parameter variation is said to be
the engine is stable ( < 0) ; in the other region , stabilizing.
on the opposite side of the stability limit, the Inserting s = iw into Eq. ( 5.5.1-1 ) yields a
0=0
e-iwTF
-ίωτε D (iw)
g (iw)
Satche diagram Associated Nyquist diagram
FIGURE 5.5.1g.-Satche diagram for hydrogen/oxygen engine (double time lag) . Kox<KF.
∙g (iw)
i
·D (iw )
e-iWTF
Satche diagram Associated Nyquist diagram
FIGURE 5.5.1h .- Satche diagram for hydrogen/oxygen engine. Kox > Kr.
complex equation that defines the stability limit, frequency can be eliminated, graphically or
which can thus be expressed as a relation between numerically, to give the stability limit in the
any two system parameters, d₁ and 82, with all form d₁ = 81 ( 82 ) . When the results are plotted on a
other parameters held constant. It is usually most d1 , d2 diagram, the effect of a third parameter dз
convenient to divide Eq . ( 5.5.1-1 ) into its real can be shown by contours of 83 = constant .
and imaginary parts, and then to solve for d₁ and To illustrate the stability limit approach,
d2 as functions of the frequency w. After this the consider the engine described in Sect. 5.5.1.1 .
It is convenient to let 1.0

0.8 Stable
APF Дрох
81 == ; 82 =
= 837T (5.5.2-1 ) 0.6
4.0 ms
Pc Pc
0.4
Stability limits are shown on the APF/pe, Apox/Pe Unstable
diagram in Fig . 5.5.2a for three values of the total 0.8 ms
APF
combustion time lag FT. For a given ir value, the
P/C
0.2 210 Hz
region of stable operation is above the limit
curve . Thus increasing either APF/Pe or Apox/pc is 645 Hz
stabilizing . Since an increase in TT shifts the
0.1 TF =0.2 ms
stability limit upward and to the right , thus
decreasing the stable region, it is concluded that 0.08 1100 Hz
TF =0
an increase in the total combustion time lag is 0.06 1450 Hz
destabilizing . Many other useful stability limit
0.04 I 1
plots are possible, e.g. , TT VS. Oc, TT VS. Apox/pe. It .04 .06 .08 .10 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
should be observed that suitable experimental. Apox/Pc
data can be combined with stability limit cal-
culations to provide information about the com-
FIGURE 5.5.2b . - Stability limits for double combustion
bustion time lag FT (Sect. 6.2.2) , just as can be time lag model.
done in the high-frequency case (Sect . 6.3.3 ) .
When the double-time-lag combustion model is The looping behavior shown in Fig . 5.5.1h is
used, the stability limit diagram in terms of the reflected in the multiple, intersecting branches of
parameters of Eq . (5.5.2-1 ) is somewhat more the stability limits of Fig. 5.5.2b . It should be
complicated. Fig . 5.5.2b shows stability limits for noted that each branch corresponds to a different.
the hydrogen /oxygen engine discussed in Sect. frequency range, and that to define the entire
5.5.1.2 , for r = 5.2 , c * = 7920 ft /sec , dc * /dr = -185 stability limit the calculations must be extended
ft sec, Tvox = 2.0 millisec, and 0, - 0.7 millisec .
to significantly higher frequencies than required
for the single-time-lag model. It is clear from the
1.0 stability limit diagram (Fig . 5.5.2b ) that in-
0.9 creasing the fuel injector pressure drop may in
0.8- Stable some cases be destabilizing, unless the oxidizer
0.7- 3.0 pressure drop is also increased sufficiently (see
also Sect . 5.5.1.2 ) .
0.6 2.0
TT =1.0 ms 5.5.3 Other Analysis Methods *

0.5
Most of the analytical techniques that have
0.4 been developed for conventional control systems
can also be applied to the low frequency liquid
Unstable rocket combustion instability problem. The
0.3
presence of the combustion time lag, or lags, will
complicate the analysis in much the same way as
discussed in the preceding sections .
0.20. The frequency response (Bode diagram) ap-
2
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 proach is often of great benefit in visualizing the
influence of various stabilizing and destabilizing
components of the engine system. The primary
advantage of this approach is that the system
.
FIGURE 5.5.2a .-Stability limits for single combustion
time lag model. * L. Bickford , Author.
gain and phase are simultaneously presented as reference to Fig. 5.5.1c. Criterion ( 2) may have a
functions of oscillation frequency. Actually, the somewhat greater appeal to one's physical
frequency response plot contains the same intuition .
information as the Nyquist diagram, and the To illustrate the use of the frequency response
use of the frequency response to predict stability approach, Fig. 5.5.3 shows the gain and phase
behavior follows from the properties of the margin as functions of frequency for the hy-
Nyquist diagram. drogen/oxygen engine discussed in Sect . 5.5.1.2,
In the frequency response method, the pro- the Satche diagram for which is presented in Fig.
cedure is to plot the magnitude of f (iw ) , defined 5.5.1h. For convenience, the phase margin has
by Eq. ( 5.5.1-1 ) , in decibels ( db) , and the phase been restricted to the range -180 ° << 180 °. It
margin , defined by Eq. (5.5.1-2 ) , in degrees , can be seen that the system is unstable ; the
versus the log of the frequency. If f ( s ) is analytic "dangerous" frequency range is that between 150
in the right half-plane, the simplified Nyquist and 700 Hz , where the phase margin passes
criterion (no encirclements of the point -1 + i.0 ) through zero twice while the gain is positive .
can be used, expressed in terms of the magnitude Attention would thus be directed by the develop-
| f (iw ) , or "gain ," and the phase margin . This ment engineer toward modifying the response in
stability criterion can be stated for the Bode this frequency range .
diagram, in two, essentially equivalent ways : In the analysis of very complex systems , the
1. If the phase margin is positive at the governing equations for the system components
frequency at which the gain, in db, decreases form a large set of simultaneous equations. For
through zero for increasing frequency, the this situation , it is convenient to use matrix
system is stable (see also Sect. 5.5.1 ) ; techniques. The frequency-dependent coefficients
2. If the gain (in db ) is negative at the of the perturbation form of these equations con-
frequency for which the phase margin is stitute the elements of the system matrices .
zero, the system is stable. Using a high-speed digital computer, the solution
The equivalence of these criteria can be verified by of the equation set can be obtained for a given
frequency by Gaussian elimination or by matrix
+180 inversion . A computer such as the IBM 360 is
margin
Phase
capable of solving 30 equations at 30 frequency

,,
deg
+900 points in about one minute. This time includes the

printing of the input matrix and the values of the
perturbations at each specified frequency. When
O
resonant peaks with low damping are encountered,
-90 it is helpful to run the computer program twice.

On the first run, the approximate locations of the
resonances are determined . Then the second run
-180
supplies the detailed shape of the response curve
+20
in the regions of high resonance . A detailed
+10 description of matrix techniques is given in
Ref. 98 .
Gain
,dIflb
5.6 ANALOG METHODS OF SOLUTION *
There are severe limitations inherent in the

-10
analytical methods discussed in Sect. 5.5 for
-202 solving the equations governing unsteady opera-

0 40 60 100 200 400 600 1000 2000 tion of a rocket engine in the low and intermediate
Frequency , Hz
frequency range. To make the equations tractable ,
FIGURE 5.5.3.- Frequency response characteristics for
same engine as Fig. 5.5.1h. * A. Lytle and J. Szuch, Authors.
it was necessary to linearize about a particular to have the exponential time dependence . Rather,
steady-state operating point . Investigation of a the time derivative of the chamber pressure is
range of operating conditions or of transient evaluated in terms of the instantaneous injection ,
operation requires many repetitions of the solution burning, and exhaust rates and then integrated
procedure. to give the instantaneous pressure. Thus ,
An alternate approach is to set up an analog
R (r) Te (r)
model of the engine system, including all of the Pc = Vc I(dme
)dt
nonlinearities and complications of the physical
processes . When a disturbance is input , one can where
then observe directly whether or not the dis-
dme AthPe
turbance grows. By varying system parameters , =
= moxь + m Fь-
dt c*(r)
the limits of stable operation can be traced, and
the importance of the various parameters can be moxь (t ) = mox , (t - Tox)
evaluated . Such an analog can be constructed
mF (t) = mF, ( t - TF)
using either a digital or analog computer. Most
of the discussion in this section is applicable to mox; = Gox (Pox₁ - Pc)
either kind of computer, although some remarks =
are directed specifically toward the use of the mFGF (PF - Pc)
analog computer. After a discussion of the general moxb
r=
approach, the problem of representing the com- MFb
bustion time lag is taken up . The final portion of
this section presents some typical solutions . The pressure-dependence of the various rates is
The following nomenclature pertains to Sect . 5.6 : introduced by suitable feedback loops , as illus-
G trated by the block diagram of Fig. 5.6.1a.
Injector admittance
Lic
Z Function generators are needed for the thermo-
Characteristic impedance of feed line
chemical data , e.g. , c * (r ) , T. ( r) , and R ( r ) , which
segment
can be experimentally or theoretically obtained.
T Total combustion time lag
The dynamic characteristics of the propellant
Subscripts : feed processes, denoted in Fig . 5.6.1a by the blocks
t tank Gox and GF, may require a considerable amount
th nozzle throat of equipment. Because of the dependence on the
specific design of the feed system, it is not possible
5.6.1 Mechanization of the Engine Model
to give a general description of a feed system
In the study of low frequency combustion dynamics loop . Appropriate equations from Sect.
instability, such phenomena as thermochemical 3.2 would form the basis of the simulation . As an
reaction , nozzle exhaust , injector flow, and feed example, Fig. 5.6.1b shows analog diagrams for a
line dynamics are strongly coupled. The analog lossless feed line and two methods of incorporating
method simulates these engine processes by use of damping. A composite feed line composed of a
combinations of the following mathematical series of constant cross-section, pipes of various
operations : inversion , algebraic summation , multi- lengths may be simulated by cascading applicable
plication by a constant, integration with respect sections such as shown in Fig. 5.6.1b .
to time , multiplication and division of one Depending on the analyst using this approach,
variable by another, generation of trigonometric realistic system properties may be readily simu-
functions, generation of arbitrarily-specified func- lated . For example, the injector dynamics block
tions, and representation of discontinuities and may include injector fill time effects, by allowing
restraints . the output to begin after the flow volume,
The equations used in the analog analysis are integrated from t = 0, equals the injector cavity
essentially those discussed in Sects . 5.2-5.4 . volume. For certain injector configurations flow
However, in this case the equations are not impedance varies inside the injector. If this
linearized and the perturbations are not assumed variation is calculated or otherwise defined the
Ath PC
c* (T) C*
me
TC(I)
Disturbance
dmc
dt d Pc
( mcdt mc RTC mc
IP
dt κα
r
moxb mox Time lag -OXL
FLF Gox
D Tox
P
F
X
MF Time lag MF
Τρ GF
FIGURE 5.6.1a .- Block diagram of rocket engine analog.
coefficient may be programmed to simulate approximation method can be extended to repre-

this variation . In many systems valve opening sent variable time lags.
time and dynamic properties are negligible. Time delay modules based on the Padé expan-
However, if they are not, a similar loop may be sion or similar principles are available com-
placed in series with the flow resistance loop to mercially . Also available are step -variable delay
describe this phenomenon . The physical equations units consisting of cascaded, passive-element
in each case may be linear or nonlinear. A similar networks and continuously-variable delay lines.
simulation may be made for a gas system. The The latter are essentially physically condensed
flow resistance section of Fig . 5.6.1c can be (coiled) radio-frequency cables with one con-
replaced for this case by equations or data for flow ductor spaced close to the other. A large amount
rate vs. pressure ratio ( Ref. 641 , pg . 175 , Fig. of time delay, selected by positioning a slider , is
6.9a) . possible with little attenuation at high frequencies.
5.6.2 Representation of a Time Lag

5.6.3 Obtaining the Solution
A time delay, such as the combustion time lag,
can be represented approximately by a ratio of The general procedure used to study stability
polynomials in powers of iwr, known as a Padé behavior by the analog approach involves the
expansion.699, 270 The order of the expansion is following steps :
chosen to match the unity gain and linear phase 1. Set up the desired initial (steady-state)
characteristics of the pure time delay over the conditions for pressure , flow rates , etc.
desired frequency range. Tables of coefficients for 2. Disturb the system by introducing a small
Padé expansions are available. An example of a voltage pulse at the input to the chamber
pure time delay mechanization is given in Fig . pressure integrator (see Fig. 5.6.1a ) to
5.6.2 . At some sacrifice of flexibility, it is possible simulate the explosion of a bomb in the
to reduce the number of amplifiers needed by chamber.
employing passive elements. Also , the Padé 3. Observe the resulting chamber pressure
P₁
P2
τ T
ZC
m₂
Lossless line
P₁ C2
收 P2
m- T
ZC 사
m₂
Ozc
ic
Damping by use of capacitive feedback
P₁
(R) P2
mimi R
τη T miml
ZC
Zc
Damping terms lumped at ends.
FIGURE 5.6.1b. -Analog diagrams for a feed line.
oscillations on a strip-chart recorder or a such a system is shown in Fig. 5.6.1c. The time
cathode-ray oscilloscope. delay is twice the pressure-wave transport time
4. Repeat steps ( 1 ) to ( 3 ) for new initial from one end of the pipe to the other. Junctions
conditions until the desired range of 1, 2 are shown to indicate that if another line
operating conditions has been covered . segment (as in a composite line) is required , an
To illustrate the method in a simple manner , an applicable configuration ( see Fig. 5.6.1b ) may be
engine system is assumed to be composed of a inserted. In fact, as many segments may be
single length of constant cross-section pipe fed inserted as will be required to simulate the actual
from a constant pressure tank, an injector with physical system. The frequency-dependent char-
prescribed dynamic properties, and a combustion acteristics of the injector may readily be in-
chamber. An analog line dynamics simulation for corporated in the simulation.
Pc
‫اوہ ۔‬
S.F.
Ref Pe
voltage 1 2
Ginj -mi
27 R mimi
1 2
Zc
Injector
Line dynamics Flow resistance
dynamics
FIGURE 5.6.1c. -Analog diagram for a simple feed system.
-X
617
T
1000 psi
2/7
Chamber pressure
.02 sec
Surge suppressor
1000 psi
Line pressure
12
T
x ( t ) = ( ίωτ)2-6 ( ίωτ ) + 12 3#/sec
y ( t ) ( ίωτ )2 + 6 ( ίωτ ) + 12
x(t )= y(t- T) Flow rate
FIGURE 5.6.2 .- Mechanization of pure time delay. FIGURE 5.6.3. - Results of a typical analog run.
Figure 5.6.3 shows the results of an analog is important . A simplified thermodynamic loop
simulation of this engine system. The injector is shown in Fig . 5.6.1a . It must be strongly
dynamics have been neglected ; however, injector emphasized that the thermochemical loop should
fill time is included , as can be seen by the delayed include all applicable relationships . The diagram
chamber pressure . Feed system pressure response, of Fig. 5.6.1a is only a base from which a more
transient flow rates, and injector-fill time effects complete description of the actual processes may
are of primary concern in this simulation . be made. Depending on the ingenuity of the
The ultimate goal of a simulation is to approxi- analyst , various parameters , both primary and
mate chamber pressure so as to detect and define secondary, can be included . For example, thermal
the source of undesired pressure variation . Since or thermochemical stability may be a function of
the thermodynamic (chamber) loop couples with dc*/or and should be included in a more complete
the feed system loop, chamber pressure coupling simulation.
Most large analog computers are 100 volt for example, a 4 millisec time delay is required in
devices. That is, the voltage representing any the simulation and the maximum delay available
physical quantity must not exceed 100 volts is 100 millisec, the problem can be slowed down
during any phase of the solution . Therefore, all by a factor of 25 or less.
variables must be amplitude-scaled . For example, Stability limits can be determined in terms of
if a certain pressure is known to vary between 100 any significant design or operating parameter.
and 200 psia, one might select a scale factor of The amplitude of the pulses needed to produce a
3 psia/volt for that variable. The computer sustained oscillation or the oscillation growth rate
voltage representing that pressure would then be can be used to identify the stability limit. Dis-
expected to vary between 33.33 and 66.67 volts . turbances may also be introduced at points other
In addition to amplitude-scaling, time-scaling than the input to the chamber pressure integrator.
must be considered when mechanizing the engine For example, for a given application it may be
model. Consideration must be given to the desirable to perturb an injector or tank pressure.
frequency response characteristics of the computer In fact, the flexibility allowed in the location and
elements and of the data recording equipment and shape of the disturbance is one of the advantages
the ranges of the available time delay units. If, of the analog approach.
CHAPTER 6
Use of Analytical Models in Design and Development
6.1 INTRODUCTION * given to the alterations in stability that can be

produced by modifications of the feed system, as
The preceding two chapters have described
predicted by the theoretical analysis. The effects
several theoretical approaches to the study of
of changing the combustion process and thrust
combustion instability. In this chapter the
chamber dynamic response are also described .
emphasis will be placed on the application of these
Empirical correlations of the combustion time lag
theoretical models to practical problems .
are used to make the connection between theo-
The initial application of any theoretical
retical model and hardware design.
analysis is that of interpreting and correlating
The three different types of high frequency
experimental data. Closely related to this process
combustion stability analysis are discussed in
is the use of theory to guide efforts to stabilize an
separate sections : the sensitive time lag theory in
engine that has demonstrated unacceptable 6.3 , the mechanistic combustion model in 6.4 , and
stability behavior. A step beyond these applica-
the response function approach in 6.5 . In each
tions is the prediction of stability before any
case, the procedure for applying the theory is
actual test firings are made , so that design
illustrated by considering the modifications of
modifications can be made in time . Ultimately, it
stability behavior that result from changes in
is hoped that some analytical considerations of
design or operational factors . Experimental data
combustion stability will be part of the initial
are introduced to support the discussion .
design process of every new engine.
The similitude approach is discussed in Sect.
Since the basic principles and underlying
6.6 , with the major emphasis on empirical
assumptions of each theoretical approach were
correlations of stability test results . In addition
discussed in the previous chapters, they will not
to a review of the similarity rules that have been
be repeated here . Following a brief review of the
obtained to date, suggestions for further develop-
approach, the emphasis will be on the way the
ment and application of this approach, along with
theory is applied to practical situations. That is ,
a review of its limitations, are presented .
the information that must be obtained about the
Finally, the use of more than one model in the
engine is listed , together with any preliminary
development of an engine is considered . The
operations that must be performed. Then, the
complementary nature of the different models is
calculations that must be made are outlined , with
outlined , and the use of one model to extrapolate ,
examples of the format in which the results are
in an engineering sense, the results of another
obtained . Finally, the use of these results to inter-
is illustrated.
pret data and guide development is described .
Specific hardware aspects are introduced only as
they illustrate and support the discussion of the 6.2 LOW AND INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY
method of applying the theory. MODELS
Low and intermediate frequency instability
models are taken up first . Because the feed system In this section , the emphasis is placed on the
is of primary importance , considerable attention is application of analytical models and experimental
data to low and intermediate frequency com-
bustion instability problems in practical engine
* F. H. Reardon, Author. systems. The material presented here relies
265
heavily on the concepts and techniques introduced illustrated by the simplified block diagram of Fig.
in Chapter 3 , in which the dynamics of the various 6.2.1 . In this diagram, perturbations of pressure
combustion and flow processes that occur in a (p ' ) and mass flux ( m ') are shown at various
liquid propellant rocket engine are discussed in points in the engine system. The equations
detail. Frequent reference is also made to the governing the unsteady operation of the engine
overall engine stability models presented in can be written schematically as follows :
Chapter 5. Although no universally successful
Po' Fcm '
stabilization method is recommended, several
approaches to improved stability are presented mb ' = FBoxmvox ' + FBFMvF'
and illustrated with practical examples.
mvox' = Fvoxmiox′ (6.2.1-1 )
6.2 (see also Sect . 5.2 and 5.4 ) : mvp' = FvFmir'
Fs Feed system transfer function miox' = Fsox (Ptox' - Pc')
Fv Liquid transport and vaporization trans-
iF = FSF (PtF - Pc' )
mir'
fer function
FB Mixing and combustion transfer function where Fc , FBox, ... are complex, frequency-
Fc Combustion chamber flow transfer dependent transfer functions of the engine com-
function ponents. These equations can be combined into a
f (s) Transfer function product, defined in single equation in terms of pe' , Ptox' , and Ptp' :
Eq . (6.2.1-3 )
Ln Fc ( FBOXFVOXFSoxPtox' + FBFFVFFSFPIF')
Length of subsonic part of exhaust Pe' =
nozzle 1 + FC (FBOXFVoxFSox + FBFFVFFSF)
Ln Effective nozzle length for low-frequency
(6.2.1-2)
oscillations
Length of feed line As discussed in Sect . 5.5 , the stability of the engine
leff "Effective" chamber length for vaporiza- is determined by the equation
tion correlation
40
FC ( FBOXFVOX FSox + FBFFVFFSF) = f ( s ) = -1

Effective length (left) corresponding to
50 % of propellant vaporized (6.2.1-3 )
Nozzle shape factor , Un/AcLin
where the real part of the complex frequency
Ys Shunt admittance of lossy line
s = A + iw is the amplification coefficient and the
Impedance (p '/m' ) of feed system
imaginary part is the frequency. The engine
component
operation will be unstable if any of the s-values
งง=()9
Characteristic impedance
that satisfy Eq . (6.2.1-3 ) has a positive real part .
Zico No-loss characteristic impedance
r Usually, the stability condition can be expressed
Propagation function
in terms of the magnitude or "gain" of the func-
Subscripts : tion f (iw) . That is , for stability | f | < 1 when the
à Shunt resonator (lossy line) phase angle is - ( 2k + 1 ) , where k = 0 , 1 , 2 , ....
l Main flow Eq . (6.2.1-3 ) shows clearly that the stability of
an engine can be affected by making changes to
6.2.1 Approach * any one of the components. Stabilization can be
accomplished by reducing the component gain or
Low or intermediate frequency combustion
by changing the time constant, i.e. , “detuning”
instability generally involves the interaction of
several components of an engine system. Any the system. However, it is to be expected that all
analysis of stability must consider not only the changes will not be equally effective , nor equally
feasible. The nature of the function f ( s ) is such
dynamics of these components, but the relation-
ships between them. Such relationships are that the importance of a component change can
only be determined by considering a specific
* J. Szuch, Author. engine system at a given operating point .
USE OF ANALYTICAL MODELS IN DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT §6.7 267
FSox F VOX
Imv
p'to Oxidi ox
x zer mix Oxidizer
feed system & transport &
injector flow vaporization
FBo
x Fc
m Combustion PC
Mixing & chamber
combustion
flow
FBF
FSF FVF
LiV
Fuel feed míf Fuel E
system & transport &
Injector flow vaporization
FIGURE 6.2.1 . -Simplified block diagram of liquid rocket engine system .
In the remaining articles of this section, the pressure drops (Ap/p. ) . Increasing the total time
transfer functions of the various engine system lag is destabilizing , since larger injector pressure
components are discussed. Primary attention is drops (resistances) are required to ensure stable
given to predicting the stability trends associated operation . This result is obtained for both the
with possible design changes . As much as possible , single and double combustion time lag theoretical
general design principles are brought out . Such models, although the shape of the stability limit
principles should be helpful both to the designer depends on the model used.
of a new engine system and to the development Very little effort has been devoted to the
engineer seeking to improve the stability of an experimental measurement of low frequency
existing engine. combustion response . Both Matthews469 and
Drain et al.233 expressed their results in terms of a
6.2.2 Combustion Time Lag Modification * single, overall combustion delay (TT) such that
The controlling factors in the stability of a the mass burning rate at any instant is equal to
given engine system are the time delays associated the mass injection rate TT seconds earlier. Matthews
with the atomization, vaporization, mixing, and introduced sinusoidal perturbations into the
chemical reaction of the propellants. Without injection rates of both oxidizer and fuel, measuring
these time lags, the basic injector-chamber system the resulting oscillations of chamber pressure.
would be inherently stable, regardless of the Using an unlike-impinging doublet injector (with
orifice diameters about 0.040 in. ) with the pro-
available injector pressure drops . Unfortunately,
the time delays of the combustion processes are pellant combination LOX/ethanol, he inferred TT
values between 0.1 and 0.3 msec for chamber
the least known of the parameters that appear in
pressures between 300 and 600 psia (Fig. 6.2.2a) .
the stability analysis . The importance of the total,
The total time lag values of Drain et al. , also
or overall, combustion time lag is illustrated by
shown in Fig . 6.2.2a, were obtained with a
Figs . 5.5.2a and 5.5.2b. These figures show
LOX/hydrogen combustor, using a showerhead
theoretical stability limits, for various time lag
injector pattern with about the same orifice size as
values, as functions of the reduced injector
that of Matthews. They varied both chamber
* J. Szuch, Author. pressure and mixture ratio , making use of a step-
2.0
mcombustion
, illisec
O
Total
time
lag
Δ
Δ
98
1.0- Δ
0.8
0.6
0.4-
Matthews LOX/C2H5OH
OA Drain , et. al .
O 2<0/F < 4
▲ 4<0/F < 6 > LOX/ H2
0.25 ▼ 6 <0/F < 9
O.I
40 60 80 100 200 400 600 800 1000
Chamber pressure , psia
FIGURE 6.2.2a .- Experimental values of total combustion time lag for subcritical chamber pressure .
function change in the oxidizer injection rate. In 5.0

addition to the pressure-dependence, similar to
mCombustion
that found by Matthews, it was observed that

, illisec
increasing the mixture ratio tended to increase the

time
2.0- Total time lag

lag
total time lag.

At high chamber pressures, above the critical
pressures of the propellants, there are indications
1.0
that the trend shown in Fig. 6.2.2a no longer
O
holds . Fig. 6.2.2b presents results for coaxial-tube

injectors of varying sizes , covering chamber 0.5
pressures from 1000 to 2500 psia. It is interesting
to note that the TT curve is roughly parallel to the
curve representing the mean of the sensitive time.
lag (7) data*. The ratio TT/7 varies between 5 and 0.2- Sensitive time lag
10. Matthews also obtained values from his
data, and found that TT/T was about 3 for his
test conditions. O.IF
Although the assumption of a single combustion

time lag gives satisfactory results in many
0.08.5
applications, it is shown in Chapter 5 that a 1.0 2.0 5.0 10 20
better representation of the combustion response
Injection velocity ratio , Vip Viox
is obtained by dividing the total time lag for each
FIGURE 6.2.2b.-Experimental values of combustion time
* The sensitive time lag is defined in Sect . 4.3 . lag for supercritical chamber pressure.
propellant into a vaporization time (different for for vaporization was equal to the time to vaporize
the two propellants ) and a mixing , burning time 50% of the mass of a mean-size droplet . The
(same for both propellants) . To date, no direct calculated droplet histories of Priem and Heidmann
experimental measurements of these separate time showed that the droplet velocity is very nearly
delays have been published. However, good equal to the injection velocity in this time
estimates of the vaporization time can be ob- interval. Thus , the vaporization time lag can be
tained from the analysis of Priem and Heidmann.564 determined by using Fig. 6.2.2c to find the
Assuming vaporization to be the rate-controlling effective length corresponding to 50% vaporized,
process, calculations of fraction vaporized and 150, using Eq. (6.2.2-1 ) to find Leso = Le (leff = 150) , *
droplet trajectory were made for a large number and finally using the relation
of initial spray and combustor conditions . The
Licso
results were correlated by means of an effective Ty= V (6.2.2-2)
i
chamber length , defined in terms of the various
design parameters (viz, cylindrical length Le, The least known of the parameters in Eq.
subsonic nozzle length Ln, contraction ratio (6.2.2-1 ) is the mean droplet diameter d . In the
Ec= Ae/At, nozzle shape factor S =nozzle absence of systematic spray measurements, Priem
volume/AcLn, chamber pressure pc, propellant and Heidmann564 used experimental performance
temperature TL, mean droplet diameter dL, and data, in a reverse application of Eq . ( 6.2.2−1 ) ,
injection velocity V₁ ) by the equation to determine di as a function of orifice diameter.
Results for three injector types are shown in Fig.
Le 0.83Ln
left= + 0.220.33 6.2.2d. For coaxial-tube injector elements , Hersch
Ec0.44 Ec
and Rice352 correlated cold-flow experimental data.
with the equation
(Pc/Pref)0.66
miVi
× [ (a-1 ref) 0.7
1 − TL/Terit ) 0.40 ( dL/dre f ) 1.45 (Vi/Vref) dL = constant⚫di V (6.2.2-3)
moVo
(6.2.2-1 )
where Prei = 300 psia , dref = 0.006 in . , Vref = 100 * The notation indicates that L. is determined from Eq.
ft/sec . Fig. 6.2.2c shows the calculated fraction (6.2.2-1 ) for the condition left = 150.
vaporized as a function of the effective length , for
.10
sprays of various propellants with drop-size
distributions having geometric standard devia-
tions of 2.3 .
In a later study , Heidmann and Wieber346
diameter
calculated the frequency response of unsteady

Mean
),d(idrop
n
droplet vaporization and showed that the time lag

vaporization
Parallel jets
Fraction
99 Impinging doublets
mass
O
of
,%
95 O2 /N2H4
90
80
Triplet
60
50% Vaporized
40
20
20
10 .00
0.1 .2 .4 .6 1.0 2 4 6 10 20 40 60 100 .OI .10 1.0
Effective length , leff, in. Injector orifice diameter , dį ( in)
FIGURE 6.2.2c .-Priem-Heidmann correlation of mass FIGURE 6.2.2d . — Mean drop sizes determined from experi-
vaporized with effective chamber length for several mental combustor performance and effective length
propellants. Geometric standard deviation of spray, 2.3. correlation.
where the subscript i refers to the central tube and time delay model (Sect . 5.2.3) . An additional
o denotes the annulus. For LOX/hydrogen, complication is the influence of the injector element
experimental stability-limit measurements yielded design on the combustion time delays. Therefore,
a value for the constant in Eq . (6.2.2-3 ) of 0.296. when a change in the injector impedance is con-
Once the vaporization time delay has been sidered, the associated changes in propellant
found ( and added to the impingement time for injection velocity and combustion time lags must
impinging-jet injectors) , the problem still remains be included in the analysis .*
of determining the value of the mixing and As an example, consider a LOX/hydrogen
reaction time 7m. The most commonly used engine using concentric-tube injector elements.
method is to adjust 7m to match observed chugging Assuming, for simplicity, that the feed lines are
frequencies, using the theory developed in Chapter decoupled from the injector by large manifold
5. If no experimental data are available, stability capacitances, but including the effects of injection
limits can be calculated for a range of values of velocity on the oxidizer vaporization time , the low
7m ( e.g. , Fig. 5.5.2b) . As experimental instability frequency stability boundary is shown in Fig.
data are accumulated for different engine con- 6.2.3a. As the reduced injector pressure drop ofthe
figurations, it should be possible to develop fuel is increased , the effect is destabilizing for low
correlations similar to those for the sensitive time pressure drop but is stabilizing for reduced
lag (see Sect. 6.3 ) . Another possibility is to make
use of the results of Hersch, 351 who correlated
* Other injection effects are discussed in Sects . 3.3 and
the loss in performance due to incomplete mixing 5.3.
with such factors as chamber length , element
spacing, and number of injection elements. 4
6.2.3 Feed System Changes

Oscillation
;,AP Api
Although rocket engine feed systems have been frequency =

Reduced
pressure
Pc
injector
represented in Fig . 6.2.1 very simply by the O 248 Hz

/
2
drop
fuel
transfer functions Fsox and Fs , these transfer

functions are actually quite complicated. There
are several places in a typical feed system where
changes can be made to improve stability. These 1.0 0181 Hz
places include the injector orifices, manifolds, and
8 Unstable Stable
feed lines . In addition, special stabilizing devices
may be added ; most commonly, resonators have 6 O166 Hz
been mounted on or close to the injection mani-
folds . However, techniques for increasing the
dynamic losses in the feed lines have also been .4
proposed, and are also considered in this section .
O 151 Hz
6.2.3.1 Injector impedance. * -The simplest ap-
proach to low frequency stabilization would seem .2
to be the incorporation of additional pressure drop
(if available) into the injector elements. This O 134 Hz
change would decrease the feed system gain and,
consequently, the overall engine system gain.
04 .06 .08 .10 .2 .4
However, in certain cases it is actually possible to
destabilize an engine by increasing one of the Reduced oxidizer injector pressure drop , APiox /Pc
injector pressure drops . Such a possibility has been
shown theoretically by the double combustion FIGURE 6.2.3a.-Theoretical low-frequency stability limit
for gaseous-hydrogen /liquid-oxygen rocket engine . In-
* J. Szuch, Author. finite injector capacitances.
pressure drop greater than 1.0 . The stabilizing response of the feed system to chamber pressure
effect results from the reduced oxidizer vaporiza- oscillations depends on the interaction of the
tion time caused by the higher fuel velocity. It manifold capacitance with the resistance and
should be noted that the chugging frequency inertance properties of the injector and feed
increases with increasing fuel injector pressure lines. * At low frequencies, the impedance of a feed
drop because of the interaction of injector element system, looking upstream from the injector,
design and combustion time lag. If a constant approaches that of a pure resistance , equal to the
vaporization time were assumed , the frequency sum of the injector and line resistances. At very
would decrease with increasing fuel injector high frequencies, the impedance approaches that
pressure drop (see Fig. 5.5.2b ) . of a pure inertance. In the intermediate range of
frequencies , the manifold capacitance can have a
6.2.3.2 Manifold capacitance.t-The capaci- strong effect on the feed system impedance and,
tance of the injection manifold, which is a measure hence, on engine stability .
of the ability of the manifold to store mass, To show the effects of manifold capacitance, it is
includes both the compressibility of the pro- convenient to assume that the feed line upstream
pellant and the flexibility of the hardware. The
* See Sect. 3.2 for definitions of these impedance quan-
† J. Szuch, Author. tities.
Fuel injection
P RF
Feed line and
valve
P: Ri Li Pc
Ptox Re IOX
Zox Zeng
C; Oxidizer
injection
Electrical analog
Fuel injector manifold Gaseous

(constant pressure ) fuel flow
2
Combustion
chamber
Z
Constant oxidizer Liquid oxidizer
feed pressure flow
Oxidizer valve
Oxidizer injector manifold
Injector combustor system schematic
FIGURE 6.2.3b . - Electrical analog for injector-combustor system using gaseous fuel and liquid oxidizer.
of the manifold is purely resistive, such as the impedances and will be larger than the injector
oxidizer system shown in Fig. 6.2.3b . The im- impedance alone.
pedance of this feed system is given as a function These ideas can be clarified by means of an
of the angular frequency w by example. Fig. 6.2.3c shows the stability limits for
the engine illustrated in Fig. 6.2.3b, which is
Ri + R + iwLi - C ; R rL ; w² essentially the same as that considered in Fig.
Zo (w)== (6.2.3-1)
1 + iwR¿Ci 6.2.3a, except that the manifold capacitance is
now a parameter (whereas in Fig. 6.2.3a , the
where the component properties are identified in capacitance was assumed to be infinite ) . It is seen.
Fig. 6.2.3b . If the feed line resistance is very high that capacitance values below about 0.00025 in.2
(at the frequency of interest ) , the chamber sees have a great effect on engine stability. For a
an impedance resulting from the series combination capacitance value of about 0.00010 in.², the engine
of the injector resistance and inertance and the can operate stably with little or no oxidizer
manifold capacitance . Alternatively, if the mani- injector pressure drop .
fold capacitance is sufficiently large, the manifold One of the serious problems in predicting the
impedance will be so small as to isolate the injector stability of a proposed engine is determining
from the feed line . On the other hand, for a small accurately what the capacitance is going to be
manifold capacitance, the impedance seen by the during actual operation. Bubbles of propellant
chamber will be the sum of the injector and line vapor or of gases dissolved in the propellant can
Reduced
pressure
injector
/,drop
Unstable
~
fuel
P ip
C=.00010 in 2
1.0
.8
6
.00012 Stable
.00014
ས
00015
.2
.00025
Ciox =.01 to ∞ ( in² )
.01 .02 .04 .06 .08 .10 .2 .4

Reduced oxidizer injector pressure drop , ΔΡ
APIOX
Ox /PC
FIGURE 6.2.3c . - Effect of oxidizer injector capacitance on theoretical stability limit for gaseous-hydrogen/liquid-oxygen
engine. Infinite fuel capacitance.
make drastic changes in the manifold capacitance . Another simple device is the Helmholtz reso-
Pressure-fed engines are particularly susceptible nator,503 shown in Fig . 6.2.3d ( a ) , consisting of a
to dissolved gas in the propellants. The release of cavity and entrance aperture. By correctly sizing
this gas when the propellant undergoes a decrease the cavity and aperture, the device can be made
in pressure (such as in passage through the valve series resonant at any desired frequency. That is,
in Fig. 6.2.3b ) may decouple the injector from the the Helmholtz resonator will have a minimum,
rest of the feed system, and lead to oscillatory purely resistive flow impedance at that frequency
engine operation.396 Sampling of propellants and will prevent pressure waves from traveling
under typical operating conditions may be downstream to the chamber.
necessary to obtain valid capacitance information. Another form of resonator that can be used is
the parallel-resonant configuration, known as the
6.2.3.3 Resonators. *- Generally, the feed sys- Quincke resonator, Fig. 6.2.3d (b) . This device has
tem of a rocket engine is more complex than the characteristic of a very high flow impedance at
the simple resistive configuration discussed in the the resonant frequency. In addition to attenuating
preceding section and may, itself, be the cause of flow oscillations in the feed system, the added
undesirable oscillations . It is possible for the feed impedance could be helpful in preventing chamber
system to have a low impedance , looking down- driven instabilities.
stream from the pressure source (tank or pump ) ,
at a certain frequency. This frequency is not 6.2.3.4 Feed line losses . * - Losses of oscillatory
necessarily at the characteristic chugging fre- energy can be achieved in the propellant feed lines
quency (at which the impedance looking upstream by means of the "lossy" line ,98 the hydraulic
from the chamber is low) . In this case, a per-
capacitor,381 or gas injection.760 The analysis of an
turbation in pressure at the upstream end of the absorptive or " lossy" fluid transmission line is
feed system could result in sizable oscillations in based on one-dimensional wave propagation in a
flow rate and chamber pressure . duct lined with distributed Helmholtz resonators.
For such cases of discrete-frequency sensitivity , A network that represents one stage of the line is
some form of resonator may be used to dissipate shown in Fig . 6.2.3e . The series impedance term
energy in an oscillating feed system. The simplest Zs consists of the inertance Li and resistance Ry of
form of resonant device is the quarter wave tube. the fluid in the main flow path. The shunt ad-
mittance term Y, results from the parallel com-
* J. Szuch, Author. bination of the main flow fluid capacitance Ci
and the resonator admittance, consisting of the
ме
4 la inertance Là, the resistance R , and the capaci-

πgda tance Ca.t
The fundamental equations describing sinus-
do oidal pressure and flow oscillations in a feed line
with low mean-flow velocity are the Fourier-
wo
transformed , one-dimensional wave equations.648
(a)
40+ From these equations, the relation between the
It L= input impedance ( Z₁ = pi /m ) in terms of the
"gd
output impedance (Z = p2 /m2') for a line of
length l is obtained :
Z2+ Ze tanh гl
Z₁ = (6.2.3-2)
e= gov 1+ (Z / Z ,) tanh FL
(b) K
(a) Helmholtz resonator.

(b) Parallel (Quincke-tube) resonator. * L. L. Bickford , Author.
FIGURE 6.2.3d. -Two types of resonators for feed system † See Sect. 3.2 for definitions of these impedance quan-
stabilization. tities.
Zs
m2
m
Le Re
Ys
|
I
L
-~
Ra
‫نآ‬
Cat
FIGURE 6.2.3e.--Electrical analog for one section of a "lossy" line.

(degrees
phase
angle
)Zc
where Z = √Z / Y, is called the "characteristic 90

impedance" and г = √Z,y, is the "propagation
60
function." Fig. 6.2.3f shows the dependence of
O
Ze on frequency and capacitance ratio Cà/Ci. 30 102 103
Similar information is given for r in Fig. 6.2.3g.
16
480
For generality, both figures make use of normalized .4 .6 10 20 40 60
O
variables, for which the reference quantities
d~imensionless
are the no-loss characteristic impedance Zco =

amplitude
VL /C , the resonant frequency of the resonator 2

wà= (LaC1) -1/2, and the nominal acoustic velocity
015
in the line aL = Ax/ √ £ ¿Ci*.

Eq . (6.2.3-2 ) and Figs. 6.2.3f, g are valid only 10 102 10
64
when the mean flow velocity VL is much smaller

than the nominal acoustic velocity aL. For a line
with a very large distributed capacitance C , this .2
condition may be violated even at low flow veloci-
ties because the nominal acoustic velocity is .I
greatly reduced . .06
The fluid dynamic behavior of a propellant feed .04
line can be modified by injecting a non-condensable
gas.760 The gas bubbles affect the acoustic proper- .02
.2 .4 .6 1 2 4 6 10 20 40 60
w/wa ~ dimensionless frequency
* The nominal acoustic velocity is not necessarily equal
to the velocity of sound in an infinite fluid medium. It
may be considerably reduced by the structural compliance FIGURE 6.2.3f.- Characteristic impedance of a "lossy"
of the pipe walls (see Sect. 5.4.1 ) . line . Cà / 2 và à = 0.1 .
pegrees
hase
)angle
40
-
(dT
40
90
90 Pressure = 140 psia

120
100
890
20 80
oscillation
frequency
oscillation
frequency
10 102 +20
Bubble
。
Bubble
。
30
-1,kHz
LOX
,kHz
RP
in
in
알 4 .6 2 6 10 20 40 60
20r
d~imensionless
amplitude
196
4
+
‫تعالى‬
~
O
=| 102 10³
2
10 1.0
102 103
O
1.0
.6
.6
N
813
1 1 .OI .02 .04 .06 0.1

.2 .4 .6 1.0 2 4 6 10 20 40 60 .2
w/w dimensionless frequency Bubble radius , in
FIGURE 6.2.3g.- Propagation function for a "lossy" line. FIGURE 6.2.3h .- Bubble oscillation frequencies for helium
Rà/2wàLà = 0.1 ; low velocity flow. bubble in LOX and RP-1 .
ties of the line by energy dissipation as well as by 6.2.4 Combustion Chamber Response †
added compliance . The dissipation is caused
primarily by thermal effects , such as irreversible For bulk oscillations ( chugging ) of the com-
bustion chamber gases, the residence time
heat transfer across the bubble walls . The thermal
0. L*c*/RT, is the controlling parameter . Since
damping is maximum for frequencies corre-
the combustion chamber response falls off at
sponding to pulsations that are somewhere
between isothermal and adiabatic. The analytical frequencies above w = 1/0e, increasing 0 is a
stabilizing trend. The residence time can be
model for the absorptive or "lossy" line can also be
expressed in terms of the chamber cylindrical
applied to a line in which the bubbles are well
length L. and contraction ratio e, as
distributed . In the bubble-filled line, the shunt
resonator action is associated with the lowest (Le+Lm) tec *
frequency mode of bubble oscillation. In this case, 0c= (6.2.4-1)
RT.
the inertance Là is due to the virtual mass of the
liquid, the resistance Ra includes acoustic radia- where Ln is an end correction for the subsonic
tion, viscous , and thermal losses, and the capaci- portion of the exhaust nozzle. From Eq . ( 6.2.4-1 )
tance ea is due to the bubble compliance. Typical it can be seen that increasing either the chamber
bubble oscillation frequencies are shown in Fig. length or contraction ratio is stabilizing . These
6.2.3h ; it should be noted that these frequencies trends are illustrated in Figs . 6.2.4a and 6.2.4b.
are very high as compared to typical feed line Increasing chamber length also lowers the chug-
values. Normalized parameter graphs similar to ging frequency, whereas increasing contraction
those given in Figs . 6.2.3f, g are available for
bubble-filled lines.98 † J. Szuch, Author.
1.0 ratio leads to slightly higher frequencies . Un-

.8 125Hz. fortunately, these stabilizing design changes are
-160 Hz = Oscillation
110HZ frequency
/P,pressure
Reduced
usually not desirable for steady-state operation.

injector
.6H 145 Hz
drop
fuel
ip
Adding length to the chamber beyond that

c
Stable required for essentially complete combustion adds

4
useless weight to the engine and may increase the

Lc== 4in
wall cooling problems. 676 Increasing the con-
traction ratio has similar effects and , moreover,
may alter the combustion efficiency and the total
Unstable 16 in combustion time delays.
The gain factor for the combustion chamber
.10 response must be separated into two terms ,
.08 40 in corresponding to the oxidizer and fuel con-
.06 tributions, respectively :
Pe mox Ī r ac
.04 88 in +
mox Pe +1 C* ər
(6.2.4-2)
Po' MF 1 r
.02
.04 .06 .08 .10 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 MF' *( *
ac)]
Pe Li + 1
Reduced oxidizer injector pressure drop , Piox / Pc
FIGURE 6.2.4a .-Effect of chamber length on theoretical It can be seen from Eq. ( 6.2.4-2 ) that the
stability limit for a gaseous-hydrogen/liquid-oxygen mixture ratio plays an important part in estab-
rocket engine . Infinite injector impedances ; constant lishing these gain factors. Fig. 6.2.4c illustrates
combustion time lags and contraction ratio. the changes in the gain factors as functions of
mixture ratio for a LOX/hydrogen engine. In
1.0 1.3
pressure
Reduced
.8 159 Hz 155 Hz = oscillation

injector
frequency
drop
fuel
ip
c
.6
,A
/
P
1.2
€c=3.0 LE =1.9
4
1 1.11
Relative
Unstable Stable
gain
.2 132 H2O 124 Hz Reference

200 condition
100
.10 .9
Oxidizer
.8- /Fuel
.6
.8
1
.06 .08 .10 .2 .4 .6
Reduced oxidizer injector pressure drop , дріох Рс
3 4 5 7
Mixture ratio ( O/F )
FIGURE 6.2.4b .- Effect of chamber contraction ratio on
the theoretical stability limit for a gaseous-hydrogen/
liquid-oxygen rocket engine. Infinite injector imped- FIGURE 6.2.4c.- Effect of mixture ratio on feed system
ances; constant chamber length. gain for a gaseous-hydrogen/liquid-oxygen rocket engine .
USE OF ANALYTICAL MODELS IN DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT $6.3 277
addition to the effect shown, the mixture ratio has theory is based on the observation that there are
an influence on the residence time, through Re, two conditions for the occurrence of high fre-
T. and c* , and on the combustion time lags . quency instability : ( 1 ) the acoustic resonance
Since the feed system response is also related frequency of the combustion chamber must be
to the mean propellant flow rates, the effects of a matched with the preferred frequency of the
mixture ratio variation on the stability of an combustion process, and ( 2) the sensitivity of the
engine can only be determined by considering combustion process to variations in chamber
a specific system . conditions must be sufficient for the excitation to
If the feed system is responsive to high fre- exceed the damping. In the sensitive time lag
quencies, wave effects (Sect. 3.5 ) may be impor- theory, the first of these conditions is expressed in
tant in the combustion chamber, although terms of the sensitive time lag ( 7 ) , which is
acoustic modes may not be excited . The response essentially the reciprocal of the preferred com-
of the chamber for this intermediate frequency bustion frequency . The second condition involves
range is quite complicated . In fact, it is not the pressure and velocity interaction indices
possible to make a neat separation between (n and 7, respectively) .
combustion response and chamber response , as If the only unsteady combustion effects are
it is for low frequency oscillations, since temporal those associated with small changes in thermo-
and spatial effects are interrelated . Scala630 dynamic state , often referred to as linear pressure-
developed a combustion chamber analysis for the sensitivity, the conditions for the occurrence of
intermediate frequency range as part of a study of instability can be represented in a simple graphical
entropy wave instability. However, little practical fashion of an n, 7-diagram, shown in Fig . 6.3.1 .
application has been made of this analysis. The combustor resonance properties are portrayed
by instability zones, one zone for each acoustic
mode. The coordinates of the minimum point.
6.3 HIGH FREQUENCY: SENSITIVE TIME
show the characteristic time and the minimum
LAG MODEL†
damping. The unsteady aspects of the combustion
The following nomenclature pertains to Sect. process are represented by a point, located by the
6.3 (see also Sects . 4.1.2 , 4.2.1 , and 4.2.2) : values of the sensitive time lag and the pressure
interaction index for that particular combustion
b Exponent indicating dependence of time.
process. The larger the interaction index for the
lag on orifice diameter, Eq. 6.3.3-4
combustion process, the greater the excitation
Pr Reduced chamber pressure (pe divided by
and, consequently, the greater is the tendency
critical pressure of controlling pro-
toward instability. Superposition of the instability
pellant)
zones for the combustor and the n, 7 point for the
3. Time lag pressure -dependence factor
combustion process shows the stability of the
BVR Time lag velocity-ratio-dependence factor
system. That is, if the n, 7 point falls within an
Φ Impingement angle (included angle) of
instability zone, the operation of the combustor
injection streams
will be unstable in that mode . Stabilization is
6.3.1 General Approach thus achieved by shifting either the point or the
zone to avoid intersection.
The basic approach used in the sensitive time The dynamic aspects of the combustion process
lag theory, as detailed in Section 4.2, is that the are determined primarily by the injection pattern,
effects of the combustor geometry and steady- particularly the type and size of the injection.
state combustion and flow pattern are separated element , the propellant combination, and the
from the unsteady combustion effects . This operating conditions, e.g. , the chamber pressure
separation allows the generalization of test results and the mixture ratio . There may also be inter-
and the accumulation of meaningful stability actions with the chamber geometry. The location
data. With regard to the unsteady effects , the of the instability zones is dictated by the com-
bustor geometry and the steady-state combustion
† F. H. Reardon, Author. characteristics.
index ion
Interact
,n
Third First tangential

tangential mode ( IT )
(3T) zone instability zone
First radial Unstable combustion

(IR) zone operating points
Second tangential
Stable combustion operating point
(2T) zone
Sensitive time log , T
FIGURE 6.3.1 . —An n , 7 diagram, showing instability zones for several modes and operating points for stable and unstable
combustion.
Velocity or displacement effects have been The following sections take up the various
treated583 by defining two more combustion aspects of the application of the sensitive time lag
parameters, the radial and tangential velocity theory to design and development of stable
indices, l, and le , which are really components of a combustion chambers. Several items of importance
single vectorial index (see Sect . 4.2.1 ) . These in the calculation of instability zones are first
indices are essentially empirical, just as the presented, followed by a discussion of the cur-
pressure index and sensitive time lag, and depend rently available correlations of the combustion
on the same design and operational factors. parameters (n, 7 , 1) . Finally, considerations in-
Although the combustion excitation for this more volved in design and development for dynamic
general case comes from more than one source , it stability are discussed .
is still convenient to represent stability graphically
6.3.2 Calculations Required
on the n, 7 diagram . Now, however, the instability
zones show only that part of the excitation to be In currently available computer programs for
supplied by the pressure-sensitive combustion calculating the boundaries of the instability
processes. In effect, the velocity effects appear to zones (e.g., Ref. 650) , the combustion chamber is
modify the resonance characteristics of the assumed to be a right circular cylinder, either full
chamber. The contribution of the velocity effects or annular, with a planar injector at one end and a
to the excitation can be seen by comparing the converging-diverging nozzle at the other . It is
instability zones with those calculated for pressure assumed also that combustion is completed prior
effects only. to the entrance of the exhaust nozzle . For the
Nonlinear effects can be treated in the same present , other chamber shapes can only be treated
way as the velocity effects. Clearly, as additional by defining an "effective" cylindrical chamber.
features are added to the theoretical model to The exhaust nozzle is assumed to be conical, with
make it more realistic, more detailed information circular arc sections at the throat and at the
is needed to make a stability analysis and the chamber exit (nozzle entrance ) . Other shapes can
graphical representation becomes more difficult . easily be handled , but this one is consistent with
Even so , the time lag concept and the n , 7 diagram current practice and allows a wide variety of
remain useful, practical engineering tools . nozzle designs to be analyzed with a fairly simple
computer program . Analytical procedures for However, since the coefficient k is usually quite
including the stabilizing effects of acoustic liners small, extreme accuracy is unnecessary.
are available ( Sect . 8.3.1 ) , but a corresponding It has been demonstrated that velocity effects ,
analysis of injector-face baffles has not yet been either linear or nonlinear, can be of great impor-
made. Baffles, therefore, must be treated qualita- tance in determining the stability of transverse
tively, usually with the assumption that only modes,582,583 but systematic studies to obtain
modes that are compatible with the baffle con- quantitative data have not been made. Some
figuration can occur if the baffles are sufficiently approximate expressions for the velocity inter-
long (Sect . 8.2) . action index for unlike doublets and like-on-like
Both the axial and transverse distributions of injector elements are discussed in Ref. 650.
combustion are important in determining the Nonlinear effects can enter in two ways : ( 1 )
location of the instability zones on the n, 7 in the fluid mechanical behavior of the gases in
diagram. Unfortunately, this information is not the chamber, and (2) through the dynamics of
widely available because it requires special the combustion response . The analyses of Zinn771
instrumentation and test hardware. However, and Mitchell488 emphasize the fluid mechanical
reasonable estimates can be made for most cases aspects and consider only pressure sensitivity . On
of interest . Analytical models for calculating the the other hand , Reardon¹³ used a describing-
axial combustion distribution , for several pro- function approach to analyze certain types of
pellant combinations, are described in Refs . 91 , nonlinear combustion response functions, with
165 , 421 , and 564. Experimental studies of the particular emphasis on velocity effects. Significant
axial distribution for various types of injectors and enlargement of the instability zones has been
propellants are given in Refs. 321 , 401 , and 649 . shown (see Sect . 4.2.4) . However, because of the
Transverse distribution of combustion , of great complexities and inherent limitations of the non-
significance in the analysis of transverse modes of linear analyses and the lack of quantitative data
instability, can be identified with the injection for determining combustion response functions,
flux distribution.584 Calculation of the effects of only the linearized theory is available for routine.
the transverse distribution can readily be in- use at the present time.
corporated into the instability zone computer In addition to the geometrical and combustion
program if the injector pattern is repetitive, with dynamic parameters noted above, calculation of
the orifices grouped into elements. The computer the instability zones in terms of the dimensional
program described in Ref. 650 includes such time lag requires the value of the effective sound
calculations . Combustion distribution is further velocity in the chamber. This quantity is difficult
discussed in Sect . 7.2.4 and 7.2.5 . to specify with precision , since it depends on the
The effects of the unreacted liquid propellants, completeness of combustion and, in fact , may vary
which contribute to the damping, are represented over a wide range between the injector and nozzle
by the droplet momentum interchange coefficient ends of the chamber. For design calculations , it is
k. This coefficient is defined as the constant of usually adequate to use the theoretical value for
proportionality between the acceleration of a the appropriate mixture ratio, corrected by a
mean-effective droplet and the relative velocity typical combustion efficiency factor.
between liquid and gas. That is , As discussed in Sect. 4.2.1 , it is most con-
DVL venient to perform the calculations using the
=k (V - VL) (6.3.2-1) frequency f as independent variable. The char-
Dt
acteristic equation then yields values of the
Several studies of droplet acceleration have been interaction index and sensitive time lag along the
made, comparing results of burning and non- limiting curve that defines the instability zones.
burning drops with theoretical calculations . 199,240 It has been found that the frequency range
In practice, it may be difficult to determine the required for the calculation of instability zones
mean droplet diameter, the Reynolds number, is from about 10% below to 10% above the
and the drag coefficient- Reynolds number rela- frequency of the corresponding acoustic mode,
tion appropriate to rocket combustor conditions . which is given by
aeff π De
√Svn²+ ( j (6.3.2-2)
πDc 4 Le
where aeff is the effective sound velocity, De is the

chamber diameter, Le is the chamber length ,
j is the order of the longitudinal mode, and S
is the dimensionless frequency of the transverse TO
mode , the order of which is specified by the double Dc/2
subscript vm. If there is no longitudinal oscillation ,
j = 0. The first longitudinal mode corresponds to 2
j = 1, and so on. Similarly, if no transverse ΤΜΟ
oscillations are of interest, v = 0, n = 1 , and S,, = 0. Do/2
The tangential modes correspond to nonzero nм
values of ν,
v, and radial modes correspond to values
of n > 1 . Reference 650 lists values of S, for
tangential modes up to the fifth , radial modes up
to the third, and combined modes up to the third
1.0 1.1
tangential-third radial.
5/5jun
Typical results of such a calculation are shown
by the curves of n (f) and T (f) in Fig. 6.3.2 .
These curves apply at the stability limits , at FIGURE 6.3.2 .- Typical solution curves for n(ƒ) and 7(ƒ).
which small oscillations with the given frequency
neither grow nor decay. It can be seen that for
any frequency there is only one value of T
7 and one For variable-geometry combustors , such as
value of n consistent with neutral oscillations . A used by Crocco and Harrje,184,187 the determination
larger n value corresponds to a growing oscillation . of n and can be quite precise. However, most
test data have been obtained from combustors
or instability, and a smaller n corresponds to a
decaying oscillation , or stability. The value 7м, with fixed geometry. For these cases a certain
amount of uncertainty is introduced into the
corresponding to the minimum value of n (f) ,
n, values, since it can only be concluded that the
is given approximately by
values lie within certain ranges , which may be as
1 large as 50 % of the mean value , but which
TM (6.3.2-3 )
2fin more often do not exceed ± 25 % . This uncer-
tainty is reduced if the dimensions of the com-
For practical applications, it is more convenient
bustion chamber are large enough that the
to plot n ( f) against 7 ( f) , giving the stability higher-order modes are excited , since the insta-
limit curves on the n, 7 diagram as shown in
bility zones for these modes are more closely
Fig . 6.3.1 .
spaced on the n, 7 diagram ( Fig . 6.3.1 ) .
Another source of uncertainty in the combustion
6.3.3 Empirical Correlations of Combustion
parameter values derived from experiment is the
Response
use of the linearized theory to interpret test
Empirical values of the combustion response results where bombs or pulse guns have been used
parameters, especially the sensitive time lag and to trigger oscillations. Although such interpreta-
the pressure interaction index, have been obtained tion has only been semi-quantitative, it has been
by comparing experimental stability data with guided by theoretical studies of nonlinear in-
calculated instability zones. The approach650 is stability . The pressure interaction index value is
essentially to determine the answer to the ques- particularly influenced by nonlinear velocity
tion : on the basis of the instability zones cal- effects.13
culated for the given combustor , what values of Other contributions to the uncertainty come
n and T would produce the test results observed? from the lack of detailed information concerning
the steady-state combustion, which limits the storable combination O2/RP- 1 . In all cases , the
accuracy of the stability limit curves, and test-to- central stream was the less volatile propellant
test variations in the steady-state operating (viz, O2 for the O2/H2 combination and RP- 1 for
conditions. the O2/RP- 1 combination ) , which can be regarded
Since the sensitive time lag and the interaction as the rate-controlling propellant . The correlating
index describe the overall response of the com- variables used in developing the correlation were
bustion process , which consists of a multitude of the diameter d ; of the central stream, the velocity
.
interrelated, complex processes, it is not reason- ratio VR (the injection velocity of the outer ,
able to expect that they can be correlated com- annular stream divided by the velocity of the
pletely with parameters controlling just one or central stream ) , the angle of impingement Φ of the
another of the intermediate processes . For this annular stream on the central stream (see Fig .
reason , n and have been correlated by use of 6.3.3a) , the reduced pressure p, (chamber pressure
design and operating parameters that are subject divided by the critical pressure of the controlling
to the control of the engineer. However, the propellant ) , and the nozzle entrance Mach
selection of correlating variables has been re- number Me.*
stricted somewhat by the nature of the data The sensitive time lag values have been
available . For example, very little systematic correlated by the equation
variation of mixture ratio is included in the data, TMB
and injection velocity data are too few to be = 0.076 millisec (6.3.3-1 )
BVR
helpful . Even for the correlating parameters
selected , the data tends to be concentrated in a where the pressure dependence factor 3, is given by
few areas of popularity among designers, which
inhibits the development of general correlations . p. < 1
Jp,1/3
The correlations presented here are based on Bp = (6.3.3-2)
1.0 Pr≥1
the data collected and analyzed by Reardon over
a period of about six years and published in Ref. and the velocity ratio factor ẞVR, an empirical
650. Ten propellant combinations are represented, function of VR and 4, shown in Fig . 6.3.3a . The
about equally divided between hypergolic and time lag correlation is illustrated in Fig. 6.3.3b .
nonhypergolic types. Seven types of injection are These data indicate that the combustion
included : unlike-impinging doublets, triplets, response is essentially independent of element
quadlets (2-on-2) , and pentads (4-on- 1 ) ; non- size and is only weakly influenced by the mean
impinging (showerhead) ; self-impinging ; and gas flow in the combustion chamber. Such a
coaxial elements, both impinging and non- result is consistent with the model of Combs and
impinging. The chamber pressure range covered is Schuman,165 according to which the coaxial
from 100 to 2500 psia . The chamber Mach injector spray pattern is controlled by the
numbers range from 0.01 to 0.44 . shearing between the high velocity annular
In forming the correlations , consideration of the stream of rapidly vaporizing or gaseous propellant
basic physical processes, as well as the study of and the central, low velocity liquid stream .
the data points themselves, suggested the separa- However, as shown by Fig. 6.3.3a, the time lag is
tion of the data into three groups : ( 1 ) coaxial independent of velocity ratio for nonimpinging
injectors with nonhypergolic propellants , ( 2) coaxial elements (i.e., BVR is constant , at 0.9,
noncoaxial injectors with nonhypergolic pro- for all VR ) .The combination VR sin was
pellants, and (3 ) all injector types with storable, derived on a purely empirical basis , and gives
hypergolic propellants. The correlations for each what amounts to a central stream breakup
group are discussed separately in the following parameter.
paragraphs. The chamber pressure dependence for pressures
Coaxial injectors with nonhypergolic propel- less than the critical pressure of the controlling
lants. Most of the data in this group are for the
cryogenic propellant combination LOX/LH2, but * Conical chambers present a problem in the definition
there are two data points for the cryogenic- of this quantity, as discussed in Sect. 8.4.1 .
1,6
1.4- di
Vi
BVR VR = Vo/Vi
1.25 Impinging
1.0
Non -impinging
.9
.8
.4 .6 .8 1.0 1,5 2 4 6
VR sin
FIGURE 6.3.3a .- Empirical injection-velocity-ratio factor BVR for coaxial injectors.
o Non-impinging O₂/H2 injectors appears to be essentially constant ,

O 02/RP-1
Impinging O2/H2 independent of element size , velocity ratio , and
Oso di < .099 in chamber pressure , at about 0.5. No experimental
.2 .100 < di < .199 in
▲ di > ,200 in data are available regarding transverse velocity
BR C
TM
Correlating formula oscillation effects ; the symmetry of the coaxial

/
V
0.1 element would be expected to minimize such

.08 effects.
.06F Noncoaxial injectors with nonhypergolic pro-

pellants. Unlike doublet and pentad , like-on-like,
.04 and showerhead types of injection are included in
this group . The oxidizer in all cases is liquid
oxygen ; the fuels are hydrogen, ethanol ( C2H5OH) ,
.02.2 4 .6 .8 1.0 2 6 8 10 iso-octane, RP- 1 , and hydrazine. The correlating
Reduced pressure pr = Pc/Parit
variables are essentially the same as used for the
FIGURE 6.3.3b. -Sensitive time lag correlation for coaxial preceding group ; injection orifice diameter di
injectors with nonhypergolic propellants . Correlating
variables defined in text. of the controlling propellant, reduced pressure pr
and chamber Mach number Me. However,
(central) propellant is the same as that found injection velocity and impingement angle have
been omitted because of lack of data.
analytically by Heidmann and Wieber346 for
vaporization-controlled combustion. Above the For the impinging injector types, the sensitive
critical pressure the experimental time lag values time lag is correlated by a formula with the same
pressure dependence factor B, as that for the
appear to be independent of pressure. Unfortu-
nately, corresponding theoretical studies have coaxial injectors (see Eq . ( 6.3.3-2) ) :
not yet been made. The sharp break in the mean /3Bp
TM1
line of Fig . 6.3.3b at the critical pressure is = 0.165 millisec-in. -1/2 (6.3.3-3 )
d¡¹/2
undoubtedly a gross simplification , but current
knowledge of combustion dynamics hardly war- This correlation is shown in Fig . 6.3.3c . Also
rants greater sophistication. included in the plot are data points for the non-
The pressure interaction index for coaxial impinging injector types.
283
USE OF ANALYTICAL MODELS IN DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT §6.3
,nindex ion
N
Interact
O 02/C2H5OH
02 /RP- 1 or Cg Hi8
Correlating formula 02 /N2H4
□ 02 /H2
(millisec
0.1 Open symbols = non - impinging

TMC
Solid symbols = impinging

)Bp
00
.05 I
O O₂ /C2H5OH .5
A02/RP-1 or C8H18
02 /N2H4
□ 02 /H2 1
.025 Open symbols = non -impinging .02 .05 0.1 .2 .5
Solid symbols impinging Injection orifice diameter , d¡ (in)
002 FIGURE 6.3.3d.-Pressure interaction index correlation

.05 0.1 .2. .5
for non-coaxial injectors with nonhypergolic pro-
Injector diameter , d¡ ( in )
pellants .
FIGURE 6.3.3c.-Sensitive time lag correlation for non-
coaxial injectors with nonhypergolic propellants . hypergolic propellants in this group, viz , nitrogen
.
tetroxide, chlorine trifluoride , chlorine penta-
The simple correlating formula of Eq. (6.3.3-3 ) fluoride as oxidizers, and hydrazine and mixtures
clearly does not include all of the factors that of hydrazine with unsymmetrical dimethyl-
control the time lag for this data group . For hydrazine or monomethyl hydrazine as fuels, the
example, it has been noted that mixture ratio has a selection of the controlling propellant is not so
strong influence and that large-scale recirculation clear (see Chapters 2 and 3 ) . Therefore , for this
eddies can reduce the time lag by a factor of 2 group an average injection orifice diameter is
(points marked with * in Fig . 6.3.3c ) .650 The time
. used, and, since none of the data pertain to
lag values for the showerhead and like-on- like supercritical operation, the critical pressure of the
injector patterns can be considerably larger than propellant has been omitted from the correlation .
those for the unlike-impinging patterns, and the The correlation for the time lag is presented in
dependence on the injection orifice diameter is Fig . 6.3.3c . It should be noted that the dependence
quite different . The result that the difference on pressure and chamber Mach number is the
between the two injector types is greater for the same as for the preceding nonhypergolic pro-
smaller orifice sizes is in agreement with intuitive pellant data group. Writing the correlation.
expectations. formula for the time lag as
The interaction index correlation for this data.
7M /3p1/3 = constant.dib (6.3.3-4)
group is shown in Fig. 6.3.3d . No correlating
formula has been determined ; n decreases with it can be seen from Fig. 6.3.3e that the exponent b
increasing orifice diameter , but there is no con- ranges from 1.0 for the smallest orifices, to 0.5 at
sistent dependence on the other injection and midrange, and approaches 0.33 for the largest
operational variables. The large amount of orifice size . This trend is heavily dependent on the
scatter in the data limits the usefulness of this one data point at the largest diameter, without
correlation. which a constant exponent between 0.5 and 1.0
All injector types, storable hypergolic propel- would fit the data. For unlike-impinging injectors ,
lants. With the nonhypergolic propellants of the the constant of proportionality is about 10
previous two groups, it was not hard to select millisec-psi -in. - 1/2 , whereas for nonimpinging
one of the propellants as controlling because of types it is about 50% larger.
the significant difference in vaporization rates. Fig. 6.3.3f shows the interaction index correla-
The injection orifice diameter and critical pressure tion. The interaction index for hypergolic pro-
served as useful correlating variables . For the pellants appears to be little affected by design or
2+
1/3
-sia
ms
‫ܘ‬
‫ܣ‬
p
Unlike doublet
99
1/3
"1 triplet
"1 quadlet (duo- doublet)
(Mc
DO
Pc
&
pentad
)
.T
Like -on- like doublet
.2-
0.101 .02 .04 .06 .08 .10 .2 4 .6 .8 1.0

Mean injection diameter , di , in
FIGURE 6.3.3e . -Sensitive time lag correlation for storable hypergolic propellants ; all injector types .
by considering an example. The characteristics

of the combustor used in this example have been
1.아 chosen to show the method rather than as being
.8 typical of current designs .
n Consider a thrust chamber that consists of a
.6
circular cylinder of 16 inches diameter, 10 inches
long, joined to an exhaust nozzle with a conical
subsonic portion 6 inches long, with a cone half-
angle of 30° . The nozzle contraction ratio is 2.5,
.202 .04 .06 .08 .10 .2 4 .6 .8 1.0 so that the chamber Mach number is about
d; mean injection diameter 0.25 . It is to operate at a chamber pressure of
500 psia using storable, hypergolic propellants .
FIGURE 6.3.3f.-Pressure interaction index correlation The injector designer has selected a triplet
for storable hypergolic propellants ; all injector types . element , two oxidizer streams impinging on one
Symbol key same as Fig. 6.3.3e. fuel, with orifice diameters of 0.075 in. The
question is now asked, what will be the stability
operating variables, although there may be a of such a combustor?
slight decrease of n with increasing element size. From the given geometry and reasonable.
estimates of the combustion distribution and
6.3.4 Stability Prediction
mean drop size, the instability zones for several
The preceding sections have dealt with the modes can be calculated , on the basis of small
various aspects of the sensitive time lag theory as perturbations and pressure-sensitive combustion .
it is applied to the prediction of the stability of These instability zones are shown in Fig. 6.3.4a .
existing or proposed thrust chambers. In this It is clear that the first longitudinal mode will not
article, the method of prediction will be illustrated be a cause for concern , since it requires a sub-
30°
16" dia 10" dia
2
IL
- 10"
16"-
-
U
Instability zones :
2T IL=First longitudinal
.8 IT=First tangential
3T
2T=Second
.6H 3T=Third
IR-
IR=First radial
.4 di 0.075 in- Combustion
di =0.500 in
-d¡ =0.150 in operating zone
.204 .06.08 .1 .2 4 .6 .8 I
T, millisec
FIGURE 6.3.4a .-Example of stability analysis using n,7 diagram.
stantially more responsive combustion process radial, first tangential, or third tangential mode
than the other modes. Using the given injection could also occur. This design would be highly
diameter, design chamber pressure, and Mach undesirable from the viewpoint of stability.
number, one finds from the correlations of Fig. At this point, one can examine possible ways to
6.3.3e and Fig. 6.3.3f that the sensitive time lag achieve a stable design. One way would be to
and pressure interaction index are expected to increase the size of the injector orifice to produce a
lie in the ranges : larger time lag. As shown in Fig. 6.3.4a , it would
0.14 T≤0.20 millisec require an orifice diameter of 0.500 inch to move
the operating point into the stable region to the
0.6≤n≤0.8
right of the first tangential mode instability zone.
That is, the operating point for the given injector It is likely that such a coarse injector pattern
pattern is expected to lie somewhere within the would not have sufficiently high steady-state
shaded rectangle in Fig. 6.3.4a. performance, and so would be unacceptable.
From this result it would be concluded that the Mechanical damping devices are also available
combustor would only be marginally stable at (Chapter 8 ) , but in this case the design of an
best. The most likely mode of oscillation is the acoustic liner or baffle would be difficult because
second tangential, which might develop spon- of the wide frequency range ( 1700 to 3900 Hz)
taneously from the random combustion noise or and the variety of oscillation patterns to which
be triggered by some kind of local disturbance. the combustor is susceptible (using the 0.075 inch
Although the symmetry of the triplet injector is orifices) . If, however, the injection diameter can
such as to minimize linear velocity effects , be increased to 0.150 inch without degrading
nonlinear effects (both velocity and pressure) performance, the combustion response is altered
associated with such disturbances would be so that only the first tangential mode can be
significant destabilizing factors. Depending on the initiated without a strong disturbance. The
nature of the triggering disturbance, the first frequency range that must be protected by an
acoustic liner is reduced to 1700-2800 Hz , and 0.49 . Thus, although the instability zones have all
dynamic stability is possible with a relatively been shifted to smaller time lags (by the ratio
simple baffle (e.g., one with five radial blades) . 12/16 or 0.75 ) , the operating point for the com-
Additional stabilizing effects can be obtained by bustion process has also been shifted toward
appropriate radial variation of the injection smaller (by the ratio 0.25/ 0.49 raised to the
density.584 power, or 0.8 ) . The result is that the stability of
All of the above design modifications could be the combustor is changed very little, except that
investigated rapidly-without hardware fabrica- the frequency range of interest is now from 2300
tion or testing-by use of the sensitive time lag Hz to 5200 Hz .
theory. Other parametric variations could also be
studied. For example, the effects on stability of
6.4 HIGH FREQUENCY: NUMERICAL
chamber diameter, length, nozzle convergence
INTEGRATION METHODS
angle and contraction ratio can be checked in-
dependently of injector type , orifice diameter, The numerical integration of the differential
propellant combination , and chamber pressure . It equations governing high frequency combustion
should be noted, however, that the chamber Mach instability, the details of which are presented in
number effect on the time lag does introduce a Sect. 4.4, offers several advantages over other
coupling between the injector and chamber design . methods. This approach permits the determina-
This fact can be seen by comparing Fig. 6.3.4b with tion of stability boundaries in terms of disturbance
Fig. 6.3.4a . In Fig. 6.3.4b the instability zones are amplitude and for very complicated , nonlinear
shown for a combustor similar to the one discussed combustion mechanisms, as well as for non-
except that the chamber diameter has been sinusoidal initial perturbations. Although a com-
reduced to 12 inches . Because the throat diameter pletely three-dimensional analysis for any shape
has not been changed, the contraction ratio is of chamber is possible in principle, the computer
reduced to 1.4 and the Mach number increased to size and time required are prohibitive at present .
30°
2 w
ILww
12"dia - 10'dia
n
-
.8 ww
w IT
.6 2T
3T IR
di =0.075 in
.4
.2
.06 .08 .10 .2 .4 .6 .8 I
τι millisec
FIGURE 6.3.4b . - Effect of reducing chamber diameter on stability ; other design variables unchanged from Fig. 6.3.4a.
Therefore, numerical analyses currently make use with transparent-wall chambers, have also been
of one- or two-dimensional models and are employed.170 The analytical combustion models
conducted for selected zones within the com- now in use trace their origin to that developed by
bustion chamber. Most commonly, the zone Priem and Heidmann.564 Subsequent improve-
analyzed is a thin annular ring. For conciseness , ments have been contributed by several teams of
the discussion in this section is mainly concerned workers . 91,135,224,421 Although multidimensional
with numerical integration methods as applied to steady-state models have been developed for
the annular ring geometry. The extension of this certain specific injectors,166 one-dimensional models
approach to other configurations is straight- have been used almost exclusively in stability
forward, since the general procedures are the same analyses. Such models cannot be applied in
in all cases. regions near the injector face where propellant
The following nomenclature pertains to Sect . injection, spray formation, gas recirculation, and
6.4 (see also Sect . 4.3 ) : interspray mixing predominate.
CD The first step in the unsteady analysis is to

Drag coefficient
select the zone of interest within the combustion
Da Droplet drag parameter
chamber. A single, representative zone may be
L Burning rate parameter
chosen, or else the analysis may be carried out for
Mx Fractional burning rate per unit length
a large number of zones to determine a spatial
M Dimensionless mass accumulation
sensitivity map for the combustor. Of course , the
mace (t) Mace type of zone selected must be consistent with the
parameter,
mace mtw chamber geometry and the oscillation mode of
Macc interest . Most work has been done using an
Mass accumulated prior to either
annular ring of small length and thickness (Fig .
atomization or vaporization
Rea 6.4.1a ) . Such a zone is most appropriate for
Modified droplet Reynolds number
investigating tangential modes in an unbaffled ,
tw Wave travel time, oscillation period
circular cylindrical chamber . Stability within a
baffle compartment can be studied by using a
6.4.1 General Approach *
rectangular zone. 170
The numerical integration methods are basically Next, the combustion response model must be
analog solutions of the stability problem . That is , chosen. Most available models emphasize
the steady-state combustion and flow parameters vaporization as the controlling step. However,
are perturbed analytically and numerical integra- high-speed photographs of oscillations in trans-
tion is used to find the time history of the per- parent, two-dimensional chambers, in which the
turbations. This technique may be used to instability wave often obliterates the injection
determine the stability limits of a given combustor streams, suggest that atomization may be as
or to make parametric studies of the effects of important as vaporization. At high pressures, the
design and operational factors. In either case , the combustion model should include droplet heating
analysis is carried out in two stages : ( 1 ) the as well as phase change.
characterization of the steady-state operation,
and (2) the tracing of the development of the
initial perturbation .
The quantities used to describe the steady-state Ax
conditions include gas and liquid velocities,
burning rate, local concentration of unburned
propellant , and liquid droplet sizes. Normally
such data are obtained by calculation using a
steady-state combustion model . Experimental Ar
data, obtained by means of streak photography
* R. J. Priem, Author, and D. T. Campbell, Contributor. FIGURE 6.4.1a .- Annular-ring zone for stability analysis.
Finally, the form of the initial perturbation is

0.5
specified . Usually this has been a single, sinusoidal
pressure wave with the associated isentropic gas.
max
density and temperature waves , the liquid spray
)/-( cmin
being initially undisturbed . However, steep-
P
fronted disturbances, better able to simulate the
perturbations introduced by bombs or pulse guns,
are now used in many analyses .
Starting from the specified initial values,
integration of the governing differential equations
(Sect . 4.3 ) yields gas and liquid properties at
selected locations within the zone of interest at
successive time intervals . The calculated pressure 10 20 30
profiles are then examined to determine whether Reduced time
the input disturbance has damped or whether a
self-sustaining oscillation has developed . A con- FIGURE 6.4.1b .- Computer plot of (Pmax - Pmin) /po versus
venient guide to the damping or amplification of a reduced time. Stable operation.
disturbance is the difference between the maxi-
mum and minimum values of the static pressure
in the zone (normalized by the steady- state 0.7
chamber pressure ) at any given time . Typical
plots of this parameter against a dimensionless
time parameter are shown in Figs. 6.4.1b and
6.4.1c . If the initial perturbation damps, the
numerical integration is repeated at successively
larger initial amplitudes until a sustained oscil-
lation is obtained . In this way the stability limit is
xou
determined for the given engine.

Ų
+
4/-!°པ{ཱུ
6.4.2 Calculations Required *
In discussing the input data and calculations

.Þ
(
required by the numerical integration approach ,

the steady and unsteady portions will be taken up
separately. Of course, since the steady-state cal-
culation serves to provide an input to the stability
analysis, it is possible, at least in principle, to
combine the two calculations into a single com- 20 40
puter program. Steady-state data could also be Reduced time
obtained by hand calculation or from experimental
FIGURE 6.4.1c. - Computer plot of (Pmax -Pmin) /po versus
measurements (e.g. , drop size distribution,222
reduced time. Unstable operation .
mean gas velocity profile) .401
The input data must completely describe the

6.4.2.1 Steady-state calculations. - The following chamber geometry and the characteristics of the
description of a one-dimensional steady- state
liquid spray and the gas at the location where
combustion model is generally valid , although
computation is started. With a one-dimensional
there are some differences in detail between the
model, the starting location cannot be the injector
methods used by different investigators.
face ; it is necessary to estimate the location where
"uniform , one-dimensional" flow begins on the
* R. J. Priem, Author, and D. T. Campbell, Contributor. basis of available experimental data.
For the liquid sprays, it is necessary to specify sprays can be divided independently into many
the drop size distributions, the drop velocities , drop-size groups . To be realistic, the distributions
temperatures, and the fractions of fuel and of drop size must approximate those occurring in
oxidizer already burned at the point where actual rocket engines. This condition introduces a
calculations start. Gas phase data include com- major uncertainty into the analysis , since only a
position, flow rate, and pressure at the starting limited number of studies of atomization224,375
point. In addition, propellant liquid and vapor have been made . The molten wax technique224
properties such as specific heat , viscosity, thermal might resolve this difficulty if it were applied to
conductivity, and molecular diffusivity are needed , enough injector element types and combined with
as well as corresponding gas mixture properties as suitable physical property correlations and ex-
functions of composition at the nominal chamber tended to variable gas velocity fields.
pressure . This information may be in equation A more difficult problem is the quantitative
or tabular form. description of the secondary breakup of the initial
The steady-state calculation proceeds in a spray by high velocity combustion gas. Currently
stepwise manner, moving downstream to the used vaporization-limited models become invalid
nozzle throat . At each step, interphase transfers for low-contraction-ratio or tapered chambers in
of mass , momentum, and energy are evaluated . which secondary atomization takes place. Al-
Solution of the gas-phase continuity, momentum, though several experimental studies of single
and energy equations then yields drop sizes , droplet breakup have been made, 211,569,755 in-
velocities , and temperatures, and gas composition , corporation of these results into the analytical
velocity, and pressure at the new location. models will almost always lead to unrealistically
Typically, the transport equations99,564 use mean high combustion efficiencies. Two possible ex-
film transport properties, and rely on empirical planations for this disagreement are ( 1 ) the
correlations of Nusselt number and drag coeffi- sheltering effect of clouds of closely-spaced
cient to account for convection , turbulence , and droplets tends to reduce or retard secondary
lack of sphericity of the burning droplets. The breakup processes , and ( 2 ) shattered and rapidly
gas-phase energy equation is normally simplified vaporized droplets produce pockets of unmixed
by the assumption that the composition and propellant vapors, the burning rate of which is
stagnation temperature are the equilibrium values limited by turbulent gas-phase mixing.
for the gas-phase oxidizer/fuel ratio and chamber For most propellants, the assumption of
pressure. Other gas properties (e.g. , static tem- vaporization-limited, bipropellant combustion is
perature, density) are evaluated from the stag- quite good. However, for hydrazine-type fuels ,
nation values by applying the local Mach number exothermic decomposition reactions occurring
to the isentropic expansion equations. very close to the droplet can be important in that
The calculation of droplet heating may lead to they tend to increase the vaporization rate by
(numerical) oscillations in droplet temperature as increasing the rate of heat transfer to the
the wet bulb temperature is approached. Two droplet.87,353,629 Such a "two-flame " combustion
methods have been used to overcome this problem : mechanism should be applied under conditions of
(1) the use of iteration or higher-order numerical weak convection, in which the decomposition
integration , and (2) changing to a constant- flame is well embedded in the droplet boundary
droplet-temperature model for calculating the layer.
burning rate when the droplet temperature
reaches a predetermined percentage of the wet 6.4.2.2 Stability analysis.- Once the steady-
bulb temperature . state flow in the combustion chamber has been
In most steady-state combustion models the determined, the zone of interest for the unsteady
injection spray is assumed to consist of a number analysis can be selected . Because of the strong
of drop-size groups rather than a continuous dis- sensitivity of the stability results to the relative
tribution . Each group is characterized by a mean velocity between gas and liquid (see Sect . 4.3 ) ,
diameter, the number of drops in the group, and the axial location where the average relative
the group velocity . Both the oxidizer and fuel velocity passes through a minimum is normally
chosen as the location of the zone of interest . since transient cross-winds caused by a dis-
This choice will give the most unstable result. turbance represent relatively small changes in the
Actually, if this "least stable" region were narrow gas dynamic environment .
enough, more stable adjacent regions might act to The modified droplet Reynolds number,
damp its oscillations. Thus, one would expect dɩpā
that applying the analysis to an averaged zone of Red =
ū
finite axial dimension would be more realistic .
Unfortunately, clear-cut guidelines for selection. is a measure of the sensitivity of the vaporization
of a suitable width for the analysis zone are yet to rate to changes in the relative velocity between
be developed . gas and liquid . Large values of Rea are de-
The numerical integration approach can be stabilizing.
used with any combustion mechanism that has The droplet drag parameter,
been expressed in quantitative form. In practice , 3CDгemacc
most stability analysis computer programs are Da =
STōLdL
based on a quasi-steady vaporization-limited
model . However, atomization , gas-phase mixing, is associated with the momentum exchange
and chemical reaction models have also been between the gas and the liquid spray. Larger
developed, and corrections for these effects have values of Dad indicate increased ability of the spray
also been added to vaporization-controlled ana- to damp transient gas velocity components.
lytical models (Sect. 4.3.1 ) . The selection of the The mass accumulation parameter is defined as
most appropriate model for a given analysis
Macc
requires an understanding of the nature of the MN:=
combustion process in the engine under con- mitw
sideration. For example, at high chamber pressure
It is the local mass concentration of unburned
a large fraction of the energy received by the
propellant normalized by the net influx during
droplet goes into raising the droplet temperature .
approximately one cycle of an acoustic oscillation .
Therefore, a combustion model based on quasi-
Low values are stabilizing.
steady, isothermal vaporization would be un-
The numerical integration is carried out in
realistic . For chamber pressures above the critical
terms of a dimensionless, " reduced" time, which
pressures of the propellants a combustion model
is the actual time divided by an acoustic wave
describing the rate of turbulent mixing of vapor
travel time . For an annular zone, the appropriate
"pockets" with the surrounding combustion gases
wave travel time would be
would be desirable .
The input parameters are conveniently ex-
tw ==
pressed as dimensionless groups of variables. ā
Typical parameters are the following:
The burning rate parameter , Another reference time, used by some investigators ,
is rea . Integration is terminated at a predeter-
r.My mined value of the reduced time. The selection of
L
Ec this termination time is an important factor in
any stability analysis . Excessively long times are
is a measure of the energy that can be added to a
wasteful of computer operation and may intro-
wave by combustion. For practical engines ,
duce numerical instability. On the other hand ,
stability is improved by decreasing .
both theoretical and experimental results have
The reduced velocity difference between gas and
shown that in many cases oscillations that
liquid (at steady state ) is defined as
initially damped have eventually grown into
V- VL sustained instabilities . The stability of a given
AV =
ā input perturbation may not become clear until a
reduced time of about 20 is reached ( Fig . 6.4.1c ) .
Large AV has a powerful stabilizing influence , If the determination of stability is questionable,
disturbance
Reduced
pressure
86
the integration must be repeated , and carried .8
,ACP
out for a longer reduced time. Unstable
P
/
+
6.4.3 Correlation With Test Data *
-Stable unlike triplet
2
Several analytical and experimental investiga-
Q
tions have been performed to establish a correla- Stable
tion between thrust chamber design parameters impinging jet Atomization
and stability. One study556 used an eight-foot .08
diameter toroidal combustor, burning liquid .06 Vaporization
oxygen and gaseous hydrogen, with four different .04 Unstable fine Unstable coarse
injectors. Experimental results and theoretical parallel jet
curves for atomization- and vaporization-con-
.02-
trolled combustion models are compared in Fig.
6.4.3a . The two injectors that were predicted Stable
analytically to be less stable were spontaneously .01
2 4 6 8 10 20 40 6080 100
unstable, whereas the two injectors predicted to Mass accumulation factor, 2#macc/ m¡tw
be stable to disturbances of about 0.5 amplitude
(perturbation pressure amplitude divided by FIGURE 6.4.3a.- Experimental and theoretical stability
limits for toroidal combustor. £ = 0.015 .
steady-state chamber pressure) each recovered
from a pulse of 0.2 amplitude.
A more recent analytical-experimental stability Unstable
Bomb or Pulse
program ,729,90 using nitrogen tetroxide/mono- × Stable }
methyl hydrazine , investigated the influence of ▲ Unstable
× Stable }"Pop"
propellant mixture ratio, injection velocity, droplet
size and distribution, and chamber pressure on the 2 TRAX-21-11B TRAX-21-ID
minimum pulse strength required to trigger
instability . Two injector configurations were
tested . One consisted of a quadlet pattern of two
oxidizer jets impinging on two fuel jets. The mass
perturbation
median drop radius for this injector was estimated

0.5
to be about 70 microns . The second injector
Initial
80+
consisted of a combination of quadlets and

,Acp
P/
triplets with an estimated mass median drop

10
Experimental
×
radius of 30 microns. Experimental results are stability limit

0.2
T
shown in Fig. 6.4.3b together with the theoretical

calculations. The second injector ( TRAX-21-11B)
showed greater stability than the first (TRAX- 0.1
21-1D) , as predicted by the theory. However, X
the level of disturbance predicted theoretically
to excite instability was significantly lower than X
0.05
that observed experimentally . Theoretical
The same propellants were used in another stability limit-
study of the effects on stability of injector
design and operating conditions. The experimental 0.02
20 40 60 80 100
apparatus consisted of a 15-inch-diameter pulse
motor with a spud-type injector, allowing several
Mass median radius , microns
self-impinging patterns to be tested . Actual test
FIGURE 6.4.3b .- Influence of mass median drop radius on
* R. J. Priem, Author, and D. T. Campbell, C. J. Abbe, stability for a transtage combustor with NTO/MMH
and B. P. Breen, Contributors . propellants.
Perturbation
amplitude
conditions were used as inputs to the numerical 2
stability analysis . For each test condition the X X
,Acp
theoretical pulse amplitude at the stability limit
/P
Experiment:
was calculated for comparison with the experi-
mental stability results. An initial series of tests Smallest unstable
perturbation
was made to relate the perturbation amplitude to
X Largest stable
the pulse gun charge size . It was found that a perturbation
nearly linear increase in Ap/pe was obtained as Unstable
the charge size was increased from 10 to 80 grains.
Analytical and experimental results for chamber
pressure variation are compared in Fig. 6.4.3c ; Stable
the effects of total propellant flow rate are shown Theoretical
in Fig. 6.4.3d . Agreement between theory and stability limit
experiment is good in the latter case , particularly
in the relative magnitude of the changes in
stability produced by the changes in operating
conditions. As in the preceding example ( Fig . 300 600
6.4.3b) , the analytical model underestimated the Chamber pressure , psia
perturbation amplitude at the stability limit .
A fundamental principle underlying most FIGURE 6.4.3c .-Effect of chamber pressure on pulse
applications of the numerical integration approach motor stability.
to stability analysis is that stability can be
measured in terms of the amplitude of the dis-
Perturbation
turbance just strong enough to induce a sustained

amplitude
acoustic instability. Weaker disturbances are X Experiment :

O Smallest unstable
expected to be damped and stronger ones always perturbation
Ap
/PC
lead to instability. However, studies of rating Ox X Largest stable

techniques have shown that it is not always perturbation
possible to correlate ultimate stability with the
measured perturbation amplitude.167 In fact , it is
well known that there are many instances in
which engines have recovered from strong pulses -Theoretical
stability limit
whereas they were unstable to weaker ones . High
speed photographs of transparent chamber tests
Ox
have suggested a probable explanation : the large

O
overpressure following the strong disturbance may
virtually shut off propellant injection and by the 10 20 30 40
time sufficient new propellant enters the chamber
Total flow rate , lb/sec .
the disturbance has been damped, so that what
ensues is substantially a re-start of the engine. FIGURE 6.4.3d .-Effect of total flow rate on pulse motor
One numerical integration stability program 135 stability.
has been extended to consider the effects of
chamber overpressure on the supply of unburned annular zone of interest are applicable only to
propellant to the zone being analyzed . Sufficient toroidal chambers, although they are commonly
experience with this model has not yet been applied to cylindrical chambers . The representa-
obtained to determine its success or failure . tion of wave shape leaves much to be desired , and
Most numerical stability analyses are limited to the predicted stability limits often differ appre-
testing the stability of tangential or, for rec- ciably in magnitude from those observed in hot
tangular combustion chambers , transverse acous- firings.
tic modes. Strictly speaking, those based on an On the positive side, the numerical integration
models have been used rather successfully to 6.5.1.1 Process selection . - Certain simplifying
predict trends of sensitivity to instability with assumptions were made in developing this
changing design and operational conditions . Since criterion so as to allow the designer, developer or
it is not presently possible to rely with confidence analyst to focus attention on the individual
on the absolute values of predicted stability processes that influence the stability of an engine .
limits , it is recommended that their application be In keeping with this objective , additional sim-
limited to predicting stability relative to rocket plifying assumptions are made in applying the
engines that have been experimentally tested for criterion to a specific rocket engine . The initial
stability. When employed in this manner and with step in such applications is identification of the
careful interpretation these models offer useful processes which control combustion gas flow rates.
design guidance. The major contribution to the outflow term ,
[ (m /m) Nilout is readily assessed for con-
ventional engines . It is the response factor of the
6.5 HIGH FREQUENCY: RESPONSE FACTOR
exhaust nozzle process with a weighting factor of
ANALYSIS
unity . Ideally, the response factor obtained from
As discussed in Sect . 4.4.1 the response factor a three-dimensional analysis of the nozzle flow
approach is intended to aid the engineer in process should be used (Sect . 3.6) . In practice , the
evaluating the possible effects on stability of response factor of 1/y derived for constant-
various design parameter or operating condition temperature flow in a simple resistive nozzle
changes. Since the governing mathen tical rela- (Sect. 4.4.1 ) is usually adequate for an initial
tions are discussed in some detail in Chapter 4 , assumption. This value is less than the optimum
only the results of the analytical developments are value of (y + 1 ) /2y derived from a one-dimen-
repeated here. Instead, the emphasis is on the use sional analysis and , thereby, tends to compensate
of this approach in the solution of practical engine for reductions obtained from three-dimensional
stability problems. Experimental data are used to considerations . Experimental or analytical evi-
illustrate the application techniques as well as to dence , however, may dictate additional com-
demonstrate the validity of the approach . pensation to obtain quantitative agreement
between theory and experiment .
6.5.1 Heidmann-Feiler Approach * Assessing the inflow term , [ ( m;/ m ) N; ]in is
more difficult . The processes which control the
The stability criterion obtained from the production or generation of combustion gases and
response factor model based on mass flow rates the fraction of the total mass flow rate associated
(Sect. 4.4.1 ) ist with each process must be established . One of two
generalizations is usually adequate to represent
N (6.5.1-1) most bipropellant rocket combustors . The first is
[Σ ] in < [ Σ ]out
that all the mass release of combustion gases is
Basically, this states that a system will be controlled by a process associated with one of the
stable when the sum of the contributions of the propellants. The second is that the processes
processes controlling the input of combustion associated with both propellants act independ-
gases is less than the sum of those controlling ently in the production of combustion gases. The
the outflow. The contribution of a process is decision as to which of these two extremes best
measured by a weighted response factor, represents a particular combustor is based on
(m /m)N , where the response factor, N;, is the both intuition and analysis.
in-phase or real part of the fractional perturbation Control of the total mass release by one pro-
in mass flow rate with respect to the pressure pellant characterizes many oxygen-hydrocarbon
perturbation . combustors where the oxygen atomizes and
vaporizes rapidly and the hydrocarbon vaporizes
and burns in a steady flow of the oxygen vapor.
* C. E. Feiler and M. F. Heidmann, Authors. This behavior may also apply to other propellant
† See Sect. 4.4.1.2 for Nomenclature . combinations. The concept and method of
establishing its applicability are developed in the 6.5.1.2 Hydrogen-oxygen combustors. -The most
steady-state combustion theory ( Chapter 2 ) and extensive application of the response factor model
are also applicable to the dynamic system. The to an actual engine system has been with the
additional requirement, that the rapidly prepared gaseous hydrogen-liquid oxygen propellant com-
propellants arrive at the combustion zone as a bination. A systematic study of this combination
steady flow, however, is not established by steady- for several injector and operating parameters has
state theory. Process dynamics must be examined been performed in a 20K thrust engine.716,719
for this requirement. In general, rapid preparation The experimental technique consisted of de-
is associated with a small time to atomize and creasing the hydrogen injection temperature until
vaporize and flow rate perturbations are negligible instability was observed . The stability limit of the
at normal resonant frequencies (w is small ) . system was prescribed by the operating conditions
The exception usually involves the injection including the hydrogen injection temperature at
dynamics. Even though preparation is rapid, the this transition point . A detailed account of the
injected flow rate may respond at normal resonant application of the response factor model to these
frequencies and cause flow rate perturbations of experiments is found in Refs . 259 and 260. The
the prepared propellant. However, when steady stability criterion is expressed for gaseous
flow can be justified the stability criterion for a hydrogen-liquid oxygen as
combustion process controlled by one propellant MH2
mox 1
is simply given by 0.55 + NH₂ < = 0.833 (6.5.1–4)
m m γ
NOX.F≤Nn (6.5.1-2)
In this equation the nozzle response factor is taken
Processes associated with both propellants
affect mass release of combustion gases for many
combustors. Dual propellant control occurs when Hydrogen orifice
area ,AH₂ in2 (L/A)eff , in
the preparation of both propellants proceeds
together and therefore have similar characteristic 4.62 0.0677
1.41 0.1268
times . Again, steady-state theory can be used for
Response
0.77 0.1977
the evaluation. Dual control also occurs when
factor
injection dynamics cause flow rate perturbations

,NH₂
12
T
in the prepared propellant as previously dis-

Mixture ratio , O/F
cussed . This latter condition typifies gaseous
10 6.5
T
hydrogen-liquid oxygen combustors under proper

conditions . Gaseous injection systems can respond -5.5
∞
to acoustic mode frequencies and thus affect the -4.5

mass release of combustion gases. Rigorous
6
methods of establishing the fraction of total mass

flow rate associated with each propellant in these
-- --
4 6.5
--
dual control systems remain to be developed. It

-
--
5.5
has been satisfactory in analyzing hydrogen-
2 4.5
oxygen combustors to assume both propellants 6.5
act independently and affect the mass release in 5.5
ΟΙ 4.51
proportion to their steady-state flow rates. This is
.2 .4 .6.81 2 4 6 8
an adequate initial assumption for any dual Hydrogen density.PHH ,lb mass/ft³
control combustion process but subject to modi- ₂
fication on the basis of experimental evidence . For
645 322 145 871 66 50
the case of independent action of both propellants 104 78
the stability criterion becomes Hydrogen temperature (at 300 psi) ,TH₂ °R
mox
Nox + NF≤N ( 6.5.1-3 ) FIGURE 6.5.1a.- Variation of response factor with hy-
m m drogen density.
as 1/7, as discussed previously. The oxygen Figure 6.5.1a shows the variation of the hy-
response factor is taken as 0.55, the maximum drogen response factor with hydrogen density or
value found by linear analysis for oxygen vaporiza- temperature for three values of hydrogen orifice
tion ( see Fig. 4.4.1b ) . This choice is an engineering area АH2, and three values of mixture ratio
estimate rather than an analytical evaluation. (O/F) . The curves illustrate the increase of the
With these two response factors and the mixture response factor as temperature is decreased
ratio prescribed , Eq . ( 6.5.1-4 ) defines the sta- (density increased) . This result is in accord with
bility of the engine in terms of the hydrogen the experimental observations on the effect of
response factor . For a mixture ratio of 5.5 the temperature. The effect is one of increased
value of NH,2 at the stability limit is 2.39. coupling between the hydrogen flows and chamber
The hydrogen response function for the type of pressure perturbations as the density is increased.
injector element used in the experiments of Ref. At the stability limit , the density corresponding
719 can be calculated using Eq . (4.4.1-7a ) and to the value of NH₂ can be read from each curve.
(4.4.1-7b) of Section 4.4.1.2 . The calculation is Figure 6.5.1b shows predicted stability limits in
straightforward, except that the combustion time. terms of the hydrogen density at the transition
lag 7 must be estimated . For the comparison point* as a function of O/ F and hydrogen orifice
between theory and experiment under discussion area Ан2. Also shown are the corresponding
here , an initial 7ь
Tb value was estimated from the experimental data. It can be seen that the trends ,
injection velocity and the standoff distance of the both with O/F and orifice area, are reasonably
flame. This value was then adjusted to produce the
best fit with the experimental data, giving a final * This transition point to resonant combustion is dis-
time lag value between 0.08 and 0.09 millisec . cussed in the hydrogen ramping techniques, Sect. 10.
Experimental
calculated Hydrogen annulus
orifice area , (L/A )eff , Dome volume , entrance area ,
AH₂,in2 in-i v, in 3 A₁,in2
0.77 0.1977 46 9.12
1.41 0.1268 46 9.12
46 9.12
mass
O ----- 4.62 0.0677

/t³
lb
Open symbols denote transition

f
Solid symbols denote stable operation

6
Hydrogen
H2
density
,
2
-
.8 Unstable
.6
.4
Stable
23.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5

Mixture ratio , O/F
FIGURE 6.5.1b. - Comparison of experimental and calculated hydrogen -density stability boundaries .
well predicted by the analysis. The stability limit. .8
transition
Hydrogen
O/F - 5.5 Unstable
was not obtained for the smallest orifice since it
fbt³sity
Pc - 300 psi
occurred at a temperature below that available in .6
den
l,/
the experimental facility. Similarly, the analysis Stable
indicated a temperature or density exceeding
that which was possible. Theory
In another set of experiments, nozzle area, .2
weight flow rate, and chamber pressure were Nozzle area
varied in pairs while holding the remaining 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
parameters constant.716 The injector parameters
Total flow rate lb/sec
were those shown in Table 6.5.1 . Figures 6.5.1c ,
d, and e compare the results of these experiments FIGURE 6.5.1c .-Effect of flow rate on hydrogen transition
with the analytical results at an O/F of 5.5 . The density at constant chamber pressure.
agreement found is quite good.
transition
Hydrogen
.8
TABLE 6.5.1 .-INJECTOR PARAMETERS O/F - 5.5 Unstable
AC /AT - 1.9
density
300 .6
T
Chamber pressure, Pc, lbf/in.² .
l, tb
f3
/
Total flow rate, m , lbm/sec ... 65
Stable
Frequency, w, rad/sec .. 21 350
T
Oxidant-fuel ratio, O/F . 5.5
*4.62 Theory
Hydrogen orifice area, Âн2, in.² .
N
T
Dome volume, V , in.³ . 46.0
O
Chamber pressure
Hydrogen annulus length-to-area ratio,
(L/A)eff, in. -¹ . *0.0677
Hydrogen annulus area, A₁ , in.2 . *9.12 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Time delay constant for burning, 7ь, sec.. 0.00009 Total flow rate , lb/sec
Hydrogen density, p , lb/ft³. 0.1 to 4.04
645 to 50 FIGURE 6.5.1d .- Effect of flow rate on hydrogen transition
Temperature , T, °R .
density at constant contraction ratio.
transition
Hydrogen
* At 20 atm . 1.0
O/F -5.5
l, bt³ ity
It has been found experimentally that the

∞
dens
f/
stability limit can be moved to lower hydrogen m

Unstable lb/sec
6
temperatures by increasing the oxygen injection

diameter. It would be expected that the oxygen 65.0
Theory 61.5
57.0
4
drop size and therefore the vaporization time Tv

increases with hole diameter. From Fig. 4.4.1b Nozzle area Stable
the value of the oxygen response factor should .20
0 200 300 400 500 600
decrease , since the smallest diameter was asso- Chamber pressure , psi
ciated with the peak value of the response factor.
FIGURE 6.5.1e .-Effect of chamber pressure on hydrogen
Correspondingly, according to Eq . ( 6.5.1-3 ) , the
transition density .
hydrogen response factor at the limit will increase,
leading to the prediction of a larger transition
density (lower temperature ) . The predicted trend for the purpose of designing a stable system or
of the stability limit with increasing oxygen hole analyzing an existing system. In application,
diameter is thus qualitatively correct. attention is focused on the response factors of the
This application of the response factor model to processes comprising the system and on those
the gaseous hydrogen-liquid oxygen system illus- variables that affect the response factors . An
trates how it is used and its utility as a diagnostic important key to the success of any application
tool . Similar procedures are followed in its of the model lies in the selection of the processes
application to other combustion systems whether that enter into Eq . (6.5.1-1 ) ; of somewhat less
USE OF ANALYTICAL MODELS IN DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT $6.5 297
importance will be the exact dynamic modelling of Eq . (6.5.2-1 ) can be reduced to readily meas-
the processes. As found for the hydrogen-oxygen urable engineering terms with the help of two
system, certain approximations and assumptions additional assumptions : ( 1 ) the ratio of flame
will enter into the modelling of the processes . radius to droplet radius is independent of droplet
These, however, will not impair the usefulness of size ; and ( 2 ) the initial spray drop size dis-
the result , which is the acquisition of physical tribution can be approximated by the empirical
insight into the mechanisms of instability and of relation established by Ingebo375 with the relative
the parameters of importance . velocity between liquid and gas set equal to zero .
Then, using the following relations ,
6.5.2 Dykema Analysis *
(k - 1 )2
12 = (r - rL ) ² = d30²
The following nomenclature pertains to Sect . 4
6.5.2 (see also Sect . 4.4.1.3 ) :
A, Patm
Stability constant defined in Eq . ( 6.5.2–2 ) DF = DFatm
d20 Volume-number mean droplet diameter Pc
Ka Proportionality constant between d30 d30 = Ka√di/Vi
and √d;/vi
m¡ = PLA¡ V¡i
Subscript :
atm Conditions the expression for N, can be written

.
at standard atmospheric
pressure fpc
N₁ = A¸Ñ¡d ;³ (6.5.2-2)
mi
In Sect . 4.4.1.3 , an approximate response factor
where
for unsteady droplet vaporization was given by 2
PL (k - 1 )2
As == Kd²
Q' = 6A; K(k - 1 ) ();144 DFatmPatm
hRYFL
Pe Ac RT
This engineering approach to high frequency
Many of the quantities in this expression are very combustion instability thus involves the use of
difficult to determine within factors of two or Eq. ( 6.5.2-2 ) , with an empirically-determined
three in accuracy. † Generally, these quantities constant, As, in conjunction with the combustion
are established for a given engine by other impor- gain curve of Fig . 4.4.1f.
tant design considerations and are, therefore , The general objective in the use of N, is to
considered constant . For these reasons it is usually establish a combustor design such that the com-
sufficient , and advisable, to consider only the bustion gain is minimized in all acoustic modes.
variation of the combustion response factor caused If it is not possible to obtain negative gain for all
by the dimensionless term /Ns. This term is a modes, then damping must be introduced for
function only of the stability correlating parameter those specific modes having positive gain by
N, (see Fig . 4.4.1f) , which is defined as means of baffles or resonators. Large thrust-per-
element injectors are typical of the case where all
fl2
N₁ = 2π (6.5.2-1 ) transverse modes have negative gain. More
2DF
conventional injectors, such as those used on the
It can be shown that 12 /2DF represents the time Titan IIIM Stages I and II engines represent
for diffusion over the distance l in the presence of a cases where the first two transverse modes have
linear concentration gradient . The frequency f is positive gain (unstable without baffles) and are
the reciprocal of the acoustic mode period . Thus, stabilized with baffles designed to introduce
N, is the ratio of a characteristic molecular damping into these two modes .
diffusion time to a characteristic acoustic time. To apply the N, approach the propellant that
controls the stability must be determined . This is
* O . W. Dykema, Author. generally the more poorly atomized , slower
† These problems are also considered in Refs. 667, 669, vaporizing propellant, but this should be deter-
and 670. mined empirically. The controlling propellant can
usually be readily ascertained by observing the obtained from the results of previous analyses.
variation of stability with mixture ratio when all Applicable constants have been estimated for
other parameters are held constant . If, for nearly all production engines in the industry,
example, an increase in mixture ratio causes the ranging from some of the small, 100 pound thrust
instability to shift to a higher mode, the oxidizer attitude-control motors to the F- 1 engine , a
is the controlling propellant , and its flow rate is range of 104 in thrust . Although the reason is not
used in Eq. (6.5.2-2 ) . For several propellant entirely clear, the empirical values of A, do not
systems the controlling propellants appear to be appear to vary a great deal despite the wide
as follows: ranges of parameters in N.. Thus , an initial
estimate of A, can be obtained from
A, = ( 6.0 × 10-³) ( S.G. ) (6.5.2-3)

Propellant combination Controlling
propellant where S.G. is the specific gravity of the con-
trolling propellant . From the empirical data used ,
the standard deviation associated with Eq.
O2/RP- 1 RP-1
N2O4 /Various N₂H₁ blends N204 (6.5.2-3 ) is 20 % .
BH9/N2H4 N2H4
IRFNA/UDMH IRFNA 6.5.3 Design Applications of Modal
Energy Analysis *
The modal energy analysis was developed to

Applying Eq . ( 6.5.2-2 ) to the controlling
facilitate design of new combustion systems using
propellant, the readily measurable engineering
data accumulated from tests of existing systems.
parameters are obtained or calculated . It should
This section will present procedures used for new
be noted that the quantities Ni , di, and mi
designs, and will indicate ways in which the
apply to the active matrix elements only ; that is,
analysis is used in correcting designs found to be
film cooling, baffle tip injection, etc. , are to be
unstable during development . The section con-
excluded . If the orifice sizes vary across the
cludes with a discussion of special cases and
injector face, engineering judgment must be
comments on the validity of the method as
applied in selecting those orifices which inject
applied .
propellant in the region of pressure anti-nodes of
each particular mode.
6.5.3 (see also Sect . 4.4.1.4) :
The remaining problem in using Eq. (6.5.2-2)
is the value of the empirical constant A,. If A; Boundary surface area at location j
instability data are available for the specific engine a Specific acoustic admittance
of interest, careful study of frequency analyses of Ge Combustion response (gain) function
one or more instabilities usually indicates one or Kpi Correction for nonlinear compression at
both of the stability boundaries (at N, 5.6 or location j
30) and/or the maximum gain ( at N, 9 ) . An Kvi Correction for kinetic energy residuals
empirical value of A, can then be determined and at location j
Eq . ( 6.5.2-2) used to determine a stable design . RKG Combustion gain contribution to system
It is important to recognize that since little is divergence rate
known of the magnitude of the gain or the damp- RKL Contribution of losses to system diver-
ing in the coupled combustion/acoustic system it gence rate
is possible that a given mode could be stable even
6.5.3.1 Design procedure.-In Section 4.4.1.4 ,
though the combustion gain is positive, but a
the following expression for the logarithmic
mode should never be unstable if the combustion
growth rate, Rk, was derived :
gain is negative . An example of this approach is
given in Ref. 236.
If no instability data are available, a reasonably
accurate initial estimate of the value of A, can be * C. K. Leeper, Author.
- 10 1 usually establish the chamber cavity size and

Rk= (kklwk
(q + Σ Cik) shape, nozzle , profile, propellants, injection den-
2.303 K, Kykk a i
sity, sound velocity, and gas constant, and the
feed system configuration. The designer then
+ MnjNkj Kpj Kvi selects injection element and pattern designs to
Σ(
Α) achieve the desired (negative ) values of the rate of
2 divergence , Rk , for all anticipated system modes.
2 Vkj
+ Bki Auxiliary damping devices may be added to
Kk A )
(
) permit use of high performance injection elements .
The first step is to determine the frequencies
2
Pkj Pki and shapes (Pk ;' /Pk' distributions ) of the several
+ Gki + Hkj
Îk' (
M)(
P ) HD ]} chamber acoustic modes, using classical solutions503
for simple geometries and lumped parameter
(6.5.3-1)
relaxation techniques713 or experimental micro-
where the coefficient q measures the radiative phone surveys of model chambers473 for more.
heat loss, Cik indicates the energy scatter to other complex cavities. The number, kk, of wavelengths
modes , Nk; expresses the nozzle outflow of ener- in each mode , the chamber volume, the wave-
getic material, B₁ ; is the wall shear coefficient and lengths, lwk, and equivalent mode cross sections ,
Hk; represents the combustion sensitivity to Ak, are then calculated (see Sect . 4.4.1.4 ) . Basic
velocity oscillations. The terms in Gk; include. orientation in wave processes is given in Ref. 495 .
pressure-sensitive combustion response as well as Loss coefficients, G₁j , are then tabulated for the
wall absorption, feed-system damping, and nozzle wall materials and resonance absorbers, and Nki
traveling-wave feedback . Usually it is reasonable for exhaust nozzles. Either Eq. ( 6.5.3-1 ) or (-2 )
to assume is used to calculate the coefficients Gk; from
q = Cik = Bkj = 0 changes in R measured in subscale comparison
and tests with and without the material. Data should
K₁ = K₁ = 1 be selected from tests at wavelengths and local
conditions similar to those of the application .
Then Eq. (6.5.3-1 ) simplifies to
Nozzle coefficients for conventional geometries.
10 1 may be determined by theoretical analysis . More
Rk = MnjNkjKpjKvi
2.303 ΠΕΣ
kk complex geometries may require cold-flow acoustic
)
measurements. The contribution RKL of losses to
the system divergence rate , Rk , for each mode is
+ Gki
G computed by summing the weighted GÂ¡ and Nkj
( )( )
over the boundaries of the system . The wall area
2 is divided into incremental areas, A;, associated
Ge with absorbing units having reasonably constant
+2 ( M ) G
^) [(
properties and Pk ' values. The mode shape
coefficient Kk is computed as the volume average
ki' Pkj
Hkj of (Pkj /Pk') for each mode . Coefficients q, Cik,
(6.5.3-2)
) (P ) H ]}
+ (~~ and B₁ ; are assumed to be zero and Ã, and K, are
considered to be unity. The results are plotted as
where the combustion terms Ge have been
(-RKL) vs. frequency, i.e., one value for each
.
separated from the loss terms ( Gkj ) . Eq . (6.5.3-2)
mode.
is of the form
Inspection of Eq . (6.5.3-2) shows that the
Rk = RKG - RKL
contribution of a loss element to RL for a mode
where RKL and RKG are the contributions to the depends on the square of the local-to-maximum
system divergence rate of the losses and com- pressure amplitude ratio , Pk; '/Pk' . It is thus
bustion gain, respectively. important to locate absorbers in regions where the
Performance and chamber cooling requirements most suspect modes have maximum pressure
excursions. In systems having no preferred mode are added to the - RKL vs. frequency plot and
orientations, perturbations in cavity shape (e.g. , the net Rk values noted . Positive values indicate
a small baffle ) or periodically-spaced absorber statically-unstable modes. Negative values of 1
patches should be introduced to determine db/cycle indicate mildly damped, statically
antinode positions . Shape perturbations can also stable modes. Negative values of 2 and 3 db/cycle
damp potentially destructive traveling waves indicate adequate and excellent static damping,
(e.g., spinning modes) . respectively.
The basic injection element is now selected , The following example illustrates the method .
using available gain ( Ge) vs. frequency data. The chamber consists of a cylinder, capped at
Since element and chamber frequency char- each end with flat plates, and vented by a side
acteristics are virtually independent , it is possible outlet nozzle running the length of the cylinder.
to seek elements whose gain peaks do not coincide (See Fig . 6.5.3a ) . Injection elements are dis-
with the chamber resonant frequencies . Further, tributed on the cylinder interior opposite the
present data suggest that elements symmetrical nozzle . The modal frequencies are approximately
about two axes (planar triplets, pentads, coaxial 1400 , 2000 , 2800 , 3320, 4160 and 4560 for the 1L,
elements) have zero velocity coefficients, Hkj , and IT, 2L, 2T, IR and 3T modes, respectively, for
are , therefore, preferred. the cylinder radius of 0.88 feet , length 2.15 feet
A considerable body of data indicates that and a = 6000 fps . Damping rates - RKL are shown
maximum values of Ge are essentially independent in Fig . 6.5.3a .
of element design features, but that the high Two element types are chosen : type A, with
frequency gain " cutoff" is inversely proportional frequency peaks at 1100 , 2000 and 3600 Hz and
to some power of the thrust -per-element . (A type B, with peaks at 550 and 1000 Hz . Both have
useful approximation for the maximum value of maximum G values of 0.1 (Fig. 6.5.3b) . The
Ge for a uniformly distributed group of injection high-frequency element (type A) is used in the
elements is Ge = ym/Apa, where G, is dimension- zones L/8 to 3L/8 and 5L/8 to 7L/8 and the low
less and y is the ratio of specific heats for the frequency element (type B) in zones 0 to L/8 ,
combustion gases . ) Then stability is assured if the 3L/8 to 5L/8 and 7L/8 to L, as shown in Fig.
element selected has a cutoff frequency lower than 6.5.3b . (The use of type B in the zone at the
that of the fundamental resonance of the chamber. cylinder midpoint is intended to decrease 2L
Unfortunately, such elements generally have low mode gain, although this is theoretically un-
combustion efficiencies, thereby delivering low necessary in this case .) The circumferential
Isp performance.
One approach which improves performance uses
2.15ft
one element , the Ge peaks of which purposely
overlap the lowest two or three mode frequencies,
and a second element with no frequency overlap 88ft
but with the same thrust-per-element as the first Injector Nozzle
element . The first (high performance ) element is
Section
distributed over all portions of the injector where IL
Pki /Pk' is below some value (say, 0.8) for all
Eo
modes k having frequency overlap. The remainder

of the injector is populated with the second
On
element . Mass distribution of propellant is held

IR
uniform over the injector . 9
The degree of stability predicted is now deter-
mined by calculating the gain contributions RKG
to the system divergence rate, Rk, using Eq. 2 3
(6.5.3-2 ) , the element Ge yalues, the Pkj' /Îk' Frequency, kHz
distributions, driving -to-driven area ratios Aj/Ak ,
FIGURE 6.5.3a .-Damping rates for several modes ; cylin-
and mode shape coefficients, Kk. The R&G points drical chamber with full length side nozzle .
distribution can be similarly zoned to avoid high 3

frequency elements in the 2T antinode zone. The
combustion amplification RG is shown in the
lower graph of Fig . 6.5.3b . 2
The completed divergence rate vs. frequency
2L
Lo
plot (Fig. 6.5.3c ) shows acceptable decay rates at
K0--
50-
all frequencies but 2000 Hz ( 1T) . Addition of
tuned resonator absorbers in the 1T antinode
Eo
zones would correct this condition. Use of reso-
nators throughout the chamber would probably
permit use of higher cutoff frequency elements . 2 3 4
This can be checked by using calculated values of Frequency , kHz
the real part of admittance of the resonators to
determine G values for use in Eq . (6.5.3-2 ) where FIGURE 6.5.3c .-Net damping rate for simple combustion
G = pace (a) and a is the specific acoustic system of Fig. 6.5.3a.
admittance.
Finally, dynamic stability of the design is modes, using G values measured under nonlinear
checked by recomputing RG for the more sensitive oscillatory conditions for the subject elements as
fired in subscale chambers . Limited data indicate
that nonlinear G values are 2 to 4 times linear
values. Using this ratio, it can be seen that the
example would be dynamically stable in all
Element
modes except the IT mode.

gain
-Element,type B -Element ,type A Positive or small negative values for Rk as

-G
determined from developmental test records

(preferably tape) signal the need for additional
corrective measures . From the observed frequency ,
the mode pressure distribution Kk, and Ak values
can be approximated . Eq. (6.5.3-2) is then used
to assess the ARK to be realized by element sub-
n stitutions, pattern changes, and added absorber
materials or devices.
2 3 5
f , kHz 6.5.3.2 Special considerations.-Note that the
RKG for a combination of injection elements is
the result of a weighted summation, and that an
average value for G for the elements cannot be
L=2.15 ft used . Mode shapes are distorted by the mean flow
in high Mach number chambers.642 Compliant
)/d(ycle
BABAB
walls and nozzles having net compliance or
cRG b
inertance in the admittance cause slight mode

IT
9 shape and frequency shifts. Mechanical capaci-
tance (in walls parallel to the oscillation) reduces
the speed of sound, and, therefore, the frequency .
L0-
Combustion zones can also shift frequency by

o-.
2L IR 3T
‫ܩܝ‬ introducing an apparent length change in the
2 3 5 system. The amount of this effect can be cal-
f, kHz
culated by observing actual vs. theoretical wave-
FIGURE 6.5.3b. -Element gain coefficient and combustion length in subscale chambers .
amplification. Coupling, (Cik) and radiation (q ) terms can be
omitted from design calculations and treated as prediction equations given in Sect. 4.4.2.3 and
additional margins of safety, since each adds argue that its value expresses the effect of varying
damping. Nonlinear compression effects, Kp, alter the associated independent variable . In addition ,
the magnitude but not the sign of Rk . In general, although the prediction equations are based on a
special terms in Eq . ( 6.5.3-1 ) are included to wide range of engines , they are not applicable to
remind the experimentalist to eliminate their engines with design innovations not represented in
effect in apparatus used to measure coefficients . the data . Under these circumstances , how can an
The design should consider all terms in unusual engine designer make use of the appropriate
cases . stability equation in designing an engine?
Typical data for actual hardware are given in There are three legitimate uses of the prediction
Ref. 436. Values used in the example are for equations which do not violate the caveat implied
illustration only. Injector element data, Gkj , by the above statements, and nonetheless should
must generally be measured , as needed , in sub- be helpful in saving both time and funds. The
scale apparatus (see Sect. 7.4 ) . Nozzle data are designer can use the equations as a checking
readily calculated from admittance analyses. device , to verify whether the application of his
Acoustic linear data are similarly converted. ideas is likely to produce a stable engine ; he can
Measurement of Rk values requires high frequency use them as a standard against which proposed
surface pressure instrumentation and Fourier design changes can be evaluated ; and the program
transform or graphic reduction techniques . manager can use the equations to assist in making
Although linear data are reasonably reliable, the final decision on whether or not the engine
nonlinear data exhibit considerable variation. should be built and tested . In no case should it be
For a small data sample , agreement between inferred that a prediction equation can substitute
frequencies of peak G values and those obtained for the application of engineering and physical
from n correlations for injection elements principles to rocket engine design, nor should
(Sect. 6.3.3 ) is excellent. decisions involving construction and testing be
based solely on the predicted stability obtained
6.6 HIGH FREQUENCY: SIMILARITY RULES * from an instability regression equation .
In using the prediction equation as a checking
6.6.1 Stability Prediction Equations in device, the designer develops his ideas to the
Decision Making
point where he can supply a value for each of the
This section contains a discussion of empirically- independent parameters or variables called for by
derived similarity rules or stability prediction the appropriate stability equation (given in Sect.
4.4.2 ) . Substitution of these values into the
equations obtained by means of a statistical
analysis of engine test data. The background of equation yields a predicted value, the index of
this discussion is presented in Sect. 4.4.2 , and instability, yp. If the analogy is not carried too far
Ref. 689. (values of y, occasionally will be less than zero or
greater than 1 ) , it is possible to regard the index
6.6 (see also Sect . 4.4.2.3 ) : of instability as an estimate of the probability
that the engine , if built and tested as represented
Dy Generalized distance between stable and
by the values chosen for the independent vari-
unstable statistical distributions
ables , will be unstable. This index provides the
ysS Mean of y -distribution, stable tests designer with an early check on whether the
yu Mean of yp-distribution , unstable tests direction of his thinking is inherently sound from
Ꮓ Variable in statistical analysis indicating
Z
a stability point of view. It should cause him to

whether a test was pulsed ( z = 1 if
reevaluate his concepts if he gets an " early
pulsed ; z = 0 if not pulsed ) warning" of the likelihood of instability in the
It must be emphasized that it can be grossly form of an unacceptably large value of yp

misleading to isolate a given coefficient from the In using the prediction equation as a standard
for evaluation of proposed design changes , the
* I. Miller, G. H. Harris, and E. K. Bastress, Authors. designer recalculates y, to conform to each
change in design and reacts to the trend in the

resulting values. A progression of design changes
leading to reduced values of y, ( all other things-
such as cost , efficiency, etc. -being equal) is the Stable tests Unstable tests
direction in which he should wish to proceed .
y)f(p
Note that the use of the equation is not recom-
mended for direct mathematical "optimization"
Set Se
of stability. It usually is not possible to change the
value of one design parameter without also being
required to alter other parameters in compensa-
ys Yu
tion . Some of these other parameters may not
Ур
even appear in the equation . Thus , it is necessary
for the designer continually to "use his best
FIGURE 6.6.1a.- Distributions of predicted stability index.
judgment," checking stability retrospectively by
means of the equation each step of the way.
consider the distributions of the y, values for the
One of the frustrating consequences of the use
stable and the unstable tests separately, as
of equations such as the stability prediction
indicated in Fig. 6.6.1a. The mean of the dis-
equations involves the interpretation of the
tribution of stable tests will be denoted by ỹs,
resulting number, yp. According to our heuristic
and the mean of the distribution of unstable tests
interpretation , large values of y, are less desirable
than small values because they reflect a higher will be denoted by yu . The symbol S, denotes the
standard error of estimate associated with the
probability that the resulting engine will be
prediction equation. The "generalized distance"
unstable. But what interpretation should be
between these two distributions ,
placed on a result such as y, -0.35 ? Is it "good"
or is it "bad"? The answer to this question comes yu -ys
Dy =
best from experience. After repeated application
Se
of a prediction equation to a given class of engines ,
the line between "acceptable" and "unacceptable " describes the degree of discrimination between
values of y, will begin to emerge . A discussion of stable and unstable tests achieved by the equation.
how the past experience represented by this study It can be interpreted as the number of standard
can be brought to bear in determining the line deviations separating the distributions of the
between acceptable and unacceptable values of stable and the unstable tests, and provides a
yp is given in the following paragraphs . It should figure-of-merit for evaluating the goodness of the
not be inferred from the ensuing discussion , prediction equation.
however, that there really exists a sharp dividing To examine these distributions in greater detail,
line. they are plotted on a probability scale . On this
Ideally, a perfect stability-prediction equation scale, the cumulative distribution is a straight line
should produce the predicted value y = 0 for each for normally-distributed data, and the slope of
stable test and the value y, 1 for each unstable the line provides a measure of the standard
test . In this event , it is said that the equation deviation. Such graphs are shown in Fig. 6.6.1b
.
produces "complete separation" of the stable and and 6.6.1c for the general non-pulsed equation
unstable tests. More realistically, a prediction and the general pulsed equation, respectively.
equation will produce values of y, that are some- Notice that the data points do not lie in a straight
what scattered ; hopefully, however, the y -values line , indicating departures from the normal
for stable tests will cluster about some small distribution. However, the trends are nearly
value, the yp-values for unstable tests will cluster parallel, indicating approximately equal standard
about some large value, and the distance between deviations. The parallel lines shown on the graphs
these two "cluster points" will be large relative to represent the best-fitting normal distributions
the scatter. with equal standard deviations. The lines pass
To put these ideas into more precise form, through the points (y , 50% ) and (y + S., 84% )
99.99 where S. is the appropriate pooled standard
Probability
predicted
percent
)Probability
o Stable tests deviation.
99.9
value
predicted
than
(iexceeds
less
Unstable tests
t)(inhat
the
percent
99.8
,"is
Fig. 6.6.1d shows the two parallel lines from the
y
value
99.5
tnhat
y,the
99 non-pulsed data of Fig. 6.6.1b . Assuming that the

98 underlying distributions of y,(s) are as represented
10
95 by these lines , we can state, for example that the

Stable Dunstable 90
O
probability is approximately 0.10 that an unstable

O
20 80 test would have yielded an instability index value
30 0 170
40 60 Yp(s) less than 0.36 . Similarly, the probability
50 50 that a stable test would have yielded a predicted
60 40
70 30 value greater than 0.36 is approximately 0.12.
80 20 In other words , if we had decided to set a value of
O
90 0.36 as the cutoff value of y,(s) , thereby rejecting
95 O as potentially unstable all designs having
98 yp(s) > 0.36 and accepting as potentially stable all
99
99.5 designs having y, (s) <0.36 , 90 % of the engines
99.8 O that actually went unstable would not have been
99.9
built. The cost of this decision is characterized by
99.99 the statement that 12 % of the engines that
-35 -15 .05 .25 .45 65 85 1.05 1.25 1.45 1.650
(9) proved to be stable would also not have been
Yp
built.
Similarly, one could establish a decision criterion
FIGURE 6.6.1b.-Cumulative distributions of predicted based upon the pulsed data represented in Fig.
stability index y,() for stable and unstable tests ; general
6.6.1c such that all but 10 % of the unstable tests
nonpulsed group .
would be eliminated . In this case, the cutoff value
of y,(P) is 0.37 . However, this criterion would also
99.99
Probability
)Probability
.05
predicted
)tProbability
exceeds
ypredicted
O Stable tests
predicted
99.9
percent
percent
Probability
exceeds
Unstable test
ypercent
98.8 .OI 99.99

value
value
than
predicted
less
(inhat
value
)t(inhat
tthe
Ур
nhat
percent
the
+99.5
(ithe
is
99
value
than
less
)t(inhat
the
98 Stable Unstable
is
Stable O Unstable 95
90 2 98
20 80
8888
30 12
400 160
50 50
60 40
70 30 50 50
80 120
90
95
ΙΟ
98
99
2
99.5 98
99.8
99.9
L
80
A
.05
V
99.99
-35-15 .05 .25 .45 .65 .85 1.05 1.25
(P) 99.99 1.0°
Yp 0.36 0.65
Predicted stability index y,"(8)
FIGURE 6.6.1c.-Cumulative distributions of predicted
stability index y,(P) for stable and unstable tests ; general FIGURE 6.6.1d . -Interpretation of cumulative distribu-
pulsed group . tions of predicted stability index.
eliminate 54% of the stable tests because of the Comparing this value with those obtained pre-
relatively poor separation of stable and unstable viously, viz , Dy = 1.98 for the non-pulsed tests
tests by the stability prediction equation. and Dy = 0.576 for the pulsed tests, it can be seen
These cutoff values are by no means recom- that there is a very poor separation between the
mended values. They have been chosen for stable and unstable tests . Thus , knowledge of the
illustrative purposes only. The selection of cutoff likelihood of spontaneous instability contributes
values could be based upon the relative costs of very little information about whether or not the
building engines that would later prove to be combustor will recover from a pulse.
unstable and deciding not to build engines that In a further effort to explore the relation
would have been stable. The value of this kind of between the pulsed and non-pulsed tests, a
analysis lies not in that it provides a hard -and-fast regression equation was computed for all available
rule for making the decision to build and test an data (2133 points ) . The dependent variable was
engine (it should not ) , but that it gives otherwise chosen to be appropriate to the nature of each
unavailable insights into the consequences of any test , that is , yp(s) for non-pulsed tests and y, (P)
proposed decision criterion . Moreover, the empiri- for pulsed tests . The independent variables that
cal similarity approach has the potential for appeared to be significant for either of the two
substantially reducing the number of unsatis- data sets were included in the model for the
factory and costly engines constructed and tested , combined set . In addition , an independent
without at the same time causing an unacceptable variable z was included to denote whether or not
number of potentially useful engines not to be the test belonged to the pulsed group . If a test was
constructed. pulsed, z = 1 ; otherwise , z = 0.
The resulting model, including squares and cross
6.6.2 The Role of Pulsing in Stability products of the variables , contained 79 terms.
Determination After the first 32 terms were included in the model ,
R2 0.37 , and the standard error of estimate was
In the preceding discussion, the pulsed and Se = 0.39 . Because of the inhomogeneous nature of
non-pulsed tests were treated separately, and the the dependent variable, the use of such an
empirical instability prediction equations involved equation for instability prediction is not practical.
substantially different sets of independent vari- The coefficient of z was found to bef
ables . This result raises the question of the
relation between the two sets of data. Two 1.232-0.078Le - 0.740 log c − 0.001FO3
investigations were made in this regard :82 (a) -0.463PE1 +0.159 ( Le/De) + 0.029TPVM
The stability of the pulsed tests was predicted on
+0.039 (MPE) 2-0.180 ( log c)²
the basis of the non-pulsed equation and compared
with the experimental results, and (b) the two -0.076 ( log dir) 2−0.003pci log dir
sets of data were combined and an instability
+0.00001 LeViox
prediction equation was determined for the
combined set . indicating that the effect of pulsing depends in a
Using the general instability prediction equation very complicated way on the particular engine
for non-pulsed tests (Table 4.4.2a ) , the value of design , including variables that are not strongly
the instability index y(s) was obtained for each of related to spontaneous instability.
the 1234 pulsed tests . This was the index for
spontaneous instability for the hardware and test 6.6.3 Stability and Efficiency
conditions included in the pulsed-test set . To
The designer of a rocket engine is concerned
determine the relationship between the predicted
with the steady-state performance of the engine as
spontaneous instability and the observed pulsed
well as its stability. In the statistical investigation
.
instability, the distributions of y, (s) for the stable
of Ref. 82 , c * efficiency was used as a measure of
and unstable (pulsed) tests were examined
separately. The generalized distance between the
two distributions was calculated to be Dy = 0.218 . The quantities are defined in Sect . 4.4.2.3 .
steady-state performance, and its relation to Another way to compare performance and
stability was studied in three ways : ( a) regression stability is to develop a regression equation
equations for c* efficiency were developed using relating c* efficiency to the predicted value of the
the same independent variables as the corre- instability index. This procedure was followed
sponding instability prediction equations , (b) separately for non-pulsed and pulsed tests . For
the strength of the relationship between c* the non-pulsed tests, a linear regression equation
efficiency and the observed value of the instability was found to relate c* efficiency ( CSE) to the
parameter was examined, and ( c ) the extent to instability index Ур
y,(s) :
which the c* efficiency could be predicted from a
( CSE) p = 0.879 + 0.050yp(s)
knowledge of the predicted value of the insta-
bility index was examined. The relationship is a very weak one, the coefficient
The prediction equations for c * efficiency use of multiple correlation being only R² = 0.043 .
essentially the same terms as those in the corre- However, a test of the null hypothesis that the
sponding prediction equations for stability . The true coefficient of y,(s) equals zero shows that it
statistics associated with the pulsed and non- cannot be rejected at the 0.001 level of significance .
pulsed data sets are compared in the following In other words, the relationship , however weak,
table : nonetheless is statistically significant .
For the pulsed tests , the resulting regression
equation is
c* efficiency Stability
(CSE) p = 0.903 + 0.057yp(P)
R2 Se R2 Se Again, the relationship is very weak ; R2 = 0.035 .

It is interesting to note that the coefficient of the
instability index in each equation is very nearly
Non-pulsed tests 0.588 0.052 0.592 0.278 the same .
Pulsed tests 0.255 0.065 0.259 0.434
From the statistical studies of c* efficiency and
stability, it can be concluded that in the process of
selecting design parameter values to minimize the
Thus, the predictive power of the c* regression
possibility of instability, the designer is not
equations is seen to be about as good as that of the
necessarily paying a serious price in terms of
equations representing stability.
reduced steady-state performance .
The distributions of c* efficiency values were
examined separately for stable and unstable, pulsed
and non-pulsed tests . A comparison of the means 6.7 USE OF COMBINATIONS OF MODELS†
and standard deviations of the four groups is
From the discussion in the preceding sections
shown in the following table :
it should be clear that there exists no compre-
hensive theoretical approach that is able to treat
all aspects of the problem of liquid rocket com-
Non-pulsed Tests Pulsed Tests
bustion instability. Low frequency oscillations
must be considered separately from high frequency
Stable Unstable Stable Unstable acoustic modes . Each analytical approach to high
frequency instability emphasizes certain features
of the phenomenon and omits others. Thus , a
Mean 0.90 0.91 0.91 0.95
Standard general stability analysis must involve more than a
deviation 0.08 0.07 0.10 0.06 single approach or analytical model. To see how
the several models may be used in combination ,
it is helpful to review the advantages and limita-
It can be concluded from these results that the tions of each .
distribution of values of c * efficiency is essentially
the same for both stable and unstable tests . † R. J. Priem and F. H. Reardon, Authors.
w/p'
P
Id
b
q
Am cy
B pl uen
it eq
ud
e
Fr
W
FIGURE 6.7. -Stability map for typical liquid propellant rocket engine.
The sensitive time lag theory circumvents the Empirical correlation equations are based
problems inherent in the description of unsteady directly on experimental results and employ
combustion by use of a simplified two-parameter engine design parameters . Because of their
response function. However, the gas dynamic flow statistical nature and their inability to improve
field is treated rigorously, so that the effects of the understanding of the phenomena involved in
exhaust nozzle and of three-dimensional wave combustion instability, the best use of these
motion can be properly taken into account . equations is in checking the theoretical analyses
The response factor approach involves a much using the other approaches.
simplified treatment of the flow field , concen- The complementary nature of the several
trating on the combustion mechanisms that theoretical approaches can be illustrated with Fig.
contribute to the oscillations. The nozzle response 6.7 , which is a three-dimensional stability map
factor is usually taken to have the constant value for a typical liquid rocket engine. The vertical
of 1/7. The various gain and loss mechanisms are axis represents the combustion response, that is,
assumed to act independently. the magnitude of the burning rate oscillation
The numerical integration method makes it divided by the pressure oscillation amplitude.
possible to extend the consideration of specific The other axes represent the frequency and
combustion mechanisms to include nonlinear amplitude level of the oscillation .
combustion response functions , non-sinusoidal The curve s-t-u-v represents a typical response
waves, and the effects of finite disturbances. curve for small perturbations . Such a curve can be
However, the analysis is usually restricted to one obtained by use of the linearized response factor
space dimension with a simplified flow field having approach . The curve m-n-p-q-r indicates the
an effective energy loss factor of 1/y. combustion response required for continuing
oscillations, for two acoustic modes, and may be numerical integration method . Fig . 6.7 illustrates
obtained from the sensitive time lag theory . The the case in which the combustion response factor
most sensitive frequencies are those corresponding increases with amplitude , so that at a certain
to the points n and q. The margins of stability for amplitude A the response curve b-c-d-e crosses
these two modes are indicated by the vertical the stability limit curve f-g-h , resulting in am-
distances n-t, q-u . If the response curve s-t-u-v plification of the oscillations . Hence, nonlinear
(available oscillatory energy ) crosses the stability triggering of instability is possible for this case.
limit curve m-n-p - q-r ( required oscillatory energy) The point P, where the two surfaces intersect in a
spontaneous instability is expected . That is, the single point, indicates the threshold condition for
stability margin of one or more modes becomes triggering by a finite disturbance ( amplitude B ) .
negative. It can be seen from Fig . 6.7 that the Actually, the several theoretical models have
simple criterion that the combustion response not been combined in the manner discussed above ;
factor equals 1/7 at the stability limit is only a each is formulated to determine the overall
rough approximation and can be improved con- stability of the engine. However, it should be
siderably by use of the sensitive time lag theory. clear that a thorough analysis of stability cannot
From another point of view, it is clear that ability be restricted to a single approach. In lieu of
to investigate specific combustion mechanisms , combining the models , each can be used separately
inherent with the response factor approach, in the area where it is most appropriate . For
permits a greater understanding of the instability example , the sensitive time lag theory can be
phenomenon than is possible with the sensitive used to investigate the effects of changes in the
time lag formulation of the combustion response. geometry of the combustion chamber and exhaust
The influence of wave amplitude and the nozzle. The linear response factor approach can be
possibility of nonlinear triggering must also be used to evaluate the importance of particular
taken into account in a comprehensive stability combustion mechanisms. Then the numerical
analysis . Extension of the sensitive time lag integration method can be used to determine
theory to include finite amplitude , non-sinusoidal the possibility of nonlinear triggering, and the
waves (Sect. 4.2.4 ) has shown that, for pressure- influence of wave shape. The empirical correlation
sensitive combustion processes, the U- shaped equations provide a general check on the theoretical
stability limit curves become broader with stability analysis. Finally, the importance of low
increasing amplitude, but are not shifted in the frequency oscillations or the interaction of feed
vertical direction. Thus, a stability limit surface system dynamics with wave motion in the com-
(f-g-h-r-q-p-n-m) , representing the combustion bustion chamber should also be studied . Although
response required for continuing oscillations , can a comprehensive theoretical stability model,
be visualized in the response-amplitude-frequency covering all of these aspects of the problem, would
space . Correspondingly, the available combustion certainly be advantageous, it is quite possible to
response for a given mechanism can be extended perform a thoroughgoing stability analysis by
into the finite amplitude domain by means of the combining the existing models .
CHAPTER 7
Design Factors Affecting Excitation
7.1 INTRODUCTION * In the next section the discussion turns to the

effect of propellants on stability. The point is
made that whereas effects are extremely significant
This chapter, together with Chapter 8 , is
in some instances, that in other cases propellant
primarily concerned with the phenomena of
properties are not important . Viewing the problems
instability as observed in the rocket hardware
connected with the choice of propellant , the
rather than with analysis as in the previous
relation of chemical properties to such char-
chapters . Heavy reliance is placed on experimental
acteristics as stream separation , popping and
evidence , when available, to show trends which are
spiking incidences , preferred frequencies, etc. ,
expressed as far as possible in quantitative terms.
are considered . Possible chemical kinetic in-
Current knowledge of the effects of mean flow
fluences are also discussed and additives , in-
conditions, propellant combinations, injector de-
cluding powdered metals and gelling agents , are
sign and feed system coupling is outlined . The
covered in this section . It is pointed out that
point of view is specifically one of "how oscillatory
chemical characteristics appear to enter primarily
operation may be excited in liquid propellant
in determining whether the fuel and oxidizer are
rockets. " This and the following chapter, more
hypergolic or if the fuel can act as a mono-
than any other chapters in this reference book, are
propellant.
oriented to the needs of the designer .
Section 7.4 covers the favorite design approach
The first section of this chapter considers the
to achieving a stable rocket engine , i.e. , the
overall combustion design conditions . A common
appropriate choice of injector pattern. The
problem with the individual parameters discussed similarities that exist between the various in-
(chamber pressure , contraction ratio, injection
.
jector designs and the droplet sprays and asso-
density, axial and transverse energy release and
ciated combustion each injector type produces
boundary effects ) is the interrelationships that
are pointed out in this section. The comparison
exist within the rocket combustion chamber .
yardstick is the droplet size and the distribution
Several of the authors discuss this problem with
of the droplets within the chamber. The reader
relation to the parameter they are treating. That is encouraged to evaluate the similarities between
no clean separation is possible with regard to the
injector designs that look, at first glance , quite
effect of each parameter on stability, only adds to
dissimilar physically. However, as with the other
the complexity of finding solutions to the various
sections , contradictions are also present . Thus ,
types of instability problems . Even so , the history
the designer, to be more completely prepared for
based upon a number of hardware designs and the
the instability potential that exists in his applica-
influence of parametric variations does point the
tion, should keep in mind this injector/stability
way to at least limited solutions . Although the
history. Those references that best conform to his
reader may be left with the impression that there
proposed design and operational environment.
is an exception to every design rule , the attempt should also be utilized and trends of other
here, wherever possible , is to point out the "firm" operating parameters should be taken into account
versus the "spongy" ground .
(as much as possible) in making extrapolations .
Although the bulk of this chapter is concerned
* D. T. Harrje, Author. with events as they take place within the com-
309
bustion chamber, the coupling with the feed introduced , which limit the analytical models.
system has not been overlooked . In Sect. 7.5 Empirical investigations are often hampered by
aspects of the feed system coupling that may have the statistical nature of the data required and
been buried within the analytical treatments of hence the associated cost to produce a repre-
previous chapters are resurrected for further dis- sentative result . It is the intent herein to indicate
cussion . Such practical considerations as the role the problems associated with the accumulation.
of injector impedance, the effect of gases trapped of empirical data and explain why the effects of
in the injector manifold ( or created by the such parameters as chamber pressure have not
presence of cavitating venturis) , mechanical been thoroughly established .
vibration , and the effect of imposed oscillations Perhaps the biggest problem with an empirical
on the system are discussed in this section. Again study to determine the effect of chamber pressure
the emphasis is on the design problems ; however, on instability is the high cost associated with
the use of the related analytical background changing only the chamber pressure . One approach
material, covered in Chapters 3 through 6 , is consists of varying only the total flow thereby
encouraged. maintaining the same thrust chamber hardware.
However, this results in revised injection char-
acteristics (new injection velocities , different jet
7.2 OVERALL COMBUSTION DESIGN
CONDITIONS and droplet breakup , etc. ) which can be expected
to alter the combustion process . Therefore , a
The following nomenclature pertains to Sect . 7.2 : change in chamber pressure by varying the total
propellant flow has introduced a "sympathetic "
ER Real part of nozzle admittance coefficient
independent variable . The sympathetic parameter
f (x) Function of specific heat ratio
k can be eliminated by modification of the injector ;
Droplet drag parameter
however, manufacturing costs then become very
L Burning rate parameter
significant. Another approach to changing the
Mx Fractional burning rate per unit length.
chamber pressure consists of changing the exhaust
Per Critical pressure of propellant
nozzle throat area. However, changing the throat
Ap Pressure drop across injector , Pi - Pe
Vw area is no better solution, since this modifies the
Local wave velocity
Vwm contraction ratio and the chamber Mach number,
Average (mean ) wave velocity which also alters the combustion response. It can
VR Injection velocity ratio , VF/Vox
be seen that this approach necessitates alterations
AV Gas-liquid velocity difference.
in the geometry of the engine for each datum
δ Low frequency stability parameter,
0117
point . Inasmuch as statistical analyses require

ApL*/pe
fairly large sample sizes, the cost of such a
Injection stream impingement angle
program becomes prohibit vely high.
μ Injection density
It is possible to reduce hardware cost by testing
Sensitive combustion time lag ( see Sect .
smaller-sized engines but here the uncertainties
4.2 )
associated with scaling techniques are encoun-
7.2.1 Chamber Pressure * tered . Furthermore , scaling techniques are appli-
cable only when a suitable mathematical model is
7.2.1.1 General statement of the problem . - The available, which is often not the case.
investigation of the effects of various operating For these reasons, the experimental information
parameters , such as chamber pressure, on low concerning the role of chamber pressure in low
frequency or high frequency instabilities (or on the frequency or high frequency instability is incom-
incidence of popping ) is beset with many difficul- plete and scattered . Therefore, only the trends
ties . Analytical investigations are hampered by and how these trends agree with existing analytical
the complexity of the combustion process to the models can be reported .
extent that simplifying assumptions must be
7.2.1.2 Low frequency instability.-One effect
* A. J. Smith, Jr. , Author. that the mean chamber pressure has on the low
DESIGN FACTORS AFFECTING EXCITATION $7.2 311
frequency ( chugging ) modes of instability is that 5

an increase of chamber pressure, in general, O Stable
stabilizes an engine. This effect was investigated • Marginal
Unstable
by Ross and Datner.603 Figure 7.2.1a indicates the
Mixture
ratio
observed stability at a given mixture ratio and
4
Stable
,O
F
/
percent of design chamber pressure. The particular
tests show that , at any mixture ratio greater than
2.5, the unstable motor operation at low pressures
3
can be stabilized by a suitable chamber pressure.
These results are typically obtained by varying
tank pressures to change mixture ratio and
chamber pressure , while keeping the rocket motor
2 Unstable
and injector configuration constant. The sta-
bilizing effect of chamber pressure on chugging
was verified by Heidmann et al.345 (see Fig.
7.2.1b ) . In that study (using a different feed
system, rocket motor configuration, and pro- 50 75 100 125 150
pellants ) whereas one again obtains an increase Percent of design chamber pressure
in stability by an increase in chamber pressure , FIGURE 7.2.1b . -Comparative low frequency stability
the line of stability demarcation is clearly different . limit map .
It is of interest to study the behavior of the
chugging mode as the chamber pressure is in- of the chug decreases, and the nonlinear wave
creased . Assuming that the mode is initially at a shape degenerates to a sinusoidal wave . As the
mixture ratio and chamber pressure point deep operating point crosses over the stability bound-
within the unstable region, it is generally observed ary, the chug amplitude disappears into the noise
that the mode wave shape is of a nonlinear nature. generated by the combustion process and the
As the chamber pressure is increased and as the system stabilizes .
operating point approaches the stability boundary, The influence of the chamber pressure on the
the frequency of the chug increases, the amplitude frequency of the chug is shown in Fig. 7.2.1c . It
can be seen that , in all four cases shown, the
frequency of the chug increases as the chamber
pressure increases ; however, the rate of increase
is not necessarily the same. Curves (a) and (b )
are of particular interest in that they illustrate the
Mixture
5 effect of the propellants , and therefore the com-

ratio
bustion process , upon the chugging frequency. The

,O
/
F
Unstable Stable only variation between the tests conducted to

generate these two curves was a change in the
fuel.78 At a chamber pressure of 213 psia, the
nitric acid/furfuryl alcohol propellant combina-
tion (hypergolic ) chugged at approximately 100
Hz at an amplitude of 10 percent . At the same
3 pressure , nitric acid/octane (nonhypergolic)
chugged at approximately 35 Hz at an amplitude
of approximately 25 to 30 percent . With an
entirely different system operated at a chamber
34 pressure of 270 psia, the nitric acid/heptane
0 60 80 100 120
Percent of design chamber pressure combination (nonhypergolic ) chugged at 26 Hz
at an amplitude of almost 100 percent.688
FIGURE 7.2.1a. -Low frequency stability limit map. The final aspect to be discussed in this section is
Ref. (in.) Oxidizer / Fuel *

179 92.5 HNO3 /Furfuryl alcohol 8= い
L*, in
b 179 92.5 Pc
HNO3 /Octane
C 688 200 HNO3/Heptane 100
d 345 156 LO₂/GH₂
120
50-
a
frequency
100
Chugging
Unstable Stable
i8F
,n
20-
,Hz
.80F
60 10-
Uncertainty
region
40
C
10 20 50 100
20 8x , in
FIGURE 7.2.1d .-Low frequency stability limit map rela-

100 200 300 400 500 600 tive to the correlating parameters dx and dr.
Steady state chamber pressure , psia
FIGURE 7.2.1c.-The variation of chugging frequency the L* and plotted as a function of the correlating
with respect to the mean chamber pressure. parameter 8, one obtains the result shown in Fig.
7.2.1d . It can be seen that the d-correlation does
the effect that the mean chamber pressure has on
not lead to a precise definition of the stability
the chugging stability plane when viewed with
boundary. In support of their analytical chugging
respect to the correlating parameters that are
model , Szuch and Wenzel678 were looking for two
generally incorporated in chugging studies . The
chugging frequencies simultaneously. These two
two correlating parameters used for bipropellant
frequencies were the result of a "real-life" situation
motors are the ratio of pressure drop (i.e. , from
that , if the bipropellant system was unstable,
tank to chamber or from injector inlet to chamber)
either one or both of the propellants could be
to the steady-state chamber pressuret, and this
involved, thereby producing two frequencies.
same parameter multiplied by the characteristic
These two frequencies are referred to as "lower"
length of the chamber (see Ref. 7 , Appendix C ) ,
i.e. , and "higher" chugging frequencies .
If the reported data is plotted at the two
ΔΡ pressure levels and at the observed chug situation
δ L*
Pc as shown in Fig. 7.2.1e, it is seen that the lower
and higher frequencies individually generate
For the study conducted in Ref. 678, a high
stability boundaries and, therefore, the motor
impedance source was installed in the injector to
stability map divides itself into a more com-
decouple the feed system from the chamber . The
plicated relationship (compared to the data
flow rate was held constant while the chamber
previously discussed ) . Also , it can be seen that the
pressure was changed from 300 psia to 650 psia by
mean pressure has a definite effect on the nature
changing the nozzle throat diameter. This led to
of the stability zone .
a small change in the characteristic length of the
chamber, L*. If the reported data is multiplied by
7.2.1.3 High frequency instability . High-fre-
† See Sect. 6.2 for a further explanation of this stability quency instability has been experimentally ob-
parameter. served under a variety of rocket motor geometries,
Lower freq. Higher freq.

O Stable Stable
Unstable Unstable
Stable Unstable
Unstable Stable
100 100
50- 50
бF
O р 201 SF 20
10 10
O
Pc=300 Psia Pc -650 Psia

4 4
10 20 50 100 10 20 50 100
8ox 8ox
FIGURE 7.2.1e. The effect of the mean chamber pressure on the chugging stability limits relative to the correlating
parameters dx and F.
propellant combinations, and operating conditions 7.2.1f) , the dependent variable is the product of
as evidenced in the earlier chapters. An unstable the chamber Mach number, Me, diameter of the
rocket motor is analogous to a driven acoustic orifice related to the controlling propellant
system where the geometry of the motor deter- (usually selected as the least volatile) , di , and
mines the acoustic properties of the system and the sensitive time lag ( or period) , 7, associated
the combustion process, determined by the with the instability frequency, where approxi-
propellants , injector elements, and operating mately
conditions, represents the driver. Because of the
1
strong interrelationship of the driver and acoustic T=
cavity, it is very difficult to change one parameter 2f
in the system, such as pressure, and not effect The independent variable is the ratio of the
another parameter. Therefore , in acquiring em- chamber pressure to the critical pressure of the
pirical data, it is necessary to keep account of all controlling propellant . In this case ,*
variables considered to be meaningful and resort
to statistically-oriented numerical correlation T~P -1/3
techniques to indicate parameter trends. Such is There are no data in the supercritical pressure
the case of the effect of chamber pressure on the region for storable propellant combinations ;
combustion response to high frequency instability. consequently, the effect of supercritical pressures
Recent accumulation of experimental stability on the combustion response is not known.
results650 indicate that the characteristic com-
bustion time decreases as the chamber pressure is
* The relationship indicates shorter characteristic com-
increased as shown in Figs. 7.2.1f and 7.2.1g.
bustion times for higher pressures hence a tendency to-
In the case of hypergolic propellants ( Fig. ward higher modes as shown in Fig. 7.4.3h.
Hypergolic propellants An explanation of this subcritical/supercritical

2.0
role of chamber pressure has been offered based on
Unlike-impinging
the fact that the heat of vaporization decreases
1.0 Non -unlike-impinging as the chamber pressure approaches the critical
-1/2
pressure of the propellant.333 At subcritical pres-

sures, the time lag is postulated to be composed
1/3
of a vaporization time , diffusion time, etc. ,

-Fue ! controlling whereas at supercritical operation, the vaporization
-Ox controlling time is absent in the determination of the time
0.2 lag.
0.02 0.1 0.2 0.4 1.0
Ratio of mean chamber pressure to 7.2.2 Contraction Ratio *
propellant critical pressure
The behavior of most processes which occur
inside the combustion chamber of a liquid-
FIGURE 7.2.1f.- The effect of mean chamber pressure on
the high frequency combustion response characteristics propellant rocket motor ( e.g. atomization , mixing ,
of hypergolic propellants. vaporization, droplet drag) is affected by the
magnitude of the Mach number Me of the chamber
1/3-1/2 mean flow. The Mach number is controlled by the
F(T)(Noncoaxial ) = TMC di nozzle contraction ratio e , and it is important to
F(t)(Coaxial ) = τ (Mc /d ; 10.15 [ f ( VR sin )] ¯ ' understand how a change in & affects the stability
1.0 characteristics of a particular engine. In order to
Nonhypergolic propellants answer this question it is necessary to know how
the above-mentioned processes depend on Me
.5
during both steady and unsteady operation.
Nonimpinging jets
Only when this and any other relevant information
F(T) becomes available is it possible to perform an
.2 analysis that can predict the engine stability
| Impinging_jets
under various operating conditions .
coaxial jets
0.1 Our present lack of understanding and inability
to describe analytically the various processes
.06 taking place inside the combustion chamber of a
0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0
Ratio of mean chamber pressure to liquid-propellant rocket engine limit the degree of
propellant critical pressure confidence that can be placed in the theoretical
predictions of various stability analyses, in the
FIGURE 7.2.1g.-The effect of mean chamber pressure on
the high frequency combustion response characteristics interpretations of available experimental data,
of nonhypergolic propellants. and in design changes aimed at eliminating
combustion instability . This situation becomes
particularly clear when one is trying to determine
In the case of nonhypergolic propellants ( Fig. the dependence of the stability limits of high-
7.2.1g) , an additional parameter is added to the frequency combustion instability on Me. A
dependent variable for coaxial injectors . The survey of available researches trying to answer
parameter is a function involving the ratio of the this question indicates a serious lack of agreement
fuel velocity to the oxidizer velocity, VR , and the between the predictions of various theories and a
impingement angle, ø , between these two streams. lack of appropriate experimental data capable of
It is seen from this figure that for subcritical checking the theoretical predictions. Numerous
pressures , development programs and experimental en-
T~P -1/3; Pe <Per deavors conducted in the past provide us with a
considerable amount of data where proper
and for supercritical pressures,
T#T (Pc) ; Pe >Per * B. T. Zinn, Author.

DESIGN FACTORS AFFECTING EXCITATION §7.2 315
interpretation requires a careful statistical analysis . various terms in Eq . (7.2.2-1 ) . The first term ER
The results of such an analysis in which e (and represents the energy loss or gain at the nozzle
hence Me) is a parameter, are presented in Ref. 82. entrance . It has been shown179,190,196 that ER
In the remainder of this section the predictions depends on Me and that it can be positive (i.e.
and observations of those theoretical and experi- destabilizing ) or negative (i.e. stabilizing ) ; the
mental studies , which explicitly consider the Me same references show that in the case of longitu-
dependence of the stability limits, will be dis- dinal oscillations ER is always stabilizing while in
cussed. the case of transverse oscillations its effect de-
The majority of this discussion will concentrate pends, among other factors , on the magnitude of
on the more detrimental and less understood case Me. The negative term (y + 1 ) Me, which
of high- frequency combustion instability. In explicitly represents the effect of the mean flow, is
discussing this case it is important to classify the always stabilizing. The third and fourth terms.
instability according to its amplitude ( i.e. linear represent, respectively, energy gain due to com-
vs. nonlinear) and mode of oscillation . Available bustion oscillations and energy loss due to droplet
linear analyses are separated into those con- drag. The dependence of these terms on Me
sidering longitudinal oscillations179 and those depends on the particular analytical models which
considering transverse582 or three-dimen- are chosen to represent these processes ; relevant
sional202,567,772 oscillations. The majority of these discussions of these topics may be found in Refs .
analyses is limited, however, to situations in 346 , 516 , 582 , 665 and 739.
which M.<< 1 . It has been shown178,202,582 that when Once the Me dependence of all the terms
M.<<<1 the chamber's oscillations are qualitatively appearing in Eq . ( 7.2.2-1 ) has been established ,
similar to the acoustic modes that can be excited this equation can be used to evaluate the Mo
in a cavity whose geometry is similar to the dependence of the rocket's stability limits .
chamber's geometry. Hence when M.<< 1 , acoustic Similar theoretical studies have been conducted
solutions can be used as a first approximation to by Crocco and Cheng179 and Mitchell (pg . 116 of
describe the oscillations in the combustion Ref. 188 ) for the case of longitudinal oscillations
chamber ; this is not the case when neither Me and by Culick, 202 Priem,567 Reardon582 and Zinn772
nor the amplitude of the oscillations are small. for the case of three-dimensional oscillations . The
Crocco178 provided an approximate analysis conclusion in the case of longitudinal instability
that can serve to illustrate the manner in which (for both low and high values of Me) was that
the rocket's stability limits for both longitudinal increasing Me has a destabilizing effect. The
and transverse oscillations depend on M. (when predictions of the various three-dimensional
M.<1 ) . Since the stability criteria for both the theories are contradicting. No general conclusions
longitudinal and transverse types of oscillations can be stated , but the indications are202,567,772
are qualitatively similar, only the one applicable that when Me increases a larger combustion
to transverse oscillations will be discussed here. response is necessary in order to drive instability
According to Crocco ( Sect . 4.2 ) neutral transverse which implies that, in the case of three-dimensional
oscillations can occur in the chamber when the oscillations , increasing Me is stabilizing . An
following relation is satisfied : interesting result was obtained in the studies of
L Priem567 and Zinn772 which predicted, that as Me
ER ( +1 ) Mc+ V pik dx = 0 increases, the range of frequencies over which the
(
'(-)R dz'- [ Bik operation of the system may become unstable
also increases . These references predict that an
(7.2.2-1 )
increase in Me increases the chances of obtaining
Eq . ( 7.2.2-1 ) represents the energy balance that instabilities of the mixed acoustic modes which are
must exist between various energy sources and associated with a given pure transverse mode .
sinks in the combustion chamber when the Priem has considered the effect of acoustic liners,
oscillations are neutrally stable. and predicts that increasing Me reduces the
It is of interest to consider briefly the signifi- effectiveness of the liners ( also see Sect . 3.5.3.2) .
cance and Mach number dependence of the Theoretical studies of nonlinear combustion
Hydrogen
injection
instability relevant to this discussion are scarce.
temp
Different studies conducted by Mitchell , 488 for
,°R
Full length sleeves
longitudinal instability, and Zinn,771 for three-
dimensional instability, present results which A B C D
indicate the Mach number dependence of the Throat
100
nonlinear pressure wave forms at various locations Injectors A , B, C , CD
100 % Radial coverage
in the rocket combustor. While discussing non-
80
linear effects it is important to mention that Stable
10
B
Priem's563 nonlinear model , which has been
60 -8+
studied extensively by various investigators,46,359 Unstable
is not capable of predicting the M. dependence
of the stability limits except through an injection 40
.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
density effect.563 Contraction ratio , Ec
There are few systematic experimental studies
whose results are relevant to this discussion .
FIGURE 7.2.2a.-Effect of contraction ratio. Hydrogen-
Reardon and Smith585 report that a decrease in oxygen propellants ; p. = 300 psi ; O/F = 5.0.
the nozzle contraction ratio resulted in an increase
Hydrogen
in the frequency of occurrences of instabilities
injection
with respect to the mixed acoustic modes . This
temp
observation is in agreement with the predictions 421 element injector
of Refs . 567 and 772. Using a temperature- ,°R 85 % Radial coverage
Ec=1.9
ramping technique with a hydrogen-oxygen
Ec= 1.5
engine Bloomer et al.107 conducted a set of experi- 250 Ec - 3.0
ments specifically designed at checking the effects
Stable
of changing the nozzle contraction ratio . In one Ec = 4.5
set of experiments (see Fig . 7.2.2a) the mixture 200
ratio , chamber pressure and throat area were
held constant and the contraction ratio was Unstable
150 0
decreased as a result of introducing full- length 0
-
spools in the combustion chamber. The experi-

mental results indicate no change in the stability
2 3 4 5 6
characteristics . A possible explanation is that the Contraction ratio ,Ec
insertion of the spools also resulted in an increase
in the chamber L/D. According to the results FIGURE 7.2.2b.-Effect of contraction ratio. Hydrogen-
presented in Refs. 567 and 772 increasing L/D oxygen propellants ; p. 300 psi ; O /F = 5.0.
is destabilizing and decreasing the contraction
ratio is stabilizing ; it is quite possible that in these
experiments these opposing tendencies exactly experiments , shows that M. effects are not needed
cancelled one another. In another set of experi- to explain the results .
ments (see Fig. 7.2.2b) the combustion-chamber The above discussion concentrated on the more
area was held constant while the nozzle throat detrimental and complex case of high-frequency
area was decreased, thus decreasing the Mach combustion instability. The case of low-frequency
number at the nozzle entrance. The results of this instability (i.e. "chugging" ) is better understood ;
experiment indicate that such a decrease is and available analyses179,673 and experiments345
destabilizing with respect to the first tangential indicate that one method to suppress the low-
mode . Based on these experimental results Bloomer frequency oscillations is simply to increase L*.
suggests that increasing the throat area may be Such a change can be accomplished by simply
used as a means of improving the stability of increasing the nozzle contraction ratio (i.e.
marginally stable oxygen/hydrogen engines . A decrease M.) . It may be of interest to note that
theoretical study,259 which is relevant to Bloomer's the same "remedy" is recommended for the
elimination of low-frequency combustion insta- the density of the injected propellant, etc. Un-
bility in solid-propellant rocket motors . fortunately, each of these changes is known to
In conclusion it can be said that more theo- influence combustion instability.
retical and experimental research must be con- A little more quantitative insight into the
ducted before the dependence of high-frequency effect of injection density upon combustion
instability on M. is properly understood . Until instability may be seen from the dimensionless
such information becomes available the designer, parameters used in the Priem-type combustion
who for some reason contemplates changing the instability analysis . In this theory two of the most
contraction ratio , must keep in mind that such a important parameters are AV and 2. The former is
change may have adverse effect on the stability usually found to be the most important ; greater
of some modes but a favorable effect on the relative velocity between the two phases (gas and
stability of others . liquid ) being the more stable. These variables are
discussed in greater detail in Sect . 4.3 . The other
7.2.3 Injection Density* stability factor & was originally written as
Injection density is an engine design parameter
= r.My
which is sometimes referred to in connection with
Ec
combustion instability. It is defined as the mass
flux of propellant (usually total of oxidizer and where Mx is the steady-state burning rate in
fuel) which is injected into the chamber per unit fraction of total propellants per inch, re is the
area. Injection density can be a quite ambiguous chamber radius, and is the contraction ratio .
term since in no case is the propellant injected The results of the Priem analysis showed that
exactly uniformly across the injector face . In for a constant AV, there was minimum stability
many cases the propellant may be injected in two at some value of £ close to unity. This proved an
or more axial locations in the chamber , or the unfortunate set of parameters . It led one to believe ,
chamber may not be of uniform cross sectional for instance, that if the contraction ratio was low
area. Generally, however, the injection density and the radius of the engine large, then stability
quoted for an engine will be determined from the would be possible by increasing the burning rate,
total propellant flow rate , and a nominal cross Mx. In several cases this was tried, and indeed
sectional area. In other cases the local injection effective stabilization was achieved , for the lowest
density for a specific location may be of interest . acoustic mode , but the engine became unstable
In the short discussion that follows some of the at a higher mode.
problems in precisely relating injection density to Another way of writing is
stability are presented.
Mxûtw
Since injection density cannot be varied in- L=
2πf(Y ) P
dependently, it is difficult to show conclusively
its effect on combustion stability. For instance, where
raising the injection density with a fixed chamber μ is the injection density in pounds of
contraction ratio necessarily increases the chamber propellant per unit area, per unit time
.
pressure and simultaneously increases injection. tw is the wave time (defined by 2πre/a)
velocities of both propellants. The contraction . where a is the speed of sound
ratio may be lowered to retain the same chamber f (x) is a function of the ratio of specific heats ,
pressure at the higher injection density, and the and
number or size of the injection holes may be is the steady-state gas density in the
increased to retain the same injection velocity. chamber at the location of interest.
Many other combinations exist , such as increasing
From this representation of 2, it is seen that the
the number of injection holes of only one pro-
wave time is an important parameter. To achieve
pellant and changing the mixture ratio ; changing
stability (see Sect . 6.4) it is always necessary to
reduce the value of 2. Conceivably, one may
* T. A. Coultas , Author. operate in a metastable region between modes,
but that appears to be risky since any perturba- obviously not a direct function of injection
tion of burning rate or other variable will make density.
the engine more unstable in one mode or the other, Another use of injection density as a stability
depending upon the direction of the perturbation parameter is in assessing, a priori, the probable
(Fig. 6.3.4a illustrates the multiple mode situa- da nage which may result from an instability.
tion) . Dainage is often greater and occurs much more
It should be kept firmly in mind that the values rapidly in an engine with a high injection density
of Mx, AV, chamber pressure, injection density, should resonant combustion be present. In fact ,
and contraction ratio are not independent of each in large chambers without baffles, extensive
other. In a limited range, however, where M, and damage to both injector and chamber will often
AV may be considered constant, say at a high result even if a Rough Combustion Monitor
contraction ratio and at a position near the device begins to shut down the engine after 100
injector face where burning rates are primarily milliseconds of instability. On the other hand, with
hydraulically controlled (as opposed to gas a low injection -density injector resonant com-
dynamically) , maximum stability would come at bustion is less likely to cause significant damage.
minimum injection density . Thus , if chamber Thus , the hazard of combustion instability would
pressure and thrust are fixed , one would like to appear to be less in engines with low injection
have a maximum contraction ratio ( note that density. Again, however, it is not obvious that the
although tw varies directly with the size of the resultant damage is not simply caused by the
chamber, varies inversely with the square of the already higher steady-state heat fluxes which
chamber size) . Such an apparent anomaly was result from the higher chamber pressure and low
experimentally observed by Abbe et al.46 Under chamber contraction ratio associated with high
these rather restrictive conditions , high injection injection density.
densities would be expected to be more prone to
instabilities than a lower injection density. 7.2.4 Axial Energy Release *
Injection density is, however, often used as a
The importance of axial energy release to the
rule of thumb to estimate the difficulty of curing
designer results from the often direct relationship
resonant combustion . For instance , the F-1
of this parameter and the ability of an engine to
rocket engine had an extraordinarily high injection
initiate or sustain combustion instability. The
density of approximately 5 lb/in.²-sec . Experience subject of axial energy release has been discussed
proved that it was very difficult to make this
in a number of other sections , e.g. , in Sect . 3.5.2
engine dynamically stable . On the other hand , the in connection with nonlinear wave motion, in
Atlas (injection density of approximately 1.5
Chapter 4 as an input to the theories of resonant
lb/in.2-sec ) was easily stabilized . Space engines ,
combustion, and later in this chapter with regard
such as the LM ascent or LM descent engine,
to variation with injection type ( also discussed in
have injection densities on the order of 0.5 lb/in.²-
Sect. 3.5.2) . The emphasis here is on the role this
sec and their stability problems have not been
parameter plays in controlling resonant com-
as severe.
bustion, and on a method which makes possible
One explanation of this apparent relationship the exact determination of the axial energy
between injection density and stability is that
release for a given test engine .
with the higher injection density, more unburned A knowledge of the axial combustion rates is of
propellants are present when a chamber is per- great significance since one approach to stable.
turbed (as with a rating device) . Thus , a larger
motor operation, short of resorting to damping
amount of propellant is available for combustion devices, is to tailor the combustion axially to the
augmentation of the initial disturbance . The
chamber involved.318 For example, consider the
resultant overpressure caused by the perturbation case of longitudinal mode instability . If com-
may be much larger with the high injection bustion of the propellants is essentially completed
density (pressures of several thousand psi have
been recorded ) . However, the ratio of over-
pressure to steady-state chamber pressure is * F. V. Bracco and D. T. Harrje, Authors.
in the first few inches of the chamber, the ability all the engine parameters could be calculated if
of the first pressure antinode region ( associated the axial distribution of static pressure was
with the longitudinal oscillations ) to couple with measured and the assumptions of chemical
the combustion is enhanced since the maximum equilibrium of the reaction products and of no
pressure oscillations occur close to the point of recirculation were made.114 Figures 7.2.4a through
maximum combustion . This improves the chances 7.2.4f show the axial profiles for a specific engine
for instability to occur. characterized by the following parameters :
On the other hand , if the combustion is spread LOX /ethanol mixture ratio ( O/ F ) = 2.33 ; cham-
over the available chamber length far less com- ber pressure (injector end ) = 295 psia ; a 4 × 4
bustion is available at the favorable coupling grid-type injector design was used consisting of
locations, thus favoring stable operation . Although like-on-like doublets with orifice diameters of
the axial variation of pressure amplitude is 0.059 in. and an impingement angle of 55° . The
different for sinusoidal and shock-type longitu- measured axial static pressure profile is given in
dinal waves,35 both have pressure antinodes at the Fig. 7.2.4a . The calculated gas velocity ( u ) , gas
injector end and hence would exhibit similar density (p) , and gas temperature ( T) are given
stability trends. in Figs. 7.2.4b-d . Finally, the fraction of liquid .
Perhaps even more important to the designer is fuel not yet burned at a given distance from the
the fact that transverse resonant combustion also injector (ACPLUL/miF) is given in Fig. 7.2.4c .
produces the maximum unsteady pressure ampli- Complete combustion values were used as
tudes at the injector end.151,191 In general, this reference values for u, p and T [namely, u =
amplitude is found to decay rapidly (based upon 17,080 cm/sec ( 560 ft /sec ) ; p = 1.83210-3 g/cm³
pressure measurements taken further down- (0.114 lb/ft³) ; T₁ = 3290 ° K ( 5922° R ) ] . The
stream) . Therefore, as in the longitudinal case, local liquid fuel flow rate (mr) is nondimen-
the axial energy release pattern has been proven sionalized by the injection fuel flow rate (m¡r) .
to be important . Notice that the local derivative of (mF/ṁ ¡ F)
To appreciate the unsteady environment existing gives the local rate at which the liquid fuel is
in liquid propellant rocket chambers it is necessary burned . Actually Figs . 7.2.4b-e give ranges
that the steady state be well understood . Available within which the values of the above parameters
steady-state models ( see Chapter 2 and discussion are found at any given distance from the injector.
in Sect . 2.1.8 ) have contributed toward the under- Further resolution would not be particularly
standing of the complexities of the rocket environ- rewarding due to the natural scattering of the
ment and the axial combustion distribution , measurements and the natural randomness of the
however, certain anomalies continue to exist . To processes occurring in the combustion chamber.
attack the problem differently, in a way that did To check the validity of this approach the
not require a prior knowledge of the dominant particle velocity was measured at 5" and 20"
mechanism, the so-called "direct method" was using streak photography. The measured values ,
used.114 In this approach experimental observa- reported in Fig. 7.2.4b with their scattering
tions are used to characterize the individual ranges are seen to agree with those calculated .
combustor environment and only then are the It should be emphasized that even though no
models of combustion (e.g. , the droplet burning drop burning process was postulated, the axial
models) compared for agreement . This allows the distribution of the overall liquid burning rate was
steady-state parameters to be well-defined ; thus determined (Fig . 7.2.4e ) . The most important of
more detail can be incorporated into the final the results is the finding of significant axial
model. Also important is the removal of the variations of the combustion parameters as
requirement for extensive assumptions. In the
more common approach, a model is first postu-
Experimentally one can determine, for example, the
lated , the mathematical solution is obtained and
velocity of the gaseous products (see Sect . 9.4.1 on Streak
comparisons are made with the experimental data. Photography) or the static pressure (this can be measured
The "direct method" was applied to the by high pressure manometers 190 or by sensitive pressure
LOX /ethanol system and there it was found that gauges$44).
2.0
Stat
,p
p sure
- si ic
pres 0
5
1
0
~ -
0
0
+
0
-6 011
H
I I I ΙΙ
I
I
-8
8 12 16 20 24 28 32
Distance from injector ( inches)
FIGURE 7.2.4a.-Measured static pressure loss versus distance from injector.
1.0 2.2
.8 2.0-
Ալ /ս
08642
1.0
.6 1.8 .8
.6
u/U4
u/u
.2
p/p₁ 1.6
24680
.4
.6
.8
1.4
.2
T
1.2
2 4 8 12 16 20
Distance from injector (inches)
1.0
4 8 12 16 20 24
FIGURE 7.2.4b . - Dimensionless gas velocity versus dis- Distance from injector ( inches )
tance from injector.
FIGURE 7.2.4c. -Dimensionless gas density versus dis-
demonstrated by Figs. 7.2.4c and d, namely, tance from injector.
density is greatly increased near the injector end
and temperature at that location is less than measurements indicate a temperature profile
of the downstream temperature. † Independent c* close to that given in Fig. 7.2.4d . The same
temperature trend was also verified by measuring
† The nonuniformities noted here were for oxidizer-rich amplitudes and velocities of shock waves moving
combustion. More recent experiments at maximum c* toward the injector. Thus the assumption of no
mixture ratio showed somewhat reduced nonuniformities. recirculation, which has led to the calculation of
1.0 1.0
.9 mf
.8 Ti
F
u/u
.8
.2
.6 .4
.6
.8 .7
T/Tf 1.0
.4 .6
T/T
.5
.2
.4
u/Uf
8 12 16 20
.3
Distance from injector (inches)
FIGURE 7.2.4d. -Dimensionless gas temperature versus .2 Ալ / Ա-

distance from injector. mox
mi
1.0 OX
18642
2 4 6 8 10 12
.8 U/U = 1.0 Distance from injector ( inches )
.4 FIGURE 7.2.4f . -Estimates of the combustion parameters

TE 6 .2 in the "near region ."
FriF
one-dimensional calculations qualitative. Using

the measurements of temperature and static
pressure, an approximate description of this
.2 region was obtained and is given in Fig. 7.2.4f.
From the standpoint of stability this near region
is of great interest . When shock waves are sent
8 12 16 20 24
Distance from injector ( inches ) from the nozzle-end toward the injector of the
LOX /ethanol rocket 115,193 little amplitude growth
FIGURE 7.2.4e. -Percent of liquid fuel versus distance is recorded until the near region is reached.
from injector. However, in this zone the amplitude more than
doubles.
Another interesting result is related to the
axial nonuniformities, was a good one in the frequency of shock-type longitudinal instability.
engine studied . It could be speculated that when Under the assumption of uniform chamber tem-
the distance between the injector elements is small perature , one would expect the frequency of the
in comparison with the combustion length , recir- oscillating shock to be higher than the acoustic
culation effects are limited . This is indeed the frequency since a shock wave moves faster than
case for the injector tested in this study and for the speed of sound ( e.g. , for p2/p₁ = 1.5 the shock
most of the injectors of practical use (injectors velocity would be about 1.20 times the speed of
with many elements, closely spaced) . sound) and gas velocity effects cancel out over a
Figs. 7.2.4b-e show no solutions within the cycle . However, hot firings show that the fre-
region extending to 5" , where ethanol drops are quency of the oscillating shock is close to the
formed and liquid oxygen is probably still present. acoustic frequency. This contradiction disappears
The nonuniformities of the region tend to make if the usual assumption of uniform chamber
properties is removed . The acoustic frequency velocity disturbances. Axial tailoring of the
calculated with the axially nonuniform tempera- combustion can reduce this sensitivity and the
ture profile of Fig . 7.2.4d is indeed some 20 % related coupling.
smaller than that calculated with the assumption
that the temperature is axially uniform.114a In 7.2.5 Transverse Energy Release Distribution *
other words, the longitudinal shock instability
The control of the spatial distribution of the
frequency as calculated with the speed of sound
transverse energy release has been utilized in
based upon the temperature for completed com-
some cases13,584 to provide a useful tool to designers
bustion is generally accurate because of the
so that they might achieve more stable operation
cancelling of the errors from two inaccurate
of liquid rocket engines . In essence the technique
assumptions .
involves moving the energy release location to a
In the case of transverse instability, the
region considered to be less "sensitive" to the
maximum amplitude is found where the speed of
initiation and maintenance of resonant com-
sound would be depressed as indicated from T/T;
bustion . For the transverse modes, the most
in Fig. 7.2.4f. Provided the amplitudes are not so
important variations in the oscillating quantities
great as to shatter the liquid streams and droplets
obviously occur across the face of the injector
near the injector end , thus intensifying the local
rather than perpendicular to it.494 Therefore , the
combustion (increasing the speed of sound) ,
problem of improving the stability involves
frequency depression* should be anticipated and
defining the injector areas of pressure and velocity
indeed has been repeatedly observed . As pre-
"sensitivity" for the different transverse modes,
viously discussed , axial tailoring of the combustion
and adjusting the energy release pattern in such
can reduce the energy available near the injector
a way that the rocket engine remains stable .
face. Techniques that have been used to control
A number of theoretical and experimental‡
resonant combustion include increasing the fuel
studies are available for indicating the sensitive
orifice diameter and/or decreasing the impinge-
injector areas associated with a particular modal
ment angle in like-impinging fuel doublets (to
pattern. However, the variety of modes possible,494
increase the fuel droplet sizes ) , increasing the
and the uncertainty as to the mechanism respon-
oxidizer velocity (to reduce the oxidizer concen-
sible for the sensitivity, 172,583,726,739 complicate the
tration near the injector , see Fig . 7.4.3i ) , and
problem. Thus there may be some question with
altering the relative velocities between adjacent
regard to the precise energy distribution to be
propellant streams (see discussion in Sect .
employed in a given rocket engine .
1.2.2.2 ) . Naturally as the combustion intensity is
Based upon the analytical work (as described
reduced at the injector end care must be taken so
in Chapter 4) it may be stated that two physical
as not to lose performance because the combustion
parameters are important in maintaining resonant
is too stretched out.
combustion. They are pressure and particle
In summary, it has been found that the axial
combustion distribution directly influences com- velocity. The discussion that follows will center
about these quantities .
bustion stability for both longitudinal and
The location of the energy release in the trans-
transverse waves . Examination of the axial
verse plane can be tailored by altering the in-
combustion profile reveals major variations in the
jection system of a liquid rocket engine. * This
parameters ( e.g. , temperature and density ) which
results in a change of the local injection density as
influence the frequency of the instability as well as
compared to the average injection density for the
the coupling between pressure , velocity and
entire injector. Some typical injection char-
combustion . The combustion region close to the
acteristics of six different radial profiles are
injector face , where the early reactions are taking
place , are particularly sensitive to pressure and
* J. R. Osborn, Author.
References include 172, 579, 583 , 726 and 739 .
* Other factors , such as injector-end impedance caused Experimental references include 13, 216, 527, 573 ,
by baffles, can also be responsible for transverse frequency and 584.
depression (as discussed in Sect. 3.5.3.3) . * References include 50 , 147, 153, 225 , 226 , 611 and 620.
presented in Fig. 7.2.5a . In that figure the length hence energy released at that location would be
of the arrow represents the quantity of locally expected to sustain radial and/or tangential
injected reactants, e.g., Profile I is uniform , oscillations. In contrast , energy released in
whereas Profile IV represents concentrated in- Region B would not be at the pressure antinodal
jection at the center of the injector. It is assumed location of either type of oscillation , and therefore
that the energy release is directly related to the would be predicted to be rather ineffectual in
mass flux, hence, the energy release of Profile I sustaining those modes, thus resulting in a stable
will be uniform across the face of the injector, and system .
Profile IV will be concentrated near the center of The results of an experimental study using the
the combustion chamber. injection profiles just described are listed in
According to Rayleigh,579 the energy release Table 7.2.5a . The tests employed a 7- inch-
should be located at a pressure nodal point for the diameter, 6-inch-long chamber into which pre-
combustion system to operate in the most stable mixed gaseous propellants, ethylene and air, were
manner. The results of the experimental injected through showerhead orifices . Inter-
work216,527,573 conducted with a combustion system preting the results of Table 7.2.5a ( also see Fig.
having the injection distribution as shown in Fig. 7.2.5a ) , Profile I has an equal amount of energy
7.2.5a were found to agree with Rayleigh's release per unit area in each of the three regions ;
criterion. An analysis of the regions of mass flux A, B, and C, and will supply equal amounts of
distribution with the unsteady pressure dis- driving energy to the tangential and radial modes.
tributions associated with two transverse modes The tangential mode is predominant although the
indicates the relative stability for each injection amplitude is somewhat low.
array. That is, Region A corresponds to the Profile II yields stable operation even though
location of the pressure antinodes for oscillations energy is released in locations well suited for sus-
of the first radial mode, and energy addition in taining transverse mode oscillations. That is ,
Region A would tend to produce oscillations in Region A receives the largest amount of the total
that mode. Both the radial and the tangential energy released, and this energy acts to drive the
modes have pressure antinodes in Region C and radial mode of oscillation. The considerably
A
C
T
B Chamber B
A diameter
7"
BC
Injector
face
I III
H
-K
IZ H VI
FIGURE 7.2.5a.-Injection radial profile comparison .

TABLE 7.2.5a. -GAS ROCKET TEST HISTORY WITH 7.2.5a) have one ring of injection holes , located at
VARIOUS INJECTION PROFILES diameters of 2 , 4, and 6 inches, respectively,
thereby corresponding to injection solely in
[Instabilities initiated spontaneously and linearly; mean Regions A, B, and C. Profile IV (injection near
chamber pressure, 150 psia ; combustion chamber diameter,
the center of the injector) produces instability in
7 in.; combustion chamber length, 6 in. ]
the radial mode , whereas Profile V ( injection near
the mid-radius) achieves stable operation , and
Profile Amplitude, Mode
Profile VI (injection near the chamber wall)
psi
results in very strong tangential oscillations .
In summary, Profiles IV and VI , which each
I 7 1st tangential contribute energy to only one mode, produce the
II 0 Stable strongest oscillations. Profiles I and III share
III 11 1st tangential
available energy between two modes and hence
IV 13 1st radial
V 0 Stable the oscillations are weaker. However, Profile III
VI 40 1st tangential exhibits stronger oscillations than Profile I
because the energy release pattern in that case
more heavily favors the preferred tangential
mode. In contrast , Profiles II and V produce
smaller amount of energy released in Region C stable operation. The reasons for this behavior are
tends to sustain the tangential mode. If the radial not the same in both cases . Profile V is stable
mode were predominant for this chamber one because its energy is released in a location that
would have anticipated resonant combustion in does not readily excite either tangential or radial
that mode . When the energy distribution is modes. Profile II , however, does not provide
reversed (i.e., large energy release in Region C, sufficient energy release in the preferred location
small amounts in Region A) , as shown in Profile for the radial mode to initiate resonant combustion
III, reasonably strong tangential mode oscilla- at that higher mode (frequency is 2.1 times the
tions result . Comparisons between the Profile II first tangential mode) .
and III results indicate that the first tangential More recent experimental work584,13 using a
mode (the lowest transverse mode) is apparently liquid rocket engine has further indicated the
preferred . importance of pressure effects and mass flux.
Profiles IV, V , and VI ( again referring to Fig. The injection density distribution variations
distribution
2 2
function
Steep ramp
Injection
Steep hump
density
Flat
Flat
Moderate Moderate
ramp hump
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Injection radius , ri/rc
FIGURE 7.2.5b.-GEMSIP injection distributions .

utilized in that experimental program are shown a pressure coefficient would correlate the results ,
in Fig. 7.2.5b . They were achieved by adjusting but that the radial velocity coefficient would not.
the number of elements in each row, while keeping It appears that the control of the transverse
the orifice sizes and the total number of elements energy release distribution via local injection
very nearly constant . The flat distribution was density variations can be utilized to obtain stable
designed for a constant injection density (flow operation of liquid rocket engines . There are
rate per unit injector face area) across the limitations, however, in that detrimental per-
injector face. The ramp distributions were formance and heat transfer changes may take
designed to give a linear variation of injection place (see Sects . 2.5 and 8.5.3 ) thereby restricting
density , with the maximum at the smallest the selection of local injection density based on
injection radius. The hump patterns were designed stability alone .
to provide the maximum injection density at the
mid-radius location . Two variations of each ramp 7.2.6 Boundary Effects *
and hump distribution were tested with the results
7.2.6.1 The boundary region . -The boundary
shown in Table 7.2.5b . Agreement with Table
regions include all regions adjacent to the com-
7.2.5a data is evident ; the steep hump (Profile V bustor inner surfaces-the chamber and nozzle
is similar) was stable with respect to bomb- walls , the injector face, and the baffle surfaces if
induced perturbations. Again , the injection dis- the engine is so equipped . The concern for good
tribution with the least energy at the pressure
engine durability leads to injector designs that
antinode was shown to be the most stable.
control the propellant distribution near the
Reardon584 attempted to correlate stability with boundaries in order to decrease heat flow to those
both pressure and velocity coefficients derived
using the time lag concept . It was concluded that * R. M. Clayton , Author.
TABLE 7.2.5b .-RESULTS OF GEMSIP INJECTION DISTRIBUTION TESTING
Max Recovery Predominant

Distribution Pulse Stability amplitude, time frequency Predominant
typea psi (if stable), (if unstable) , modeb
msec cps
Steep hump 14 ND Stable 82 4

599
14 ND Stable 222
100 ND Stable 504 10
Moderate hump 100 ND Stable 598
100 ND Unstable 518 3800 1R
None Unstable 70 d1200 IT
Flat 100 ND Stable 667 15
220 ND Unstable 562 3700 1R
770
Moderate ramp 100 ND Unstable 595 3800 1R

Steel ramp 40 T Stable 155
80 T Stable 352
220 Unstable 795 3600 1R
a
T, tangential pulse, fired during the starting transient ; ND, nondirectional bomb, fired at steady state ; number indi-
cates charge size in grains of powder or explosive.
bR, 1st radial mode ; 1T, 1st tangential.
• Low amplitude 1T oscillations were present at the time the bomb was fired.
d Normal frequency of the 1T mode (in an unbaffled chamber) is 1900 cps .
surfaces.677 Regardless of how such control is constant flux for the main flow; although it was
achieved (by film, barrier, transpiration , or realized that normal spray divergence from the
combined cooling techniques ) , the combustion main elements produces overlap into the boundary
properties near the boundary influence the engine's annulus and that separation effects in the main
performance147 and its high frequency combustion flow sprays147 further modify the actual near-wall
stability. distribution .
As discussed in Sect . 7.2.5 , the effect of trans- Typical pressure records obtained for two
versely nonuniform injection distribution on measurement locations near the chamber corner
incipient tangential modes has been assessed for (i.e., in the proximity of the chamber-wall-to-
both linear and nonlinear perturbations, with the injector-face junction ) are compared for three
result that decreasing the unreacted mass flux configurations of this injector in Fig. 7.2.6b.
in the outer radius of the chamber cross These two measurement locations are illustrated
section has a stabilizing influence against those. because the most severe transients for the rotating
modes of nonsteady combustion. But just how mode are found in this region.152 The pressure
significant is the very outer environment-the wall measurements were made using ablatively-cooled ,
boundary region? flush-mounted Kistler instrumentation and high
There are no published analyses emphasizing response tape recording techniques described
this aspect of the stability problem , although it is in Ref. 151 .
established practice for engine developers to vary For the full injector , the tangentially traveling
the placement and flow of injection elements in wave exhibited a shock-like frontal structure,
the proximity of wall and baffle surfaces. Signifi- having over an 800 psi pressure rise above the
cant improvements in combustion stability have base pressure of 70 psig and a period of 690 usес
been observed by these trial and error methods, for 360° of rotation . With the boundary flow
but "fixes" devised for one engine design rarely deleted both the amplitude and the wave sharp-
produce the same results for another. Thus , most ness decreased markedly , and a somewhat greater
of the results to date are from rating procedures period (decreased propagation velocity ) was
(Chapter 10 ) performed on injection arrange- obtained. On the other hand, with main flow
ments used in operational designs and thus fail to deleted (nozzle barely choked ) the boundary flow
provide a well-defined insight into the actual itself sustained a sharp , higher velocity wave of
importance of the near-wall environment on nearly the same amplitude as for main flow only.
stability. It was also noted that no preferential spin direc-
Recently, experiments were conducted in- tion was observed , apparently as a result of the
vestigating the influence of wall boundary effects axially symmetric propellant distribution .
on fully-developed , spinning tangential waves . 148,154 This engine exhibited a popping phenomenon
The resonance and its initiation was of a highly under certain conditions and was dynamically
nonlinear nature involving either nondirectional unstable to these self-generated pressure pulses
bombs or the spontaneous "popping" phenomenon as well as to bomb pulses when the injector was
(Sect . 7.6 ) . Two results will be discussed : ( 1 ) the not equipped with baffles. Ultimately it was
effect of the boundary flow injection on the wave determined that the popping was associated
characteristics of an 18-inch engine ,148 and ( 2 ) with unsteady impingement processes in the
some effects on the wave properties for an 11-inch system . 149,618
engine having a nonuniform injection distribution The second set of experiments was conducted
in the circumferential direction.154 using an 11 -inch diameter engine producing
The injector design (Fig. 7.2.6a ) used to obtain 20,000 lbf thrust for a nominal 300 psia chamber
the first result was based on a concept that flow pressure with N2O4 and A-50 propellants. The
from each concentric row of elements would feed injector had no provision for separately con-
proportionately sized annular areas of the cham- trolled boundary flow conditions, but comprised
ber. Therefore , deletion of boundary flow was an arrangement of identical unlike-impinging
considered to reduce the local flux for the boundary doublet elements producing a nonuniform pro-
annulus ( in. wide) to zero while retaining a pellant distribution near the wall. The distribution
(a ) Main Overall
Boundary
Parameter
F F F 0
Flow rate , Ibm /s 22.98 48.48 3.48 4.44 26.46 52.92
Injector Ap , psi 120 108 96 -
(manifold to chamber) 129
Injection velocity , ft/s 86 58 92 68
Mixture ratio 2.11 1.27 * 2.00
Fraction of total flow 0.90 0.10 1.00
Number of injector 84 24 108
elements and dia. , in. 0.101 0.142 0.073 0.073
Conditions : At 127.7 in.2 Pc = 100 psia
Ee = 2. 95 Fexp 14,700 lbf
Ec = 2.00
Satisfies uniform mixing criterion ( Ref. 613)

N204 /A-50 propellants
Main fuel
orifice typical
(b) Flex line typical for 84 orifices
for 84 main flow
oxidizer orifices
60° typ.
0.625 |
Main fuel 18.04
Main
oxidizer 2.50
-0.125
Inner and outer
boundary manifolds
0.23
Injector face Chamber
(c ) Boundary Outer row of

elements main elements
(I row ) (6 concentric
rows)
(a) Design conditions.

(b) Design geometry.
(c) Face photograph.
FIGURE 7.2.6a . - Basic design of JPL 18-inch-diameter research injector .
Configuration Chamber wall ; = 0.56 in . from face Injector face ; r = 8.01 in.
6 μ sec ·6 μ sec T
Full 845 psi 592 psi
injector
687 μ sec 687 sec
Main flow 450 psi 260 psi

only
778 μ sec 778 sec
210 psi
SE
Boundary flow No pressure record obtained
only 660 μ sec-
Time
FIGURE 7.2.6b .- Typical pressure records for near the chamber corner for various near-wall propellant distributions.
JPL 18-inch-diameter cylindrical engine with N2O , and A-50.
at a plane 2.13 inches from the impingement plane on mass distribution at the wall seems to be
is shown in Fig . 7.2.6c . dominant for the nonlinear wave observed.
Two dominant characteristics were observed Relatively little effort has been expended in this
for this combustor when the wave was initiated country to applying two-phase detonation theory
by a nondirectional 13.5 grain bomb placed near to the combustion stability problem, particularly
the wall at various circumferential locations with with regard to the early reaction region of the
respect to the injector . These characteristics are boundary environment (i.e. , near the chamber
summarized in Fig . 7.2.6c where they are com- corner) . Based on linearized acoustical theory, the
pared to the assumed injected mass distribution . frequency of the spinning modes discussed has
This comparison shows that : been within 15% of the expected values . But this
1. The regions exhibiting maximum local theory does not explain the nearly instantaneous
wave velocity (shown as the ratio of local development of the high amplitude, shock-like
to average wave velocity Vw/Vwm ) appear nature of popping, bomb pulses, or the fully-
where propellant impingement on the wall developed wave, when propellant is in close
is most probable and where wave motion is proximity with the wall. It is well-known that
nearly "broadside" to the element spray detonation waves can be supported in fuel droplet
patterns. fields. More recently the work of Dabora , et al.209
2. The velocity profiles for the respective has demonstrated that a fuel film on the walls
directions of motion are nearly mirror of a detonation tube will also support a wave .
images of each other. Thus the application of theory for shock propaga-
3. The direction of rotation coincides with tion along curved surfaces with the attendant
the direction from the bomb to the nearest wave interactions with a high energy combustion
high-velocity region. field is suggested as a supportive mechanism for
Reardon et al.583 have investigated transverse the destructive spinning modes ( also see Sect .
gas displacement effects on linear transverse mode 3.4.3.3 ) .
stability, but the connection between their results In summary, an attempt has been made to show
concerning spray displacement and the above is the trend of the impact of the boundary environ-
not clear. It is reasonable to expect that the size of ment on the combustion stability problem. It was
the orifice elements used here (0.173 inch diam- seen that for the traveling tangential wave, the
eter) yields significant stream separation effects so conditions near the wall serve to shape the wave
that the circumferential spray distribution near form , and to modify amplitude and period of
the walls would be nominally oxidizer-rich from rotation. The direction of the trend is , in general,
0° to 180° ( Fig . 7.2.6c ) and vice versa from 180° contrary to the conditions desirable for minimizing
to 360° , yet no clear dependence of the wave on the heat flux to the wall, in that the presence of
these gradients is apparent-rather, a dependency barrier or film fuel-rich flow sharpens and amplifies
330° 30°
Vw/Vwm CCW WAVE

CW WAVE TRAVEL
TRAVEL-
BOMB LOCATION
AND RESULTING
WAVE TRAVEL
(TYP )
300° 60°
270° 90°
FUEL
0.8 (TP)
OXIDIZER
(TYP)
240° 120°
1.4
CHAMBER WALL
1.6
210° 180° 150°
FIGURE 7.2.6c .-Comparison of tangential velocity variation with injection distribution, and of bomb position with
sustained wave-travel direction. JPL 11 -inch-diameter research engine with N2O4 and A-50.
the wave. Wave excitation effects have not been boundary injection apparently degrades engine
illuminated here, but it is difficult to believe that stability, it is generally necessary to enhance
nonlinear precipitating disturbances would not chamber wall endurance . What, then, are some of
be affected in the same manner as the fully- the major considerations for achieving control
developed wave properties. of this environment? Two categories of control
considerations will be discussed : (1) degraded
7.2.6.2 Boundary control factors. -As was shown mass and mixture ratio distribution due to poorly
in Sect. 7.2.6.1 , the wall-boundary environment controlled injection properties, and (2) combus-
has a significant influence on tangential wave tion effects which can modify not only the
properties. Although the presence of fuel-rich intended primary mixing processes of the boundary
injection, but which may also cause unintentional dicted to have a pronounced influence on the onset
interactions with the adjacent main flow environ- of separation . Thus , for example, it would be
ment. expected that changing propellant temperature
For the first category, consider the boundary could drastically alter the near-wall conditions
flow as an annular zone completely isolated from for a typical barrier-controlled wall environment.
mixing with the main flow environment. In order Furthermore, engine operation near incipient
to achieve the desired uniform mass and mixture separation conditions would be predicted to
ratio , it is geometrically convenient to arrange produce sporadic combustion variations. There-
the boundary injection scheme so as to align the fore, a randomly occurring cause of pops is
major axis of the resultant spray patterns chord- suggested which has effectively the same signifi-
ally. For the unlike-impinging doublet element, cance as a hydraulically unstable jet .
the arrangement shown in Fig. 7.2.6a is typical. If the boundary zone is now allowed to interact
Besides the obvious requirement of proper element with the adjacent main stream zone, it is apparent
spacing and uniform flow rates , the distribution of that the near-wall environment can be further
mixture ratio and mass in the resultant sprays is modified . One obvious mechanism which increases
crucial . For this orientation of the elements , there such interactions is, again, separation effects
is little opportunity for secondary mixing of the which are even more likely to occur for the main
boundary propellants ; hence the initial com- elements since they are usually larger than the
position distribution in the sprays will essentially barrier flow elements. Thus regardless of the
fix the subsequent axial condition . separated condition of the barrier, main spray
A design criterion for optimizing the mixture divergence into the boundary zone is an important
ratio distribution and methods of determining consideration. A complementary "crosswind"
mass distributions for impinging jets (in the mechanism through which these zone interactions
absence of stream separation effects ) were dis- can be produced has been analyzed by Conn
cussed in Sect . 2.3 , and it is evident that poorly- et al.168 and is discussed in Sect . 8.5.3.2.
controlled impinging elements (either from fabrica- Both the separation and crosswind (radial
tion errors or poor hydraulic design ) will seriously wind) mechanisms, insofar as they can
degrade the attainment of the desired uniform applied to the near-wall environment, have the
boundary conditions . From a combustion stability potential of providing insight to design factors
viewpoint, the occurrence of the popping phe- which control the boundary region.
nomenon has been related to leaks , hydraulically
unstable orifice flow,705 and unstable impingement
7.3 EFFECT OF PROPELLANT COMBINATION
processes . 149,618 Nonuniformly distributed heat
ON STABILITY*
transfer and wall compatibility also have been
related to nonuniform boundary conditions.168,620 Although the propellant combination for a
The second category of effects which can given engine is normally selected on the basis of
modify the intended boundary environment specific impulse, heat transfer, cost , and handling
involves both stream separation effects and considerations, the effects of the physical and
secondary mixing between the boundary and chemical properties of the propellants on com-
main zones . Analyses and experiments on the bustion stability should not be neglected . Un-
separation phenomena364.416 have indicated that fortunately, systematic investigations of pro-
the dominant controlling factors are related to pellant effects have seldom been attempted . There
propellant reactivity, element size scale, and was considerable early emphasis on propellants,
stagnation pressure in the interfacial region of but recent efforts have concentrated on the
impingement. The correlating parameter has been injection pattern . For the most part, available
termed contact time and is defined as the ratio of data on propellant effects are difficult to interpret
stream diameter to stream velocity. In general, because of the strong influence of the injection
larger contact times increase the separation pattern, and the interaction of these two effects
effect . For the nitrogen tetroxide/hydrazine
system , initial propellant temperature is pre- * F. H. Reardon, Author.
has not been systematically examined . It is well near-critical and super-critical than those studied
known that propellant properties are extremely extensively at low pressure. It should also be
significant in some instances. However, an equal mentioned that the compressibility of the liquid
number of cases show no discernible influence of propellants , which influences the injection rate in
propellant properties . nonsteady operation, is a property that must be
Propellant combinations are commonly grouped considered not only in low frequency stability,
into three classes, according to the temperature but also in engine systems where the feed rate can
range in which they exist in the liquid phase. couple with the acoustic modes of the combustion
These classes are chamber.
1. cryogenic propellants , which are liquid only The most important chemical properties of
at temperatures well below normal ambient liquid propellants are those related to liquid-phase
temperatures, reactivity and monopropellant ( exothermic ) de-
2. composition. It has been demonstrated that rapid .
earth-storable, or simply storable pro-
reactions between liquid propellants can lead to
pellants, which are liquids at normal
temperatures, and inefficient mixing and hence to strong mixture
3. cryogenic-storable combinations, in which
. ratio gradients in the combustion zone. Decom-
position, which is often sensitive to catalytic
one of the propellants is cryogenic , the
other storable. effects , has also been shown to have a strong
influence on the overall burning rate .
For convenience, the discussion of the effects of The following nomenclature pertains to Sect . 7.3 :
propellant combination on combustion stability
will be organized around this classification fpref. "Preferred " frequency of unsteady com-
scheme. bustion process
In general , physical properties are much more T Sensitive combustion time lag (Sect . 4.2)
important than chemical properties in liquid . Tc Contact time
propellant rocket combustion stability, consistent
with the thin-flame character of droplet burning
7.3.1 Cryogenic Propellants
at the pressures encountered in rocket combustion
chambers. Even for gaseous-propellant rockets , The only cryogenic propellant combination .
Zucrow, Osborn and Bonnell775 have demonstrated that has been tested extensively, and somewhat
that unless the propellants are premixed , chemical systematically, is oxygen hydrogen . Research and
factors are not important . It is reasonable that this development studies have made use of several
result should be generally applicable also to types of injection and rather wide ranges of
liquid-propellant rockets. However, where the operating conditions. Fluorine has been proposed
fuel has monopropellant characteristics or where for use with hydrogen for higher steady-state
the propellants react strongly in the liquid phase performance , but no useful stability data has been
(hypergolic propellants ) , chemical properties can reported . A small amount of information has been
have a substantial influence on the overall com- obtained for propellant combinations involving a
bustion response . mixture of fluorine and oxygen ( FLOX) as
Physical properties that are important in oxidizer with various light hydrocarbon fuels ,
combustion dynamics include the liquid density, such as methane, ethane, propane, butane,
viscosity, and surface tension, which, along with and butene.
gas density and injection velocity, control the In general, the physical properties of the
drop size distribution ( Sect . 2.2 ) . The vapor cryogenics are of much greater importance than
pressure and heat of vaporization have been the chemical properties , since they all have
shown to be significant properties in nonsteady relatively low critical pressures and temperatures,
droplet vaporization . With the recent trend to are not hypergolic, and do not act as mono-
very high chamber pressure, the critical properties propellants . Fluorine is an exception ; its highly
are of growing importance, since burning mecha- reactive nature may lead to some of the com-
nisms , even in steady state, are different for bustion characteristics observed with the storable
propellants (see below) . However, this expecta- binations, correlated on the basis of the non-
tion remains to be verified experimentally. cryogenic fuel parameters . One must conclude
that oxygen/hydrogen, from the point of view of
7.3.1.1 Oxygen/hydrogen (LOX/LH2) .— Be-
cause of its very low critical pressure ( 188 psia) the combustion response , is not fundamentally
different from other nonhypergolic propellant
and temperature (60° R) , hydrogen enters the
combustion chamber in nearly all cases as a super- combinations.
Extensive testing at the NASA Lewis Research
critical gas. Hence the combustion response is
Center has shown that decreasing the hydrogen
controlled by oxygen droplets burning in a
hydrogen-rich atmosphere.681 Since the critical injection temperature tends to produce high
frequency instability, spontaneously initiated.719
pressure of oxygen is only 738 psia, supercritical
combustion is common, particularly in launch The stability limit temperature has been found
vehicle applications. by these workers to be much more sensitive and
For most liquid propellants, the combustion reproducible than the threshold amplitude of a
process exhibits a "preferred frequency " char- bomb-induced perturbation. The explanation for
acteristic , that is, under oscillating conditions , this temperature-sensitivity of the oxygen/hy-
drogen combustion process has recently been
the amplitude of the burning rate perturbation
attributed to the effect of hydrogen compressi-
reaches a maximum at a characteristic frequency
bility on the injection dynamics. That is, de-
(Sect . 3.4 ) . This frequency is related to the
sensitive time lag T7 defined by Crocco (Sect . 4.2) creasing the temperature increases the density,
by thus decreasing the injection velocity and reducing
the injector impedance, allowing the hydrogen
1
fpref. = injection rate to oscillate in response to the
2T chamber pressure . The oscillating injection rate
Hefner, Reardon and Smith333 correlated experi- leads to an oscillation in the burning rate , which
mental stability data for chamber pressures from tends to enhance the pressure oscillation . In
agreement with this concept is the additional
300 to 2500 psia in terms of the sensitive time lag.
They found that 7p -1/3 for chamber pressures experimental result that increasing the mean
below the critical pressure of oxygen, whereas 7 hydrogen injection velocity increases the stability
limit temperature .
was independent of pressure for supercritical
However, the hydrogen temperature approach
operation. * This result seems to be in general
has not been universally accepted as the best
agreement with the theoretical and experimental
determinations of droplet burning times at sub- stability rating technique for these propellants .
Other workers have found bombs and pulse guns
and supercritical pressures (Sect . 2.4) . That is,
to be equally successful. Moreover, hysteresis
for quasi-steady combustion in a quiescent
behavior was observed in the testing of a large
atmosphere, it has been found that the ratio of
(42-inch diameter) combustor.215 When the tem-
the burning time at supercritical pressure to the
perature was reduced, the stability limit was
burning time at low pressure is proportional to
found to be 80° R, but then the temperature had
p /3 . However , studies of nonsteady burning at
to be increased to 105° R before the combustion
high pressure have not yet been made. The sub-
again became stable. Records of the initiation of
critical time lag behavior found by Hefner,
oscillations shown in Ref. 215 indicate that the
Reardon and Smith is in agreement with the
unsteady vaporization analysis of Heidmann and instability started quite abruptly, as it would
Wieber.346 In fact, the pressure dependence of the have if triggered by a bomb or pulse. Such be-
time lag has been found to correlate with the havior is common with the storable, hypergolic
propellants, but has not been reported elsewhere
pressure dependence of the heat of vaporization of
oxygen. In general, the time lag data, correlated for oxygen/hydrogen.
in terms of oxygen parameters , has been found to
7.3.1.2 FLOX/light hydrocarbons. -Only very
fit in well with data from other propellant com-
preliminary stability information is currently
* See Sect. 6.3.3 for a discussion of these correlations. available for the FLOX/light hydrocarbon pro-
pellants; the indications are that their stability TABLE 7.3.1. - CRITICAL VALUES FOR FLOX /LIGHT
HYDROCARBON PROPELLANTS
behavior is essentially the same as that for other
nonhypergolic propellants. Critical data are
listed in Table 7.3.1 . Thus it is to be expected that Critical Critical
Propellant pressure, temperature,
the fuel will be the controlling propellant in these
atm °R
combinations.
In one investigation , tests were made at 100
psia (6.8 atm. ) with a constant fuel injection . Oxygen 50.1 280
temperature of 180° R.157 Using nine variations of Fluorine 55.0 259
Methane 45.8 343
three basic injection patterns , and relying com-
Ethane 48.2 549
pletely on spontaneous initiation , it was observed 42.0 665
Propane
that methane was most stable , butene most Butane 37.5 765
unstable, and propane was intermediate . Hence Ethylene 50.0 490
the stability trend could be correlated with the Butene 40.0 755
degree of subcooling, the more subcooling, the
more unstable. However, the incidence of in-
initiate vapor-phase combustion . Hydrazine and
stability with butene was not significantly
hydrazine-derivative fuels are also monopro-
different when the injection temperature was pellants , a characteristic that must be taken into.
maintained at 530° R. Such apparently con-
account even in a consideration of bipropellant
tradictory data is not surprising in view of the combustion. It is clear that in a liquid propellant
randomness of the testing, the large number of rocket combustor these chemical factors cannot be
injector patterns, and the fact that the chamber
separated from the hydrodynamic factors asso-
geometry was constant . More systematic studies ciated with the injection processes . Therefore ,
will be required to define the stability char- propellant properties can be expected to have a
acteristics of these propellants with greater significant effect on both the characteristic
certainty. combustion time (or preferred oscillation fre-
7.3.2 Storable Propellants quency) and the response of the combustion
process to disturbances. In fact, one of the out-
Currently, the most widely used storable
standing features of most of the storable pro-
propellant combination is nitrogen tetroxide with
pellant combinations is the tendency to develop
a mixture of 50 % hydrazine and 50 % unsym-
spontaneous, random pressure perturbations ,
metrical dimethylhydrazine ( UDMH ) referred to
which have the appearance of localized explosions,
as A-50. Because of combustion instability and
i.e. , popping and spiking ( see Sect . 7.2.1 ) .
"popping" problems encountered, several other
fuel mixtures , involving monomethylhydrazine 7.3.2.1 Nitrogen tetroxide/50% hydrazine-50%
(MMH) as well as hydrazine and UDMH , have UDMH (N2O4/ A- 50 ) .— Because of its wide use in
been tried, but have not replaced the 50-50 space and weapon systems the N2O4/A-50 pro-
mixture of hydrazine and UDMH in practical pellant combination has received the most study
systems. Other oxidizers have also been tested to determine the tendency toward popping and
with hydrazine-based fuels, including chlorine spiking. The mechanisms of these phenomena, as
trifluoride and chlorine pentafluoride . Pentaborane discussed in Sect . 7.2.1 , depend in some way on the
has received some attention as a storable fuel, complex chemical behavior of this combination of
as have gelled mixtures of hydrazine and powdered propellants. For example , Sawyer629 found that
metals, primarily aluminum. Stability data on the vapor-phase reaction rate of nitrogen tetroxide
these alternative propellants is, however, ex- with hydrazine varied by a factor of 1000 , de-
tremely limited . pending on whether or not the reactants were
In general, these storable propellants are also allowed to decompose prior to mixing. It is not
hypergolic, i.e. , self-igniting . At ambient condi- surprising, therefore , that changes in the spray
tions , liquid-phase reactions are sufficiently ener- pattern can have dramatic effects on the burning
getic to produce substantial vaporization and rate, leading to random pressure waves.
Nitrogen tetroxide is particularly susceptible to Mixture ratio = 1.2

"hydraulic flip" and other irregular injection
1000 Separation by
stream behavior (see Sect . 2.2.2) because of its gas phase reaction
Pressure
high vapor pressure, which is a sensitive function
p, sia
of temperature . No
separation
Another property of nitrogen tetroxide is its at 160 F
ability to dissolve substantial amounts of helium, 100
120 F
a commonly-used pressurizing gas.396 The solu-
bility is a strong function of pressure and tem- 80 F Separation
perature. Hence bubbles may form in the liquid . by liquid
40 F phase reaction
as it passes through the injector, leading to
irregularities in the flow rate and spray formation. 10 100 1000
Also , with nitrogen tetroxide, it is important to Contact time dj/Vj , microsec .
design the injector passages to avoid eddy regions
FIGURE 7.3.2 . -Stream separation criteria for N2O4/N2H4.
where trapped gases and vapors can accumulate ,
increasing the compliance of the injector . The correlations presented in Sect . 6.3 indicate that
result of this increased injector compliance (or differences between the characteristic combustion
capacitance) is to eliminate the stabilizing effect time between unlike-impinging injector types
of the feed system pressure drop upstream of the (e.g., doublet, triplet, pentad ) and even between
injector, with the increased possibility of low impinging and nonimpinging types are of the same
frequency instability. order of magnitude as the scatter in the data
With hypergolic propellants , spray formation is (Fig . 6.3.30 ) . In part, this results from the fact
closely linked with the chemical behavior. Evans, that the data was obtained largely from develop-
Stanford, and Riebling252 found that separation of mental testing. However, such behavior is to be
impinging streams of nitrogen tetroxide and A-50 expected also on the basis of stream separation.
because of liquid phase reactions was important Non-hypergolic propellants ( Fig . 6.3.3c) showed a
for stream sizes greater than about 0.050 in . substantial difference between the characteristic
Analytical studies, backed by some laboratory times for unlike-impinging and nonimpinging
data, have yielded a separation criterion in terms types for orifice diameters less than 0.100 in . ,
of a contact time
reflecting the improved atomization and mixing
d; produced by impingement. It is also interesting
Tc
V₁ to note that for a given injection orifice size the
hypergolic propellants show a somewhat larger
where d; is the jet diameter, and V ; is the jet characteristic time than the non-hypergolic ones .
(injection ) velocity . If the contact time is greater Other trends ( e.g. , with chamber pressure , orifice
than a characteristic chemical reaction time, the diameter, chamber Mach number ) are similar for
streams will separate. Kushida and Houseman415
the two kinds of propellant combination , in-
found liquid phase reactions controlling at low dicating their common dependence on the mecha-
pressures and short contact times, whereas gas nism of droplet combustion ( Sect . 3.4 ) .
phase reactions controlled separation at high
pressures and long contact times, as shown in 7.3.2.2 Other storable propellants. -In general,
Fig. 7.3.2 . Operation at a condition of marginal no large differences have been found between the
separation is undesirable , since the general stability characteristics of the different storable
unsteadiness associated with typical injection propellant combinations . Some attempts have
streams produce irregularly alternating been made to compare the popping incidence and
separation and mixing, with consequent fluc- response to perturbations for nitrogen tetroxide
tuations in the burning rate . with amine fuels other than A-50. When tested
Stream separation can be an important factor in with two typical injector patterns, both MMH
determining the preferred frequency of the and a 50-50 blend of hydrazine and MMH
combustion process . The sensitive time lag (M - 50) were slightly less sensitive to perturba-
tions (natural and artificial ) and MMH appeared combustor was obtained simply by gelling the
to have a slightly smaller incidence of popping hydrazine. Moreover, the damping times of the
combined with smaller pop amplitudes.729 Other disturbances and the limiting amplitudes of
recent data indicate that the resonant frequency sustained oscillations were nearly independent of
associated with hydrazine combustion is somewhat the particle additive type, size, and concentration
higher, for a given injection orifice size, than either (which varied from 10 % to 43 % of the fuel ) .
A-50 or MMH.4b The stability improvement was attributed to the
Laboratory efforts to influence the combustion effect of the gelling agent in the inhibition of fuel
characteristics of liquid hydrazine showed that atomization and droplet breakup . On the other
small amounts ( 1% to 2% ) of such additives as hand, a laboratory investigation in which alu-
water, pyridine, MMH , and UDMH could minum powder was added to the gas phase showed
produce approximately 10 % burning rate de- definite stabilizing effects of the aluminum when
creases.119 Water was the most effective additive ; the concentration was greater than 0.02 % (in all
10% water caused a 60 % burning rate reduction. cases it was less than 1 % ) of the fuel.342 The
However, these tests were conducted at pressures differing results of these two studies may be due to
well below those of interest in rocket combustion, the size and spatial distribution of the particles ,
and under stagnant ( actually free convection) since Dobbins and Temkin228 have shown that
conditions. As Sawyer629 has indicated , because of strong damping effects are possible because of
the pressure dependence of the complex set of solid particles in the chamber (Sect . 8.5.2 ) .
chemical reactions involved in the nitrogen
tetroxide/hydrazine combustion process, it is 7.3.3 Cryogenic-Storable Combinations
doubtful that studies carried out at pressures Historically, propellant combinations consisting
below 2 atmospheres can yield data of significance of one cryogenic and one storable propellant were
for rocket combustors operating at 6 atmospheres among the earliest used . Most commonly, the
and above . In addition , it has been shown that oxidizer in such combinations is liquid oxygen,
convection effects are dominant, rather than although recent attention has been given to liquid
chemical kinetics, when the ratio of the relative fluorine. Fuels used with oxygen have included
velocity to drop diameter is greater than about alcohol, pure hydrocarbons such as heptane and
1000 sec ¹ . For a drop size of 200μ, the chemical octane , hydrocarbon blends such as JP-4, RP- 1 ,
effects should not be controlling for relative and hydrazine and its derivatives. The most
velocities above one foot-per- second .On the popular combination for production engines has
other hand , at least one investigation , involving a been liquid oxygen/RP- 1 .
production-type engine, demonstrated that water Just as with the other two classes of pro-
was effective in eliminating hard start char- pellants, it is difficult to separate the effects on
acteristics observed with nitrogen tetroxide/A- 50 stability of the propellant properties from those
propellants. of the injection scheme. Moreover, most of the
Addition of small amounts of aluminum powder investigations were made using fixed-geometry
has been found to be an effective method of combustion chambers. The results of such studies
suppressing combustion instability in many solid are difficult to generalize , since an improvement
propellant rocket motors . A few attempts have in stability may be caused either by an increase or
been made to apply the same technique to liquid decrease in the characteristic time of the com-
propellant rockets . In one study, aluminum and bustion process, or by a decrease in the sensitivity
.
aluminum oxide powders were added to hydrazine to disturbances . Therefore , it is possible only to
and fired with nitrogen tetroxide in a moderate- determine whether or not propellant properties
size combustor.404 A gelling agent, Carbopol 940 , have any significant influence . Beyond that, any
was used to ensure that the solid particles re- conclusions must be regarded as speculative .
mained well dispersed throughout the hydrazine . Pass and Tischler534 used an injection pattern
The stability of the combustor was rated by use of consisting of a hollow-cone fuel spray between two
bombs of varying sizes (see Sect . 10.2 ) . It was axial jets of liquid oxygen to study the effects of
found that an increase in the stability of the fuel type . The incidence of spontaneous, first
longitudinal mode instability was correlated with the combustion process is seen also in the sensitive
relative evaporation rate and with laminar flame time lag correlations assembled by Reardon.581
speed, to the extent that such data were available. The time lag was correlated with chamber pres-
Their results showed that the physical properties sure, Mach number, and injector orifice diameter.
that made for higher evaporation rate led also to For the cryogenic-storable propellants, very
higher incidence of instability. A moderate little data variation can be attributed to pro-
increase in the instability rate with increasing pellant properties, even with such diverse fuels as
gaseous flame speed was also observed . Regarding hydrazine, ethyl alcohol, and RP- 1 . In fact , for
the chemical type of the fuel, straight- and non-coaxial injector elements, all-cryogenic data
branched-chain paraffins and alicyclics had high fit into the cryogenic-storable correlation , pro-
evaporation rates, alcohol and amines had low vided that oxygen parameters, rather than
evaporation rates, and aromatics were inter- hydrogen, are used as independent variables.
mediate. For a given evaporation rate , straight- The preceding remarks , of course , are intended
chain paraffins and aromatics were more unstable to apply to large-scale trends. In certain , some-
than branched-chain paraffins and alicyclics. what marginal cases, a change in propellant
A similar investigation of the effect of fuel type characteristics can cause a substantial alteration
on stability with the propellant combination of stability . Such tendencies can best be in-
liquid oxygen/hydrocarbon was reported by vestigated by use of dynamic stability rating
Greenfield.297 The combustor was a large cylin- techniques ( Chapter 10 ) . For example, Weiss727
drical chamber with a very high contraction ratio employed the tangential pulse method to study
(to keep the thrust level low) , with injection the effect of adding small amounts ( up to 15 % )
concentrated near a circle having a radius of of Hyballine A14 ( CH₁7NH2Al ( BH4 ) 3 ) to the fuel
the chamber radius. Tangential mode instability in a liquid oxygen/RP- 1 combustor . Increasing
was initiated by means of a steady flow of nitrogen amounts of Hyballine produced increasing sta-
gas (Sect. 10.4 ) . The higher the nitrogen flow bility, as determined by shorter damping times of
required, the more stable was the propellant pulse-induced perturbations . The stabilizing effect
combination. It was found that the data could be was greater at low mixture ratios . Because of the
correlated with the product of fuel density and limited scope of the test program, it is not possible
surface tension . This product was taken to to determine the nature of the stabilizing effect,
represent the degree of fuel atomization , with a although it is known that Hyballine is much more
larger product corresponding to a larger fuel reactive than RP- 1 and is hypergolic with most
droplet size . The test results showed that in- oxidizers .
creasing droplet size was associated with better For all three classes of propellant combination,
stability (for that chamber, first tangential mode) . the effects of propellant properties on stability
It was also observed that the data fell into three have not been thoroughly or systematically
groups, according to fuel chemical type . Paraffinics explored . Chemical characteristics appear to enter
were most stable, naphthenics intermediate , and only in determining whether the fuel and oxidizer
unsaturates least stable . In addition , the paraffinics are hypergolic or if the fuel can act as a mono-
showed the strongest dependence on atomization , propellant. Physical properties, particularly of
the unsaturates the weakest . The difficulty of the less volatile propellant, help to determine drop
generalizing purely empirical stability trends is size and hence droplet burning rate . However, the
illustrated by the fact that later tests in somewhat injection pattern is at least as significant as the
different combustion chambers failed to show any propellant combination in determining the nature
effect of propellant combination.425 These later of the combustion dynamics.
tests used ( 1 ) a high-thrust chamber of the same
diameter as the low-thrust unit , and ( 2 ) a two-
7.4 INJECTOR PATTERN *
dimensional chamber of the same width as the
cylindrical ones (see Sect. 9.2) . The grouping of propellant orifices into injector
The lack of strong propellant effects on the elements and the arrangement of these elements .
characteristic time (or preferred frequency) of over the injector face are termed the injector
pattern . The injector pattern determines the mode of instability often involves a very detailed
propellant spray characteristics and, therefore , study of the feed system whereas the complex
the combustion response characteristics . Solutions combustion processes are described only by one
to combustion instability problems almost always or two simple time delays. With this kind of
involve variation of the injector pattern to achieve analysis, the only useful conclusions likely to be
spray characteristics which will yield stable com- reached must largely involve the feed system and
bustion response in the particular engine . This not the injector pattern . The usual conclusion
section discusses the effects of variations in (re-established in practice at least once a year) is
injector pattern on combustion instability. that the injector impedance should be sufficiently
The following nomenclature pertains to Sect . 7.4 : high (see Sect . 7.5.1 ) .
Often the effect of chamber pressure phenomena
Ca Orifice discharge coefficient
on feed system coupled modes has been neglected
fu Injection density distribution func-
in the design phase . As a result this form of
tion, μ/μm
instability has continued to plague engine de-
ΔΡ Injector-chamber pressure drop
velopment programs in recent years. Some
<10
Injection density
important aspects of the injector design and the
Impingement angle
THtrans role played in the feed system coupled modes will
Hydrogen transition temperature for
be discussed in this chapter, however, Chapters
resonant combustion
3 and 5 should be consulted for further details .
Injection effects on the excitation of resonant
7.4.1 General Considerations†
combustion have been studied for many years in
The definition of combustion instability includes rocket chambers and in related combustion
both high frequency instability (for example, devices. These effects are often very complex and
Chapter 4) and feed system coupled modes of hence are often only partially understood and
instability (Chapter 5 ) . There is some question therefore the governing mechanisms remain in
whether this artificial separation into specific question. One point of general agreement from the
types of instability should be made . To date , theories discussed in Chapter 4 is that droplet
largely to simplify analysis , such a separation size and propellant distribution are important.
nevertheless has been maintained . However, the relationships between these spray
Feed system coupled modes of instability are parameters and the injector geometry are also
largely controlled by the response of the com- very complex and much still is to be learned .
bustion to oscillatory flow from the injector. The Most theories show that the spray droplet
injector pattern determines the spray char- mean size (and distribution) controls both the
acteristics which establish this response . In frequency of maximum combustion response and
particular, the injector pattern determines the the magnitude of that response . In general, both
"flight time" of propellants from the injector to the frequency and the magnitude of the response
the impingement point and the subsequent decrease as the mean drop size increases. A
atomization, mixing and combustion processes . decrease in magnitude should always be a sta-
The dynamics of the feed system are also an bilizing influence . A decrease in response fre-
integral part of feed system coupled modes. quency, however, may only shift the predomi-
Because the feed system can be analyzed rather nantly unstable mode to a mode of lower frequency .
easily, the usual analysis of a feed system coupled If the original unstable mode is the fundamental,
however, there is no lower frequency mode and a
* O. W. Dykema, Section Editor. Contributions from decrease in response frequency would also be a
C. J. Abbe, H. L. Burge, J. Campbell , Jr. , E. C. Clinger, stabilizing effect . No stability investigation is
D. T. Harrje, J. J. Lovingham, A. I. Masters, J. M. complete without consideration of the mode of
McBride, J. M. Senneff, A. J. Smith, Jr. , and J. P. Wan- instability .
hainen.
For the reader interested in an overall view of the The empirical correlations of mean spray drop
various injector characteristics, the summary of each sec- size and distribution to injectory geometry are
tion that follows is presented in italics. limited both in the range of injector variables and
the element types studied . Almost all correlations vestigate only a limited range of injector design
have been obtained in cold flow, with simulated parameters, within the framework of limited
propellants, in atmospheric environments . Thus , hardware, operating conditions and propellant
such major effects as hydraulic flip and flow combinations. Often the changes made to the
separation of hypergolic propellants at the parameter under investigation necessarily cause
impingement point are not accounted for . small changes in other parameters which also
In general , there appears to be agreement that affect stability.
the mean spray drop size is proportional to the Few studies set out to confirm a general theory
injector orifice diameter, and inversely propor- of the combined effects of several injector design
tional to the injection velocity, both to some changes. Great care must be exercised , therefore,
fractional power. Thus, the effects of increasing in interpreting the effects of variations in single
drop size on stability , previously mentioned , design factors as observed in a single, limited
could be generally ascribed to increasing orifice experimental program. In the absence of a com-
diameters and/or to decreasing injection velocity. * plete , accurate theory to account for all variations
It is possible that much of the difficulty in under- in such programs, only broad areas of general
standing combustion instability arises directly agreement between theory and experiment and
from the lack of understanding of the relations between experimental programs should be con-
between spray drop size and injector geometry sidered established .
as well as the associated unsteady combustion The results of some of these experimental
phenomena. programs are briefly summarized in this section.
The problem of spray drop size is not involved An attempt is made to show such general agree-
directly in the effects of propellant mass and ment (and disagreement ) which exists between
mixture ratio distributions on stability. In the experimental conclusions and the theoretical
theory, there are two main effects . The first considerations just discussed , or covered in
concerns the efficiency of coupling between the Chapter 4. The experimental studies are separated
combustion and the pressure and/or velocity into unlike- and like-impinging jet , and coaxial
oscillations of the combustion chamber gases . jet element types. These element types represent
This coupling can be minimized by reducing the widely different physical mechanisms for atomiza-
quantity of propellant injected into those regions tion, mixing and distribution of the propellants
of the chamber where the pressure or velocity and might be expected to yield quite different
oscillations are maximum (Sect. 7.2.5 ) . The stability results . Also , two unique injector types,
second effect of mass and mixture ratio dis- representing departures from the conventional
tributions concerns the magnitude of the com- axial injection scheme, are also discussed .
bustion response to transverse gas displacements Injector design is normally constrained by the
(Sect. 3.3.2 ) . This response can be minimized if necessity of achieving high performance, chamber
the propellant burning rates are approximately compatibility and durability of the injector,
the same in the steady-state and the displaced reproducibility in manufacture, and providing
conditions. This is often done, through the injector stable operation.318 These requirements have
pattern, by minimizing transverse mixture ratio resulted in a similarity of the injector designs
gradients. emanating from the various propulsion companies .
Thus, a number of injector design factors are (Further information on the overall injector design
shown, in theory, to have significant effects on is found in Sect . 7.4.3 in the discussion of large
excitation of combustion instability . A wide injectors, see Fig. 7.4.3a . )
variety of experimental programs have been To achieve high performance the important
conducted to evaluate and verify these effects . parameters include the distribution of mass and
In general, each individual program can in- mixture ratio , the sizing of the orifices to achieve
the proper droplet sizes for efficient combustion
and the basic choice of injector type.
* It should be noted that injection velocity affects sta-
bility in other ways as well, such as altering the axial Chamber compatibility and injector durability
combustion profile (Sect. 7.2.4) . involve the control of the combustion environ-
ment . Off-mixture ratio or fuel cooled regions cooling) . In the case of regenerative cooling of
adjacent to chamber walls or baffle surfaces help the baffles this latter region is eliminated.
to regulate the heat transfer. Injection type, With this general injector design in mind, the
element placement , and impingement distances individual characteristics of the various element
are variables that influence the heat transfer to types are considered next . At times in this dis-
the injector face and hence influence injector cussion cross comparisons will be made. The
durability. Vibration levels related to the stability nature ofthe data often necessitates this approach.
of the combustion are also related to durability
7.4.2 Unlike-Impinging Jets
and may influence the heat transfer environment.
Reproducibility is typically a direct result of Unlike-impinging jet elements are characterized
the choice of injector element type, complexity by one or more jets of oxidizer impinging directly
of the pattern, complications introduced by on one or more jets of fuel. Although doublets and
damping devices , etc. triplets have perhaps been the most popular unlike-
When these requirements are all taken into impinging jet element designs, greater numbers of
account the resulting injector will often closely jets (e.g., two-on-two, represented by the quadlet;
resemble that shown in Fig. 7.4.1 . Three distinct or four-on-one such as the pentad) have also been
zones of injection are shown. The core region for highly developed. The point of impingement for
maximum performance, the barrier region (or various designs has ranged anywhere from the
film coolant region) for heat transfer control and injector face (or even behind the face) to distances
the baffle tip region which is necessitated by the normally approaching an inch (in some extreme
coolant requirements of the baffles (dump designs evenfurther downstream) . Unlike-impinging
Baffle tip injection Core zone injection

(typical injector
elements )
000
OO 00 000 000
0 0
00
00 00 O O O
00O
000 000 000 0
00 00
000 000 000
Barrier zone injection

(or film coolant)
FIGURE 7.4.1 . - Typical injector face showing various zones.

jets tend to provide rapid liquid mixing, generate grains of PETN were generally used ) necessitated
mixed specie droplets , and therefore result in com- the incorporation of a baffle. The final flow-
bustion that is characteristically concentrated near through baffle design included both fuel and
the injector face . This has prompted the use of these oxidizer passages where the issuing streams
elements in the smaller engines where combustion impinged to form unlike doublets, thus estab-
must be completed quickly if reasonable performance lishing a third propellant injection zone. The
is to be achieved. three zones were : primary, barrier, and baffle
Two examples of injectors developed by Bell with mixture ratios of 1.80, 1.05 and 1.60 respec-
Aerospace using unlike-impinging jets are de- tively. Additional injector design parameters are
scribed here by J. M. Senneff. Design of injector listed in Table 7.4.2a .
patterns must of course, consider performance, The same general type of injector was also used
durability and compatibility with the combustion on the three-inch diameter engine. The design
chamber walls, as well as combustion stability. was basically a flat face, circumferentially dis-
Some of these specific injector design factors, as tributed, 2-row injector, where the outer row of
well as some observations on stability , are discussed triplets was run at lower mixture ratio to control
here and are representative of typical problems to be chamber wall temperatures. The inner rows were
faced by any injector designer. unlike doublets. The impingement distance was
To meet the stability specification on two 0.250 inch for both rows . This unit was found to
engine programs, an extensive evaluation of the self-trigger at simulated altitudes because of a
stability of unlike triplet and doublet injectors sharp pressure pulse (or spike ) at the initiation of
was conducted at Bell Aerospace . Most of this combustion.
effort was related to achieving dynamic stability During the stability evaluation phase for the
for an 8-inch diameter injector operating at 120 larger injector, which involved several injector
psia chamber pressure . Additional data were modifications, certain variations in injector pattern
obtained from tests on a 3-inch diameter injector were identified that produced a greater degree of
operating at approximately 125 psia. Storable stability but not necessarily dynamic stability.
propellants were used with N2O4 as the oxidizer . For example, the reduction of the number of
Fuel consisted of the 50/50 blend of hydrazine barrier doublets appeared to increase stability.
and UDMH for the 8-inch hardware, * while This modification was accomplished by reducing
MMH was used on the other. Both injectors were to two thirds the number of doublets in the
designed to have equal mass distribution across peripheral pattern. A proportional increase in
the injector surface to reduce radial winds and flow rate was used while all other parameters
recirculation. such as impingement distance and angle were
The eight-inch injector originally provided two held constant . Increasing orifice diameters to
combustion zones, the inner primary zone used maintain Ap resulted in a reduction of orifice
triplets of two-fuel-on-one oxidizer operating at a L/D since L was constant . Another change was an
mixture ratio of 1.89 . The region near the chamber injector modified to alter the radial mass flow
wall consisted of unlike doublets (fuel on the distribution to that of the hump-type (see Sect .
outside ) operating at a mixture ratio of 0.85 . 7.2.5 ) which in this case showed no stability
The sensitivity of this design to bombing (2) improvement . The alteration was accomplished
by reducing the propellants in the outer triplet
* When photographic techniques were used in conjunc- row and near the baffle to 87 % of nominal value .
tion with the 8-inch diameter study, the sprays of droplets
The remaining first , second and third row triplets
under actual operating conditions could be studied (see
Sect. 9.4.4) . The fine droplets observed in both the liga- increased flow to 123 %, 160 % and 104% of the
ment breakup and aerodynamic breakup extended down nominal value respectively .
to the 20 micron size range. These small droplets tend to The result of the study was that to achieve
verify the high rates of combustion actually encountered dynamic stability the final design in the larger
with unlike impingement. Even more important is the
unit required a three-bladed, 14-inch-long baffle
fact that this photographic approach allows droplet size
measurements under the identical environment encoun- supplemented by a 4 -inch circular ring located at
tered in the actual engine. approximately the injector mid-radius. The smaller
TABLE 7.4.2a.-TYPICAL ORIFICE DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR AN UNLIKE-TYPE INJECTOR DESIGN

(SHARP ENTRY CONDITION)
Zone
Parameter Primary (triplet) Barrier (doublet ) Baffle (doublet)
Fuel Oxidizer Fuel Oxidizer Fuel Oxidizer
L/D 4.2 3.5 3.0 5.6 2.6 3.3

3.3 3.5 3.0 5.6 2.6 3.3
Orifice flow angle with &, deg 28 0 30 5 15 15
Impingement distance, in.. 0.403 0.106 0.403
unit employed a toroidal acoustic damper cavity on the stability characteristics of an injector
connected to the chamber by orifices located at element , experimental measurements of the energy
the injector-chamber interface to provide dynamic input to a given system have been determined
stability. indirectly by the measured increase or decrease in
The programs just described immediately intro- pressure amplitude for three systems, a full scale
duced the reader to the complexities of injector engine and two subscale experimental engines. In
design ; the two or three separate zones, the choice of the case of the full scale engine , data are presented
injector elements for each, the necessity in most giving a comparison of decay rates of two in-
cases for damping devices to be present, etc. The jectors in the same chamber. One of the injectors
table provides the actual dimensions and entrance is comprised of elements where two oxidizer jets.
conditions that have been used to control the orifice impinge on two fuel jets ( quadlet ) , whereas the
flow on one engine design so that reproducibility other is a like-on-like pattern ( see Sect . 7.4.3 ) .
between injectors can be maintained. The propellants used are N2O4 and A-50 .
Senneff makes the observation that decreasing the From the data presented in Fig . 7.4.2a it can be
number, and increasing the diameters , of the outer seen that the like-on-like injector has a reduced
row of orifices improved the stability of one injector. response ; the decay rate based on the unfiltered
It is probable that this change increased the droplet traces is approximately 1.5 times that of the
size in the region of highest chamber pressure quadlet injector. The filtered data shows the same
oscillations, near the wall. The stabilizing effects of trend . This result indicates that for injector
increasing drop size were already discussed and will patterns having nearly equal number of elements.
be further documented in the remainder of this the like-impinging injector would be expected to
section. be more stable . These results must be qualified
Looking further into the detailed characteristics of by the theoretical consideration (discussed in
injectors, the existence of a frequency dependent Chapter 4 ) that the frequency at which the
combustion response has been noted by numerous maximum response factor can occur may vary
investigators. The experimental techniques used even though the absolute magnitude of the factor
in such studies are described in Chapter 9. Some of may be the same for two injectors . The conclusion
the program results at Aerojet relating to combustion is that, although the like-impinging injector shows
response are summarized here by J. M. McBride. increased stability over the impinging element in
In order to place some quantitative measure the particular example cited , this may not be true.
2.0
Injection like-on-like Injection quadlet Pentad (4 fuel - I oxid. )
-800 psi ( p- p) Reverse pentad ( 4 oxid . - 1 fuel )
-475 psi (p- p) Mixture ratio 2.1
c/Growth
1.6
ycle
Chamber pressure 100 psia
rate
1500 db/sec 950 db/sec
db
Unfiltered data
1.25
20 Time ms Time ms
20
Filtered 0.8
1100-1400 Hz
Mu ‫لله‬ 0.4
Filtered
1750-2250Hz
300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100
Frequency ( Hz )
Filtered
2250-2800Hz FIGURE 7.4.2b . -Effect of diameter on pressure amplitude
growth rate versus frequency for N2O₁/A-50 impinging
elements .
Filtered
3600-4500Hz
than one sensitive frequency, as can be seen from
Fig. 7.4.2c . A mixture ratio survey (see Fig.
Filtered
4500-5500Hz 7.4.2d) using the same experimental approach
indicates that decreases in mixture ratio for the
propellant combination decreases stability.
Asecond experimental motor has been developed
FIGURE 7.4.2a.- Pressure amplitude decay rates for like- to measure the response of an injector element to
on-like versus quadlet injector elements . transverse modes of instability. The elements
under evaluation consisted of two -oxidizer-on-one-
for a larger engine which would have lower fuel triplets using the cryogenics LOX/H2. The
frequency acoustic modes. limited data available from the tests are pre-
Another study of interest to the designer was sented in Fig . 7.4.2e . Perhaps the most significant
done by McBride and Veglia.474 This is an experi- conclusion which can be reached is that these
mental comparison of two impinging injector injector elements do appear to have a preferred
patterns, one being four-fuels-on-one-oxidizer and frequency and a similar response shape. This
the other four-oxidizers-on-one fuel. The experi- result lends credibility to the physical models
mental results are given in terms of growth rate based on droplets as well as the assumed response
as a function of frequency (Fig . 7.4.2b ) and functions postulated by Crocco (Sect . 4.2 ) .
indicate that the most sensitive frequency This concept of a combustion response, and the
(frequency at which maximum growth occurs ) effect of thrust-per-element (closely related to drop
was reduced by a decrease in fuel orifice diameter size) on this response, was used in a large engine
and a corresponding increase in oxidizer diameter. program at Aerojet to develop a dynamically stable
Based on the physical models of droplet burning injector . Such studies are further described by
discussed in Chapters 2-4 this would imply that A. J. Smith, Jr.
the oxidizer was controlling the response char- The Gemini Stability Improvement Program
acteristics of this propellant combination (N2O4 ( GEMSIP) was a program directed at producing
and A- 50) and that reduction in oxidizer orifice a dynamically stable injector configuration for
size would increase the frequency at which an the second stage engine of the Gemini flight
injector would be sensitive. It is also interesting series. Similar to its predecessor the Titan II ,
to note that a detailed frequency survey with one this engine used the storable, hypergolic pro-
of the injectors indicates the possibility of more pellant combination of N2O4/A-50 and operated
2.2
Pentod injector at a nominal chamber pressure of 825 psi . The
4 fuel oxidizer
Mixture ratio 2.1 injector orifice configuration used during this
chamber pressure 100 psia
Growth
1.8 program was a quadlet with two fuel streams and

c/ycle
rate
db
two oxidizer streams impinging about 0.1 - in.

from the injector face.584
The injector program was divided into two
parts : ( 1 ) investigate the effect of various baffle
1.아 configurations, and ( 2 ) investigate different
injector propellant distribution schemes. For the
purposes of the discussion herein, only the latter.
0.6 Ο
part is of interest . The results to be discussed
were obtained with an injector that had seven
0.25 radially aligned baffles, which were five inches
long at the center of the injector and five inches
600 1000 1400 1800 2200 2600 3000
Frequency (Hz) long at the rim.
The propellant distribution portion of the
FIGURE 7.4.2c.-More than one frequency maximum as program was also subdivided into ( 1 ) determining
observed for N2O4/A-50 impinging elements .
the effect of element number on the relative
stability of the engine, and ( 2) determining the
effect of varying the injection density across the
1.5 injector face on the stability of the engine . In the
Pentad injector former case, the number of elements tested was
Chamber pressure 100 psia 400 , 600 , and 800 corresponding to a thrust per
cGrowth
1.2 O
Frequency 1200 Hz
( ycle
element of 200 , 150, and 100 , respectively . In the

)/drate
b
latter case , the 800 element injector was used and

9
variations in the injection density were accom-

plished by changing the number of elements in
6
respective , concentric rows .

Before proceeding , it is necessary to define the
.3 terminology associated with the ensuing dis-
cussion. The injection distributions will be referred
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 to as flat , hump, and ramp (also see Sect . 7.2.5 ) .
Mixture ratio (oxid./fuel) Defining the local injection density, , as the
FIGURE 7.4.2d .-Mixture ratio and the effect on growth ratio of the local, total propellant flow to the
rate for NO₁/A-50 impinging elements. local injector surface area serviced by the flow
and the mean injector density, Am, as the ratio of
the total injector flow to the total injector surface
area, then it is possible to define a distribution
Growth
function, f , as the ratio of A to μm. The flat dis-

cd/()ycle
rate
Chamber pressure
b
1000 to 1400 psia tribution had an f ( r ) that was constant from the
Mixture ratio ▲ 3.5 center to the rim of the injector. The ramp dis-
{ ☐ 8,0
tribution had an f (r ) that was highest at the
center of the injector and lowest at the rim of the
injector. The hump distribution had an f ( r) that
was lowest at the center and rim of the injector
and highest at approximately the mid-radius of
3 4 5 6 7 the injector. These distributions were shown in
Frequency ( kHz) Fig. 7.2.5b for two variations of hump and ramp.
FIGURE 7.4.2e.-Growth rate vs frequency for LOX/H2 distributions.
impinging triplet elements. Decreasing the number of elements resulted in
a corresponding increase in the orifice sizes since Although not specifically studying the concept
the total orifice area was to be kept constant . For of combustion response, a wide variety of studies
this study, the flat injection distribution was used with unlike-impinging jets have been conducted or
throughout and resulted in the following. 11,329 monitored by the Air Force Rocket Propulsion
1. The 200 F/E (i.e. , pounds thrust per Laboratory ( AFRPL) . Some general conclusions on
element ) injector was dynamically stable the effects of injector design factors on drop size and
and could not be pulsed into instability the effects of drop size and injection velocity on
with a 1300 psi over-pressurization. stability are discussed here by C. J. Abbe.
2. The 150 F/E injector was also dynamically It is useful to begin this discussion by referring
stable and could not be pulsed into insta- to Table 7.4.2b which illustrates how increased
bility with a 1100 psi over-pressurization . injector orifice size decreases the likelihood of
3. The 100 F/E injector was pulsed into a instability for a liquid fluorine/hydrazine blend
1st radial mode instability by a 550 psi engine in the 8000 pound thrust range.631 The
pulse. The conclusion reached in this great majority of the injector elements were
portion of the program was that large triplets with two fuel streams impinging on a
diameter orifices decrease the combustion central oxidizer jet . Note that as the hole size
response characteristics to the point of increases, the number of elements decreases , or
providing dynamic stability. thrust per injector element increases. Thrust /ele-
The results of the injection distribution tests ment , though not fundamental in nature, is often
(all conducted with 100 F/E injectors ) were as used to characterize the relative stability of an
follows: injector design. The combustion performance for
1. The steep hump distribution was the most all the test conditions included in Table 7.4.2b
stable in that pulses up to 770 psi could are within 2.4 % of each other. Additional data for
not drive it unstable. this engine system indicate that increasing the
2. All the other distributions were driven injection velocity by welding some injector holes
unstable by pulses less than 770 psi . The shut and maintaining the same total flow rate also
resultant instability mode was the 1st. improved stability. In this case, the stabilizing
radial mode as was anticipated for this influence of increased velocity and increased
baffled injector . thrust per element more than offsets any de-
The conclusion reached in this portion of the stabilizing influence of smaller propellant drop
program was that injection distribution did indeed sizes.
contribute to the relative stability of an injector. The influence of impingement angle and orifice
as predicted by the analysis in Ref. 583. This size (drop size ) is again clearly indicated in a
conclusion was also reached in the case of tangen- combustion study of the Titan III Transtage
tial modes.150,584 Engine System.729 Two different injectors were
TABLE 7.4.2b. -STABILITY CHARACTERISTICS FOR A LF2/HYDRAZINE BLEND ENGINE
Injection velocity, ft/sec Average orifice diameter, in.

Number of Stable tests
elements Unstable tests
Oxidizer Fuel Oxidizer Fuel
215 47 59 0.0315 0.0250 1/3

22
158 47 62 .0313 .0215 1/4
96 44 54 .0730 .031 1/4
68 49 60 .0827 .033 13/13

evaluated; they were designated TRAX 21-1D point for the unlike-impinging schemes, while
and TRAX 21-11B . The 1D injector elements being dependent on secondary fan interaction for
consisted of two fuel and two oxidizer streams the self-impinging doublets (distributed com-
impinging at a common point at an impingement bustion) , is one explanation for the stability
angle of 80°. The 11B injector was the same as the difference; though the radial mass distribution
ID injector except that the two oxidizer streams can also affect injector stability characteristics as
were converted to a single enlarged stream in pointed out previously in this section (and Sect .
approximately half the number of quadlet 7.2.5) .
elements. The area of the single oxidizer orifice The extensive and continuing studies at Princeton
was made equal to the combined area of the two University have included a wide variety of experi-
streams it replaced , so that injection velocity ments on stability with unlike-impinging jets. Most
remained constant . This change also resulted in a of the work discussed so far in this section has
decrease in impingement angle between the fuel concernedthe transverse modes of instability . This is
and oxidizer streams. In addition , the 11B largely because longitudinal modes are rarely, if
injector did not have the film coolant holes that ever, a problem in large rocket engines. This does
the 1D injector had. Even though the thrust per not preclude the use of longitudinal modes, however,
element for each injector remained the same, the in research on combustion stability. In the following
11B injector was considerably more stable to high comments, D. T. Harrje shows characteristics ofthe
frequency instability with either N₂O₁/A- 50 or combustion response similar to those observed in
N₂O /MMH propellants. The increased oxidizer transverse modes. Effects of injection distribution
orifice sizes and the decreased impingement angle are also discussed.
both have the effect of increasing propellant drop With propellant combinations such as
size and so improving stability. The removal of LOX /RP-1 and LOX/ethanol , unlike doublet and
the film cooling may have had some influence on triplet designs have been used in the instability
the stability of the thrust chamber, but it is not research at Princeton for a number of years.180,187,583
considered to be a major factor in this instance In general , these injector elements consisted of
(however, see Sect . 7.2.6 ) . 90° angle impingement at the injector face , often
The influence of injection pattern alone on in a conical recess , with orifice L/D≈5 , square
combustion stability is often not clearly defined ; entrance conditions ( Ca≈0.7 ) , and jet velocities
however, there is some basis for concluding that in the 100 ft /sec. range . This face impingement
unlike impinging designs are slightly more. approach suppresses interactions between the jets.
unstable than self-impinging elements. Experi- and the local velocity environment as well as
mental data obtained in a 35,000 pound thrust eliminating problems of misimpingement ; how-
engine utilizing N2O4/A-50 earth storable pro- ever , it is recognized that effects of impingement
pellants indicate this may be true.94 Data were are transmitted upstream613 and that injector face
obtained over a range of chamber pressures and heat transfer could be enhanced .
contraction ratios for both a 218 element triplet In longitudinal mode testing such unlike designs
(654 holes) and a 304 element self-impinging were used to confirm the predictions of the Crocco
doublet (608 holes) injector. All orifice sizes were sensitive time lag theory (see Sect . 4.2 ) . The
exactly the same, and injection velocities and flow stability limits were well-defined and included
rates were nearly identical . The doublet did , higher longitudinal modes as the hardware was
however, have a slight mass distribution bias at lengthened. However, it is vital to note, as is
the mid-radius of the injector while the triplet shown in Fig . 7.4.2f, that such higher modes still
had a uniform distribution . The triplet injector possess the same band of characteristic frequency *
tended to be spontaneously unstable in the tan- thus relating injection, combustion, and propellant
gential mode whereas the doublet normally
required a 10 , 15, or 20 grain pulse gun discharge
Another example would be if this same injector were
to initiate instability. The total included impinge-
used in a large diameter annular motor. Again the same
ment angle in each case was 50° . The fact that frequency would be anticipated even if it represented a
combustion starts rapidly at the impingement very high harmonic mode in the annular configuration.
3.6
1.61
3.2
Instability zones
Stable
First longitudinal
1.41 Second longitudinal
2.8
Equivalence
Third longitudinal
Mixture
1.2
ratio
ratio
2.4
호
2.0
Central frequency
f =2300±1300 Hz Stable
1.6
f =2500 +
900 Hz f = 2300 ± 800 Hz.
0.6- 1.2
04 0.84
8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
Cylindrical length , inches
FIGURE 7.4.2f .-Characteristic frequency behavior for a given injector design and propellant combination (unlike doublet;
LOX/ethanol) .
factors to a definite frequency response range.180 instability boundaries expanded to those char-
The character of the instability in such tests is acteristic of the finer droplet sprays.323
spontaneous , sinusoidal near the boundaries, but These same unlike doublet and triplet injectors
shock-type within the unstable regime. Axial when used as spuds in transverse mode , pulse-
streak film surveys reveal that combustion is motor hardware indicated the same spontaneous
essentially completed a few inches downstream of mode tendencies with LOX/RP-1 and LOX /eth-
the injector face in steady-state operation.322 anol . Although the unlike-doublet design repre-
Even in the early longitudinal testing it was sents one popular approach to achieve maximum
evident that while stability limits were directly performance ,613 within the spray fan there still
related to the combustion process (the more exists a mixture ratio gradient583 (e.g. see Fig.
concentrated the combustion, the shorter the 2.3.2 ) . When the gradient (which is in line with
length at which instability could be attained ) , the orifices) was placed in the tangential direction ,
and combustion was dependent on the char- only unstable tests resulted for a variety of
acteristics of the droplets generated , other factors, injection diameters (the pulse motor has only a
such as recirculation patterns , could also influence single ring of injection spuds as shown in Fig.
burning rates. For example, in one series of tests 9.2.2a, however, the ring diameter can be varied ) .
as injection diameters were enlarged ( to increase When the mixture ratio gradient was oriented in
droplet size and spread combustion ) , and the the radial direction improved stability in the form
number of unlike injection elements reduced (to of a mixed stable and unstable regime was found.583
maintain constant thrust ) , a point was reached Through these and other tests velocity/displace-
where recirculation became dominant and the ment effects were thus shown to play an important
role in determining the combustor stability ( see Inasmuch as there is a trend toward launch
discussions in Sects . 3.3 and 7.2.5 ) . vehicles that are propelled by engines operating
Testing these unlike elements ( both tangentially at high combustion chamber pressure, the Hi- Pc
and radially oriented ) in a variable-angle sector program was established in an effort to anticipate
motor ( Fig. 10.6.2b) provided frequency de- the combustion instability problems associated
pendent limits similar to those of the longitudinal with elevated combustor pressures. One of the
testing.187 These stability-limits data are directly objectives of the program was to obtain data con-
related to baffle cavity mode instability and cerning the role of injector design on the relative
333
illustrate the differences in degree of instability stability of the system.3
when velocity/displacement fields are altered The entire program was divided into four
(even with mode constant) by physical barriers .
separate studies : ( 1) initial exploratory study with
(sector plugs, baffle blades, etc. ) . Stabilization via an injector element survey, (2 ) scaling effects
mechanical damping devices of such spontaneous study with an injector element survey, (3 ) coaxial
instability has given indications that the baffle is injector element study with propellant mixture.
more effective than the acoustic liner in that ratio and velocity ratio survey, and ( 4 ) annular
case. 192 combustion chamber study with mixture ratio and
In addition to investigations of high frequency velocity ratio survey.38 The operating parameters
instability, unlike doublet injector designs have that are of interest are tabulated in Table 7.4.2c .
been used in intermediate frequency research.181 The first two studies tested pentad , coaxial,
Variations in the impedance matching of the fuel and conventional injector elements whereas the
and oxidizer orifices resulted in alterations of the third study concerned itself strictly with the
mixture ratio response , and therefore changes in coaxial injector element . The pentad element,
the incidence of intermediate frequency insta- rated at 5000 F/ E ( i.e. , pounds thrust per
bility (in that case , instability of the entropy element ) for both studies, consisted of four
wave type ) . In the same study another version of oxidizer streams impinging on one fuel stream .
the unlike doublet injection added cavitating The coaxial element, rated at 1100 F/E for all
venturis as an integral part of the injection three studies, * consisted of an annular fuel stream
orifices. This was done to eliminate pressure impinging on a central oxidizer stream. The
feedback from the chamber and thus stabilize conventional injector element , rated at 220 F/E
mixture ratio variations . Problems arose , however, for the first two studies, consisted of like-on-like
with that venturi placement since reattachment impingement of fuel doublets and showerhead
to the divergent walls must occur if the limiting oxidizer . The impingment half-angle used in
vapor pressure conditions are to be provided at all cases was 30°.
the throats of the venturis . It was concluded that The results of the first two studies were as
the venturi-type of mass-limiting device was follows :6.18
better placed in the feed lines or internal mani- 1. The conventional injector pattern was
folding.380,574 unstable at all combinations of chamber
All of the preceding discussion , and nearly all of length, chamber diameter, and chamber
the available theory, concern combustion response pressures except for the S-in. diameter,
and stability where the combustion is occurring 6-in. length, and 1000 psi chamber pressure
under pressures less than the critical pressure of the condition. One test was spontaneously
propellants. An intriguing question arises when unstable whereas instability was induced
chamber pressure is greater than critical . One could by relatively small pulses for the other
easily suspect that liquid droplet combustion , as unstable tests . The stable test could not be
such, no longer exists in this environment and the triggered into instability by a moderately
resulting stability characteristics should be quite large pulse .
different. Stability in this environment was explored 2. The coaxial injector pattern was dynami-
experimentally by Aerojet in their High Chamber
Pressure Programs . Results are briefly described * One injector in the third study was designed for 550
here by A. J. Smith, Jr. F/E.
TABLE 7.4.2c .-HI -PC PROGRAM OPERATING PARAMETERS
Propellant Chamber Chamber Nominal Chamber Nominal Nominal

Study combination diameter, lengths , in. thrust, lb pressures , mixture velocity
in. psia ratio, O/F ratio, F/O
6.0 1000 2.93

Exploratory LO2/LH2 8.0 12.5 20 000 1500 5.5 3.93
26.0 2500 4.0
6.0 1000
3.33
Scaling effects LO2/LH2 14.0 12.5 60 000 1500 5.5
4.16
26.0 2500
6.0 1000 3.0

14.0 60 000 $5.5
Coaxial injector LO2/LH2 24.0 2500 4.0
2.0
b1.0
6.0
a Mixture ratio was varied from 1.4 to 9.6 while the velocity ratio was varied from 12.6 to 2.1 .
b Mixture ratio was varied from 0.40 to 2.85 while the velocity ratio was varied from 10.0 to 0.70.
cally stable at all of the test conditions used as a scaling tool ( another objective of
except for the long chamber lengths at the the Hi-Pc program) for high frequency
2500 psi chamber pressure condition . A instability as long as the injector pattern
first longitudinal instability was promoted was repetitive . (Also see Sect . 7.2.1.3 . )
by a small pulse in the 8-in . diameter No conclusions could be reached as to the
chamber in contrast to a first longitudinal- effect of orifice hole size or propellant mixing
second tangential combined mode that was schemes, because both of these parameters were
spontaneously induced in the 14-inch varied between injectors . For example , the
diameter chamber. pentad injector had much larger orifices than the
3. The pentad injector pattern was dynami- conventional injector but, at the same time, four
cally stable at all test conditions except for oxidizer streams were impinging onto the fuel
the 14-inch diameter, 24-inch long chamber stream (in the case of the pentad) whereas the
operating at 1000 and 2500 psi chamber oxidizer streams of the conventional injectors
pressure. A first tangential mode was were directed downstream without impinging on
observed in both these cases and was any other propellant stream.
triggered by a moderately large pulse. The For the third study, the coaxial injector
8-inch diameter chamber was stable to element was selected as the element to be used
pulses of equal or greater size at the same because of its popularity among various researchers
conditions that were previously unstable in using this propellant combination. * This study
the 14-in. chamber. used five injectors with three injectors designed
The conclusions reached after these two for a nominal mixture ratio of 5.5 (engine condi-
studies were : tion ) and two injectors designed for a nominal
1. There is no qualitative difference in the mixture ratio of 1.0 (gas generator condition) .
general nature of the combustion instability Two of the engine injectors were designed for
associated with low and high chamber
pressure. * Further discussion of the coaxial injector element is
2. The sensitive time lag theory could be found in Sect. 7.4.4.
velocity ratios (fuel to oxidizer ) of 3.0 and 4.0

while the third engine injector was designed at ▲ Pulse damps
o Pulsed instability
the same mixture ratio and velocity ratio as ☐ Spontaneous instability
another of the engine injectors except that it had Instability damps out
Xo
twice as many elements as its predecessor . The two
Velocity
2400 < Pc 2700
, F IV
gas generator injectors were designed at velocity 20.0
ratio
ratios of 2.0 and 6.0 (see Sect . 7.4.4 for background
V
on coaxial jets) . 10.0
Pulse
The results of this program are presented in sensitive zone
5. 아
Fig . 7.4.2g.333 These figures were made by plotting
the observed stability at each given mixture ratio
and velocity ratio point . It can be seen that there 2.0-
exists a region of dynamic stability, a region of Spontaneous
pulse sensitivity, and a region of spontaneously 1.0 Dynamic stability Instability
zone
zone
occurring instability. Any discussion of the drop
0.5
sizes or mixing effects must give way to other 0.4
0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0 10.0 20.0
effects that were imposed by the experimental
technique. A thorough discussion of this can be Mixture ratio, mox /MF
found in Ref. 7.
7.4.3 Like-Impinging Jets
The previous section discussed briefly some of the

experimental results of stability programs employing Pulse damps
unlike-impinging jet injector elements. There is o Pulsed instability
□ Spontaneous instability
apparently general agreement in the experiments + Stable but no pulses
Velocity
and in theory on the existence of a frequency- Instability damps out

ratio
OX
dependent combustion response and on the effects of 10.0 900 PC1200

,VE
/
Pulse sensitive zone

N
drop size and injection distribution on stability.

Like-impinging jets represent a considerable differ- 20.0- 9
ence in the physical mechanisms of atomization ,
5.0
mixing and distribution from those with unlike-
impinging jets. Here the elements are characterized
by two or more jets of the same propellant impinging 2.0-
on one another. This self-impingement forms a
droplet spray which is usually perpendicular to the 1.0
Dynamic stability Spontaneous
zone
546
injector face (i.e. , heading in a path toward the instability

zone
nozzle) . These droplet sprays must then mix and
burn with the adjacent sprays of the opposite pro- 88. 35
0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0 10.0 20.0
pellant. Depending on the relative spacing, droplet Mixture ratio, mox/mF
sizes, etc., the rate of the combustion process can
be varied. FIGURE 7.4.2g. -Coaxial injector study results.
Some of the programs conducted with like-

impinging jets are summarized in this section . It was injectors are the Atlas, H-1 and F-1 engines of
indicated in the previous section that unlike- Rocketdyne. This experience is largely with the
impinging jet injectors appear to be more unstable LOX/RP-1 propellants . All of the discussion in
than like-impinging types. Note that most stability this section depends on reproducibly providing the
theories do not distinguish between like- and unlike- injection characteristics which are considered to be
impinging jet elements other than by a description related to stability. While this is reasonably simple
of the axial combustion distribution. in research devices and motors, the limitations
Among the largest users of like-impinging jet inherent in development of large engine injectors
Distance between
elements
Fuel
Ox
Fuel
Ox
Section A-A Section B- B

(fuel ring ) ( ox ring)
FIGURE 7.4.3a .-Typical injector face pattern using like-impinging doublets and triplets.
complicate the problem . Some general observations the thrust chamber. Smaller orifices generate
on like-impinging jet injector development problems smaller droplets that provide a more concentrated
and stability are summarized here by E. C. Clinger. area of energy release close to the injector face
A majority of the injectors for large liquid thereby raising the temperature of the injector
rocket engines use like-impinging jets. A typical face and increasing the heat transfer to the pro-
injector pattern formed of doublet and triplet pellants being injected . This high energy release
like-impinging jets is depicted in Fig. 7.4.3a . near the injector face is often directly associated
There are many parameters to consider when such with combustion instability.
an injector is being designed . The size of the The impingement angle (Fig. 7.4.3b) also
orifices, impingement angle, thickness of the ring, affects the resulting droplet size to some degree.
depth of the ring groove, entrance conditions , The smaller the included impingement angle of the
spacing of the orifices and groups of orifices , propellant jets , the larger the droplets.339 The
impingement point of two or more orifices, and minimum angle , and therefore the largest droplets,
the placement of the orifices with relation to the would be expected where the orifices are normal to
baffles and the thrust chamber wall. These the injector face and thus not impinging on each
factors alone or in combination, have an effect on other (i.e. , showerhead injection ) . The other
stability, performance, and durability.21 extreme is where the angle of impingement is
The diameters of the orifices play an important very large and the resultant fan or spray is close to
part in determining the droplet spray fan char- the face of the injector. Impingement angles of
acteristics (including the drop sizes generated ) . 30° to 40° are common in large engine design. A
Large orifices (0.10-inch diameter and above) buzz-type instability was characteristic of one
cause more concentration of the propellant in the large engine when the included impingement
center of the spray and therefore spread the angle exceeded 55°.
combustion of the propellant longitudinally in The distance between orifice groups ( Fig .
7.4.3a) is another parameter associated with . placement or position of the orifice groups with
stability . While a wide spacing is beneficial to respect to the thrust chamber wall and baffles.
stability, it can cause problems in heat transfer to This placement must allow for the normal ex-
the face of the injector and, in some cases, a loss pansion of the fans and the resulting gases (versus
of performance. Certainly, local recirculation is wall confinement ) so that pressure waves cannot
also dependent on spacing . trigger energy release from these baffle or wall
The point of impingement from the injector regions (see Sects. 7.2.6 and 8.5.3 for further
face of the two or more jets must also be con- discussion) .
sidered (see Fig . 7.4.3b ) . This point may vary Consideration must also be given to the injec-
from a location inside the ring to a spatial distance tion velocities of the propellants and particularly
of an inch or more from the injector face. The the velocity ratio of the two propellants . The
farther the impingement point is located from the injection velocities as well as the orifice sizes and
face , the closer must be the orifice tolerances with impingement angles determine the nominal drop
regard to angle and size, to avoid misalignment of size distribution of the propellants. Higher
the propellant jets. Misalignment of the jets injection velocities will form smaller droplets and
prevents full development of the fans because of cause more dispersion (as defined in Fig. 7.4.3c ) .
the loss of the breakup energy. If a gross mis- An injection velocity ratio of 3 to 1 (or greater)
alignment of the orifices exists, uncontrolled of the more volatile propellant to the other
sprays may even cause instability. propellant has been found to be a stabilizing
As previously mentioned , spacing of the orifice. influence in LOX/RP- 1 large engine design .
groups with relationship to each other is important. Orifice entrance factors have also been shown to
However, perhaps even more important is the contribute to the stability of an injector design by
Half
angle
Impingement angle.
for impingement of
two jets
Orifice Dia
Impinging
distance
Ring thickness
Ox ring groove
T
Body
Fuel radial feed
FIGURE 7.4.3b .- Impingement angle and manifold flow for a typical like-impinging design .
Dispersion
Ox
Fuel
Ox
Fuel
FIGURE 7.4.3c. -Dispersion and the zone of droplet interaction shown schematically for an element composed of a like-
impinging doublet and triplet .
influencing the spray fans . Improvement of the the allowable pressure drop for the injector . An
orifice discharge coefficient (e.g. , use of a ASME evaluation must be made to determine if this
rounded entrance) may not result in stability injector impedance is sufficient to inhibit feed
improvement as illustrated in one test series. system coupled modes of instability (discussed in
Another point to consider in orifice design is the Chapters 3 and 6) . The injector should be de-
thickness of the material containing the injection signed such that the maximum portion of this
orifices. This often influences the length to impedance is provided as orifice pressure drop
diameter ratio ( L/D ) of the orifices and this ratio (i.e. , just prior to injection across the rings in a
should be such that "hydraulic flip" will not occur ring-type injector) .
over the range of injector operation . These general comments by Clinger on high-thrust
Large engine experience has shown that the engine design indicate that while many similar
manifolding behind the injection ring should have stability characteristics are observed with like-
sufficient volume so that the propellant velocities impingement (compared to unlike-impingement)
in those locations are low. This allows the de- the stability improvement has made the like design
veloped fans to be perpendicular to the face the popular choice in the large diameter hardware.
(Fig. 7.4.3c ) rather than being canted because of One difference between the two element types is the
a higher propellant flow (caused by variations in large mixture ratio gradients predominant in the
cross flow ) to one orifice as compared to the other. like-impinging injectors. The gradients axially
The associated minimum pressure drop also aids in spread the combustion reaction while at the same
providing the best possible propellant distribution time the transverse mixture ratio variations con-
(see Sect . 2.2.1 ) . tribute to potential velocity/displacement coupling
The engine configuration normally determines between local burning rate and the pressure field.
This effect has been extensively investigated at ratio for all of these designs is approximately 5 to
Princeton University and salient conclusions are 1 with basically a square edge entry condition
discussed here by D. T. Harrje. based on the method of fabrication . Thus, the
In Sect. 7.2.4 axial tailoring of the combustion discharge coefficients are approximately 0.7.
to the chamber was discussed with reference to Orifice diameters ranged from 0.020 to 0.170
combustion instability. Like-impinging designs inches in the studies.
effectively stretch out the combustion as compared In longitudinal instability testing, where unlike-
to the unlike types. Three examples of like- injector designs were previously found to be
impinging injector designs that were used in the spontaneously unstable at chamber lengths
Princeton research are shown in Fig. 7.4.3d . ranging from 6 to 9 inches180 ; in contrast , the
Impingement of the streams was either at or like-impinging doublet designs required lengths
behind the injector face, even though such close of 30 inches or more before instability was encoun-
impingement can result in interaction with the tered . Whereas the unlike-impinging injection
orifice flow.613 However, benefits result in such pattern showed little effect from pulsing, the
designs in that there are no streams of liquid to be like-impinging design responded with expanded
displaced by the local velocity field (hence a resonant combustion regimes in both the longitu-
minimized misimpingement problem) , and no dinal and the transverse studies190 (although
backflow can occur. The first design (Fig. these regimes were still not as extensive as those
7.4.3d (i) ) employs an impingement angle of 55° associated with the unlike designs) . Hence if
to produce the ellipitical spray pattern as shown. disturbances are taken into account the relative
The orifices are drilled from milled recesses on the stability of like and unlike designs must be
injector face. The second design ( Fig. 7.4.3d (ii ) ) carefully reassessed .
uses 90° impinging doublet streams which emanate In an evaluation of the effect of injector pattern
from a 90° conical recess that restricts the cross interaction on stability, tests were made using a
section of the spray fan. The third design makes square-motor (representing a small area taken
use of a small spray angle and a deep recess to from the pattern of a full-scale injector) . Four
provide further control of the spray fan. The typical patterns are illustrated in Fig. 7.4.3e.
result is a relatively restricted spray angle (Fig. The tests indicated that two of the four patterns
7.4.3d (iii ) ) . The orifice length to orifice diameter were preferred . The Type II pattern, in which the
Typical
spray fans
A
(i) Square motor (ii) Spuds (iii ) Recessed spud
Milled slot -90° conical hole
FIGURE 7.4.3d . - Three like-impinging doublet designs in which spray fan cross-section is altered .
2.66" fuel and oxidizer droplet sprays were forcibly

-.66 mixed with each other, and Type IV, where spray
fans were isolated , were found to be superior
$- from a stability standpoint when compared to
Fuel Types I and III (where like spray fans inter-
acted) . One explanation may lie in coalescence of
Ox like sprays into large droplets (for Types I and
III ) resulting in rougher combustion which
initiated the triggered type of instability . Cer-
Fuel
tainly the pressure traces of the onset of in-
Ox stability support this explanation.186 These
interactions between adjacent elements illustrate
Type I
the care which must be exercised when placing
hundreds, or thousands , of such elements in close
proximity across an injector face.
Evaluation of other like-injector designs , as
Fuel
incorporated in spuds in pulse-motor-type hard-
ware, also revealed that stability was maximized
Ox
in the case where the unlike spray fans inter-
acted.186 A prime example is the Type II design
Fuel where both fuel and oxidizer spray fans are in
line (the so -called " zero spacing" design ) . Because
Ox-
+ this pulse motor had only a single injection
Type II diameter (a single ring of spuds) performance
suffered when the propellants on the extremes of
the spray fans failed to interact with the other
propellant . This would not be the case for the
Fuel multi-ring injector designs used in the high-thrust
amplitude
punsteady
Ox Unstable , 16 spuds
Initial
pulse
Stable , 8 spuds
, si
200
)-t(ofok
Fuel 112 132-250 79-100

180 H12
X 110
160 218
Ox 127
187
70
Type III 140 x172-230 165-240

325-3
Unstable
86-114 92 89 86-186
spuds
120
psi
.-ppk
tok
100 12 spuds
,16
100 = IT (spin)
Fu X = Stable
e 80
60 178.
205 236-265
X
40 x194-215-202-
172-187 186-200
Fuel 20
Ox- 6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1,6 1,8 2,0 2,2 2.4 2.6 2.8
Mixture ratio, (0/F)
Type I
FIGURE 7.4.3f. -Stability boundary for 12 spuds on a
FIGURE 7.4.3e.-Typical spray fan interaction patterns 7-inch injection diameter (9-inch-diameter motor) .
for adjacent like-impinging doublets . Spacing effects of 8 and 16 spuds are noted.
hardware just described by Clinger . When fuel and Pressure trends were shown to affect the type
oxidizer spray fans were oriented parallel to each and mode of instability using the like doublets
other, stability was directly related to factors such (Fig. 7.4.3g) . Pressure increases altered the mode
as spud orientation , spacing of the spuds and the preferences to the higher tangential or radial
pressure level in the chamber. modes* (first tangential modes shifting to second
From a spud orientation standpoint , directional tangential or first radial) . Also enhanced were the
sensitivity was to be expected based on the chances for spontaneous instability as contrasted
velocity/displacement mechanisms outlined in with the higher amplitude, triggered instability
Sect. 3.3 . Depending on the pulse gun orientation , characteristic of the lower chamber pressure
as well as the spud orientation , disturbances were operation. Special orientations (6X2, six groups of
shown to amplify or decay.190 In a number of cases two spuds alternately oriented ) improved sta-
the nonpreferred initial spinning mode (produced bility characteristics. 188
by the pulse gun) decayed only to build up again Spreading the combustion axially in this trans-
as an oscillation with the preferred spin direction verse mode hardware via smaller impingement
(refer to Fig. 4.2.2k) . angles and recessed injection (Fig. 7.4.3d (iii ) )
Control of the degree and intensity of insta- further reduced the ability to pulse the chamber
bility could be achieved by varying the spud unstable. These like-doublet spuds were designed
spacing. Spacing the spuds further apart stabilized specifically to avoid impinging on the walls of an
an otherwise mixed stability region (Fig . 7.4.3f) . annular version of the pulse motor.192 The limited
.
When the spacing was decreased the test regime impingement angle has also resulted in reduced
was completely unstable and the pressure oscil-
lation doubled , 188 Such spacing is closely related to
thrust per element ( F/E ) and the presence or * This follows the pressure sensitivity relationship,
absence of strong recirculation. T~pe 1/3, discussed in Sect . 7.2.1.3 .
Injector design
114 230 250 240 187 100
IX 12 (fuel outside) *
178 288 225 92 92 83 77 67
FOX
IX 12 (ox . outside ) X X
150 85 270 256
XX 256 72 217
psia 4x3 (fuel outside ) 217 8181
6× 2 (fuel outside ) X x
89 128 136 105 100

IX 12 (fuel outside )
63 69 6171 69
300 IX 12 (ox. outside )
71 99 114 107 93
pisa 4x3 (fuel outside )
6x 2 (fuel outside) *
77 56 96 71
IX 12 (fuel outside) •
600 77 73 73 73 100
IX 12 (ox. outside)
psia 32 91 81 81
4x3 ( fuel outside )
.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6

Mixture ratio, (0 /F)
x - Stable - Standing IT ; - Spinning IT ; -Oscillating IT ; 0-2T ; Я - Mixed IR , IT
FIGURE 7.4.3g .-Effect of pressure and spud orientation on mode preference for like-impinging injector designs . (Numbers
near points indicate peak-to-peak pressure amplitude.)
performance, necessitating a longer combustor Many of the factors that govern combustion and
length to compensate. combustion instability on the large scale like-
One point concerning like-doublet designs that impinging injector designs (e.g. , the axial spreading
demands considerable attention is the relative of the combustion) have been shown here to be
velocities existing between the streams. Control capable of research and modeling. However, basic
of the axial combustion distribution can be agreement as to like-impingement characteristics
achieved through the sizing of the orifice diameters extends beyond size alone. Propellant combinations
which, together with the pressure drop , control other than LOX/hydrocarbon also have been used
the velocity of injection . Fig . 7.4.3h provides with this type injection .
performance data on variations in the oxidizer An extensive in-house combustion instability
orifice size (normally the fuel orifice size, and the study was conducted at AFRPL using other pro-
resulting fuel droplet size distribution, are con- pellants. This study was a careful attempt to use an
sidered to control the rate of LOX/hydrocarbon existing theory of combustion stability to guide the
combustion564) . This rather coarse injection testing so that all factors affecting stability were kept
pattern used in the square-motor hardware (fuel) constant except a single variable parameter. General
and oxidizer doublets were separated by 1.34 conclusions are summarized here by C. J. Abbe.
inches and hence high c * values could not be A recent experimental study46 has extensively
expected ) illustrates how low fuel velocities. evaluated the relative stability characteristics of
(68 ft/sec ) used in conjunction with higher the like-impinging doublet type of injector
oxidizer velocities ( 112 ft/sec for 2.45 mixture element as a function of orifice diameter and
ratio ) results in a more stable, slower burning injection velocity. Testing was conducted in
combustion environment 188 (0.12-inch diameter pulse motor hardware (see Sect . 9.2 ) at 5000 lbs
data) . In contrast , when the same fuel velocity is thrust utilizing the storable propellant com-
compared with lower oxidizer velocity ( 56 ft/sec bination N2O4/monomethyl hydrazine. Stability
as shown by the 0.17-inch diameter results) , a was determined for each test condition by the use
less stable, more rapid burning design results from of pulse guns ( see Sect . 10.3 ) . The relationship
the increased oxygen near the injector . This between injector orifice diameter and tangential
later arrangement increases the axial burning rate high frequency instability is shown in Fig . 7.4.3i
such that the maximum c* values are reached at for changes in oxidizer and fuel hole size in-
25 inches rather than 38 inches (see Fig. 7.4.3h) . dividually as well as together. All other parameters
Characteristic
such as injection velocity, flow rates, impingement

5400
angle, and chamber pressure were held constant ;
/svelocity
therefore, the number of elements was reduced

(c*),ftec
5000 as hole size increased . For all three cases, larger

orifice sizes resulted in improved stability , with the
instability
1.8 2.45
4600
induce
Grain
60
size
o Oxidizer orifice diameter, = . 089

to
0.12 "dia 50- X Fuel orifice diameter =.082

4200 0.17'dia
Both orifice diameters varied
Oxidizer orifice Mixture ratio 40H
diameter Δ 1.85
3800 O 2.55 30-
O 3.70
1.8
♡ 20-
2.45
3400
10 口
3000 004
18 22 26 30 34 38 42 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09 .10 .11
Length , inches Injector orifice diameter , inches
FIGURE 7.4.3h.-Performance versus chamber length for FIGURE 7.4.31 .- Effect of orifice size on high frequency
various liquid-oxygen orifice sizes . instability.
combined influence of both fuel and oxidizer rate (thrust) , show little stability change over a
orifice diameter changes greater than either range of injection velocities and constant orifice.
individually. The primary mechanism whereby diameters for self-impinging doublets in the
larger orifice size improves stability is by in- pulse motor .
creasing the initial average propellant drop size. From this discussion it is seen that similar
Larger drops tend to reduce propellant vaporiza- characteristics regarding stability are found for this
tion rates somewhat , which is a stabilizing earth-storable combination as compared to the
influence (see Sect . 6.4) , and thus, by the same LOX/hydrocarbon types previously discussed . Again
token, decrease combustion performance in the effects of drop size, or thrust-per-element are
volume- or length-limited chambers.224 An addi- predominant. A rather clear effect of injection
tional stabilizing effect evident in the above data velocity, per se, is indicated although the difficulty
is that as orifice sizes increased and the number of isolating the velocity effect on drop size from the
of orifices decreased , mass and mixture ratio dis- velocity effect alone is also pointed out. Indeed an
tribution became slightly less uniform (see Ref. even broader comparison of injectors would indicate
78, pp. 694-695 ) . However, this is not a major that like-impingement designs have a number of
factor in this case. points in common with the unlike designs. Perhaps
The influence of injection velocity alone on this is not too surprising if one considers that the
stability is indicated in Table 7.4.3.46 These data like-impinging design is most often used in the
were obtained using like-impinging doublets and relatively long, high-thrust chambers, whereas the
pulse motor hardware. Increased injection velocity
. unlike designs are most often placed in shorter
improved stability by spreading out the com- length, lower thrust units. If combustion intensity is
bustion zone and reducing the amount of pro- compared with fraction of chamber length , the
pellant vaporized at any particular location near combustion intensity patterns may be quite similar
the injector face. In these tests, in order to isolate for the two design types.
the influence of velocity alone, the injector orifices
were made larger as the velocity increased so as 7.4.4 Coaxial Jets
to keep propellant drop size constant . The data of
Ingebo375 were used to estimate the effect of Coaxial injection, as the name implies, refers to
injection velocity and orifice size on drop size . In elements in which a jet of one propellant is injected
addition, in order to maintain constant flow rate into the combustor surrounded by an annular jet of
and chamber pressure , the number of elements had the other. Figure 7.4.4a illustrates some typical
to be decreased. designs. Coaxial injection elements are in wide use
When injection velocity is increased but orifice. today, but almost exclusively with the oxygen/hy-
size remains constant , stability trends are often drogen propellant combination . The coaxial element
not clear. The higher velocity in itself tends to appears particularly adapted to mixing ofgaseous
promote stability but also results in smaller propellants, such as hydrogen, with liquid pro-
propellant drop sizes which degrade stability. pellants such as oxygen . Much of the obvious
The data of Ref. 46 , taken at constant total flow difference in the effects of injector design factors on
stability between impinging jets and coaxial elements
TABLE 7.4.3 . - EFFECT OF INJECTION VELOCITY ON HIGH is undoubtedly due to the differences in propellant
FREQUENCY INSTABILITY FOR CONSTANT PROPELLANT state rather than to the elements themselves.
DROP SIZE
One of the propellants commonly used with
coaxial elements, however, is a liquid which still
Average injection Pulse size inducting must be atomized and mixed with the other pro-
velocity, ft /sec instability, grains pellant, as in the impinging jet-type elements.
Certain similarities in stability behavior then should
88 10 still exist. The effects of liquid droplet size on
117 Stable to 80 combustion response magnitude and frequency
125 Stable to 80 should be the same with impinging jet and coaxial
elements. The difficulty in comparing injector
Fuel annulus
Oxidizer Ribbon type .

tube
swirler
-1-1 1
(a) ( b) (c)
(a) Simple coaxial element . (b) With swirler . (c) With angular fuel annulus.
FIGURE 7.4.4a . Typical coaxial element configurations.
effects on stability, however, is further complicated swirl device, such as the ribbon swirler shown in
by the wide differences in atomization and mixing Fig. 7.4.4a (b ) , high fuel velocities are necessary.
mechanisms between the element types. Analytical For a given oxidizer post diameter, the minimum
and/or empirical methods to relate coaxial element fuel annulus width that can be maintained
geometry and operating conditions to spray drop size (without excessive variation in element-to-element
and distribution are even less known than with annulus area ) dictates a minimum fuel area.
impinging jet elements. Generally, for practical values of thrust-per-
Mass and mixture ratio distribution effects element, the fuel flow area must be somewhat
should be quite similar and almost independent of larger than the oxidizer flow area. The common
the element type. As will be seen in one study in this requirements of a high fuel-to-oxidizer velocity
section, however, the mass distribution effect was ratio and a lower limit of fuel-to-oxidizer injector
found to be exactly opposite to that generally found flow area ratio have limited the application of
with impinging jet injectors. This discrepancy is coaxial injectors almost entirely to gaseous fuel-
not yet resolved. liquid oxidizer applications.
Many of the early, engine-development-oriented Because most coaxial injector data are based on
studies with coaxial element injectors were conducted gas-liquid injection , it is difficult to separate the
in support of the RL- 10 and J-2 engine programs. inherent stability of the element configuration
Some of the conclusions on injector effects on from that of the propellant inlet state. Further-
stability derived at Pratt and Whitney are sum- more, all of the comprehensive studies of stability
marized here by A. I. Masters. limits have been with oxygen-hydrogen propel-
Coaxial or concentric element injectors consist lants, thus imposing a further restriction on
of tubes or drilled posts that provide the flow area generalization.
for one propellant, and concentric annuli that Investigations by Jones391 and Dahlberg212
provide the flow area for the second propellant showed that oxygen-hydrogen coaxial injector
(Fig. 7.4.4a ( a ) ) . Properly designed coaxial instability was dependent primarily upon hydrogen
jectors provide high efficiency and stable com- inlet temperature, propellant momentum ratio,
bustion ; however, their application is limited by and chamber contraction ratio , as shown in Fig.
several geometric and fluid dynamic restraints. 7.4.4b . Other investigations have also shown the
Propellant atomization is promoted by momentum importance of hydrogen inlet temperature on
exchange between the fuel and oxidizer, hence stability. Hydrogen temperature (or correspond-
high differential velocities are a fundamental ing density) has such a major effect on acoustic
requirement for efficient combustion. With few stability that it has frequently been used to rate
exceptions,349 fuel is injected through the annulus the stability of the coaxial element design and
at a velocity several times that of the oxidizer . chamber geometry.212,311,312,719 All of these in-
Even when oxidizer atomization is enhanced by a vestigations have shown complete stability for
momentum
Injection 4.0
€ c = 1,5
ratio
3.0H
O
/
(F
)
2.5
4.0
2.0 Stable
1.0
Unstable
50 100 150
Hydrogen injection temperature , °R
FIGURE 7.4.4b .—Effect of injection momentum ratio and hydrogen temperature on acoustic stability.
hydrogen injection temperatures above 140° R Rocket engines using oxygen-hydrogen coaxial
with one exception. Bloomer , et al.106 found a injectors include the Pratt & Whitney RL- 10,
15-degree tapered chamber to be unstable at the Rocketdyne J-2, and Aerojet M- 1 . Due
temperatures above 240° R and concluded that primarily to the relatively high hydrogen injector
the high flow velocity in the chamber near the inlet temperature ( 300° to 350° R) no high fre-
injector was destabilizing. For a practical injector quency instability was encountered during de-
with fuel-to-oxidizer velocity ratios high enough velopment of the ( ~ 300 psi ) 15,000-lb thrust
to produce efficient combustion at design condi- RL- 10 engine .508 As engine " design point " thrust
tions, it is unlikely that acoustic instability would increases, the heat load per pound of propellant is
be encountered above 100° R. diminished . Thus, with the larger (~800 psia)
Investigations of element design have shown 230,000-lb thrust J-2 and (~1,000 psia)
that several variables may be used for acoustic 1,500,000-lb thrust M- 1 engines, instability was
stabilization at low hydrogen inlet temperatures. of greater concern. M- 1 testing with baffled
Stabilization can be accomplished by ( 1 ) in- injectors and reduced hydrogen inlet temperatures
creasing the hydrogen injection angle ( in Fig. produced acoustic instability when the hydrogen
7.4.4a ( c) ) , (2 ) optimizing the tube base thick- inlet temperature was reduced to 80° R. Stable
ness, (3 ) recessing the oxidizer tube, and (4) combustion was restored as the hydrogen tem-
increasing the thrust-per-element . Optimizing perature rose to above 100° R. This low tempera-
one or more of these design variables has produced ture limit on stability provided a substantial
stable combustion with hydrogen inlet tempera- margin based on the engine design operating
tures as low as 50° R.311 Baffles and acoustic temperature of 142° R.690 Later M- 1 injector
liners have also been used for stabilization at low testing indicated that the baffles did not appear
inlet temperatures. A 20,000-lb thrust chamber , necessary for stable operation at the engine design
which was unstable at approximately 125° R, point.215
was found to be stable down to 55° R with 2-inch Coaxial injectors have also been used with
baffles.312 Stable combustion at temperatures as fluorine-hydrogen, and mixtures of fluorine and
low as 51° R has been achieved with acoustic oxygen (FLOX ) with methane , propane, 1 -butene,
liners.285 and a eutectic blend of pentane and isopentane .
With fluorine-hydrogen, fuel inlet temperatures as on the hydrogen tubes (i.e. , another variation of
low as 216° R, have produced no instability.72 Fig. 7.4.4a (iii ) ) . This figure indicates typical flow
Additional completely stable results with ambient paths for the oxygen and hydrogen regenerative
temperature hydrogen are reported in Ref. 530. coolant prior to reaching the injection element.
With the FLOX/hydrocarbon combinations, all Again, as discussed previously, the injection
tests have been with fuel inlet temperatures above design relies on a large differential velocity be-
500° R, and these tests also have been completely tween fuel and oxidizer to accomplish the desired
stable.467 mixing and breakup of the propellants . Hence the
Masters indicates the predominant effect of design favors propellant combinations in which
hydrogen temperature on stability. This is clearly a one of the injectants is a gas . Most oxygen-
function of the gaseous propellant used with the hydrogen engines have injected the hydrogen as
coaxial element rather than the element itself. The a gas, at the 150° to 400° R temperatures provided
same temperature effect exists with LOX/LH2 by a regenerative chamber. These injectors
propellants in impinging jets . Such injector element typically furnish c* efficiencies on the order of 98
design factors as hydrogen injection angle, tube base percent of theoretical equilibrium value , have a
thickness, recessed oxidizer tube, thrust-per-element peak-to-peak chamber pressure variation on the
and propellant momentum ratio suggest liquid order of 1 percent of "mainstage" chamber
atomization effects similar to those observed with pressure during stable operation, and are ex-
impinging jets. Similar experience with coaxial tremely durable.
element injectors, such as those used in the Rocketdyne Engine experience agrees with the previous
J-2 engine, are summarized here by J. Campbell Jr. discussion in that the operating condition having
An injector assembly of coaxial tube injection the greatest influence on the excitation of com-
elements typical of that used in the J-2 engine is bustion instability (with a given regenerative
illustrated in Fig . 7.4.4c . As shown, the oxygen chamber and LOX/LH₂ concentric orifice in-
tubes are recessed and there is an outward flare jector) is the temperature of the injected hydrogen.
Liquid oxygen
Liquid
oxygen
Seal
THE
Hydrogen
Sleeve
Hydrogen
Porous face plate
-Thrust chamber tubes Enlarged view of element
FIGURE 7.4.4c.- Typical O2/H2 concentric orifice injector.

The injection elements are sized for operation desired, it is also possible to then raise the tem-
under normal steady-state temperature conditions perature to determine if the instability will cease.
but may be required to accept much lower Adjustment of the physical parameters of the
hydrogen temperatures during the engine start. injection system can be made and their effects on
transient. Such a coaxial injector usually has a the resonant combustion zone determined . In this
lower limit of safe operating hydrogen tempera- manner the injector can be developed to meet the
ture, which is a function also of chamber pressure requirements of the engine system, or the stable
and mixture ratio. If operated for more than a region of the injector defined .
fraction of a second below this limit a combustion The operating parameters that appear to affect
instability will be excited . Conversely, operation excitation are chamber pressure, mixture ratio ,
at normal temperature levels is very stable and and hydrogen temperature. Oxygen temperature
combustion pops are not present . The problem in is assumed constant at about 165° R. The hy-
LOX/LH2 engine development is usually that of drogen temperature at instability threshold is also
developing an adequate low temperature stability affected by the intimate physical details of the
margin. There is some thought that orifice injection element design. The effects of variations
configurations providing improved resistance to in these details can be conveniently observed by
resonant combustion associated with low tem- plotting experimental data in the format of Fig.
perature hydrogen also provide improved resis- 7.4.4d . At a given oxidizer flow the element pattern
tance to triggering by artificially imposed least sensitive to resonant combustion, and there-
disturbances . Such a relationship is presently fore described by a low hydrogen temperature,
unproven. will permit stable operation with the lowest ratio
The instabilities encountered with oxygen- of fuel flow to the square root of fuel density.
hydrogen coaxial injection are typically much less The plot format of Fig. 7.4.4d is based on the
damaging to the injector and thrust chamber than assumption that the initiation of an instability
are instabilities with other injector types and with a given injector pattern, and with a given
other propellant combinations. This characteristic oxidizer flow , is dependent on reaching some lower
sometimes makes it feasible to experiment with limiting ratio of hydrogen to oxygen momentum.
coaxial injection systems by progressively re- For a given injector this assumption appears to
ducing hydrogen temperature until resonant hold over a wide range of chamber pressures,
combustion is induced (see Sect . 10.6.1 ) . If mixture ratios, and hydrogen temperatures, but
en
, blement
.5
Hydrog
flow
ec
lb s
mas
s/
le
&
113
Hydrogen
density
in
T
,
N
T
O Designed
operating
Stable operation condition
77777
Region of self-triggered instability
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 7 .8 .9 T.O
Oxygen flow/element , lb /sec
FIGURE 7.4.4d. - Typical self-triggering experimental results for one injector design.
prudence would advise gathering experimental lower the triggering temperature ( see Sect.
data in the region of operating interest . Caution is 8.2.2.1 ) .
also indicated with regard to data collected below 4. Since control of the entrance flow conditions
the 188 psia critical pressure of hydrogen, where are extremely important, icing of the
pressure and temperature do not completely orifices must be avoided (by appropriate
determine the density of hydrogen. drying conditions prior to firing ) . Also ,
The physical parameters which appear to thin oxidizer post tips should be used
influence instability threshold temperatures are (with a typical thickness 0.030 inch or less) .
as follows : Injection other than through the elements
1. High relative fuel and oxygen velocities are themselves must be avoided (e.g. , flow from
desirable . Typical design values under cracks in the regenerative coolant tubes) .
mainstage operation are about 50 feet per Low frequency feed system instability
second oxygen velocity and about 700 feet should also be avoided since it may act as a
per second hydrogen velocity. The experi- triggering mechanism.
mental work at constant 300 psia chamber Both Masters and Campbell have indicated the
pressure reported in Ref. 719 was found to strong effect of hydrogen temperature on stability
be well correlated by the observation that as well as observed effects of some injector design
instability would result if the ratio of factors and operating conditions. Campbell points
hydrogen to oxygen injection velocity was out that the critical low hydrogen temperature region
permitted to drop below 6.5 during low may often be reached during the engine start tran-
temperature operation . This applied to sient. There appears to be general agreement that
nonrecessed elements. excellent stability can be maintained in LOX/LH:
2. A slight recess of the oxidizer orifice below engines ifthe hydrogen is used as a coolant and never
the exit of the fuel annulus has a marked allowed, even in the start transient, to reach the
beneficial affect . Typically a recess of 0.2 transition temperature.
inch, or a length to diameter ratio of the Much ofthe stability research with coaxial injector
recess on the order of 0.6 , is appropriate . elements and the LOX/LH2 propellant combination
A 0.1 inch recess of the element of Ref. 719 has been done at the NASA Lewis Research Center.
improved the stability margin by about This work is often done in direct support on stability
50° R. A 0.2 inch recess of the J-2 element problems in NASA LOX/LH₂ engines, as is
improved the stability margin by about evidenced by the cross references among the three
25° R. Recessments to 0.5 inch were writers on this topic . Some of the conclusions on the
evaluated in Ref. 311. Recessment also effects of coaxial injector design factors on stability,
increases both fuel and oxidizer pressure derived at NASA Lewis, are summarized by J. P.
drops . Wanhainen.
3. Experience in J-2 and M- 1 engine develop- The desirability of providing a high hydrogen
ment indicates that the addition of con- injection velocity and a low oxygen injection
ventionally spaced baffles to the injector velocity has been previously discussed . More
face does not prevent resonant combustion recent tests at NASA Lewis Research Center719
caused by low hydrogen temperature , nor determined that the minimum stable hydrogen
greatly affect the temperature at which the injection temperature, which was used as a
instability occurs . Such baffles do appear to stability rating technique (Sect . 10.6.1 ) , varied
moderate the intensity of the chamber almost linearly with the ratio of hydrogen to
pressure excursions during the instability, oxygen injection area as shown in Fig . 7.4.4e.
and they probably aid in re-establishing The experiments were conducted with 421 element,
stable operation if engine operation is 10.78-inch diameter injectors in 20,000-pound
moved into a "normally stable" region.215 thrust engines operating at a chamber pressure of
The previously mentioned research on a 300 psia. Stability improved as the injection area
20,000 pound thrust 300 psi motor indicates ratio was decreased until the transition tempera-
that the addition of finely spaced baffles can ture was below the minimum value obtainable
363
Characteristic
DESIGN FACTORS AFFECTING EXCITATION §7.4

,efficiency
exhaust
velocity
with the facility (55° to 60° R) at area ratios

120
%c
,m
Performance Oxygen injection area in² below about 0.5. It is important to note in Fig.
o 0.89 7.4.4e that, for these relatively fine pattern
100 ☐ 1.33
O Δ ▲ 2.17
‫مهم‬ injectors , the improved stability was achieved
90 with no decrease in performance. Values of char-
T
acteristic exhaust velocity efficiency above 0.97

prevailed to values of hydrogen temperature as
180 low as 60° R.
temperature
Stability Hydrogen injection area in² The relation between the minimum hydrogen
Hydrogen
injection
160 8.53 temperature for stable operation and the injection.

configuration (taper-reamed, counterbored and
,°R
140 Stable straight bore oxidizer tubes) is illustrated in

4.62 Fig. 7.4.4f in terms of the previous established
120- correlation parameter of injection area ratio . The
8.53
4,62, temperature limits for both tapered and counter-
100- bored configurations show good agreement with
Unstable
straight bore configuration data when based on
80- 4.62 exit area ratio . The use of taper or counterbore
01.44
0.77 techniques, therefore, will allow the large oxidizer
60 0.77
1.44 tube exit area needed for suppression of resonant
combustion as well as maintaining adequate injec-
400 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 tor pressure drop to avoid chugging instability .
Hydrogen-oxygen injection area ratio, АH/Ao
Another injector design parameter that in-
fluences stability of LOX/LH, combustion (using
FIGURE 7.4.4e.-Correlation of instability limits with
injection area ratio at O/F = 5. coaxial tube injectors ) is injector element radial
distribution. Typical stability limit points are
Taper reamed element Counterbored element presented in Fig . 7.4.4g for several 397 element
H2 injectors in 20,000-pound thrust engines operating

at a chamber pressure of 300 psia.718 Note that the
nozzle throat diameter was constant (7.82 inches ) ,
thus, in the cases where chamber diameter was
160 varied to change face coverage, contraction ratio.
temperature
was also a variable. At any given element spacing,

Hydrogen
injection
140 Stable the minimum stable operating hydrogen injection

,"R
temperature varied linearly with face coverage

120 without any apparent independent effect of
chamber diameter or contraction ratio . At all
chamber diameters the results show, that for
100
Unstable maximum stability, the injectors should be
designed for 100 percent face coverage without
80 Stability limit of
T
straight-bore elements voids at the chamber wall. *
A Taper reamed to diameter of 0.110 in.

60
O Taper reamed to diameter of 0.081 in . * The anomaly between the destabilizing effect with re-
Counterbored to 0.110in. duced face coverage cited here and the stabilizing effect
40 previously described (Sect . 7.2.5 ) could be associated with
3 4 5 6 the differences in atomization and mixing characteristics
Injection area ratio , AH₂/AH2 between element types with various propellants. These
differences could depend on such factors as flow rate per
FIGURE 7.4.4f .-Correlations of instability limits for element (thrust per element ) , contraction ratio and cross
tapered and counterbored oxidizer tube configurations velocities (radial winds) . Some of these parameters must
with area ratio at O/F = 5. vary in an experimental study of injector face coverage.
220 A parameter of interest not only from the view-

point of stability but also from economic con-
200 siderations is element size. Summarized in Fig.
(Row radial spacing /chamber dia. ).
temperature
7.4.4h are results of experiments in a 20,000-

Hydrogen
injection
(.40/10.8) (.36-68/10.8-15.7) pound thrust size engine624 using injectors with

180 (.68/17.0)
(.36/10.8) (.43/10.8) varying number of coaxial tube elements from 8
,°R
to 992. In 10.78-inch diameter thrust chambers,

160
injectors with 100 elements or less operated
Stable stably to a hydrogen temperature of 60° R
140 (minimum obtainable with the facility) . The
stability characteristics of the 35 and 20 element
Unstable
224
injectors were further evaluated near this tem-

1
perature limit by bombing with four successive

Instability
predominant 45 grain charges of RDX ( MIL-R-398 ) explosive .
100 mode
In each case, the resulting perturbations were
O IT damped within 20 milliseconds. The utility of this
80 O IR
technique as a solution to the acoustic mode
stability problem depends also on the effect of
60 element size on combustion performance . Referring
.4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
Fractional area of injector face to Fig. 7.4.4h , the loss in performance to provide
covered by active elements stable combustion down to a hydrogen tempera-
ture of 60° R was small . The characteristic
FIGURE 7.4.4g.- Effect of element radial face coverage
characteristic
exhaust velocity efficiency of the 100 element

and element spacing on stability limits. O/F = 5 ; throat
diameter, 7.82 inches. injector was 95 percent which represents a loss
exhaust
Efficiency
100
velocity
90
of
nc
%
*
b) Performance
80-
88
70-
≈
60 Open symbol denotes transition into resonant combustion

Closed symbol denotes stable combustion
100
erature
ogen
injection
90
Hydr
Stable
temp
80
R
a) Stability
,°
70
60 Unstable
50-
40
03 2.0 4.0 6.0 10
.06 .2 .4 ·6 1.0
Weight flow per element , lb/sec
992 397 201 100 95 20 8

Number of elements
FIGURE 7.4.4h . -Effect of weight flow-per-element on hydrogen temperature stable operating limits . O/F = 5.
characteristic
365
Efficiency
DESIGN FACTORS AFFECTING EXCITATION $7.4
exhaust
based
of only 3 percentage points. At higher weight
velocity
100
on
flows per element , the loss in performance was
,%
*
,c
more serious, however, it should be noted that
90- Symbols denote transition
the injectors were not an end product of develop- into resonant combustion
ment and improvements in performance could be
made by proper design.310 80
Two other coaxial tube element variables which 02
are likely to affect drop size and, therefore , com-

bustion stability are stream impingement angle
and oxygen tube recess depth. The effect of
temperature
Hydrogen
variations in these parameters on stability are фор
injection
120
shown in Fig. 7.4.4i and Fig. 7.4.4j . The tests311
Stable
were conducted in 20,000-pound thrust engines
,°R
using 157 element concentric tube injectors 100
T
operating at a chamber pressure of 300 psia.
Stability varied linearly with impingement angle Unstable
80
and improved as the angle was increased from 0°
to 45°. Recessing the oxidizer tube improved
stability continuously with depth until complete 60
10 20 30 40 50
stabilization was achieved at a depth of 0.35
Injection angle , ø , degrees
inch. In regard to performance, the element.
actetristic
modifications had no major effect on engine per- FIGURE 7.4.4i .- Effect of injection angle on stability.
charaus
formance over the range of variables investigated . O/F = 5 ; 157-element injector.

Efficiency
exh
Oxidizer tube eccentricity and oxidizer tube.

nc ty
veloci
base thickness do not appear to have a strong 100

%
*
effect on stability. Summarized in Fig. 7.4.4k

are results of experiments in a 20,000-pound
thrust size engine³ using injectors with 157 90
elements. The use of washers to insure concen- Open symbol denotes transition into
resonant combustion
tricity of the oxidizer tubes within the fuel annuli
160 Closed symbol denotes stable combustion
produced no measurable change in stability
limits compared to an injector without washers
temperature
Hydrogen
injection
and, therefore, a random concentricity due to

140H
normal manufacturing tolerances.
In summary, significant improvements in
,°R
stability on the hydrogen temperature stable

120-
operating limits can be accomplished by proper
selection of several injector design parameters.
The variation in hydrogen transition temperature Stable
100-
for resonant combustion is also predictable for
several design and operating variables with the
correlating parameter.716 80
1/2 /Unstable
Pc 1
THtrans 2 r1/2
1.25
Дрн Poxdiox 60
where THtrans is the hydrogen transition tempera-
ture for resonant combustion, p. is the chamber .6 4 .2 O -2
LOX tube recess
pressure, ▲рн is the hydrogen injector differential
pressure, pox is the oxygen density at injection , FIGURE 7.4.4j .—Effect of LOX tube recess on stability.
diox is the oxygen injection orifice diameter, and O/F = 5 ; 157-element injector ; parallel streams .
temperature
Hydrogen
injection 180 should be kept in mind in the discussion, in the
O Without concentricity following section , on the TRW injector. Wanhainen
assurance washer
notes that chamber diameter and element spacing
0 With concentricity
,°R
160- assurance washers were varied in order to vary the face coverage . This
Open symbol denotes transition could change the combustion characteristics and
into resonant combustion
thereby offset the expected stabilizing effect offace
140 Closed symbol denotes
unstable combustion coverage. Harrje, earlier in this section , has shown
that element spacing and orientation influence
stability with impinging jet injectors . Also , when
120- element geometry and spacing are held constant,
stability has also been shown to depend on chamber
diameter which changes the transverse mode fre-
100 quencies. In order to draw a firm conclusion on the
sole effect offace coverage, from experimental data,
a much larger test program is necessary in which all
80 possible effects are in some way accounted for .
4 5 6 7 8
Mixture ratio (O/F) Wanhainen shows several element design factors
that could be expected to affect oxidizer drop size
FIGURE 7.4.4k . -Effect of oxidizer tube eccentricity on which also strongly influence stability. Certainly the
stability. 157 -element injector.
ratio of hydrogen/oxygen injection area, weight flow
rate per element, stream impingement angle and
r is the mixture ratio . This equation also provides oxygen tube recess depth should have some effects on
some insight to the combustion instability drop size. The effect of these factors on drop size,
phenomenon in oxygen-hydrogen rocket engines . however, is not well known, in direction or in mag-
Considering parameters of the equation related nitude. One might expect the increase in weight flow
only to the hydrogen system and neglecting the per element to result in larger drop sizes and,
minor contribution of the oxidant-fuel ratio therefore, in greater stability. This result is shown by
term , hydrogen injector pressure drop is seen to Wanhainen, in agreement with other data with
be the real determinant of the resonant combustion impinging jet injectors.
boundary at any given chamber pressure operating
condition . It must be noted that increasing 7.4.5 Other Injector Element Types
pressure drop to promote stability is not limited to The results reported thus far in this section have
changes in injection flow area and may be achieved concerned injectors using impinging jet or coaxial
through changes in orifice hydraulic characteristics. elements. These are byfar the most widely used types
with the same effect on stability. Parameters of injector elements. There are two other unique
related to the oxygen system influencing stability injector types in use today that deserve some com-
are the oxygen density and the oxygen jet diam- ment. One is the centrally located injection system
eter. The oxygen droplet size will vary with used by TRW in the LM descent engine, and the
orifice diameter and since the oxygen response other is the vortex injector concept used by RMD in
factor depends strongly on drop size, a strong the Surveyor Vernier ACS engine system.
influence on stability might be expected . The The TRW concept depends largely on radially
effect of oxygen temperature is less obvious, non-uniform injection distribution for stability.
however, it may be associated with the physical This is similar to the radially non-uniform, axial
properties of the fluid. injection schemes discussed earlier with more
Wanhainen shows, in Figure 7.4.49 , the result conventional impinging jet or coaxial element
that concentrating the propellants near the center injectors. These data support the conclusion that
of a LOX/LH2 coaxial injector tends to make the injectors which concentrate propellant nearer to the
combustion more unstable . This is contrary to the center ofthe chamber tend to be more stable ( there is,
theory and experiments cited earlier for impinging of course, the completely opposite result with coaxial
jet injectors with different propellants. This result tube injectors reported by Wanhainen ) . Also , an
injection distribution which minimizes the energy locked within the radial oxidizer fan to promote
release in the region of the pressure anti-nodefor one further local mixing and atomization . Through
transverse mode must, necessarily, maximize the control of the oxidizer/fuel pressure drops and
energy release in the pressure anti-node of some oxidizer sizing geometry the combustion profile
other transverse modes but due to frequency con- can be controlled to provide mixture ratio tem-
siderations the latter may not be important. The perature control near the combustion chamber
stability results obtained with this injector concept wall as well as overall energy release proximity to
are considered further evidence of the greater stability the injector. The injection impingement point can
of a properly designed radially non-uniform in- be located axially within the chamber to provide
jection scheme and are discussed by H. L. Burge. space for heat transfer control as well as recir-
When acoustic instability modes and coupled culation mixing for performance . It is recognized
energy release profiles are examined in con- that the possible locations for abnormally high
ventional rocket engine combustion chambers, it energy release in a combustion chamber can have
is possible to postulate various means of injection a dominant effect on whether the engine will be
to minimize susceptibility to coupling between the dynamically stable or not (without aid of mecha-
chamber natural acoustic modes and the com- nical damping ) .
bustion energy release (see Sect . 7.2.5 ) . This If a large local pressure pulse is generated in a
approach has been taken with the TRW injector region corresponding to a pressure antinode for a
concept.243,245 This concept employs a centrally given acoustical mode, the probability of that
located injection element as shown in Fig. 7.4.5a . mode being initiated will be high. If unburned
This injector utilizes an annular sheet of fuel which propellants exist in a mixed or near mixed condi-
impinges into a radial fan of oxidizer, created by tion in the pressure antinode region , the pressure
selected sizing of slot-type orifices . Part of the fuel disturbance can result in accelerated burning
is allowed to flow in between the orifices and with rates and consequent energy release by enhancing
hypergolic propellants the elements are sized such pressure sensitive reactions and mixing to drive
that the resulting gas phase reactions are inter- the mode. If the propellant feed into the zone is
Oxidizer
୮
Movable sleeve
Fuel
www.
www
Engine centerline
Primary
reaction
zone
FIGURE 7.4.5a.-Central coaxial flow injector with throttling sleeve.

Co -axial
Local Nominal P Local
pressure pressure
distribution distribution
min A
Profile Unstable Unstable Stable

rate of Rate of Node
Stable
energy energy
release release
Oscillation
Position of Position of (sinusoidal)
maximum maximum
rate of rate of Axial Unstable
energy energy rate of
Stable release energy Stable
release
Central injector Central injection
First tangential First radial First longitudinal
FIGURE 7.4.5b .-Schematic comparison of resonant combustion and steady-state energy release patterns for central
injection.
sufficient and time phase matched to the passing node region to result in a sustained longitudinal
wave the mode will be sustained . wave.
For comparison purposes the pressure nodes The use of high injection density near the
and indications of energy release profiles are shown mid-radius of the combustion chamber also tends
in Figure 7.4.5b for the tangential, longitudinal , to prevent the establishment of the radial mode
and radial fundamental modes. Since the tan- of instability . As illustrated the normal maximum
gential modes are usually most damaging in energy release zone is near the pressure node of the
development programs, attention is first given to radial mode. A continued displacement of energy
these modes . The local pressure distribution for a release from this region is difficult to sustain.
fundamental tangential wave is seen to be most The concept has been employed in engines
susceptible to continuous excitation through ranging in size from 25 lbf to several hundred
energy release at the circumferential boundary of thousand lbf, with dynamic stability demonstra-
the chamber. The stabilizing nature of the tion at each thrust level. Propellant combinations
centralized injection to this mode is brought about have included : N₂O₁/UDMH, N2O4/50% N₂H-
in the following manner ; increased combustion 50% UDMH ,325 F2/N2H4,532 FLOX/LPG , 458,750
rates force the combustion zone toward the source CTF/ Gelled Fuel,83 N2O4/N2H4.85 A typical cham-
of the propellant, which in this case is at a pressure ber pressure recovery for the LMDE engine from a
node. Therefore , a pressure pulse induced com- bomb detonation is given in Figure 7.4.5c at
bustion wave which moves toward the nodal varying degrees of throttling .
point of the system becomes less effective to The other injection design to be considered here
sustain the tangential mode of instability, thus was not conceived to insure stability. Rather, the
providing some measure of damping. RMD vortex-type injector seeks to improve per-
With respect to the longitudinal mode the formance and control heat transfer for size-limited
injection and combustion regions are removed rocket designs. The design and stability history is
from the antinode region, and the injection discussed by J. J. Lovingham.
densities are high in the center of the combustor. Vortex injection provides a form of swirl or
Thus, for a given chamber length the stable cyclone combustion for a rocket engine similar to
maximum energy release occurs nearer the pres- systems often employed in industrial furnaces.
sure node. A pressure disturbance cannot drive The latter promote efficient combustion of pul-
the energy release profile uniformly to the anti- verized coal, liquid and gaseous fuels . When
84 psi
VB2-539
Half thrust
80 psi
VB2-538
Half thrust
60 psi
VB2-536
Full thrust
150 psi
VB2-535
Full thrust
120 psi pressure

increase
VB2-534
Full thrust
-10-
milliseconds
Time
FIGURE 7.4.5c .-Typical pressure recovery for central injection design in LMDE engine.
compared to other combustor systems , vortex within a combustor by the tangential injection of
furnace systems operate at high efficiency over one or more of the propellants is necessary for
wider ranges of fuel to air ratios . It has been vortex combustion. (Swirling flow generated
experimentally demonstrated59,317,362,633 that the merely by the introduction of vanes or baffles into
vortex furnace system is highly stable, requires a a normally non-tangential injected combustor
minimum of combustor volume , and imposes does not constitute a vortex injector system as
reduced thermal loads on the combustor walls . In defined and discussed in this section . ) The rota-
rocket engines, vortex injectors have been used tional flow field tends to increase the chamber
with a number of propellant combinations and at stay time of the reactants which encourages the
combustion pressures from subatmospheric to promotion of high combustion efficiencies.327
several thousand pounds per square inch. A Although gascous, liquid , or slurry propellants
notable application of this injector is in the may be used in various combinations the sub-
Surveyor Vernier ACS engine system (Fig.
sequent discussion will be limited to liquid
7.4.5d ) which has been used in the soft landing of bipropellants. Further, the introduction of the
five vehicles on the lunar surface .
fuel at the outer periphery, although not a
The generation of a rotational flow pattern restricting condition , will be used as the base of
Molybdenum
nozzle extension
Silicon carbide Ae/At =86 : 1
throat insert
5.09"
dia
Silicon carbide
ring
Rokide
540" dia
-Vortex injector
Oxidizer inlet
Fuel inlet
9.30".
FIGURE 7.4.5d .-Surveyor vernier engine thrust chamber and injector assembly.
this discussion since it provides a preferred case of (see Chapter 4 ) may be qualitatively used in
fuel barrier cooling in a rocket engine . analyzing combustion instability for a vortex
The vortex injector concept is shown schemati- injector, additional work is required to extend the
cally in Fig. 7.4.5e . As shown in the figure , fuel, theory to this special case.
injected tangentially from the outer periphery of An extensive investigation of combustion
the injector into the combustion zone, forms a instability with vortex injection was undertaken
cool boundary layer which swirls along the in the course of the development of the 100-lb
chamber walls ; oxidizer is injected in essentially thrust C- 1 ACS engine (see Fig. 7.4.5f ) . During
a radial direction to provide intimate mixing with the development program the engine, when
the swirling fuel . The resultant momentum of the operating in pulse mode under certain conditions
injected propellants follows a helical pattern . of pulse width and fire fraction (ratio of on-time
The tangential momentum provides longer mixing to elapsed-time) occasionally entered an unstable
times than conventional axial injectors (i.e., combustion mode on start.86 (Qualification testing
impinging stream) . Based on flow studies and of the C- 1 engine under steady-state duty cycles
experimental work with uncooled vortex injectors , of 2 seconds to 200 seconds duration revealed no
it is evident that oxidizer stream impingement combustion instability over accumulated firing
does not completely disrupt the swirling fuel times of 64,960 seconds. ) The engine generally
layer and that a cool fuel film is maintained would not recover from this condition and, if
around the injector-chamber periphery. Since this operation was continued, severe erosion to the
fuel-rich boundary layer extends to some degree injector and/or combustion chamber liner re-
throughout the chamber, thermal margins are sulted . The engine was most susceptible to this
enhanced and combustion chamber durability is mode of operation under the condition of maxi-
thereby improved. mum injected fuel temperature resulting from
Vortex injection gives rise to a steady-state prolonged pulse mode operation and heat soak.
flow which is highly three-dimensional with The instability, the first tangential mode which
complex recirculatory patterns in the combustion occurred at 17.5 kHz with an incident level of
chamber. While the results of the sensitive time 0.36 %, was attributed to the injection of two-
lag theory and the numerical integration analysis phase fuel during start which resulted from
fuel boiling, entrained helium bubbles, or cavita- ever, durability of the baffles in the steady-state
tion in the coolant jacket, valve, or injector, mode was limited.
aggravated by a significant drop in fuel pressure Further work, recently completed, in which
on start . Although the investigation of a number the periphery of the fuel injector was modified to
of design modifications showed promising ap- function as an acoustic liner has shown that this
proaches it was found that the most effective and approach can suppress the instability.70 From a
direct approach to damping was the use of chamber heat transfer standpoint, the vortex injector
baffles positioned adjacent to the injector. How- has definite merits for this method of suppression.
7.4.6 Summary of Conclusions
As discussed in Section 7.4.1 , theories of high

frequency combustion stability tend to agree on
several major effects of injector design on sta-
bility. In general, the combustion response of a
burning spray is a function of frequency and
there is a frequency of maximum combustion
response for that spray. The magnitude and
frequency of maximum response are both func-
tions of drop size and, therefore, vary inversely
Initial path with orifice diameter and directly with injection
Oxidizer of combustion
injector products and velocity. Thus, when the drop size is increased ,
entrained
droplets both the magnitude and the frequency of maxi-
mum combustion response decrease. One experi-
mental result of this variation of response
Tangential magnitude and frequency, then , should be an
fuel injector
improvement in stability with large drop sizes .
There appears to be sufficient general agreement
in the experimental data and conclusions to verify
FIGURE 7.4.5e .-Typical vortex injector . these theoretically predicted effects of injector
Radiation liner Radiation cooled

nozzle extension
Two pass
Full diameter cooling jacket
vortex injector
Minimum heat
storage nozzle insert
Pulse valve
-0.87 dia 6.75"

dia
Oxidizer
inlet
Fuel
inlet
17.0"
FIGURE 7.4.5f.-C-1 thrust chamber assembly.

design. McBride shows the variations of oscillation tube base thickness , ( 3 ) oxidizer tube recess, and
growth rate (as a measure of combustion response) (4) hydrogen/oxygen momentum ratio . Since
with frequency for a given injector. Harrje also these factors represent individual, empirical
confirms the existence of a single band of fre- observations, their interdependence is difficult to
quencies that a given injector can support . This assess . Generalizations, applicable to all com-
band of frequencies appears to be constant if the binations of these factors in all combinations of
spray is constant, regardless of changes in chamber hardware and environments, are difficult to make.
geometry or mode frequencies. Smith shows the Besides the effects of injector design factors on
same type of combustion response even with very the spray itself, the postulated effects of injection
high chamber pressures and oxygen/hydrogen mass and mixture ratio distributions, as discussed
propellants. in 7.4.1 , appear reasonably confirmed. McBride
Many studies show that stability is strongly indicates the stabilizing effect of a "hump"
controlled by injector design factors which affect mass distribution . The stability of the TRW
spray drop size, with earth storable propellants or injector concept is ascribed by Burge largely to the
with propellant combinations which include one injected mass distribution concentrated near the
cryogenic. McBride shows the inverse relation. center of the chamber. Clinger indicates the need
between orifice diameter and the frequency of to keep injected propellants away from walls to
maximum combustion response. McBride , Abbe , optimize stability. Many experiments (not re-
Masters and Wanhainen all indicate the stabilizing ported here ) with "wall gap," a zone near the
effect of increased thrust-per-element: These wall where no propellants are injected , indicate
investigators , plus Harrje and Smith, all ascribe improved stability. The data shown by Wanhainen ,
this thrust-per-element effect to increasing drop however, indicate exactly the opposite effect ; i.e. ,
size. uniform face coverage was the most stable.
There is not general agreement, however, on Although other effects in the single experimental
how this change in drop size affects stability. program discussed by Wanhainen could explain
Many theories and experimental data tend to this disagreement, it cannot be concluded , at
indicate a strong effect of drop size on the fre- this time, that there is universal agreement on the
quency of the combustion response . Other theories effect of mass distribution .
and data indicate the major effect is to spread out The effects of mixture ratio distribution are
the combustion axially, minimizing the coupling discussed largely by Harrje. Based on these data ,
between the region of sensitive combustion and it appears the uniform mixture ratio profiles,
the oscillations in chamber gases. As a result, the even across the individual injector elements ,
effects of other major injector design factors on promote stability with regard to velocity/dis-
stability are not generally clear. placement effects . The data discussed appear to
In particular, the effect of injection velocity , or be clear on this point . One might expect , therefore ,
orifice pressure drop , is not clear. Empirical that like-impinging jet elements, which should
correlations of drop size show that increased create larger mixture ratio gradients than unlike
velocity reduces drop size, which should be impinging elements, should be more unstable
destabilizing . The Priem theory , however, indi- than the unlike elements. Harrje indicates the
cates that increased injection velocity spreads out greater sensitivity of like impinging jet injectors to
the combustion and has a stabilizing effect . These velocity coupling. The more rapid combustion of
opposite effects are discussed by Abbe and
the unlike elements, however, is thought to con-
Harrje . centrate the combustion closer to the injector face.
Several other injector design details which could
than with the like impinging elements. This is
have significant effects on drop size have also been
considered a de-stabilizing effect . As a result, the
shown to have significant effects on stability.
relative inherent stability of these two element.
Unfortunately, empirical correlations between
these factors and drop size are not available . Some types is not clear and may not always be the same
of these design factors, in coaxial tube injectors, in all configurations . McBride, Abbe and Harrje
are ( 1 ) hydrogen injection angle, (2) oxidizer all indicate data showing that the like-impinging
elements appear to be more stable than the emphasis is on certain hardware oriented problems.
unlike type (and lower performing, as well ) . The injector impedance and the role of fluid
Aside from this difference between the like- inertance is discussed . Stability problems asso-
and the unlike-impinging jet injector elements ciated with bubbles trapped in the injector
discussed above, the general stability char- manifold are presented . The relationship of
acteristics of these two element types appear to structural vibration and instability is also brought
be quite similar. The differences between imping- into focus together with the role of blade wake
ing and coaxial types also do not appear too frequencies.
great, where comparisons can be made . Obviously, The following nomenclature pertains to Sect . 7.5 :
such injector design factors as base thickness,
A。 Orifice cross-sectional area
tube recess and concentricity , in the coaxial Gravitational acceleration
g
types, do not exist in the impinging types . Also , K Steady-state gain factor
there has not been the concentrated study of the
Kd Dynamic gain
oxygen/hydrogen propellant combination with
leff Effective orifice length
impinging element injectors . Where drop size
Pa Pump discharge pressure
effects can be related, all element types appear to
Ps Pump suction pressure
be much the same.
ΔΡ Injection pressure drop
In the two special injector element types
Rp Pump dynamic resistance
discussed, comparisons with the more standard , to Orifice time constant
axial injection types are even more difficult .
Wt "Break" frequency, 1/t.
3
Available theory is generally less applicable to

these injector types. Drop size correlations are Subscript:
unknown. The effects of injector design factors on d Discharge
stability can only be discussed generally, as Burge
and Lovingham have done. There is generally an 7.5.1 Injector Impedance *
insufficient range of instability data on either type
The injector is often the most favorable system
to determine whether the stability varies as with
component for controlling feed-system-coupled
other element types . The specific discussions of instability.272 The designer's goal is to maintain
these injector types are included here because. constant injector flowrate. Instantaneous flowrate
these are injectors used in developed , operating is a function of chamber pressure , injector pressure,
engines. and injector impedance (for a detailed discussion
More recently other injection designs have been see Chapter 3 ) . In general , stability is improved
tested experimentally. For example, Riebling-590 as orifice impedance (resistance + inertance) is
has concentrated on sheet-type impingement increased and injector volume is decreased . Thus ,
designs . Other groups52,476 have been developing the stability benefits of injector orifice design can
micro-orifice injectors to achieve high combustion be cancelled by an overly large manifold volume.
efficiency in small chambers. Stability of such For simplicity, only the injector impedance is
designs will naturally influence the incorporation discussed here ; the more complex effects of in-
into production engines. jector volume (capacitance) are discussed in
Chapters 3, 5 and 6.
7.5 FEED SYSTEM COUPLING It is necessary that the designer have a physical
understanding of the concept of inertance . Simply
The preceding sections of this chapter have
stated , the inertance of an injector orifice is the
concentrated on the combustion-related factors
tendency of the flow rate through the orifice to
which are responsible for excitation of various
remain constant despite instantaneous changes in
types of combustion instability. Another source of the pressure drop across the orifice . The relation
excitation is the feed system and the coupling of
that system with the combustion processes. This
important aspect has been discussed in several of * J. A. Nestlerode, J. R. Fenwick, and L. E. Sack,
the previous chapters, however, the present Authors .
between injector pressure , chamber pressure, and curve is shown in Figs. 7.5.1a and b. Quasi-steady
flow rate can be expressed by the equation behavior is obtained for low frequencies, where
inertial effects are insignificant , so that w' is
dw (t)
pi (t ) -pe (t ) = Rw² (t ) + £ (7.5.1-1 ) proportional to pe' , and lags only slightly behind
dt
it . As the frequency is increased the phase lag
Injector Steady- Orifice increases, but the magnitude of w' /p.' remains
nearly constant up to the so-called "break fre-
pressure state inertance quency"

1 24pAg
wt = =
drop flow Wleff
to
loss For w > wt the magnitude of w' /pe' decreases

continuously ("roll-off" ) with increasing fre-
where and £ are the orifice resistance and quency as the inertial forces overpower the
inertance, respectively, and are related to steady- imposed acceleration forces. The phase lag passes
state flow and injector configuration by through 45° at w = wt and approaches 90° for
very high frequency oscillations .
(Pi -Pc) = ΔΡ
R== (7.5.1-2 ) The dashed line in Fig. 7.5.1a shows the effect
w2
of increasing Ap . The quasi-steady flow rate.
perturbation (for a given chamber pressure
leff
L perturbation ) is decreased and the break fre-
Aog quency is increased . Increasing the orifice inert-
in which A. is the cross-sectional area of the ance (leff/Aog ) decreases the break frequency but.
orifice and leff is its effective length ( Sect . 3.2.2.1 ) . has no effect on the gain K. Both of these changes
The role of the injector impedance on stability have stabilizing effects since w' is reduced for
can be shown by a simplified analysis. Assuming part of the frequency range. For typical injector
designs, the break frequencies lie between 100
the injector manifold pressure to be constant, but
and 2500 Hz .
allowing small perturbations in chamber pressure
and flow rate, with Although the orifice break frequency is an
important system characteristic, there has been
Po (t ) = Pe +pe'est little direct reporting of the effect of wt on feed
system coupling . A review (by the author) of
w(t) = w + w'est
data from a number of different engines has
Equation (7.5.1-1 ) yields the impedance relation
. indicated that there have been no clear-cut
evidences of coupling of the feed system through
w' (w/24p) K
= the injection orifices when the oscillation fre-
Pe 1+ (w/2Ap) (left/Aog ) s 1 +tos quency is greater than twice the orifice break
frequency (w2wt) .
(7.5.1-3)
The phase lag introduced by the orifice inert-
usually referred to as "first-order lag. " The ance is an effect that must be considered by the
parameter K is the steady-state gain, i.e. , the designer. It is conceivable that this phase lag,
ratio of flow rate variation to chamber pressure together with the transport and combustion time
variation for very low oscillation frequencies . delays, could tend to destabilize an otherwise
The time constant t, is the determining factor for stable system. This possibility can be investigated
non-steady behavior, in which the acceleration by the methods described in Chapters 5 and 6,
forces are important . and must be considered separately for each engine
The frequency response of the flow rate , system. However, as seen in Figs . 7.5.1a and b,
assuming first-order lag and constant injector the maximum phase lag is 90° , whereas the
manifold pressure , is determined by substituting attenuation benefits are limitless (i.e., the response
s = iw into Eq . (7.5.1-3 ) . A typical response goes to zero as w→ ∞ ).
Break frequency
W₁ = +to rad/sec.
wleff
to=
24pAg
Magnitude
Pc
of
Increasing Ap
8888
0.1 10 100
W/W+
FIGURE 7.5.1a.-Response magnitude versus frequency, where the magnitude is defined as

w/2Ap
|S'ཀྱཱཿ
Pe 1 + i (w /2Ap) (l/Ag) w
0°
10
20 Break frequency
)(Degrees
(w = w₂ = = ₂)
30
40
50
of e
Phas
3/20 60
T
70
80
90°
.002 10 100
3/3
Figure 7.5.lb. - Phase angle versus frequency (same parameters as in Fig. 7.5.1a , but expressed in degrees of phase angle) .
7.5.2 Coupled Resonances * Ri R
ww www
7.5.2.1 Lumped parameters. - Lumped param-
eter resonances in the propellant system are Ox feed
Pc CL
frequently encountered . They result from the system
coupling of injector fluid inertance (or mass
effects ) with an inlet torus or dome fluid capaci-
tance. Ox injector Orifice
One example of lumped parameter resonances
involved tests on a pressure-fed bipropellant FIGURE 7.5.2a.-Dynamically coupled injector circuit.
engine system operating at 1400 psia chamber
pressure.227 Pressure instrumentation revealed the
presence of a 650 Hz intermediate frequency
Pio
combustion instability that was due to this x
instability mechanism. The test data indicated
Pc
that the peak-to-peak oscillatory amplitude of
the chamber pressure was just less than half of
Pi
the steady-state value. The inclusion of an orifice f
at the oxidizer torus inlet, to provide additional
energy dissipation, was ineffective and only
served to further isolate the resonant phenomenon
from the upstream fluid dynamics. The dynamic -0.1 sec
coupling for this system can be represented by
the circuit shown in Fig. 7.5.2a . The stabilization FIGURE 7.5.2b .- Unstable engine test data.
of this type of system coupling requires either a

change in torus or dome volume, in order to shift Ri Li
the resonant frequency sufficiently to provide ww
phase stabilization, or an increase in the pressure Pc Ox feed
drop in the injector circuit to " gain stabilize ”† system
the system .
Any additional capacitance encountered due to Ox injector Cavitating
inlet dome mechanical capacitance makes the venturi
resonant circuit more difficult to define . Engine
FIGURE 7.5.2c . - Dynamically coupled system.
tests and analytical studies have revealed that
stability is sensitive to oxidizer dome mechanical
fed, bipropellant engine operated at 425 psia
capacitance. In that case , dome compliancy tests
chamber pressure, with the propellant flow rates
are valuable for defining the changes due to
maintained constant by cavitating venturis
various structural stiffening schemes and to
directly upstream of the injector, instability at
provide data for the combined model of dome
70 Hz was noted.227 The test data shown in Fig.
fluid and mechanical capacitance which can be
7.5.2b indicate that the peak-to-peak chamber
used to analytically verify the resonant system
behavior . pressure oscillations were 43% of the steady-state
value . Likewise, large oxidizer feed system
Another example of lumped parameter reso-
pressure oscillations were measured downstream
nance is the coupling between the injector incrt-
of the venturi where the peak-to-peak oscillations
ance and the vapor capacitance associated with a
in Piox were 22 % of the steady-state value .
cavitating venturi located directly upstream of
the injector. For example, in the same pressure- Note that the uniformity of the test data wave-
forms indicate the presence of a single dominant
resonance frequency.232
* L. L. Bickford , Author.
† Gain stabilization is the reduction of the gain (ampli- In order to understand this behavior, consider
fying factors) to a level which can no longer support oscil- the model of the dynamically coupled system
latory behavior. shown in Fig. 7.5.2c . The cavitating venturi has a
cavitation vapor region downstream of the increasing Rp, which is achieved by changing the
venturi throat which can be treated as a vapor pump operating point .
spring or capacitance.735 This analytical model
was used to predict the 70 Hz resonance for the 7.5.2.2 Distributed parameters . -The presence of
oxidizer circuit. Initial attempts to provide gain fluid transmission lines in propellant feed systems
stabilization by increasing the venturi pressure results in multiple distributed parameter reso-
drop were not successful since the resonance nances. In pressure-fed engine systems these
occurs downstream of such changes . However, resonances can result in low or intermediate
system stabilization was achieved by inserting a frequency instability. As a typical example , engine
pressure dropping orifice between the venturi and tests on a pressure-fed bipropellant engine
the injector. resulted in a combustion instability with char-
A similar dynamic resonance has been observed acteristics as summarized in Figs . 7.5.2e and
on tests of a bipropellant throttlable engine. This 7.5.2f. At the operating chamber pressure of 100
pressure-fed engine uses movable pintles in the psia, the frequency of instability was near 600
throat of cavitating venturis to obtain variable
thrust control. The venturis are located imme-
diately upstream of the injector and contribute to
combustion instability. The frequency of insta- 600
bility was found to vary between 130 to 450 Hz
Frequency
while operating throughout the variable thrust

range.
500
An additional resonance can occur for a pump-
),f(Hz
fed engine involving the turbopump inlet cavita-

tion compliance and the combined discharge line
and injector inertance. Since the actual value of 400-
the cavitation compliance is difficult to define,
this compliance is inferred analytically from the
suction line resonances obtained from the power 300-
spectral density data taken from the pressure ·Operating-
instrumentation records. The analytical model range
for such a system is shown in Fig . 7.5.2d where , 200
40 60 80 100 120
for lower frequencies, the turbopump is an active
circuit device⁹8 which can be represented by a Chamber pressure, p (psia)
pressure-controlled source due to a dynamic gain ,
Ka, and a pump dynamic resistance, Rp. Deter- FIGURE 7.5.2e .- Frequency of combustion instability .
mining the effective capacitance for this active
network requires the application of the Reduction
Theorem that yields an equivalent passive cir-
cuit model . Stabilization can be obtained by
Kap Rp
ww
Suction
line Tika+DP's Pá
Cavitation Pump
compliance resistance
Pressure Discharge
controlled line
source 200 300 400 500 600
and
injector Frequency, f(Hz)
FIGURE 7.5.2d.- Dynamically coupled pump-fed system. FIGURE 7.5.2f.- Oscillatory chamber pressure .
Hz. An analytical investigation of the complex

feed system admittance was conducted for the Fuel Oxidizer
tank tonk
test stand configuration shown in Fig. 7.5.2g
which included many branched appendages ter-
minated with closed propellant valves. This Propellant tanks
analysis revealed the resonant admittances for
the fuel and oxidizer systems shown in Figs.
7.5.2h and 7.5.2i , respectively. Note from Fig.
7.5.2h that the fuel circuit admittance peaks
occur in the region of 600 Hz . Since no additional
pressure drops were allowed for engine stabiliza- Safety valves
tion, a Helmholtz resonator was attached to the
fuel feed system as shown in Fig. 7.5.2j . This
provided the necessary stability modification of
the fuel feed line and resonances were eliminated
Thrust chamber valves
on subsequent engine tests.
7.5.3 Imposed Oscillations
7.5.3.1 Structural vibrations. - In a liquid rocket

Injector manifolds
engine the propellant injection flow rate is affected
.
by the physical displacement or structural Injector
vibration of the injector plate and feed system
ducting. When the structural vibrations are in Thrust chamber
turn excited by engine operation , a closed loop
relationship exists.736 There are two major types
of structurally coupled modes of vibration that FIGURE 7.5.2g .-Propellant feed system schematic.
have been encountered in engine programs . One
admittance
magnitude
type involves the flexing of regenerative cooling

/hydraulic
Absolute
1.0
tubes which cause fuel flow pulsation. The second
13.
(i)snec
type of vibration is the diaphragm motion of the

of
injector plate where this motion can have a sub-

stantial effect on the liquid stream formed by the
orifice. A sketch of the vibrating injector is shown
.
in Fig. 7.5.3a where the injector face is presumed
10
to be vibrating as a diaphragm which is driven at

its mechanical natural frequency by the chamber
pressure fluctuations . For example, oscillatory
engine test data are shown in Fig . 7.5.3b where
an accelerometer was mounted at the center of the
injector.272 Vibration shake table testing of this
injector revealed a 1330 Hz mechanical resonance
which correlates well with the engine test data.
The elimination of structural couplings can be
achieved by mechanically stiffening the flexible
members .
7.5.3.2 Pump blade wakes.-Another cause of 001

540 580 620 660 700
imposed oscillations is the turbopump . Rotating
Frequency (Hz)
pump blades impart pressure oscillations and
thereby flow fluctuations to the fuel and oxidizer FIGURE 7.5.2h.- Fuel feed system admittance.
propellant feed systems. The "pump blade wake system experiencing 1000 Hz chamber pressure
frequencies" are simply a function of the pump oscillations . Tracing through the system this
rotational speed and the geometry of the com- frequency could be attributed directly to the
ponents. These blade frequencies become impor- fuel pumps .
tant candidates for a stability investigation when In order to evaluate the effectiveness of these
they approximate the frequencies that are char- pump-produced signals in modulating chamber
acteristic of other system components, primarily pressure, a transfer function can be analytically
the combustion chamber. defined using the techniques described in Chapter
A typical example of possible blade wake fre- 3 which relate the engine chamber pressure to
quency influence was found in a pump-fed engine the pump discharge pressure. For the pump-fed
engine system, this transfer function is evaluated
iadmittance
magnitude
Absolute
hydraulic
1.0 where the fuel pump discharge pressure, Par, is

the input signal. The resulting frequency response
Yox
secn²
)(of
plot for the magnitude of this transfer function is

shown in Fig. 7.5.3c . The magnitude variation
indicates that any fuel pump-produced pressure
oscillations in the region of 1000 Hz are greatly
0.1 attentuated by the time they reach the chamber
and are ineffective in modulating the chamber
T
pressure. If the blade wake oscillations are found

to be a problem, they can be removed from the
system by using one of the acoustical filters
described in Sect . 6.2.3.
Ō
7.6 POPPING AND SPIKING *

‫די‬
The tendency of certain rocket designs and

propellant combinations† to develop spontaneous ,
random pressure perturbations, which have the
.001 660 700

540 580 620 * Contributions from A. J. Smith, Jr. , and R. M.
Frequency (Hz) Clayton.
† See Sect. 7.3.2 for further discussion of propellant
FIGURE 7.5.21 .-Oxidizer feed system admittance . combustion effects.
Oxidizer
Fuel feed
feed line
line & tank
& tank Oxidizer manifold
Thrust chamber valves

TCV TCV
Resonator Vertical headers
Injector
Fuel manifold
Pc
FIGURE 7.5.2j . - Engine header-injection system including a Helmholtz resonator.

Magnitude
.08
Pc
of
df
Pc
Pc
/
p
.04
Ο
900 950 1000
Frequency-Hz
FIGURE 7.5.3c.-Frequency response.
FIGURE 7.5.3a.-Injector vibration.
Impingement
point(typ)
Fuel
Accelerometer, injector center
(a ) Oxidizer
Pc
10m sec
Fuel
FIGURE 7.5.3b .-Engine test data.
appearance of local explosions, has become a

concern of the combustion instability community
in recent years.331 Such perturbations have been
observed to occur during steady-state operation (b) Oxidizer
as well as during the starting transient. Although
there is no generally accepted terminology, the
former are usually called "pops" and the latter,
"spikes. " Further complicating the popping/spik- Fuel
ing picture are similar disturbances that originate
in the injector manifold because of condensation
of one propellant in the manifold of the other
following certain space start sequences.487 Often,
popping and spiking have been known to trigger (c) Oxidizer
resonant combustion unless care has been taken to
design the combustor for dynamic stability. (a) qr >qox.
(b) qr =qox.
The amplitude of the popping/spiking dis- (c) qr qox.
turbances often exceeds 100 percent of the chamber FIGURE 7.6a.-Three configurations of stream im-
pressure . Investigations with sensitive instru- pingement.
TABLE 7.6.- -A COMPENDIUM OF POPPING/SPIKING DATA
Propellants Injector Chamber Mixture

Reference element pressure, ratio, Remarks
Oxidizer Fuel type psia OX /F
32 N204 N2H4 Showerhead 150 1.0 Apox = 118 psia ;

Apr = 80 psia
715 N204 N₂H4 Triplet 10 0.875 Apox = Apr = 16 psia (pops ) ;

Apox = Apr = 25 psia (no pops)
705 N2O4 (A-50) Unlike 100 2.0 One or two pops per 100 sec ;
doublet as high as one pop per sec ;
Ap's not reported ; pops reduced
by orifice rework
00
329 N204 a(A-50) Quadlet 90 One pop per 100 sec for trax
21-1D; one pop per 530 sec
for trax 21-11B ; Ap's not
reported
639 N2O4 a(A-50) Unlike 120 1.6 Apox = Apr = 30 psia ; pops
doublet eliminated by extending sides
of baffle to chamber wall
a Denotes a 50 %/50% blend of N₂H, and UDMH .
mentation have indicated that the gross dis- supplied by the start transient itself. Proposed
turbance is actually a series of sharp spikes mechanisms to initiate popping include ( 1 )
closely spaced in time.431 This is apparently the impinging stream flow-field phenomenon, 149,618
result of multiple reflections of an initial wave (2 ) injection stream hydraulic instability,705 and
from the chamber boundaries . (3 ) discontinuous flow through the injector
Those investigators who have encountered . because of dissolved gases.
popping are in general agreement that the dis- The search for a common denominator asso-
turbances derive their energy from unburnt ciated with engine development programs that
propellants ( or intermediate products ) that exist have experienced popping and spiking phenomena
within the combustion chamber, near the injector has resulted in the tabulated data shown in Table
face . Collection of propellants on wall surfaces , 7.6. Examination of this table indicates the
corners, under the baffle blades, in the pressure following :
tap ports, etc. , has been shown to be responsible 1. The propellant combination generally asso-
for popping in a number of instances.728 Another ciated with popping and spiking is
explanation of the energy source for spiking and N2O4/N2H4. ( However, similar occurrences
popping involves local collection of a pre-ignition have been experienced with propellants
reaction product ( adduct ) , with monomethyl- such as UDMH and MMH.431 )
hydrazine nitrate the prime candidate.627 This 2. Popping appears to be independent of the
clear, yellow, viscous liquid with very low vapor injector element type.
pressure can provide considerable energy and has 3. The chamber pressure is generally low.
the characteristics of a monopropellant . Tests with N2O4 /A-50 at 500 psia,649 750
Along with the potential energy source for psia, and 830 psia329 have not resulted in
pops there must exist a mechanism to trigger this popping.
reaction. For spiking, this mechanism may be 4. Popping occurs when the ratio of injector
pressure drop to the chamber pressure (1) F >qox ( Fig. 7.6a (a ) ) , (2) qr = qox (Fig.
exists in the range from 0.25 to 1.60. In one 7.6a (b) ) , and ( 3 ) qF < qox ( Fig. 7.6a ( c ) ) . The
instance,715 the popping was eliminated by flow field for cylindrical jets is more complex ;
extending this pressure ratio from 1.6 to 2.5. however, at least for inviscid fluids, physics
Although these general observations are of requires that it exhibit the same behavior, i.e. ,
interest to the designer, more specific information only for equal q do both streams stagnate simul-
is required in the form of a design criterion . Such taneously. Moreover, it can be shown618 that the
information is available from a recent study at equal-q configuration is transitory, since small
JPL where Clayton et al.149,618 have investigated fluctuations in velocity head for either stream will
the reactive impingement process as a source discontinuously shift the flow field to that asso-
of popping . ciated with unequal q.
The model proposed is that three distinct flow Central to coupling this flow-field model to
conditions can exist with impinging streams , one hypergolic impingement and popping triggers is
of which is unconditionally unstable. These that a small quantity of reactant (s) may be
configurations are shown in Fig . 7.6a for the case stagnant at the impingement point . When
of two-dimensional, inviscid , impinging sheets . operating near the equal-q condition , depending
Stream dynamic pressures are the basis for on the instantaneous relative q's, either one or
comparison (where the dynamic pressure is both reactants may be stagnant . For example , in
q = pV²) , and the three stream configurations are ( 1 ) the oxidizer is stagnant with the fuel stream
110
8 Popping threshold
100-
8 ~30 Pops/sec.
~4 Pops/sec.
90F
80H
70-
~45 Pops/sec.
FT
,°
60
T
and Tox within 10 °F
50-
O No pops
40 One pop
More than one pop
Spontaneously resonant
T
30F
Oxidizer jet stagnated Fuel jet stagnated
201
0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
1
|+
1+ 18F/ 80x²
FIGURE 7.6b . - Correlation of popping occurrence.

sweeping past , whereas in (3 ) the reverse situa- this parameter is not pertinent to popping occur-
tion exists. Contact time415 may be relatively short rence.147 As predicted by the flow-field model, the
in these cases as compared to case ( 2) where both occurrence of popping is centered on the qr = qox
reactants are temporarily stagnant, qr = qox . line. The data indicate that propellant tempera-
This longer period to react could result in a small tures greater than 60° F are necessary to initiate
explosion and therefore supply the initial dis- popping.
turbance for a pop.484 Most of the single element From considerations of the temperature and
stream separation and popping experiments are contact times there appears to be a close relation-
in this regime. Randomness of popping could also ship between the data of Clayton149 (Fig. 7.6b )
be explained by this model since a time to recover and the stream-separation-temperature data given
would follow each disturbance. Higher reactant. in Ref. 430 for N2O4/N2H, propellants at ambient
temperatures would also be expected to enhance pressures. Hence, impingement-related popping
the reaction rates and hence could be an impor- sources and stream separation may be regimes of
tant popping parameter . the same phenomena. 149 This may explain why the
The test results using N2O4/A-50 propellants , popping tendency appears to be reduced as the
which tend to confirm the applicability of these temperature is raised to higher levels ( >110° F
concepts, 149 are presented in Fig . 7.6b . Each data in Fig. 7.6b ) where increased separation effects
point represents a single firing . No distinction is may modify the reactive conditions at the
made between baffled and unbaffled firings since impingement interface.
CHAPTER 8
Design Factors Affecting Damping
8.1 INTRODUCTION * verse modes. It follows that injector-face baffles

are not as effective in the stabilization of longitu-
In the previous chapter, design factors affecting dinal modes497 where the oscillations are parallel to
excitation of combustion oscillations were dis-
the baffle blades. Any orientation of the baffle
cussed . Various design procedures were presented blades, other than one parallel to the flow, would
which lead to a decrease in the amount of energy cause blockage and therefore would not be used.
provided to the oscillatory system by the com- Acoustic liners are equally important as
bustion process . The most effective procedures in damping devices . They are effective for both
stabilizing liquid rocket motors , however, have transverse and longitudinal modes . Energy is
been to either remove energy from the oscillation dissipated by the liner on account of the jet
or prevent certain modes of oscillation by formation in the flow through the liner orifices.
geometrical design (such as by means of injector- The fluid mechanical operation of acoustic liners
face baffles) . is fairly well understood and is discussed in Sect.
The most significant results in the stabilization 8.3.1 . This energy dissipation has been shown
of transverse modes of oscillation have been theoretically in Sect . 3.5.3 to have a very large
produced by baffles and acoustic liners . An stabilizing effect .
extensive discussion of injector blade arrangement Various factors which must be considered in
and design is given in Sects. 8.2.2 and 8.2.3 , liner design are discussed in Sects . 8.3.2 through
respectively. A discussion of the theory of the 8.3.5 . These factors include environmental factors ,
effect of small-cavity baffles on the frequency of sizing of the resonators, and the number and
oscillation is given in Sect . 8.2.1 . No theory exists placement of these resonators. The information
which predicts the other important effects of the contained in those sections is a result of both
baffles. These effects are the protection of the theoretical considerations and design experience
combustion process from the oscillating flow and which are available to date .
the dissipation of energy due to the vortex- Another factor affecting the combustion oscil-
shedding and separation of the flow over the lation is the thrust chamber shape which is
baffles . The protection of the combustion zone is discussed in Sect . 8.4. Here, the nozzle convergent
believed to be the most important effect of the section is considered as a portion of the thrust
two. Of course, prevention of the excitation of the chamber. Changes in the shape of the chamber can
combustion process occurs here while damping produce changes in damping in that the amount of
occurs with the vortex shedding and separation of energy removed from the chamber oscillations
the flow. So the baffle is unique in that it affects. depends upon the shape . The chamber shape also
both excitation and damping . determines the waveform and the frequency of the
Due to these effects, the baffles (if sufficiently oscillation, thereby having a secondary effect on
long) allow only certain modes to exist in the the stability of the oscillation.
chamber. Spinning modes are not allowed ; only Other damping effects which may be employed
those standing modes are allowed which have by the designer are discussed in Section 8.5 .
velocity nodal points at the baffle blades. For this These effects are due to chamber wall materials ,
reason, baffles tend to prevent the lower trans- condensed phases, and corner effects.
As a result of the overall knowledge of damping
* W. A. Sirignano, Author. devices, based on both theoretical considerations
385
and practical experience , a certain design pro- the modification of the acoustic properties of the
cedure is suggested . Injector-face baffles should be combustion chamber, (2) restriction of the
employed to stabilize the lower transverse modes . oscillatory flow patterns between baffle blades,
In addition, acoustic liners should be employed, thus protecting the sensitive pre-combustion
when necessary, and "tuned" to stabilize the processes, and (3) damping of the oscillations by
higher transverse modes and any longitudinal vortex generation, separation, or frictional effects.
modes which might persist . The other factors such (the friction must be considered a secondary
as chamber shape should be examined , finally , to effect) .
seek further improvements . With certain injector patterns, namely, those
with strong velocity or displacement sensitivity,
8.2 INJECTOR FACE BAFFLES
the protective effect of the baffle on transverse,
The following nomenclature pertains to Sect. oscillating flow is predominant . The influence of
8.2 (see also Sect . 4.2.2) : vortex generation and separation associated with
baffles has received little theoretical attention in
Ab Baffle surface area
connection with rocket applications,177 and hence
Deg Equivalent diameter
the relative importance of this mechanism cannot
fs Sensitive frequency of combustion process
be accurately evaluated at this time. However,
hg(e) Gas-side film coefficient determined from
the change of the chamber acoustic properties has
experimental heat transfer tests
received theoretical study and has been success-
hg (P) Gas-side film coefficient predicted from
fully correlated with experimental tests of baffle
modified Bartz equation
stabilization and hence will constitute the main
Le Chamber length from injector to nozzle
subject matter of this section.
entrance
Lu Because a comprehensive theoretical treatment
Length of unbaffled portion of chamber
lb Baffle length of baffle damping has not yet been developed ,
Zw baffle design has had to proceed on the basis of
Wavelength
largely qualitative principles, although these
Q Quality factor of resonant system ( reso-
principles have relied on analytical studies of
nance frequency divided by half-power
oscillating combustion and flow . To explain
bandwidth)
Theoretical flame temperature certain results obtained on the Gemini Stability
Ꭲ.
Te Gas-side wall temperature Improvement Program, particularly the change
Tm in transverse mode frequency, Reardon success-
Mean film temperature , 2 ( T + T3 )
fully used a simple acoustical model of the baffle
T Free stream static temperature
in combination with the sensitive time lag
ATL Temperature rise of cooling liquid
W theory.179 The same acoustical model can be used ,
Characteristic baffle dimension ; circum-
ferential blade spacing without invoking a particular combustion model,
to show the effects of baffle and chamber design
WL Flow rate of cooling liquid
Nozzle admittance on the resonant frequency and damping rate.
Yn
In this model,456 the flow in the "pockets ”
Yt Axial admittance at baffle tip
between baffle blades is assumed to be one-
nc* Ratio of actual to theoretical c *
Ω dimensional. That is , only longitudinal oscillations
Frequency parameter, (s² +s, 2) 1/2
can exist in the baffle pockets, although three-
Subscripts : dimensional oscillations are allowed in the com-
b Solution in baffled region bustion chamber downstream of the baffle . To
u Solution in unbaffled region show the effects of the baffle on chamber acoustics
8.2.1 Available Theory* more clearly , the effects of combustion, condensed

phases, and mean flow are neglected in the
Three stabilizing effects have been identified
analysis given here. * However, the significant
with regard to the transverse mode instability by
injector-face baffles ( Sect . 3.5.3.3 ) . These are ( 1 )
* The effects of combustion and mean flow are considered
* F. H. Reardon, Author. in Ref. 456.
DESIGN FACTORS AFFECTING DAMPING $8.2 387
coupling between the exhaust nozzle and the it is found that , for the unbaffled part of the
baffle is included , in the form of the nozzle ad- chamber, x >lb,
mittance boundary condition at the chamber
v (r) = J, (S,,r)
exit (see Sect . 3.6) .
The combustion chamber is assumed to be -ivo
spinning mode
cylindrical, with a planar injector face, as shown 0 (0) =
in Fig. 8.2.1a. The baffle blades are of length lь , COS VO standing mode
and the length of the chamber from the injector
However, in the baffled part of the chamber ,
to the nozzle entrance is Le = Lu + lb. Since only
x < lь, because of the assumption of one-dimen-
longitudinal oscillations are considered in the
sionality, O = 1.
baffle pockets , it is not necessary to specify the
The approach taken is to obtain the solutions
blade arrangement , although it is apparent that a
separately for the baffled and unbaffled parts of
relatively large number of blades ( small pocket
the chamber and then to match the two solutions
cross section) is implied by this assumption.
by use of the axial admittance at the baffle tip ,
Small perturbations around the mean conditions
are assumed , the perturbations are taken to have
Yt =
an exponential time dependence, e.g. , p' x= lb
p (x, r, 0 , t ) = 1 + p′ (x , r , 0 ) est where u' is the axial component of the velocity

oscillation . The transition from the one-dimen-
where s = \ + iw, and all quantities are dimension- sional oscillations in the baffle pockets to the
less , with the mean pressure , sound velocity, and three-dimensional oscillations downstream occurs
chamber radius as reference quantities . The in a region of complex flow near the tip of the
perturbations must satisfy the wave equation, baffle . In this simplified analysis the effects of this
which, in terms of the space-dependent amplitude transition region are neglected and the region
p', is itself is assumed to be very narrow.
Using the subscripts b and u to denote the
a²p' a²p' 1 др' 1 a²p'
+ + + = s'p' ( 8.2.1-1 ) solutions in the baffled and unbaffled regions ,
ax2 dr² r ər r2 002
respectively, the equations to be solved are
.
Assuming a solution of the form d2Pb
— s²Pb = 0 (8.2.1-2 )
dx2
p' = P (x) (r) 0 (0)
Baffle Chamber
Nozzle
rc
Injector face
Lu
X
Lc
FIGURE 8.2.1a.-Schematic illustration of baffled combustion chamber.

d'Pu Since Eq. (8.2.1-9 ) is complex , it is equivalent to

- (s²+ Sm²) Pu = 0 (8.2.1-3 ) two real equations . Therefore , for given values of
dx2
the parameters 8 , Lu, lь, and S , the appropriate
The injector face can be assumed to behave values of the oscillation frequency w and the
acoustically as a solid wall , so that amplification factor X can be determined . How-
Pb = Po cosh sx ever, since the nozzle admittance has only been

and since calculated for neutral oscillations (X = 0) , Eq.
(8.2.1-9) can only be solved for small values of X,
1 dp' such that it can be assumed that Ɛ ( s) ≈Ɛ (w ) .
u' =
Ys dx The case of an unbaffled chamber is obtained
for small perturbations, the admittance at the by setting lь = 0 , so that Eq . ( 8.2.1-9 ) becomes
baffle tip is
tanh QL = 8
tank (8.2.1-10)
1 ()
t
= tanh sả (8.2.1-4 )
Yb (lb)
γ and if the nozzle is replaced by a closed end ,
The solution for Pu can be written as Eq. (8.2.1-10) reduces to
tanh QL = 0
Pu ( x ) = A sinh 2 (x − b ) + B cosh 2 (x − l )
Thus, for a closed-end cylinder with no baffles,
where ² = s² + S2. The constants A and B must be
determined by use of the boundary conditions. X= 0
At the nozzle entrance , x - lb = Lc— lb = Lu,
j²π²
13 Sun²+ j = 0, 1 , 2 , ... (8.2.1-11)
2 ( A cosh QLu + B sinh QLu ) Ꮮ?
Yu (Le) = Yn ==
ys ( A sinh .Lu + B cosh Lu ) It is clear that when either baffles or a nozzle are
(8.2.1-5 ) added both A and w take on values somewhat
and at the baffle tip , x - lь = 0, different than those of Eq . ( 8.2.1-11 ) .
Ω Α For acoustic oscillations in a closed-end cylinder

Yu (lb) (8.2.1-6 ) with baffles at one end, Eq . ( 8.2.1-9) becomes
YS B
s tanh s = - Ω tanh Lu (8.2.1-12 )
Combining Eq . (8.2.1-5 ) and (-6 ) gives the
relation between the baffle and nozzle admittances : Assuming that A is small, Eq. (8.2.1-12 ) can be
split into two real equations :
Ω
YYnt tanh QL =
w tan wlьR tanh SRL (8.2.1-13a )
S
YYu (lb) == (8.2.1-7 )
S x(tan wh + )
1+ YYn tanh L
Ω
PRLU
= −2 | tanh rLut (8.2.1-13b )
The nozzle admittance has been calculated in cosh2 RLu
the form
Since 2S2 -w2 +2λwi , for small λ, 2, is directly
E (w, Svn) = & + i&₁ = -YYn ( 8.2.1-8)
proportional to A so that Eq . (8.2.1-13b) is
=
Making use of Eq . ( 8.2.1-8 ) , and setting yь (lb) = satisfied only by λ = 0 . That is, the mechanism
Yu (lb ) gives considered here will produce no baffle damping
Ω unless there is another loss-producing device in
tanh sỉ | 8 tanh Lu -- the system. However, the frequency is modified
(ε S
by the presence of the baffle, as shown by Eq .
2 (8.2.1-13a ) . For very short baffles, this equation
=- &+ tanh QL ( 8.2.1–9 )
- (²) ε + simplifies to
S
w2lb≈NR²Lu
so that Particle motion close to the injector face is

1 restricted to the baffle cavities . By means of such
1 lb
≈ Svn 1- an incompatible boundary condition one can
1 + lb/Lu 2 Lu
reduce the tendency toward spinning tangential
As the baffle length is increased , the frequency is modes by the use of radial blades as shown in
further depressed and R becomes an appreciable Fig. 8.2.2a. Hub or ring-type baffles are used to
fraction of S. Then tanh PRL -1 and the fre- control the radial modes. The number of baffle
quency is given by the following equation, which cavities is important in controlling the standing
is independent of chamber length, modes. These standing tangential and the radial
modes of instability are depicted in Fig. 8.2.2b ,
Svn2 which shows the particle paths and the pressure
w² =
1+ tan² wlb antinodes for the first two tangential and radial
modes. Also shown are the three common com-
provided that L is unity or greater.
bined modes : the first tangential-first radial ;
8.2.2 Blade Arrangement* first tangential-second radial ; and second tangen-

tial-first radial modes .
This section is devoted primarily to the effect A number of references169,582 can be found which
of blade arrangement on the stabilizing efficiency discuss the pure transverse modes, as well as the
of a baffle system . However, before going into combined tangential and radial modes. In general,
this characteristic of a baffle, it is necessary to baffle design principles that apply to damping of
further discuss the nature of the problem that the pure transverse modes apply equally well for
baffles are intended to solve . There are an infinite the combined modes.
number of baffle configurations possible, all of Of major concern in the design of an effective
which cannot be covered in this text . Therefore, baffle is the location of the blades and hubs
it is important that the reader understand the relative to particle paths , since the baffle con-
underlying principles of baffle design in order stitutes an obstruction to particle motion . There
to be able to extend these basic concepts to new are a few general comments concerning the
and original designs . ( See Sects . 8.2.1 and 3.5.3.3 . ) tangential modes that can be helpful in under-
Injector-face baffles are intended as a damping standing baffle design. For example, with the
device for the high frequency modes of instability exception of the first tangential mode or com-
referred to in Chapter 4 as the transverse modes. binations thereof, the velocity at the center of
These modes of instability are characterized by the injector is zero (see Fig . 8.2.2c ) . Also , the
oscillations parallel to the injector face . In a radial unsteady velocity is greater than the
cylindrical chamber, the pressure and velocity . tangential unsteady velocities . In general , as the
vary in both the radial and circumferential tangential modes become of higher order, the
directions for the tangential modes, and only in major gas particle motion and pressure variations
the radial direction for the radial modes . are limited to the outer circumference of the
The tangential modes of instability can be chamber. This characteristic becomes important
further divided into two classes : spinning modes , in considering placement of baffles to suppress
which are the result of a single pressure wave the higher order modes. The number of radial
traveling tangentially in either a clockwise or blades is most important in this region . Also the
counterclockwise direction ; and a corresponding radial blades must extend close to the chamber
velocity perturbation in phase with the pressure wall (small baffle tip gap) or the anticipated
or a standing tangential mode which consists of damping will not be achieved (e.g. , see Sect .
two counter-rotating waves with the velocity 8.3.6) .
perturbation 90°/v out of phase with the pressure
In the case of pure radial modes , the velocity
in space dimensions (where is the order of perturbations are limited to the radial direction ,
the mode ).
with the axis of symmetry being the chamber axis
at the center of the injector and again, as in the
* J. M. McBride, Author. case of the tangential modes of higher than the
Blade arrangement
3- Radial 4- Radial 5- Radial
5- Radial with hub Egg crate Irregular
Blade shapes
Chamber
Baffle
Injector Baffle
Baffle
FIGURE 8.2.2a.-Types of baffles .
first order, no velocity perturbations occur at the exists. Hence in the design of an effective blade
center of the injector . The order of a radial mode arrangement the selection of compartment size ,
is determined by the number of velocity antinodes , blade length, number, position and degree of
as shown in Fig . 8.2.2b. symmetry may follow different paths of logic.
The physical characteristics of the baffle are The following discussions cover these baffle
involved directly with the several mechanisms design parameters in some detail .
considered to be responsible for suppression of
resonant combustion (Sect . 3.5.3.3 ) . Unfortu- 8.2.2.1 Number of blades. -The optimum
.
nately, the state-of-the-art of baffle design is such number of blades for any baffle configuration
that no argument can be presented to prove con- depends primarily on the mode of instability to
clusively that only one dominant mechanism which the system is most susceptible . The char-
DESIGN FACTORS AFFECTING DAMPING §8.2 391
Purely tangential modes Purely radial modes
First (IT) Second ( 2T) First (IR) Second (2R)
Combined modes
P P
(IT- IR) (IT- 2R) (2T- IR)
FIGURE 8.2.2b.-Transverse mode characteristics .
1.0 1.0
AX
) yn
.8 .8
Vr
M
/
V
S
( g
IT
AX
IT2T 3T
)e
Va
.6
M/
(V
2T
3T
.2 .2-
.2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
r/rc rc
r/
FIGURE 8.2.2c .-Tangential mode velocity profiles .

acteristics of a baffle, as related to the blade and tangential mode would be a three-bladed design.
hub arrangement , depend strongly upon the It is also apparent that a one or two-bladed baffle
ability of the baffle to alter the acoustics of the could, at the most, only cause the mode to stand
combustion chamber . This can be accomplished in the baffle cavity with pressure antinodes at the
by introducing radial baffle blades or ring-shaped baffle blade and the velocity antinodes displaced
hubs such as shown in Fig . 8.2.2d , that interfere 90° . The same type of logic applied to a second
or alter the transverse mode particle paths . For tangential mode as depicted in Fig. 8.2.2d would
example, the selection of the minimum sym- indicate that a symmetrical three-bladed baffle
metrical baffle configuration to damp a first also would be effective for this mode, and that
3- Radial blades 4 - Radial blades 5 - Radial blades 5- Radial blades with hub
Baffle
blades
Vantinode
First tangential mode
Second tangential mode
Third tangential mode
First radial mode
FIGURE 8.2.2d. -Possible mode orientations for various baffles .

the symmetrical four-bladed baffle would have to chamber diameter (lb/D) are shown ; all
little or no effect because the second tangential trends are toward higher decay rates for greater
mode can exist within the baffle cavities . blade number. The trend of increasing blade
Extension of these considerations to the higher number allowing reduction in the blade length
order tangential modes leads to the generalization required for stability is shown in Fig. 8.2.2f,
that a baffle configuration having an odd number based on Ref. 711 data. The plot is for the first
of radial blades (with the exception of a single tangential mode. The dashed extension is drawn
blade) would offer protection from modes which to indicate that the boundary between the stable
are of the order less than the number of blades and unstable regions should approach asymptoti-
and, to some degree, protection from modes of an cally a value of circumferential blade spacing at
order higher than the number of blades (provided the chamber wall, W, over wavelength w
the order of the mode divided by the number of W/l 0.92 at lb/Deo . This asymptote repre-
blades is not equal to an integer) . This then gives sents a baffle configuration having two blades
the designer a criterion for the minimum number (W = r.) , therefore W/lw = S /2 =0.92, where it
of blades required in the case of a symmetrical is assumed damping of the mode will take place
baffle arrangement . However, this generalization at long baffle lengths .
only indicates the minimum number of blades This trend of stability improvement for smaller
required, and does not provide information on baffle cavities (smaller W/ w) was investigated
the optimum number of blades required to experimentally and the test firing data are
maximize damping and alter chamber resonant presented in Fig. 8.2.2g . The indication is that
frequencies. For this information, certain experi- there is nothing to be gained if W/l < 0.2. De-
mental data are useful which are discussed in creasing the cavity characteristic dimension any
detail in Refs . 309 , 473 , 711 , and 737. further may, in fact , prove detrimental for very
Of interest to the injector designer is the low W/l as shown by the destabilizing behavior in
trade-off between baffle length and compartment these LOX/LH2 tests (higher transition tem-
size because of system considerations such as peratures) . Additional support for this conclusion
heat transfer, performance , system pressure drop can be found in Figs . 8.2.2h and i where the decay
and compatibility. There is little quantitative rate and frequency shift, as indicated from
data available ; however, what is available indicates
that-as might be expected-when the order of 0.90
the tangential mode approaches the number of
St Tangential
blades , the trade-off becomes quite significant in
terms of damping rate, as can be seen from Fig. 0.80
8.2.2e. Two modes and two ratios of blade length
1.0
0.60
Unstable
nbaffled
! st-Tangential
decay
.75-
Ratio
bU)( affled
cyle
lb/D=0.15
rate
per
0.40 Stable
4 th-Tangential
/
SoF
SFO
lb/D=0.35
/
.50
0.20 во W
L
.25 1091
Ist -Tangential 0.1 0.2

lb/D=0.35
i
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Dc
Number of blades
FIGURE 8.2.2f .-Effect of baffle spacing versus baffle
FIGURE 8.2.2e .-Effect of number of blades. length.
Frequency
requency
unbaffled
baffled
100 (0) (7)(7)
▲ Transition 1.0
03
temperature
F/
Transition
▲ Stable (5) 60(3)
st Tangential mode (5) (4) (6)
90 T 0(3)
.75 85
T
,°R
(4) /D=0.1
Stable
80 St Tangential
region
F/o
(1 ) 100 Compartment .50 Ref. 614
T
(1) egg 'crate A Ref. 309
(2) 25 Compartment O Ref. 473
70 egg crate
T
Stable (3) 7 Radial baffles .25 Ref. 737

symmetrical Open symbol acoustic tests
(4) 4 Radial Baffles Solid symbol hot tests
60 unsymmetrical *Number of radial baffles
(3) (5) 7 Compartment
O
egg crate 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Unstable
50 lo/D
Q.I 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
10
FIGURE 8.2.21 .-Frequency depression versus baffle length

W/&
and number of baffles.
FIGURE 8.2.2g.-Effect of baffle spacing.

A possible explanation of the trend which indi-
1.09-(0) cates that excessively small baffle compartments
5(7)* can be detrimental is that the baffle surfaces
O Acoustic tests
Hot tests interfere with the combustion processes (surface
Decay
/cycle
.75 impingement and stream confinement slow the

rate
(7)
0(5) attainment of mixing so that steady-state com-
(7) bustion is delayed ) . This makes the baffle less
8F
/
8
% F
.50 effective. Another point to consider is that at

extremely small W dimensions the baffle could
behave as a series of closed-open tubes which have
(5)
.25 3(7) cross-sectional dimensions in the order of 1/16
1 st Tangential wavelength . For this case the baffles would
exhibit the characteristics of a quarter wavelength
0.1 0.2 tube, such as shown in Fig. 8.2.2j , which illustrates
0.3 0.4 0.5
16/0 only narrow band effectiveness (high Q ) and
* Number of radial baffle blades makes the baffle length a critical parameter.
FIGURE 8.2.2h .- Damping versus baffle length and num-

ber of blades. 8.2.2.2 Symmetry. -There is at present a tend-
ency to use symmetrical baffles in rocket engines.
This is primarily because of the difficulties asso-
acoustic tests, was not significantly altered (for ciated with feeding coolants to an asymmetric
the first tangential mode) by changing the number
baffle system from a feed system that is generally
of blades. Figure 8.2.2h illustrates changes from
symmetric . However, some experimental work has
a five-bladed symmetrical baffle (W/lw = 0.37)
been done with asymmetric baffles of the type
to a seven-bladed baffle (W/lw = 0.26 ) whereas
shown in Fig. 8.2.2a . Several reasons have been
Fig. 8.2.21 supplies data covering 3 to 20 blades . stated as to why an asymmetric baffle system
This discussion thus far has been limited to the
would be superior to a symmetric system, all of
tangential modes, principally the first tangential which basically revolve about the idea that
mode. However, there are data available which
asymmetrically placed baffles will "scatter" the
indicate that similar trends are present for the
higher order tangential modes and the radial
* When the cross-sectional dimensions are in this range
modes. For the radial modes, W is the average
uniform pressure is approximated for the closed-open
cavity dimension along the chamber radius.475 tubes.
instability wavelength ratios of the order of 0.20

are desirable . What remains to be determined is
the optimum baffle length and shape viewed from
the side of the baffle (examples are shown in Fig.
-5
8.2.2a ) and , finally, design considerations related
to cooling of the baffles .
, bL
SP
-10 8.2.3.1 Baffle length.- The mean baffle length

d
is defined in Ref. 473 as
1 Το
lbm = l (r) dr ( 8.2.3-1 )
-15
for the tangential modes. This definition is used

here in defining baffle length since it applies to
- 20 the various configurations discussed . However, a
.20 .25 .30
significant deviation from a baffle arrangement in
which the blades do not extend to the center of
bollw
the chamber will require some judgement in
specifying the baffle height since, in the case of
FIGURE 8.2.2j .-Attenuation of closed-open tube.
the tangential modes, baffle height at the wall of
the chamber is more effective in increasing phase
energy generated in a broader frequency band . * and gain stabilization. This is because the major
Limited data has been accumulated on what
portion of the gas motion in tangential modes
could be considered a truly asymmetric baffle.614 occurs near the chamber walls . The gas motion
Some data is available on configurations332 in becomes more concentrated at the chamber wall
which the radial blades of the baffle have unequal
as the order of the mode increases, which would
sector angles or in which the baffle legs are directed indicate that the effective height may change ,
in other than a radial direction . The results from depending on the mode being considered .
tests with units of this type473,309,711 indicate no From the standpoint of acoustics, Fig. 8.2.2h
obvious superiority of this type of baffle over a indicates that baffle length has maximum effect
symmetrical baffle having the same number of on gain changes when the baffle height to chamber
baffle blades. Comparing the limited results diameter ratio is between zero and 0.10 . At
between the unequal sector angle baffles and the lbm/De = 0.1 the damping rate is twice that for
asymmetric baffles of Ref. 614 indicate no obvious lbm/De = 0 . Increasing this ratio to 0.30 again
superiority in the gross stability characteristics of doubles the damping using the lbm/De = 0.1 point
the various injectors tested. It is apparent that as a reference . Similar trends have been noted in
additional work in this area is required before any
test firing data473 which are also presented in Fig.
more specific comparisons could be made . 8.2.2h . However, a word of caution is warranted.
Consider the feedback mechanism such as those
8.2.3 Blade Design† proposed by Dykema and Heidmann (discussed in
Chapter 4 ) . Response curves from these mecha-
One aspect of baffle design , the size of the
nisms are typically of the shape depicted in Fig.
baffle cavity or pocket, is discussed in Sect .
8.2.2.1 . The data accumulated indicate that 8.2.3a . Also consider the frequency shift illustrated
in Fig. 8.2.21 . It can be deduced that, if the un-
characteristic cavity dimension to combustion
baffled resonance of the chamber is to the left of
peak response , increasing the baffle length will
The energy will be distributed between a number of indeed increase the stability of the system in
discrete and mixed frequencies based on the individual
baffle cavity geometries and interactions rather than being both a phase and gain stabilizing manner. How-
concentrated in a narrow frequency band. ever, if the unbaffled resonance is to the right of
† J. M. McBride, Author. the peak response of the controlling feedback
and 6.5.2 ) and evaluating how the baffles will

alter the chamber resonances relative to the
estimated sensitive frequency . Although neither
of these techniques will insure design of a stable.
system, it will minimize the amount of develop-
ment work required .
Turning now to the stabilizing aspect of a
baffle attributed to protection of the sensitive
Gain
combustion zone, this mechanism was postulated

Frequency based on observation of the combustion process
in a transparent thrust chamber (see Sect .
9.2.2.5 ) . In the experiments it was observed that a
certain length of baffle was required to minimize
the interaction between adjacent streams of
propellants when perturbed by a bomb. From
FIGURE 8.2.3a . - Typical response curve. various studies ( e.g. pg . 93 Ref. 190 ) it has been
shown that baffles must be present in the carly
mechanism , and if the rate of increase in gain for combustion region to be effective in reducing
this mechanism as a function of frequency is stream interaction. Additional support can be
greater than the damping increase due to in- found for this mechanism in the data presented by
creasing the baffle length , the system will become Hefner332 where he postulated that the initial high
less stable . decay rate with baffle length measured from test
The adverse effect of injector element design on firing data473 ( Fig. 8.2.3b ) was significantly
the effectiveness of a given baffle can be found in greater than that measured in acoustic tests and
the data presented in Ref. 14, where both a therefore could be attributed to the combustion
seven- and a five-bladed baffle configuration , zone protection concept. From the data available
having the acoustic characteristics indicated in it is apparent that selection of a baffle length on
Figs. 8.2.2h and i exhibited dynamically stable the basis of its optimum frequency and amplitude
combustion characteristics when tested with a stabilizing effects should be sufficient to satisfy
coarse injector pattern . This same configuration, the baffle length criterion for the combustion zone
when tested with a fine injector pattern, failed to protection concept, since the most intense com-
stabilize combustion. This does not make the bustion occurs within two to three inches of the
design of an optimum baffle an impossible task, face. Baffle la/D values of 0.2 to 0.3 have also
but rather one which requires consideration of
both the injector pattern and the baffle . The
designer must in his selection of an injector-baffle
system use an analytical technique such as dis-
(7 Radial blades, Gemsip pulse tests )
2
cussed in Chapter 4 to determine, as a minimum,
the sensitive frequency range of his candidate Net a
patterns . This can be rather easily done using gain ,
3 4 5
DB/Cycle 2
Crocco's sensitive time lag ( 7 ) . Reardon580 (see Baffle height , in
Sect. 6.3.3 ) has developed correlations for 7 as -2
a function of injector parameters. The values can
O 100
be used to estimate the sensitive frequency -4

14.
(f ) , where
-6
1
fs = (8.2.3-2)
2T
-8 8 8
or by determining the point of peak response for
Dykema's response function (see Sects . 4.4.1.3 FIGURE 8.2.3b . -Effect of baffles on first tangential mode .
proved to be successful when applied to high required are equal to the order of the mode
performance , small diameter engines where the (i.e., first radial requires one hub) .
baffles were only inch long and the injector 3. Making the baffle compartments too small
patterns were very fine.476 may be detrimental. A baffle characteristic
cavity dimension (W ) in the range 0.4 >
8.2.3.2 Blade shape. Data on the acoustic W/lw≥0.2 where la/f appears to be
effects of baffle shape are limited to that reported most desirable .
by Weiber737 and others.14 In the case of the Baffle length to chamber diameter ratios in
Wieber data , the baffle shape change was a result the range of 0.2 to 0.3 appear to be optimum.
of a change in the contour of the injector face,
which resulted in the baffle being longer at the 8.2.3.3 Blade cooling. In addition to the
chamber wall than at the center. The test results stabilizing effects of baffles, consideration must be
are not conclusive because the variation in the
given to such factors as methods of baffle cooling,
injector face contour in itself has a significant the effect the baffle will have on performance and
effect on the decay rates measured , making the the magnitude of system pressure losses that can
effect of baffle shape difficult to interpret . * How- be attributed to the addition of baffles . Detailed
ever, the results do indicate that based on the
considerations of each of these factors is beyond
average height ( as determined using Eq . 8.2.3-1 ) the scope of this section and are, in general,
the baffle shape described above is more effective influenced by the injector systems in which the
than an equivalent constant height baffle in baffles are to be installed . However, some dis-
damping oscillations . cussion is warranted .
In the case of the data from Ref. 14 , the same
The effect of baffles on performance of a rocket
trend is indicated . However, the variation in engine has never been documented in the open
baffle shapes is not significant, making correla- literature ; however, limited data is available for a
tions between baffle shape and damping char- few engine systems and is summarized below:
acteristics impossible . Additional work in this
area is required . The trends indicated are con-
sistent with the observation made earlier that the
System Change in specific
major gas motion for the tangential modes occurs impulse, sec
near the chamber wall. This effect becomes more
noticeable for the higher order modes.
Atlas -0.3
The effectiveness of radial baffles extending
Thor +1.1
approximately the chamber radius from the
F- 1 +5.3
chamber wall has been demonstrated by Moberg H-1 -0.5
with a 1750-lb-thrust engine.492 In this demonstra- Titan -0.9 (Stage I)
tion, dynamic stability was not evaluated . From Titan -0.4 (Stage II)
the discussion and data presented the following
general rules can be used in designing a baffle.
1. An odd number of baffle blades is best for Though this data would seem to indicate that
the tangential modes providing the order there is no significant performance loss attendant.
of the mode divided by the number of to the addition of baffles to the injector, this con-
blades is not an integer. clusion must be tempered by the probability that
2. For the radial modes, hubs located at the the injector pattern was altered during the process .
velocity antinodes indicated in Fig. 8.2.2a Since with the addition of baffles, the system
are best . The minimum number of hubs would be considerably less susceptible to insta-
bility, the injector pattern could be modified to
* The interrelationship of injector face contour and produce more efficient combustion. The net
baffle shape is largely a result of alterations in the baffle
height at the critical location near the chamber wall. Often result would be very little loss (or perhaps, even a
with a face contour the baffle length at the wall is mini- small gain) in performance for the baffled system.
mized . A survey of several engine systems indicates
that a properly designed regeneratively- cooled 14.0

baffle system will require an increase in propellant
feed pressure on the order of 7% of chamber
pressure in order to operate reliably. However,
12.0
sec
,Bntu
iqA
6DD
/
this is strongly dependent on the cooling tech-
niques used . For example, with tip-injecting
10.0
baffles, the pressure drop in some cases has to
be maintained at the unbaffled injector pressure Mixture
D ratio
drop.
8.0 Pc= 800 psia - 1.5
At least one set of experimental measurements
орс = 850 psia – 2.9
of the thermal environment in which a baffle - 1.9
▲ PC =865 psia
must operate, 14.477 as well as several related articles.
6.0
on similar design problems with cooled chambers, 3 4
are available. The most complete set of baffle Channel number
design cooling data is a result of work discussed in
Ref. 14. This experimental study of blade cooling 1.4 2.8 4.2 5.6 7.0
utilized a highly instrumented water- cooled
baffle. The significant results of this work are Distance from injector face, in.
presented in Figs . 8.2.3c and d. The first figure FIGURE 8.2.3c.-Calorimetric heat flux.
gives what is referred to as the calorimetric heat
fluxes from three separate tests . The calorimetric
and T, is the static temperature defined by
heat flux, defined by
Ts = no 2Tt
WLCLATL
q/A = (8.2.3-3) The experimental film coefficient he
Ab is cal-
culated from
represents an average heat flux for a series of
coolant channels located at various distances q/A
h (e)== (8.2.3-5)
from the injector face. The fluxes are determined T.-T. (expt . )
from the bulk temperature rise of the coolant in
The quantity plotted in Fig. 8.2.3d is the ratio of
the individual channels. The variation in heat
film coefficients (H) defined by
flux as a function of baffle length is apparently
the result of combustion intensity as a function H = hge)/ hg(P)
of distance from the injector face. (i.e. , steadily
The results indicate that the gas-side film as
increasing combustion intensity in the first few
estimated by the modified Bartz equation can be
inches) . Perhaps the most significant data from
in error by as much as 50% on the low side .†
the standpoint of the designer is a comparison of
It should be noted that no film cooling was used
the predicted and experimental gas side film .
on the experimental baffle.
coefficients . The predicted value is based on a
A great number of baffle cooling schemes have
modification* of the Bartz correlation.81
been proposed and many of them subsequently
0.8
0.026 /μ w0.8 tested. Tomazic et al.690 have evaluated five
hg(P) =
Deq0.2 Pr0.6 m m designs for the M- 1 , LOX/LH2 combustor (baffle
D (M) ( ) )
("
configurations (a) through (e ) in Fig. 8.2.3e) .
(8.2.3-4) Considering a number of engine development
where
programs, the most widely used method has been
Te + Ts
Tm =
2 † This is not unexpected when one considers the Bartz
correlation was derived for heat transfer in the nozzle
where convection plays the major role rather than near
* The (Ts/Tm)0.8 term replaces the boundary layer cor- the baffles where recirculation, injection pattern, etc. , are
rection in the Bartz relation. dominant.
H = ( hg )expr/( hg ) Bartz corr .

|
Uncooled baffle hub Uncooled baffle hub
0.8
1.0 1.0
0.85 0.85
1.0
1.2 V.2
1.3 1.3
Length
.27
2 1.4 1.4
,in
1.6 1.6
1.8 1.8
5. ‫کی‬
4
10
6-
5
Radius , in
.
7 | 6 6
FIGURE 8.2.3d.-Gas side film coefficient profile.
the single-pass coolant system. Here the pro- velocity amplitude on the chamber
pellant (or propellants) are injected into the side (see Eq . 8.3.1-25)
chamber at the baffle tips, i.e., the "dump" A。 Cross-sectional area of orifice (aperture)
cooling approach shown as configuration ( a) , b Amplitude of chamber velocity in phase
Fig. 8.2.3e. This method of baffle cooling has been with the pressure divided by €¹/201
55518
the subject of much discussion because it could B Constant related to orifice entrance
introduce a secondary combustion zone down- conditions
stream of the baffle and therefore be detrimental Co Contraction coefficient
to stability. To date, however, no conclusive Cd Discharge coefficient
evidence to confirm this secondary zone has been C Orifice flow coefficient
obtained from injector development programs . Average pressure coefficient representing
Lately, another baffle cooling concept , which is the interaction between the orifice-jet
designed to eliminate secondary injection, has flow and the chamber-cross flow. The
received increased attention. A schematic version average is taken both time-wise and
of this double-pass design, or "regenerative- circumferentially around the jet .
cooled" baffle, is illustrated as configuration (f) Cy Velocity coefficient
in Fig. 8.2.3e (note that configuration (c) also Ccav Cavity capacitance
approaches this design goal by moving the coolant do Orifice diameter
injection close to the injector face) . Fa Dissipation force per unit liner-surface
area (see Eq. 8.3.1-24)
8.3 ACOUSTIC LINERS g Amplitude of chamber velocity out of
phase with the pressure divided by
The following nomenclature pertains to Sect . 8.3 :
€1/2a1
a Ratio of aperture area to resonator K Constant defined by Eq. (8.3.1-14)
cross-sectional area ; percent open area lo Orifice length
à Ratio of the jet- velocity amplitude on the left Effective orifice length
cavity side of the orifice to the jet- lw wavelength
Displacement of fluid particle in orifice
2
R
♡
=
×
Resonator admittance
Ꮓ Impedance
Absorption coefficient.
ad Damping coefficient
δ Orifice length correction.
Amplitude of pressure oscillation divided
by Pi
18
Ө Nondimensional resistance (see Eq .
Coolant 8.3.1-27)
•
‫אי‬
flow Phase shift
Nondimensional imaginary part of the
(a) (b) (c)
impedance (see Eq . 8.3.1-27)
33
ωτ Resonant frequency
Nondimensional angular frequency
(w = low/a = 2πlo/lw)
612 3
Subscripts :
Chamber side of orifice
Within orifice
Cavity side of orifice
nf No-flow case
Superscripts :
(2) Second-order approximation to oscil-
lating quantity
A
Maximum value, or near-maximum value
(d ) (e) (f)
8.3.1 Liner Damping Theory *

(a) Trans- (b) Convection (c) Reverse flow
piration. ("dump") . convection . The theory of Helmholtz resonators was
(d) Film. (e) Film and (f) Regenera- treated mathematically for the first time by
convection . tively cooled . Helmholtz in 1860 and was afterwards greatly
FIGURE 8.2.3e . - Baffle cooling concepts investigated.
simplified by Lord Rayleigh ( 1871 ) . Since then
these resonators have been used extensively as
Leav Backing cavity depth
sound filters and noise suppressors.105,407,778 In the
Lo Orifice inductance (inertance)
1950's arrays of resonators were successfully used
M That part of the orifice-velocity ampli-
in the suppression of combustion oscillations in
tude which is in phase with the
air-breathing engines , 104,278 and they are presently
chamber pressure divided by 1/2a1
being used as damping devices for unstable
P3 (2) Second-order approximation to funda-
liquid-propellant rocket engines.523
mental cavity pressure oscillation
A Helmholtz resonator is made of a small
R Resistance
cavity of volume Veay that is connected through
Ro Resistance per unit orifice-cross- sectional
an orifice of length l。 and diameter do to the main
area
Ris chamber where undesirable pressure oscillations
Resistance per unit liner-surface area
are expected to occur (see Fig . 8.3.1a ) . When the
S Surface
dimensions of the various elements of the resonator
U Velocity oscillation amplitude
are small in comparison with the wavelength of
u Velocity in orifice
V₁ the oscillation , the motion of the gas in the
Combustion gas velocity in thrust
chamber
Vcav Cavity volume * B. T. Zinn , Author.
speed of the sound of the gas in the resonator,†

and and represent the angular frequency and
amplitude of the pressure oscillations at the
chamber end of the orifice.
The Helmholtz resonator can also be considered
from an electrical analogy viewpoint. Given a
cavity whose largest dimension is less than one-
quarter of the wavelength of the imposed oscil-
Ap,' = Ae cos wt HIRD lation, the properties of the cavity and associated
M =pleA do
orifice can be lumped into an orifice resistance Ro,
and an orifice inductance L。 ( L。 = pA。left ) and a
k = Pč²A²
lo Vcav cavity capacitance Ceav ( CeavãpA.² /Ucav) . The
response of the cavity to oscillating pressure can
then be described as
Ccav
u' = p' Lo (8.3.1-1b)
(who
-p' / [B +i (4L - Car)]
FIGURE 8.3.1a.-Mechanical analog of a Helmholtz where u' is the oscillatory velocity and p'
resonator. is the oscillatory wave pressure . The quantity
Ro + i ( wLo - Ceav/w ) is the impedance and
(wLo - Ceav/w ) is the reactance . The role of these
resonator can be shown to be analogous to that
of a mass-spring-dashpot system.407,579 Under parameters in damping, as well as admittance
these conditions the gas in the orifice and its and absorption coefficient, are discussed in Sect.
8.3.1.2 .
immediate vicinity is considered to move as a
When conditions in the chamber are oscillatory ,
unit and provide the mass element of the system.
the gas in the orifice oscillates back and forth .
The gas in the resonator cavity, which is alter-
The amplitude of these oscillations reaches a
nately compressed and expanded due to periodic
maximum value when the frequency of the
influx and efflux of gas through the cavity opening,
provides the stiffness element ; the energy losses chamber's oscillations approaches the natural
frequency of the resonator. The latter can be
which are associated with viscous dissipation
provide the resistive element . An illustration of easily determined by considering the behavior of
the mechanical analog of the resonator.
this mechanical analog is presented in Fig . 8.3.1a .
Elementary analysis407,579 shows that the dis- Since maximum damping occurs when the
product of the amplitude of the velocity oscilla-
placement x of this mechanical analog is con-
tions and the orifice area is maximized, it is
trolled by the following ordinary differential
equation : desirable to design resonators with a natural
frequency close to that of the most detrimental
d² dx pa²A¸² acoustic mode . The basic Helmholtz equation for
Aoplett + RD + * = A。e cos wt
dt2 dt Vcav the resonant frequency, w, is simply
(8.3.1-1a) A。
wr = ā (8.3.1-2)
leftVeav
where left lo +8 is the effective length in which d
is a length correction* that accounts for the flow
Based upon the maximized damping mentioned
effects in the vicinity of the orifice ends, A.
above, resonator designs with a frequency slightly
represents the orifice area, RD is the resistance
above the chamber frequency are often desirable.692
which results from the presence of viscous forces ,
is the unperturbed gas density, a is the mean
Here it is assumed one gas temperature exists, as
pointed out in Sect. 8.3.2 temperature can vary in the
* is further defined in Eq. (8.3.2.1 ) . resonator cavity and orifice.
This is evident in the situation where volume is results in the formation of vortex rings at a
limited and orifice length is fixed . Enlarging the distance of the order of several orifice diameters
orifice diameter ( increased A. ) provides improved away from the orifice. Once formed, the vortex
damping by involving additional gas mass. rings move away from the orifice and in the process
However, this gain is soon erased by the loss in they disintegrate into turbulence . The formation
unsteady velocity in the orifice as the resonator is and disintegration of the vortex ring and other jet
operated further from the design condition . breakup phenomena appear to be a major energy
dissipation mechanism and result in other energy
8.3.1.1 Nonlinear analyses.- While designs losses in addition to the viscous losses.
based on the solution of Eq . ( 8.3.1-1 ) are adequate Recent theoretical investigations of the non-
for various applications involving small amplitude linear aspects of resonator behavior have been
sound, this is no longer the case when the ampli- performed by Sirignano644 and Zinn.770 The
tudes become finite and the frequency increases following simplifying assumptions were intro-
beyond a certain limit.105 To analyze the behavior duced in each: ( 1 ) the gas is calorically perfect ;
of resonators when exposed to various external ( 2) there is no mean flow through the orifice ;
conditions it becomes necessary to reexamine the ( 3) the flow in the orifice and in the vicinity of
derivation of Eq. (8.3.1-1a) by considering the its exit is one-dimensional ; (4) the flow in the
same problem from a fundamental fluid mechani- orifice is not choked at any time ; ( 5 ) the flow
cal point of view. conditions on both sides of the orifice are sym-
When subjected to external pressure oscillations metrical (i.e., conditions exactly reverse during
the flow in the orifice reverses direction during the cycle) ; (6 ) the amplitude of the oscillation is
each cycle, flowing from chamber to cavity during sufficiently high so that the flow at the orifice exit
one half of the cycle and in the opposite direction may be considered to be always separated ; ( 7)
during the other half. Flow visualization studies372 typical orifice and cavity dimensions are con-
and hot wire measurements371 conducted by siderably smaller than the wavelength of the
Ingard and coworkers indicate that the flow field oscillations ; (8 ) at each instant the amplitude of
in the vicinity of the orifice ends is very complex ; the velocity perturbation is constant along the
it depends on the frequency and amplitude of the orifice and the jet ;* ( 9) Viscous forces are of
oscillation as well as the geometry of the orifice second order and can be described by boundary
(i.e. , length to diameter ratio lo/d. ) . It is shown layer shear averaged over the orifice cross-
in Ref. 372 that for a given orifice geometry and sectional area. While all of the above assumptions
frequency of oscillation , external secondary flow were used in the analyses of Refs . 644 and 770
patterns that resemble vortex rings and are the difference between them lies in the treatment
stationary relative to the orifice are established in of the flow in the entrance region. Sirignano644
close vicinity to the orifice ends at relatively low assumed this flow to be quasi-steady and irrota-
pressure amplitudes . An increase in the amplitude tional , Zinn770 assumed instead that the axial
of the oscillation* results in a change in the momentum of the flow entering the control
direction of rotation of the secondary flow volume in front of the orifice may be neglected .
patterns ; a further increase in amplitude results in The flow region for the Zinn assumption770 is
the appearance of jets, that coexist with the illustrated in Fig . 8.3.1b . In the entrance region
secondary vortex motion, at the orifice exit ; a still of this model (as well as in the Sirignano model644)
further increase in amplitude results in the the unsteady pressure is written as p₁ = p + cos wt,
"strengthening" of the jets and the disappearance where the amplitude of the oscillating pressure is
of the secondary flow patterns . The viscous inter- represented by e . This disturbance is located a
action of the jets with the quiescent surroundings distance from the orifice entrance .
Using the principle of equivalent linearization486
* The experimental measurements also indicate that an
increase in the amplitude of the oscillation results in a * At low frequencies the gas oscillations behave as if
decrease in the orifice reactance.371 These measurements 417,644 Velocity oscillations are
they were incompressible.417.
show that at high amplitudes orifice resistance varies as referred to here since pressure and density do not behave
pU. in this manner but vary through the orifice .
pressure oscillation in the cavity (to be denoted

by pa(2) ) is controlled by the following ordinary
differential equation :
leffVeav d²p3 (2) Veav lo

+ νδρμω
A。ā² dt2 Aop {(1 + 2 )
Exit jet
B dpa (2)
2. + pU(2) + p3(²) = p₁' = e cos wt
3π dt
E
3. (8.3.1-3)
where U(2) is the second-order approximation for

the velocity , amplitude, y is the ratio of specific
3. heats , p and p are the mean pressure and density
of the gas, μ is the viscosity and B is a constant
FIGURE 8.3.1b.-Resonator field related to the orifice entrance assumptions. B is 8

flow during finite
amplitude oscillations. for the moderate amplitude case ( < 120db)
treated by Zinn,770 and 4 for the higher amplitude
a solution was obtained . It can be shown that the case studied by Sirignano.644 The second order
second-order approximation for the fundamental solutions are given by the following expressions :
-wr2pleffe COS (wt + ) Αγρ

P3((2)
2 U(2) cos (wt + 6)
1/2 Vcavw
B
wlett - √Sμpw + PU(2)
wo {[(wer 13 (1 ) ] + [(1+ do
+ %)
1/2 ) 3π '1'
}"
(8.3.1-4)
Eq . (8.3.1-4) is used to define U(2) . Furthermore, combination. The resistance of this analogous
mechanical system is amplitude-dependent and
u(2)= U (2) sin (wt + ) (8.3.1-5 )
according to Eq . (8.3.1-3 ) it varies as 0.86pu .
where u(2) is the second-order approximation for This theoretical prediction is in close agreement
the velocity, and the phase shift, o, is with available experimental data³¹ that shows
that the resistance varies as pu.
- tan-¹ Supw ( 1 + lo/do ) + B/3πµU(2)
= The analysis presented in Refs. 19, and 644 is
lefiōw ( 1— (w /w) ²) particularly relevant to large amplitude oscil-
(8.3.1-6) lations of interest to the rocket designer. Under
these conditions the orifice inflow may be assumed
Using the relation* u = dê/dt (where is the to be irrotational and the flow in the orifice and
displacement of the fluid particle in the orifice )
the jet to be quasi-steady . Quasi-steady flow
together with an energy equation and assumption
assumptions have also been employed in the
( 8 ) it can be shown that Eq . ( 8.3.1-3 ) indeed studies of Oberg521 and Garrison.286 Considering a
describes the oscillations of an analogous mechani- steady flow between the orifice entrance and the
cal system made up of a mass-dashpot- spring vena contracta, it can be shown365 that the orifice
.
velocity and the real jet velocity are related
* It should be noted that dx/dt is a Lagrangian quantity
as follows:
while u is an Eulerian quantity. It can be shown366 that
the difference between these quantities is of second-order u; = u /C,C, uo/ Cd (8.3.1-7 )
and will produce particular solutions that are proportional
to higher harmonics. The latter are not considered in this where u ; and u, respectively denote the velocity
analysis . perturbation in the vena contracta and in the
orifice ; C, is the contraction coefficient , C, is the u/a ğ U(2)

velocity coefficient that accounts for frictional YR = = COS (8.3.1-11)
Pi/p ā € cos ( - )
losses in the orifice, and Ca is commonly referred
to as the discharge coefficient . The discharge Of special interest is the frequency dependence of
coefficient is an experimentally determined quan- YR which is a measure of the energy dissipation in
tity which remains fairly constant in the range of the liner. Calculations of YR show that at low
interest considered here (although the Ca is amplitudes the liner dissipation is very effective
known to be quite sensitive to orifice shape and over a narrow band of frequencies centered around
surface conditions as well as the jet Reynolds the resonant frequency.644,770 An increase in the
number) . For high Reynolds number flows in amplitude of the oscillation results in a decrease
sharp-edged orifices Ca approximately equals 0.61 . in the maximum value of YR and in an increase
The above relation together with the Euler in the range of frequencies over which the liner is
equation for the perturbations yields the following effective. At large amplitudes the resonator has a
differential equation that controls the behavior of flat frequency response and at the same time it is
the cavity pressure oscillations considerably less effective than at lower ampli-
tudes. The difference in the calculated low- and
pleff d²p3 (2) Ucav 4 U2 dp3(2 )
+ + P3(2) high-amplitude responses is caused by the fact
A。a2 dt² YАop 3π Ca² dt
that at low amplitudes the magnitudes of the
== € COS wt (8.3.1-8) resonator resistance and reactance are of the same
The solution of Eq . ( 8.3.1-8 ) has the same form order of magnitude while at high amplitudes the
as the expressions given by Eqs . ( 8.3.1-4) through resonator resistance is considerably larger than
(-6 ) when B = 4, the only difference being that its reactance . The calculated flat frequency-
in the present case the resonator resistance is dependence of YR during high-amplitude oscilla-
given by tions suggests that there is no need to carefully
0.425 "tune" liners that are designed to attenuate large
4 p
Ro = u= pu (8.3.1-9) amplitude pressure oscillations.
Зπ Са² Cd2
While the above discussion is concentrated on
where u is the velocity amplitude of the funda- the unsteady behavior of a single Helmholtz
mental component . Based on extensive resonator resonator, analyses and experimental data on the
impedance measurements, Garrison286 shows that unsteady behavior of lined chambers may be
the following empirical expression for the re- found in Refs. 286 , 521 and 552. In this connection
sistance it is important to emphasize that in addition to
0.37 the ability to dissipate energy the use of a liner
Ro = pu (8.3.1-10) will change the natural frequencies of the chamber
C,2 under consideration . Such change could con-
where C is the orifice flow coefficient (that ceivably result in the destabilization of an
approximately equals the discharge coefficient ) , otherwise stable rocket motor .
provides the best correlation with the available. There are several interesting aspects of the
experimental data. It is quite possible that a resonator problem that became clearer through
better agreement between the theoretical pre- the use of the fluid-mechanical approach. It has
dictions and the available experimental resistance been shown that energy losses in the resonator are
data would have been obtained if the theory that due to viscous dissipation at the walls as well as
resulted in the derivation of Eq . (8.3.1-9) was due to the "conversion" of the momentum of the
extended to third or higher orders . jets into vortex rings that dissipate into tur-
To evaluate the liner effect on engine stability bulence . The frictional wall losses are constant
it is necessary to know its admittance (see Sect . while the jet losses are amplitude-dependent and
3.5.3.2) . Using complex notation and Eqs . they dominate both the constant resistance term
(8.3.1-4) and (-5 ) it can be shown that the real and the resonator reactance during high amplitude
part of the admittance y, of a single Helmholtz oscillations. While it appears that the nature of
resonator, can be expressed in the following form the observed losses is qualitatively understood ,
their quantitative determination is still dependent influence upon the liner design. An analysis has
on the use of experimentally measured discharge been performed that utilizes the jet model of
or flow coefficients . Due to the extremely complex Helmholtz resonator flow and accounts for these
nature of the flow field near and inside the orifice additional flow effects.691-693 The analysis contains
available theories cannot determine the exact two parts : an off-resonance solution, and a near-
magnitude of the effective orifice length . In the resonance solution . The off-resonance solution
absence of appropriate theories liner designers considers the effects of chamber flows , whereas
must resort to the use of empirical expressions the near-resonance study considers, in addition ,
(e.g. , see Refs . 286 and 552 ) in their attempts to the effects of mean flows through the orifices. In
evaluate the effective orifice length . Fortunately both studies , it is not necessary that the wave-
for rocket designers the resonator reactance has length associated with the oscillations be much .
little effect upon the resonator's response during larger than the orifice length. The assumptions
high-amplitude oscillations ; hence the precise are discussed in Refs. 691 and 693.
knowledge of the effective length is of secondary The analysis shows that both the chamber
importance in rocket liner design . velocity and pressure must be considered as forcing
It should be kept in mind that the theory functions for the orifice motion . The chamber
described in this section was limited to con- velocity can change the phase of the orifice
siderations of the behavior of a single Helmholtz velocity independently from the chamber pressure .
resonator when it is subjected to pressure oscil- Therefore, the force required to accelerate the
lation wavelengths that are long compared to the orifice fluid to the jet velocity is not precisely that
resonator dimensions. Considerations of the force due to the part of the chamber pressure in
conditions inside unstable rocket motors point out phase with the orifice velocity. In other words , the
the need for improved theories that will analyze resistance (defined for no orifice mean flow, as the
the low- and high-amplitude behavior of arrays force leading to dissipation divided by the orifice
of Helmholtz resonators over a wide frequency oscillatory velocity) is not , in general, equal to
range . The dependence of liner behavior upon the the real part of the impedance . This means that
presence of mean flow past and/or through the the chamber velocity can force the motion such
resonator should also be considered and will be that the orifice velocity does work against the
discussed in the following sections. chamber pressure, and indeed, regions are found
where the real part of the impedance (or real part
8.3.1.2 Flow effects. *-In addition to the occur- of the admittance, see Sect . 8.2.1.3 ) is negative .
rence of oscillatory pressure , the environment In particular , near the resonant point, the real
within a rocket chamber undergoing combustion part of the admittance is always positive, and is
instability contains velocities of both mean and always increased by a chamber flow (when the
oscillatory character. The direction between the average pressure coefficient on the chamber side is
mean and oscillatory velocities, and the phase negative) , but in regions not too far from reso-
between the oscillatory velocity and pressure , nance, negative values of this quantity do occur.
depends upon the particular instability mode. These negative regions should be avoided in
The mean gas velocity is small near the injector practice, since the liner can then provide a
and increases downstream . Mean flows through mechanism by which energy is extracted from the
the orifices (apertures ) of the liner may also be chamber velocity field and fed into the chamber
present . Such flows occur when there are appre- pressure field , causing instability to be augmented .
ciable pressure gradients within the chamber, In Sect. 8.3.1.3, it is noted that, for maximum
and the backing volume of the lined surface is damping, a surface integral should be maximized
not properly partitioned . At times, a mean under near-resonance conditions. In most cases of
orifice flow is introduced purposely for cooling. practical interest , this maximization is equivalent
Depending upon the pertinent magnitudes, any to the maximization of the real part of the
of the above flow effects can have considerable admittance coefficient ( YR) . Here, the concern is
primarily with these cases. Now, under near-
* T. Tonon, Author. resonant conditions ,
YR = aaM/e¹/2p1 (8.3.1-12) with the orifice velocity, and since M represents

that part of the orifice velocity in phase with the
where a is the mean speed of sound , a is the percent
chamber pressure. This condition can be called
open area ratio, is the amplitude of the non-
resonance.
dimensional chamber oscillatory pressure, p is the
As mentioned earlier in this section, it can be
mean chamber pressure, and M is that part of the
proven that the chamber flow terms in Eq.
orifice-velocity amplitude which is in phase with
(8.3.1-15 ) only increase the value of M above the
the chamber pressure . The conclusion is that both
no-flow value. It may be concluded that a chamber
a and M should be maximized .
flow can be used to aid performance. Note that
When there are no mean flows through the
when the chamber flow terms are zero , the
orifices , the resonator geometry which gives the
geometry given by Eq . ( 8.3.1-13 ) is the Helmholtz
maximum value of M is given at least approxi-
resonant geometry, with no end-correction applied
mately by
to the orifice length. No end-correction appears
Aolo/Veav = tan w +e /2K/TM cos² (8.3.1-13 ) here since the flow fields exterior to the orifice are
where assumed to be quasi-steady. When fluid motion
is quasi-steady, the fluid particles experience no
K= 2bg ( 1 — Cp ) /3 + πVg cos ¥ (С„ +1 ) / 2 acceleration in time, and thus no inertia is
(8.3.1-14 ) present . * Note also the (1+ cos³ ) term in
the denominator of the expression for M. This
M² = 3CD²[π/Y + ( V² + 2b²/3 + g²/3 ) ( 1 — C„ )
term suggests that unsteady effects in the orifice
+ Vb cos (Cp + 1 ) / 2 ]/2 ( 1+ | cos³ í | ) aid liner performance.
When there are mean flows through the orifices,
(8.3.1-15 )
the geometry which gives the maximum value of
where A, is the orifice cross-sectional area, l。 the M must be found by numerical solution of
orifice length, Ucav the cavity volume, = 2πl。/lw , simultaneous algebraic equations. This more
lw the wavelength, M a maximum or near-maxi- general form of the solution is not presented here
mum value of M, CD the coefficient of discharge because of its complexity, and the references
of the orifice when quasi-steady orifice flow occurs should be consulted .
(when the orifice motion is not quasi-steady, In certain situations, the chamber conditions
CD 1 ) , y is the ratio of specific heats, and Cp are not known precisely enough to attain the
is the average pressure coefficient for the jet necessary confidence in a design geometry cal-
interaction with the chamber cross-flow. The culated as described . In other cases, it is desirable
chamber pressure and velocity are assumed to restrict the orifice length to a value which is
known in the following forms : much less than the wavelength associated with
the oscillating chamber gases. In both cases, the
P₁/p = 1 + cos wt (8.3.1-16 )
designer should seek to provide a quasi-steady
V/ã = ¿¹/2[V+V'] (8.3.1-17) flow condition in the liner. The quasi-steady
regime provides a safer design in that damping is
with the magnitudes
effective over a broad frequency range about
|V| = V (8.3.1-18) resonance . The resonator response is essentially
insensitive to the orifice length ( i.e. , the curve of
| V'│ = V ' =
= e cos wt + g sin wt (8.3.1-19 )
M versus orifice length near resonance is quite
The angle is the angle between the direction of flat) . The acoustic effective length of the orifice in
V and V' when both vectors are considered this case approaches zero.
positive. That M will be a near maximum with For the case of no orifice mean flow, when the
this geometry has not been proven rigorously ; K-factor in Eq . ( 8.3.1-13 ) is zero , the quasi-
however, calculations tend to confirm this result .
* An end-correction is not the result of the contraction
This geometry should provide at least an approxi- of streamlines exterior to the orifice . When the entrance
mately maximum value of M since it requires region is quasi-steady, the contracted streamlines are
that the chamber oscillatory pressure be in phase present, but the end-correction is zero.
steady-resonant point is achieved by making the conclusions may be drawn as to the effectiveness
orifice length as small as possible, and the cavity of liner operation .
volume as large as possible. The approach is Since the flow at the liner surface is spatially
asymptotic so that some sloppiness in the design irregular because of the perforations ( orifices) , a
can be tolerated . If this K-factor is not zero, surface is considered that is displaced from the
then, there exists a certain finite, optimum , liner surface. On this surface of interest , a spatially-
cavity volume and/or a nonzero , optimum , averaged-normal velocity is defined . In order
orifice length. Thus, more care must then be taken that this average be at least approximately equal
in selecting the liner geometry, which still can be to the actual values , this station of interest must
found from Eq . ( 8.3.1-13 ) . It is important to be sufficiently far from the liner surface. When the
always keep the orifice length to diameter ratio orifice flow is characterized by jets , this distance
large enough so that the flow has reattached to should be at least the jet-break-up length or the
the orifice wall. It was found in the analysis that a characteristic spacing between orifices , whichever
vena contracta without reattachment further is larger. The flow field between the lined surface
limits the mass flow through the orifice, and thus and this imaginary surface is then assumed to be
hinders operation in the cases where YR should quasi-steady. It is also assumed here that the
be maximized. orifice axes are at least approximately perpen-
In certain volume-limited situations, it is not dicular to both surfaces, and that the lined surface
possible to vary the liner geometry such that is uniform at least locally. The definitions and
both M and a are maximized independently. In assumptions in this paragraph also apply to the
these situations, where the cavity volume is fixed , resistance and absorption coefficients , when these
the maximum value of YR will appear at a fre- concepts are applied to a lined surface . The
quency above which M is a maximum . This definition of these latter two concepts will be
result is discussed in Refs. 691 , 692. The optimum made shortly.
condition should then be found by direct cal- IMPEDANCE : The impedance Z is defined as
culation. The proper equations to be solved are the ratio of pressure oscillation to velocity
more general than those appearing in this section, oscillation at a given point in space , for a given
and can be found in Refs . 691 and 693. These frequency . For a lined surface, this definition is
references should also be consulted when maxi- applied along the displaced surface discussed
mization of YR does not produce the optimum above. The velocity of interest is the velocity
design. See Sect . 8.3.1.3 for these situations in normal to this surface . Thus,
which the optimization is more complicated .
Z = ZR + IZI = p₁'/au' (8.3.1-20)
8.3.1.3 Parameters to evaluate liner designs.- where p' is the oscillatory pressure , u' the oscilla-
The mathematical treatment of the flow field tory orifice velocity on the chamber side of the
associated with a rocket combustion chamber liner, and a the percent open area ratio of the
involves, like most physical problems , the solution lined surface. Since, in general , u' is not in phase
of governing equations together with boundary with pi ' , the impedance contains both a real part
conditions. Thus , the events that take place at ZR and an imaginary part iZ1.
(or near) the chamber walls have a significant ADMITTANCE : The admittance y is defined
effect upon the behavior of the internal flow field . as the reciprocal of the impedance . Thus ,
Viewing the problem from a stability standpoint , y= YR + iY₁ = au'/pi' (8.3.1-21 )
in certain cases, conclusions of practical interest
From the above definitions,
may be drawn from a study of the boundary
effects alone (without a detailed consideration of YR = ZR/ ( ZR²- Z1²) ; YI = -ZI / ( ZR²- Zi²)
the governing equations) .
(8.3.1-22)
COMPLEX RATIOS : Complex ratios serve
ZR = YR/(YR² - YI²) ; =
ZIY1/ (YR²- Y12)
as a convenient means of treating boundary
effects . From these complex parameter ratios, (8.3.1-23)
RESISTANCE: The resistance is a real quan-

4 1
tity , and is useful in describing the energy dis- Ro = aRs:= pû (8.3.1-26)
3π Cd2
sipation. For the case of simple harmonic orifice.
motion (no mean flows through the orifices ) , the where Ca is the coefficient of discharge for the
surface resistance R, can be defined as the force orifice . As mentioned in Refs . 691 and 693,
which leads to the dissipated energy per unit area ,
divided by the velocity au' . The force per unit ZR = Rs + F ( w , wo , e, V1)
area used in the definition will be equal to the
where the function F is zero when the chamber
part of the pressure pi' in phase with the velocity
flow V₁ is zero .
u' only when the pressure is the sole forcing
ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT : Since the
function for the orifice motion ; i.e. , the chamber
absorption coefficient is a parameter often used
flow must be zero . Thus , as mentioned in Sect .
by the designer, it is important that it be con-
8.1.3.2 , ZR = R, only in this special case . A
sidered in relation to the parameters previously
mistake often made in the literature is to define
discussed.
the resistance as the real part of the impedance,
The absorption coefficient a can be defined ,
even in the presence of a chamber flow. This
in general terms, as the power absorbed by a
definition does not reflect the physical mechanisms
surface (i.e., the power removed from the enclosed
taking place . Thus,
volume) , divided by the power which arrives at
R. = Fa/au' (8.3.1-24) the surface in the form of travelling waves. This
definition is usually applied only for periodic
where Fa is the force leading to dissipation per occurrences ; i.e. , the transient times are small
unit surface area. For the jet regime, Fa contains
compared to the period of oscillation . The absorp-
the force necessary to accelerate fluid particles to tion coefficient is then (approximately) a con-
the jet velocity at which dissipation occurs ,
stant . It is also usually applied to plane waves
starting from rest ( even though these particles
incident on a plane surface . When the transmitting
may have been moving in a chamber velocity
medium contains no appreciable velocity effects,
field prior to entrance into the orifice) . and there are no mean flows through the orifices ,
For the jet regime, the resistance is a time-
the application of this definition is straight-
dependent quantity, reflecting the nonlinear forward.778 The absorbed power (per unit area) is
aspect of the motion. However, in Refs . 691 and
the product of the velocity at the surface , squared,
693 , it is shown that an equivalent * linear re- and the real part of the impedance (resistance ) .
sistance can be found which is a constant of the
The incident intensity is that associated with the
periodic motion. The expression derived is travelling pressure waves moving toward the
2 surface . When the incident waves are normal to
Ro = ARs = pû ( 1 + à³) ( 8.3.1-25 ) the surface , the result is
3π
a=40/[(0 + 1 ) ²+ x²] (8.3.1-27)
where R is the resistance per unit area A., ρ is
the orifice density, û the amplitude of the orifice where = R /P₁₁ = ZR/P₁₁ , and x = ZI /piai, when
motion on the chamber side, and à is the ratio of there is no chamber velocity. In terms of the
the jet-velocity amplitude on the cavity side of admittance, this can be written as
the orifice to the jet-velocity amplitude on the
4YR (YR2 - Y12)piã
chamber side. Equation (8.3.1-25) is valid when απ (8.3.1-28 )
the jet flow area equals the orifice area. If the [ YR +Ã¹ã¹ ( YR² — Yı² ) ]² + Yı²
orifice motion is quasi-steady , the vena contracta
When there are appreciable velocity effects in
can be accounted for (as well as friction) . The
the medium , or mean flows through the orifices ,
result then is
the above methods used in the calculation of the
absorbed power and incident intensity do not
* The accuracy of the linear representation improves as account for these effects . As indicated earlier, the
the amplitudes approach zero. resistance, and not the real part of the impedance
should be used in finding the absorbed power. results in which such a concept does not enter .
Likewise, there is energy contained in the velocity Such an analysis is described below.
field as well as the pressure field , thus the proper OPTIMUM DESIGN : Based upon the results
normalization for a becomes more complicated . It of a derivation by Cantrell and Hart ,137 it can be
may be possible to incorporate these velocity shown that, for the cases of most practical
effects into the concept of an absorption coeffi- interest , the optimum design can be achieved by
cient , but there appears no need to do so . An making YR as large as possible .
analysis of the fluid mechanical problem yields The result of interest from that reference is
ep1V ει
< ds. {&Vi' + + (V₁ •V₁ ' ) ( BN₁' + ! V₁ ) } )
2ad = (8.3.1-29)
1 epi
dv
< /_ do { { BN, '" + m² + Vi + V;') (d )} )
V
This relationship expresses the stability of a 1. Transverse modes with either no mean
volume V enclosed by a surface S within which flows through the liner or a²<< 1 .
there are no volume-loss mechanisms, and all 2. Longitudinal modes in which the chamber
fluid motion is isentropic and irrotational. In oscillatory velocity is 90° out of phase with
applying this result to the problem at hand , the the chamber pressure (standing mode ) ,
surface S is identified with the imaginary surface with the orifice oscillatory velocity in
defined earlier in this section, and it is assumed phase with the chamber pressure, and in
that any volume-loss (or gain) mechanisms addition , if either there are no mean flows
present in an actual combustor do not alter the through the orifices or if a2<< 1 .
results. In Equation ( 8.3.1-29 ) , ( ) denotes a 3. All modes, if the mean flow in the chamber
time average much larger than a period of oscil- is very small (e.g. , near the injector ) , and
lation, but still much less than a damping time. in addition, either no mean flows through
Thus, all flow quantities must have a slow the liner or a²<< 1.
exponential growth with time; pi' , pi' , etc., ~ aat,
In the above cases , only the first term of the
which serves to define aa, the damping coefficient. surface integral is important , and this term leads a
From this result , it is evident that the optimum
quantity which is proportional to YR. The argu-
condition comes about when a is made as largely
ments leading to the above conclusions, starting
negative as possible . Since the transient motion is from the result of Eq . ( 8.3.1-29 ) , are presented
considered slow, the conditions within the volume in Ref. 691 .
can be considered fixed . Thus, we need only
It is thus concluded that, for most cases of
maximize the time average of the surface integral
practical concern, the optimum condition for
in the numerator. Proceeding in this way, and
stability will be obtained by maximizing the real
making use of the relative magnitudes of the part of the admittance coefficient YR over the
terms involved , it can be shown that the optimum
liner surface . It is noted here that YR does depend
condition will be obtained in moving towards
significantly upon the chamber flow terms and
resonance of the liner system . It can be shown
orifice mean flows . Indeed , it is possible for
further that, under near-resonance conditions , in
chamber flow effects to produce negative values
certain cases, ad becomes largely negative when for YR. In these special cases, aa will then become.
the real part of the admittance is maximized to a
positive, indicating that instability is enhanced .
positive value over the liner surface. These special
Now, from Eq. (8.3.1-28 ) , for conditions near
cases, which include most cases of practical
resonance (Y≈0) , there results
concern, are listed as follows : *
απ
a = 4p₁₁YR / ( 1 +p₁₁YR ) 2 ( 8.3.1-30 )
* It is assumed that the chamber geometry is cylindrical,
with the lined surface on the outer-curved wall. In addition, under near-resonance conditions,
YR = 0 (a/8) , where & is a small amplitude param-

eter (u'≈dā , p'≈d'p₁ ) . Thus, when a/d << 1 ,
a≈4piā₁YR, and when a/8>> 1 , a≈p₁₁YR. It Injector Ga fl
s ow
is thus concluded that , only in special cases , will
o
maximization of the commonly-used absorption o
coefficient, at resonance , correspond to maxi- ० o
० o
mization of YR. In other situations, such a ०
maximization may result in a design which is
far from the optimum .
8.3.2 The Effects of the Environment on

Resonator Behavior*
Conditions in and about a typical rocket engine

Circumferential
liner are normally quite different from many of
partition
those discussed in the previous section. The
differences often require substantial modification
of the design equations.552 These new conditions Backing cavity Axial partition
include
1. The presence of mean flows FIGURE 8.3.2a.-Typical liner configuration.

2. Variations in cavity gas composition and
temperature as a function of propellants, cussed in Sect . 8.3.1 the more detailed equation
injector type, O/F, position, etc. for leftis
3. High-amplitude nonsinusoidal waves (i.e.
beyond the acoustic regime) left = lo +d = l。 + . 85d。 ( 1−0.7√a) (8.3.2–1 )
4. Nonperpendicular wave incidence angles where a is the ratio of aperture area to resonator
due to the presence of rotating pressure cross section area (a expressed in percent is
fronts in cylindrical cavity modes. referred to as "percent open area") . Figure
A cross-section of a typical rocket liner is shown 8.3.2b represents the results of an analysis of the
streamline contraction for an orifice plate.733
in Fig. 8.3.2a . The figure introduces the nomen-
The parameter actually shown is the distribution
clature used in this section as well as indicating
of the kinetic energy near the aperture where
the complexities of liners employing circumferen-
tial and axial partitions . ths of the energy is in the hemispherical caps and
In terms of the effects of the environment on the other ths of the energy is external. The entire
process is associated with the transition from
liner behavior, one of the most significant factors
is the presence of mean flows or turbulence. The planar to spherical waves. Dealing with an orifice
source of these mean flows can be the gaseous plate, the left is equal to the & alone. The results
combustion products flowing by the liner, purge of Westervelt's analysis733 show that when tur-
bulence is present , the position of the streamline
gases flowing through the aperture , † or streaming
contraction is altered such that the ( )8 asso-
flows due to violent oscillations in the aperture.
The presence of any one of these has a large effect ciated with the hemispherical caps is eliminated .
This corresponds to a reduction in the 8 by a
on both the aperture effective length , leff, and
the resistance , R.. factor of 0.625 ; the & with turbulence then would
be equal to 0.375 times the & without turbulence.
The aperture effective length consists of the
The required turbulence was found to occur when
aperture thickness plus some correction, d , due to
streamline contraction . Although briefly dis- the magnitude of the oscillatory displacement
became appreciably greater than the orifice
diameter.
* B. Phillips , Author.
"Aperture" is an alternate terminology for "orifice" Experimental evaluation of this reduction in
referred to in the previous section. left for a range of values of the ratio of particle
are presented as - Alett/do. If left without tur-
318
bulence is (d. ) , then it appears that left has
been reduced by ~ 0.6 to 0.70 which corresponds
to Westervelt's prediction.
10100
Orifice plate The effects of mean flow on left are shown in Fig.
020 8.3.2d. The results are taken from Refs. 472, 478,
and 549 and plotted on the same vertical scale .
The effects of flow past and flow through could be
nearly superimposed if a 20 : 1 ratio of velocities
was assumed . Although there is some variation ,
the results indicate that at values of flow past
FIGURE 8.3.2b.-Distribution of kinetic energy for oscilla-
corresponding to 120 m/sec the aperture mass
tory flow through an orifice according to Westervelt.733 was reduced to 0.375 times its nonflow value. The
aperture lengths for Refs. 472 and 478 were
1.0 substantially less than the aperture diameters
l=.10 cm d =,36 cm indicating that , to a good approximation, the
reduction in leff was equivalent to a reduction in
d. The relationship of "velocity past " to "velocity
reduction
Relative
=.05 cm d =.50 cm
through," and a fundamental reason for the 20 : 1
-dett
lleft
A/
.in
difference remain open questions at this time. In

terms of design, however, the results indicate that,
to a good approximation , the effective length in
-.05 cm d =1,0 cm
the presence of high mean flow or high wave
amplitudes * is
left = lo + 0.3758nf ( 8.3.2-2 )
-.05 cm d = 1,4 cm
The results of an experiment to study the effect
.OI
of mean flow past the aperture on the resistance is
shown in Fig. 8.3.2e, taken from Ref. 478. The
7 parameter used to correlate the data is frequency
dependent ; however, recent experimental results
indicate that the effect should not be considered
as a function of frequency.39,549 Note should be
.10 1.0 made of the apparent leveling off of the flow effect
for the circular symbols . Comparison of the
x /d- Particle displacement
Aperture diameter results shown in Fig. 8.3.2e with those reported
FIGURE 8.3.2c. -Relative reduction in effective length as in Refs. 39 and 549 is shown in Fig. 8.3.2f . In
a function of x/d. order to compare the results it was necessary to
replot the data as shown in the symbol list . The
results from Refs . 478 and 549 indicate a threshold
displacement to diameter, â/do is shown in Fig.
8.3.2c. The plot was obtained from figures 29-32 value of the flow (below which no significant
of Ingard.370 There, the reduction in left was shown effect is noted) that corresponds to a velocity
as a function of /lo. The results of plotting the
* High amplitude quasi-steady flow was discussed in
average values on the new scale indicate that , for Sect. 8.3.1 . In that regime a change in the effective length
/d.>3, the ratio of left/d, is reduced by 0.65 to is also predicted. When the amplitude is sufficiently high
0.70. Two comments can be made on the results. the end correction can be entirely eliminated and indeed
The first is that the aperture lengths were small leff can be less than 1,766 approaching zero as the flow be-
comes entirely quasi-steady. Amplitudes in the 190 db
(0.05 to 0.10 cm) compared to the diameters
range, where jet-type flow is well established (figure 5 of
(0.36 to 1.4 cm) so that the left was almost com- Ref. 694) , indicate that leff = lo +8/2 and represents a
pletely defined by 8. The second is that the results single-end correction (one hemispherical cap) .
1.0
aperture
aperture
Ratio
mass
flow
without
with
Ref 549
Flow past
to
mass
of
Ref 478
flow
0.8 Ref 472 -- Flow through
0.6
0.4
0.2
20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Mean flow past - m /sec
2 3 4 5 6 7
Mean flow through - m /sec
FIGURE 8.3.2d .- Effects of mean flow past and mean flow through the apertures on the ratio of aperture mass with and
without flow.
Resistance
Resistance
without
flow
AF f kHz
resistance
with
flow
60 0.4 kHz 0.0080 0.4 X

without
X 0.6 0.0035 0.6

Ratio
flow
with
flow
that
▲ 1.0 0.0025 1.0

of
/o
to
O 1.4 0.0023 1.4

R
X
Hz
R/RO = ( 1 -AF V)-4
Ref. 549 Phillips f= 700-1200
2
Ref. 478 Mechel A f=1000

(Previous
figure) x f=600
2
Rt-
n,Ro
/o
Of=1400
Ref. 39 P&W -f=800
100 200 300 400 500
J .2 .3 .5
Mean flow parameter AFV Mean flow past the resonator aperture - ft/sec
Vmax =80 m/s
FIGURE 8.3.2f.-Effect of mean flow past on the ratio of
FIGURE 8.3.2e .- The effect of mean flow past on acoustic resistance with flow to resistance without flow.
resistance (where Ar is an empirical frequency dependent
parameter). The effects of mean flow through the aperture
have been studied and reported in Refs. 39 , 371
past of 100 ft/sec. Increasing the flow velocity and 472. The results are compared in Fig. 8.3.2g.
corresponds to a linear increase in the ratio of The results from Refs. 371 and 472 indicate that a
resistance with flow to the nonflow resistance threshold value of flow through corresponding to
(the dashed curve represents the linear increase ~3 ft/sec must be exceeded before the effect is
based on Ref. 39 , which differs somewhat from seen. Increasing the flow caused a linear increase
the other data cited . ) The maximum value of the in the resistance ratio . It is not clear at this time
resistance ratio measured is 3.5. why the results of Ref. 39 differ so greatly from
Resistance
Resistance
without
1000
flow
flow
with
Ref 371 Ingard
Ref 472 McAuliffe
Ref 39 P & W
100
Ro
/
n,Rfo
1.0
| 10 100 1000
Mean flow - u- ft /sec
Through the aperture
FIGURE 8.3.2g.-Effect of mean flow through the aperture on the resistance.
Refs . 371 and 472. The similarity in slope, how- agreement considering the possible sources of
ever, is of interest . Recent analyses indicate that error. Also worthy of note is the comparison of
the slope of the line should correspond to the gas the threshold velocity of ~ 100/ft sec past with
density , i.e. , the threshold velocity from Fig. 8.3.2d corre-
sponding to ~ 100 ft/sec . Agreement between the
R。 = p₂ū (8.3.2-3)
two prompts speculation that the effect of ~ 100
This result is obtained when it is assumed that ft/sec of flow past or ~5 ft/sec of flow through
the resistance changes from a friction-controlled induces a turbulent transition which reduces d
to a jet-controlled value. If this is the case, then while simultaneously changing the character of
the threshold velocity corresponds to such a the resistance from a frictional to a jet loss effect .
transition. In addition , comparison of the effects of mean and
The results of the comparison between the oscillatory flow on 8 indicate that violent oscilla-
effects of flow past and through on leff prompt a tions play a similar role in the turbulent transition.
similar comparison for resistance ratio . The The effects of variations in cavity gas com-
results of such a comparison are shown in Fig. position and temperature on the behavior of a
8.3.2h. liner are determined by noting which of the
The lines plotted represent average values of equations presented earlier are strong functions
the data from Figs . 8.3.2g and 8.3.2h. A com- of the gas properties . The obvious equations are
parison of the two sets of data show surprising (8.3.1-2 and 8.3.2-3 ) for the resonant frequency
Resistance
Resistance
without
8
flow
flow
with
Mean flow past
CO
Mean flow through
2
/f-
Ro
,R
n o
1
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280
Mean flow past ft/sec
1 n
་
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Mean flow through /ft /sec
FIGURE 8.3.2h .—Comparison of the effects of mean flow past and mean flow through on the ratio of resistance with and
without flow.
and the aperture resistance . The gas properties The spread in cavity temperatures that can result
are the cavity gas sonic velocity as, and the from a typical test is shown in Fig . 8.3.2k.551
aperture gas density p2. These properties, in turn , The spread represents variations due to axial and
are dependent on the gas temperature , pressure, circumferential position, as well as slight varia-
and composition or molecular weight. While tions in O/F ratio from one run to the next . * For
pressure can generally be specified , it is necessary this particular configuration, it was necessary to
to measure the gas composition and temperature . resort to partitioning of the liner cavity and
Typical results obtained from thermocouples eventually to purging of the cavity with 1 lb/sec
mounted in a liner cavity are shown on Fig. of hydrogen or helium in order to define the
8.3.21.710,714 The results shown indicate the strong cavity gas properties.
effect of propellant combination on backing In order to determine the composition of the
cavity gas temperature as well as the effect of gases, gas samples from either the liner cavity or
transition to instability . The cavity temperature the rocket engine boundary layer were obtained ,
for the H-O system is 900° R corresponding to a refs . 552 , 523, and 286. Factors such as element
combustion temperature of about 6000° R whereas spacing, mixture ratio variations, etc. influence the
the result with earth storables corresponds to a gas composition and temperature, and wide.
combustion temperature of about 5000° R. Thus, variations may necessitate the purging of the
the ratio of cavity to combustion temperatures liner cavity with a known gas.
varies from 0.15 for the H-O system to 0.36 for The effects of nonperpendicular incidence
the storables. angles, due to pressure fronts rotating in cylin-
Factors other than the propellants can also drical cavities, are difficult to calculate . For
affect the cavity temperature as shown by Fig. cavities with no axial partitions ( see Fig. 8.3.2a ) ,
8.3.2j . A strong effect of liner open area ratio a the rotating pressure will tend to set up standing
on the gas temperature is indicated . The tem- wave patterns in the cavity. Consequently, the
perature in the cavity also increases with axial
position ( 500° to 900° F higher temperatures are * Similar data have also been reported by other investi-
attained at the nozzle end , see Ref. 550 , Fig. 25 ) . gators, e.g., Ref. 324.
temperature
2600 3200
temperature
temperature End of run
Propellant
Backing
1400r
-gBacking
-gBacking
Storables
g-cavity
-cavity
2400-
temperature
cavity
1600 Boundary - layer temperature range for storables

as
1300 ---Hydrogen ( Ref 478)

T
as
2800
as
,"K -
,°R
Backing
- ,R
22000-
-gcavity
1200 1400
as
End
runof
K
2000- 2400
1100
1200 Storable propellant
1000 1800
T
2000
Kinstabilit
Instability Aperture diameter , in. (cm)
induced 1000
900 1600 O 1/8 ( 0.32)
1600 1/4 (0.64)
800 800
T
1400
700- 1200
1200 600
600
1000 800 I
instability 400 I
500L induced
800 I Hydrogen-oxygen data from Ref. 478
1.0 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.4 200 400
Time,sec. 8 12 16 20
Open area , percent
FIGURE 8.3.21 .—Comparison of backing-cavity-gas tem-
FIGURE 8.3.2j .-Effect of percent open area on liner
perature of storable and hydrogen-oxygen propellant
combinations during tests when instabilities were en- backing-cavity-gas temperature during steady-state
countered. stable operation . Chamber characteristic length, 42
inches ( 106.7 cm) ; nominal mixture ratio, 2.0. (Average
temperatures, denoted by symbols, were used for theo-
Helmholtz criterion for small cavity size will not retical calculations .)
have been met and the liner may suffer serious
loss in performance. Although there is insufficient 2500
data from actual liner tests to support this, some
Cavity
temp
acoustic bench tests have been run. The effects of

gas
a 2000
,°R
partitioning the liner cavity on the liner damping I

are shown in Fig. 8.3.21.553 The circumferential or 1500
ring partitions had little or no effect whereas the
axial partition had a marked effect on the damping
of the first tangential mode. As expected , the 1000+
radial mode damping was unaffected by the
partitions. 500-
8.3.3 The Sizing of Resonators *
The design of acoustic liners is based on

σ=5% No 3 partitions Helium Hydrogen
matching the calculated resonant frequency of the partitions added purge purge
liner to the frequency of the wave that is to be no purge (ring -type)
damped. The equation for the resonant frequency
was stated in Sect . 8.3.1 and can be modified FIGURE 8.3.2k. - Effects of partitioning and purging the
liner cavity on cavity gas temperature.
as follows :
A. a and the cavity gas sonic velocity as. The alter-

= 83 (8.3.3-1)
leffVeav Leavlett native form presented is based on the assumption
that the resonators are grouped in a large array
where ωτ is now written in terms of the aperture on a flat wall so that Ao/Vcava/Leavy. The
open area ratio a, the backing cavity depth Leav significant independent parameters for affecting
tuning are the wave frequency w , left, and a/Leav
* B. Phillips, Author. or Ao/ Vcav. Based on previous measurements and
coefficient
calculated
Damping
decay
from 2.0
krate 80
Mode
,rec
s,d
/ B
60 O First tangential
60 First radial 1.6 29 8
f= 00 Hz T = 00 ° K
Aperture
Aperture
effective
i()' n¯
length
open
ratio
area
40
20 1.2
coefficient
spressure
3
Damping
1
calculated
f= 900 Hz T = 400° K
,kec
/d pB
from
300
∞
O
200
f= 2100 Hz T= 800°K
/lσeft
100 Ю
ས
f= 2100 Hz T= 1400 ° K
04
No partitions Longitudinal All partitions
partitions only O .5
Circumferential 1.5 1.25 1.0 .75
partitions only Cavity depth- (in)
FIGURE 8.3.21. -Comparison of damping coefficients based FIGURE 8.3.3a.-Lines corresponding to tuned operation
on both pressure and decay rate for first tangential and for a system with temperature variation from 800° to
first radial modes of oscillation with various conditions
1400 ° K for frequencies of 2100 and 3900 Hz .
of backing cavity isolation . Electrical drivers ; liner
thickness, 0.45 inch ; hole diameter , 5/16 inch ; flow ve-
locity, 0 ; hole spacing, 1 inch ; backing distance, 0.55 of flow or turbulence . An obvious method of
inch.
reducing the sensitivity of left is to increase l。 ,
decrease do , or change both so as to reduce the
on engineering judgment, a range of expected
cavity gas sonic velocity can be determined as contribution of 8 to leff.
well as estimates of the mean flows or turbulence Under certain circumstances, it may not be
near the apertures . The objective of the designer possible to define a single frequency or range of
frequencies of waves that are to be damped. This
should be to minimize the sensitivity of the
resonant frequency to variations in aз , and is the case where a rocket engine is prone to
turbulence or flow. Figure 8.3.3a is a plot of the resonate at a number of distinct modes with large
differences in frequency. One group has done a
ratio of a/leff as a function of cavity depth Leav
substantial amount of research related to this
for given f with an expected variation in cavity .
problem.42 They have obtained significant im-
gas temperature .† Each line represents tuned
provements in absorption bandwidth by the use
operation for a different temperature, and con-
of resonators with more than one aperture size as
vergence of the lines (for decreasing Leav) indi-
discussed in Sect . 8.3.5 and shown in Figs . 8.3.5e
cates a method of reducing the sensitivity to
temperature variations. and f (also see Ref. 42 , Fig. v-31 ) .
In order to see how to reduce the sensitivity of Another method of broadening the frequency
tuning to variations in mean flow or turbulence, bandwidth, which is relatively simple to ac-
it is necessary to refer to that part of the tuning complish, is to pack the cavity with a porous
material such as steel wool. The effect of the steel
equation which depends on the presence of flows .
wool is to substantially increase the resistance ,
The aperture effective length leff (from Sect .
8.3.2) is and thus the bandwidth . An example of the
successful use of this technique is shown on
left = lo + d = l。 + 0.85d。 ( 1−0.7 √a) (8.3.2–1 ) Fig . 8.3.3b.714
It may be necessary for certain applications to
where it was determined that & is a strong function
use aperture shapes which differ from circular
holes . This is particularly true for full-length,
† Data on these parameter trends are also provided in
Ref. 324. cooled liners where the circular apertures tend to
the results from two experiments283,285 is shown in

O Without steel wool
Fig. 8.3.4a . In these experiments full chamber
Rature
With steel wool

---- Without liner length liners with absorption coefficients of up to
Injectio
Hydrog°
temper en
n
Open symbols denote transition 85 percent were used in tests with LO2/LH2
to unstable combustion
140 Solid symbols denote stable propellants at a chamber pressure of 300 psia and
combustion with N2O4 /A-50 propellants at chamber pressures
of 100 and 200 psia. All of the liners with absorp-
120 Stable tion coefficients of 17 percent or greater suppressed
combustion the inherent, spontaneous instability of the test
motors so that the resulting peak-to-peak pressure
100
Unstable oscillations were less than 10 percent of the mean
O
combustion
chamber pressure . The absorption coefficients
80- were computed using the array theory of Black-
man104 modified with an empirical theory to
account for the effects of chamber gas flows . An
60
incident pressure level of 190 db (re 0.0002
microbar ) and a velocity equal to that of the free
stream average in the chamber was assumed . A
4 5 6 7 8
design curve depicting the theoretical relationship
Oxidant - fuel ratio , O/F
between the absorption coefficient and the open
area ratio for the liners used in the storable
FIGURE 8.3.3b .-The effect of packing the resonator propellant tests is shown in Fig. 8.3.4b.
volume of an 0.2 open area, 16-inch-thick wall liner
with steel wool. Further evidence that the absorption coefficient
is at least some measure of the suppression
burn out on the downstream edge (see Sect. effectiveness of a resonator array is found in Ref.
8.3.5 ) . The use of axial slots is, therefore , pre- 710. By using common-cavity resonator arrays
the effect of liner variables, i.e. , open area ratio,
ferred for such an application. Design equations
for such systems are presented in Ref. 710 and aperture diameter and shape , and liner length ,
were experimentally evaluated in terms of the size
involve modification of the leff and the resistance
of an explosive charge that would damp in a
equations for circular apertures. Other experience
marginally stable thrust chamber and in terms of
with various aperture shapes is presented in Ref.
the reduction of oscillating pressure amplitudes
707. In general , the aperture shape is of secondary
in a spontaneously unstable motor. Absorption
importance in determining the damping.
coefficients for the liners were computed. In no
8.3.4 Number and Placement of Resonators * instance did a liner with a higher coefficient fail to
provide at least as stable operation as one with a
If the location and the number of the resonators lower coefficient . The minimum coefficient re-
required to eliminate instability in the combustion quired for stable combustion calculated using the
chamber could be predicted from theoretical con- average free stream Mach number at the liner
siderations alone, the design of absorbing liners was found to be 65 percent in that study.
would be relatively simple. Unfortunately, this is The results from acoustic liner research in-
not the case ; accordingly, considerable experi- cluding firings conducted with various numbers of
mental research has been devoted to the problem . individual resonators324,647 reveal that to achieve
Experiments to determine the number of stabilization different combustors require liners.
resonators or the amount of absorption required with significantly different numbers of resonators ,
in an array to stabilize combustion have been open area or absorption coefficients. Furthermore,
conducted by several researchers.† A summary of
‡ Lacking a more definitive measure, the 10 % oscillation

* G. D. Garrison, Author. level has often been used as the boundary separating stable
† References include 283, 285, 324, 647, 710, and 714. and unstable operation.
60
mplitude
Chamber-%
press
eak
Peak
50
pressure
p
ato
.-
40
Results from N204/ A- 50 tests

30
Results from LO2/ LH2 Tests
20
Unstable combustion
10 -
Stable combustion
20 40 60 80 100
Liner absorption coefficient - %
FIGURE 8.3.4a .-Summary of data from firings of motors with acoustic liners showing the effect of liner absorption on
stability.
1.0
Absorption
coefficient
0.8
0.6-
0.4
Chamber pressure = 100 psia
Mixture ratio = 2
Aperture gas temperature = 1000 ° R
0.25 Frequency = 2200 Hz
1
2 4 6 8 10
Open area ratio-%
FIGURE 8.3.4b .- Theoretical dependency of liner absorption coefficient upon open area for a particular rocket motor.
no liner stability factor not based on assumptions similar. For this reason, it is suggested that in
similar to those required in the computation of addition to tuning the resonators so that the
absorption coefficients has yet been found. natural frequency corresponds to that of the
Although the history indicates that only a small instability, an analysis of the liner absorption
amount of damping is required to stabilize most characteristics should be conducted . The assump-
motors, the designer of the liner for a new applications , procedures and digital computer program
tion cannot be assured his requirements will be necessary to perform one type of absorbing liner
design analysis have been published.282 This type liner design variable. An optimum open area can
of analysis would be more useful for design pur- be determined by computing the absorption
poses if the effects of hot gas flows on absorbing coefficient versus selected values of frequency with
characteristics were better understood and the the open area ratio as a parameter. The optimum
necessity of arbitrarily assuming the amplitude open area is the value that gives the highest value
of the incident pressure wave were eliminated or of the absorption coefficient over the widest
at least verified . frequency bandwidth . The same procedure can be
The amplitude of the incident pressure wave is followed to optimize aperture diameter, liner
important for the following reason : the principle thickness, and cavity volume if there are sufficient
of "absorbing" liner operation is based on the allowable variations to warrant the added
observation that combustion instability is a difficulty.
regular, cyclic oscillation , usually correlatable Liner design to be successful requires good
with one of the acoustic modes of the combustion bandwidth* performance which is important for
chamber. This indicates a feedback mechanism in two reasons. First , typical acoustic liners of the
which each new cycle is triggered by the reflected Helmholtz-array type tend to possess resonant
pressure wave from the chamber wall that results absorbing characteristics ; i.e. , high absorption
from the incident pressure wave from the previous coefficients are obtained near the resonant fre-
cycle. Thus, it is apparent that elimination of the quency of the assembly. However, at frequencies
reflection will eliminate the combustion insta- slightly different from resonance , the coefficients
bility. Unfortunately, as discussed in detail in decrease to less than 50 percent of the peak value.
Refs. 71 and 285, the incident pressure wave is The resonant frequency of the assembly can be
not directly related to the fixed amplitude pressure determined with an accuracy no better than that
oscillations of unstable motors and cannot be of the assumed sonic velocity of the gas in the
otherwise computed or directly measured at liner apertures and cavity. If the assumption is in
present . Therefore, an absorption coefficient based error, peak absorption cannot be obtained since
on an arbitrarily selected energy level, expressed the liner must operate with incident pressures at
as a pressure amplitude, is substituted for the a frequency different from that of the resonant
design criterion . The relationship between the frequency for which it was designed . Second, in
assumed energy and the actual value for a some instances the use of a resonant-type liner
particular combustion process is unknown . How- with narrow bandwidth characteristics does not
ever, the effectiveness of liners designed using this suppress the combustion instability, but rather
type of analysis in eliminating instability problems causes it to shift to a different frequency with
indicates that the arbitrarily selected value of 190 more or less the same pressure amplitudes . The
dB ( 13 psi ) is greater than the actual incident additional wall impedance due to the presence of
energy of the motors tested, even though the the liner apparently can cause the frequency to
unsteady pressure amplitudes in similar unlined change only a few hundred Hz (a usual occur-
motors are many times larger . Perhaps a more rence ) , or it can cause a complete shift in the mode
reasonable assumption than the arbitrary 190 db and type of pressure wave ; c.g. , from first tan-
would be the maximum pressure oscillations gential to third longitudinal. The obvious solution
allowable for the combustion process in a given to both of the above problems is to design the
motor to be considered stable ( e.g. , 10 percent of liner so that high absorption is obtained over a
the mean chamber pressure) . range of frequencies corresponding to the most
In most practical liner designs the backing destructive modes ; i.e., the first through the third
distance and the liner thickness will generally be transverse modes. Unfortunately, it is difficult to
fixed by strength and cooling requirements. design a liner for both high absorption and wide
Limitations on the values of aperture diameter bandwidth performance , especially for operation
that can be tolerated are set by the diameter of
holes that can be conveniently machined , and by * Bandwidth refers to frequency bandwidth, the range
cooling requirements . For these reasons, it is of frequency over which the liner is effective in damping
usually better to use the open area ratio as the oscillations.
at low frequencies ; therefore, some compromise is pressure amplitudes greater than 10 percent of
usually necessary . One approach to broadening chamber pressure, an unstable condition.
bandwidth is the use of different aperture sizes as Also , liner position tests283 were conducted to
discussed in Sect . 8.3.5 and illustrated in Figs . determine if a chamber length liner, positioned
8.3.5e and f. three inches downstream of the injector face , is as
A resonator installed on the chamber wall near effective in stabilizing combustion as an identical
the injector face should be more effective than an liner installed next to the injector face . These
identical one installed further downstream . The tests were conducted with the same length liner
upstream resonator is in a position closest to the described above. It was found that moving the
most critical zone* and, hence , can damp or absorb liner to the downstream position caused the
the pressure waves that would otherwise be pressure oscillation amplitudes to more than
reflected directly back to the source of the in- double.
stability. The first test of this concept274 used a Other tests were conducted to determine the
liner consisting of an array of resonators with a most effective axial location for resonators . 548,710
common cavity volume (open area ratio of 5 It was shown710 that a full chamber length liner
percent ) that had provided stable combustion in ( 10 percent open area) could be shortened from
full-length liner tests . The liner was cut into the nozzle end to of the original length without
quarter-length sections ; each section was in- affecting the stability of the combustor ; however,
dividually tested in its respective axial position to the minimum liner length was found to be a
determine the most effective absorber location for function of the absorbing characteristics. A liner
preventing unstable combustion. The remainder consisting of eight rows of 34 individual resonators
of the chamber was made up of solid sections. per row was also evaluated.548 It was concluded
Combustion was stable with the liner installed in that it was only the row positioned closest to the
the first two positions. Intermittent instability injector that contributed to the damping char-
was encountered with the liner in the third acteristics of the array. Other experiments carried
position, and continuous instability was encoun- the "limited liner" concept still further, and
tered with the liner in the fourth position (closest have indicated that stability can be achieved with
to the nozzle) . as few as three resonators.324 The concept of com-
A second series of tests were conducted283 with bining liners with frequency-limiting baffles is
storable propellants to determine the effects of also desirable in certain applications as discussed
the liner length on suppression characteristics. in Sect . 8.3.6 .
Successive tests were conducted with liners of 1, The results of the above experiments do not
, and of chamber length extending from the imply that a partial length liner or only a few
injector face ; each liner section was a common- resonators positioned next to the injector are
cavity array type with an open area ratio of 5.7 always adequate for suppressing instability .
percent (absorption coefficient of 23 percent ) . However, the results give further evidence that a
Again, the remainder of the chamber was made up sensitive zone exists near the injector face and for
of solid sections . The tests were conducted at maximum effectiveness the resonators must be
mixture ratios of 1.2 and 2.0 and at a nominal located on the combustion chamber wall sur-
chamber pressure of 100 psia . Data in the form of rounding this zone . For applications requiring
the ratio of pressure amplitude to chamber only a few resonators the units may be located
pressure are shown in Fig . 8.3.4c as a function of within the injector assembly itself, when space
liner length. A decrease in the liner length from permits, thereby simplifying cooling requirements .
tochamber length did not change the stability
characteristics of the motor ; however, a decrease 8.3.5 Thermal Design Considerations *
in length from to chamber length resulted in
For extended duration firings the acoustic liner
installed in a rocket thrust chamber must be
* This is the zone of highest unsteady pressure ampli-
tude for both transverse and longitudinal mode resonant
combustion. * G. D. Garrison , Author.
60
amplitude
pressure
-%
tPeak
-oeak
50
Chamber
pressure
p
Indicates range of data

from baseline tests
40- (no absorption )
Indicates range of data for liners

30- with 23 % absorption coefficient
20
Unstable
combustion
10
-1 Stable
Storm bustion !
--
1/4 1/2 3/4

Liner length
Chamber length
FIGURE 8.3.4c.-Effect of liner length on motor stability.
protected from its thermal environment . It has The first tests of a flightweight , acoustically-
been experimentally shown that both convectively lined , cooled thrust chamber444 were conducted
cooled and ablative acoustic liners are entirely using a liner made from conventional coolant
feasible.† Furthermore, even though the presence tubes that were crimped (dimpled) at many
of a liner may cause additional complexity in axial locations . The stainless steel tubes were
thrust chamber design analysis from a heat brazed together so that the dimples coincided to
transfer standpoint (e.g., apertures of certain form liner apertures as shown in Fig. 8.3.5a . A
sizes can cause boundary layer disruption with a total of 9000 apertures, each with a nominal
resultant increase in local heat fluxes) , the type of diameter of 0.060 inch, were formed producing an
analysis is basically the same as that required for open area of 8 percent. After brazing, the liner
any other cooled rocket motor . Film-cooled and was fitted with an uncooled outer pressure shell
transpiration-cooled liners have been tested ;284 spaced one inch from the liner. Six uncooled
however, certain problems , to be discussed later, circumferential (ring) partitions were installed
may preclude these schemes from consideration between the liner and shell to support the as-
as a primary thermal protection device for acoustic sembly and to minimize the possibility of axial
liners. gas flows through the resonator cavity. Several
The primary problem in the design of a con- long-duration firings were made using an injector
vectively cooled chamber with an absorbing known to produce spontaneous instability ; pro-
device is to provide a large number of apertures pellants were LOX/LH2 ( hydrogen inlet tempera-
in the chamber wall without retarding the cooling tures of 45 ° R) and the coolant was water. Every
effectiveness of the assembly or allowing leakage of test was extremely stable with peak-to-peak
coolant into the resonator cavities. Many solu- pressure oscillations of less than 2 percent of the
tions to the problems exist.274,285 Typical are the mean 300 psia chamber pressure. Gas tempera-
following three different techniques which have tures were measured in each resonator cavity ; a
been successfully demonstrated in hot tests of maximum of 1580° R was recorded .
cooled thrust chambers. Another water-cooled acoustic liner71 was fabri-
cated by welding together fifty 0.25-inch OD
† See Refs. 71 , 284, 285, 444 and 490. stainless tubes with 0.040-inch walls to form a
of a composite cylindrical brazed shell with

integral coolant passages. The liner apertures
were drilled in spaces between the rectangular
passages as shown in Fig. 8.3.5b. The outer
pressure shell was uncooled . The motor was
operated over wide ranges of chamber pressure
and mixture ratio . No combustion instability
occurred in any of the 72 firings while high per-
formance and good hardware durability were
demonstrated.
Another approach to achieve liner thermal
protection utilizes ablative materials ; however,
this introduces several unique problems. The most
significant of these are
1. The plugging of apertures by molten
ablative products may cause a loss in
suppression effectiveness .
2. Excessive wall recession rates or aperture
erosion may change the liner performance.
3. Apertures may disturb the boundary layers
on the chamber walls, thereby causing an
increase in heat transfer rates and, as a
result, reduced chamber life.
4. Outgassing of phenolic resin compounds
may cause the combustion gas products in
FIGURE 8.3.5a . -Close-up view of apertures formed in the apertures and cavity to be replaced by
convectively cooled chamber by crimping coolant tubes . gases of a significantly different molecular
weight, thereby deteriorating the damping
3.73-inch diameter combustor . Thirteen hundred effectiveness of the liner assembly.
and fifty apertures (0.040-inch diameter ) were 5. Structural requirements may necessitate
drilled between the tubes producing a full chamber the use of more partitions in the cavity than
length liner with an open area of 2.5 percent . The is common with the typical array, thereby
resonator cavity was formed with an uncooled restricting the number of resonators that
pressure shell. After several successful firings at a can be installed at the most sensitive com-
chamber pressure of 1000 psia (LOX /RP-1 bustion zone, i.e. , near the injector face .
propellants) , the liner was shortened to half the With absorbing liners made of some ablative
original length by welding the apertures closed in materials, the effect of aperture size on liner
the downstream half of the chamber. The erosion rate is important because a molten layer
shortened liner configuration proved to be equally could form during operation and flow along the
effective in stabilizing the test motor which with- surface of the liner. Thus, small-diameter aper-
out an absorbing liner was shown to be spon- tures could easily become plugged and lose their
taneously unstable . With either liner, pulse gun effectiveness . Larger apertures are not as likely to
charges producing overpressures as high as 2600 become plugged , but excessive erosion rates could
psi were damped . A maximum temperature of be caused by the increased surface irregularities .
1903° R was recorded from thermocouples in- Furthermore, as an ablator is fired, the absorbing
stalled in the resonator cavity. characteristics might even improve since the
A third type of water-cooled acoustic liner was resulting char layer is extremely porous. To answer
fabricated for use with a 15,000-pound thrust the above questions and evaluate the effectiveness
throttlable motor burning N2O4/50 % UDMH- of ablative absorbing liners in general, the follow-
50% N2H4 propellants.490 The chamber consisted ing series of rocket tests were conducted using a
Water outlet
Resonator cavity Water inlet
-Acoustic apertures
Resonator cavity
88
500
O
10 Copper nozzle
000 12 Helical water

passages
(36) Water passages OO 000
Section C - C
O 000
000
Water-cooled liner
(396 holes , 0.210 - in dia )
888
Injector seal
and mount ring
Pressure shell
FIGURE 8.3.5b .-Convectively cooled thrust chamber with acoustic liner.
motor of known spontaneous instability char- 5 percent with 0.160-inch diameter apertures,
acteristics .285 (absorption coefficient of 43 percent) . A total of
The liner, made of reinforced silica phenolic 336 seconds of firing time was accumulated in
resin, was fabricated with circular apertures eleven tests ; stable combustion was experienced
ranging in diameter from 0.10 to 0.35 inches , and throughout . After each test the liner was inspected
a common cavity. Tests were conducted using for integrity and to estimate the effects of ablation
LOX/LH, propellants at a chamber pressure of on the apertures. The liner remained in excellent
300 psi ; Fig. 8.3.5c is a photograph of the liner condition ; both aperture erosion and liner ablation
taken after several seconds of firing. Note that the were found to be negligible.
larger apertures (diameters greater than 0.25 One plausible explanation for the localized
inch) experienced a significant amount of erosion, regions of high heat flux on the downstream edge
whereas the apertures of smaller diameters of large apertures is that the downstream edge of
(0.10 and 0.15 inch) experienced little or no the aperture presents itself to the compressible
erosion. Also, it was found that a reduction turbulent boundary layer flow of combustion gases
in the pressure amplitude occurred as the char adjacent to the heated surface as the leading edge
layer formed on the liner wall , e.g., the amplitude of a flat plate. Local flow conditions necessary for
of pressure oscillations decreased from 60 psi to this flat plate regime to occur would involve the
3.5 psi in approximately seven seconds of testing. aperture flow and the aperture size. The small flow
Based on these results a similar ablative liner for oscillations present with the combustion noise
the same motor was designed for an open area of (and the local absence of a solid boundary ) must
having an elliptical, tear-drop or slotted cross

section would achieve this result . The effects of
noncircular apertures on the acoustic char-
acteristics of liners have been extensively in-
vestigated.283,710 An additional advantage of long
slotted apertures is that for convectively cooled
liners they may be more easily installed between
coolant passages than circular apertures.710
Outgassing of resin compounds and structural
limitations were of prime consideration in other
ablative liner research.284 The heat transfer and
instability characteristics of the storable pro-
pellant injector were known to be especially
severe; therefore, an ablative liner with maximum
structural integrity was desired . The first design,
a one-half chamber length liner fabricated with
0 individual resonators, failed to suppress the com-
bustion instability. The molecular weight of gas
samples obtained from resonator cavities during
several firings was found to be significantly
different from that of the combustion products ;
but it was found that the properties of the cavity
gases could be accurately predicted from theo-
retical thermochemical analysis . Although the
outgassing had caused the liner damping char-
FIGURE 8.3.5c . -Ablative absorbing liner after firing
acteristics to be different than expected, fabrica-
showing effect of aperture diameter on erosion rates.
tion and testing of an identical uncooled steel
liner showed that the poor liner performance was
bring the core flow, with its associated high due to an insufficient number of resonators near
temperature, over to the wall. Under these the injector face . The steel liner was reworked to
conditions a new turbulent boundary layer could provide more resonators in the critical zone and
be initiated downstream of the larger apertures , tested . The instability that had plagued the
and the heat flux profile would then correspond to ablative liner (first and second tangential, second
that associated with the leading edge of a flat plate longitudinal and first radial modes) was sup-
as shown in Fig. 8.3.5d . Using this model and the pressed, but high pressure amplitudes appeared
classical methods for determining the heat flux at much higher frequencies corresponding to the
profile along a flat plate exposed to turbulent second radial and the fourth tangential modes
boundary-layer flow with heat transfer, estimates where the liner absorption was negligible. Com-
(for liner design purposes) may be made of the plete stabilization was achieved by fabricating a
heat flux levels in this region . If it is determined full chamber length ablative liner with two
that the presence of the apertures causes a different types of common cavity arrays as shown
significant increase in the local heat flux, appro- in Fig. 8.3.50 . The absorption characteristics of
priate steps may be taken to reduce the effects of the liner, Fig. 8.3.5f, were computed282 based on
the apertures to a tolerable level. the sample gas properties ; the resonant frequen-
The approach taken in the above experiments285 cies of the two arrays were 3516 and 5770 Hz .
was to use a greater number of smaller apertures Tests with film-cooled liners and transpiration-
thereby reducing the "relative roughness " pro- cooled liners284 have shown that the presence of
duced by the presence of the apertures. Another external coolant flows can adversely affect both
approach would be to alter the shape of the aper- combustion characteristics and liner damping
tures to reduce the leading edge effect . Apertures ability. The film-cooled liner data were obtained
Established d boundary layer

iate ry
Init nda
bou
r
laye
Aperture Absorbing liner
Ini
tia
ted heat flu
Heat
flux x
Heat flux level without apertures
Distance from trailing edge of aperture
FIGURE 8.3.5d . - Effects of apertures on boundary layer development and associated heat flux profiles .
ever, with coolant the motor was less stable and

with the exception of two tests the amplitude of
the pressure oscillations was found to be inversely
proportional to the coolant flowrate . At the higher
chamber pressure all tests were stable, i.e. , no
instability with pressure amplitudes greater than
10 percent of chamber pressure was measured ;
however, as in the 200 psia tests, the amplitude
of the oscillations was inversely proportional to
the coolant flowrate.
The successful application of film- cooled acous-
tic liners is difficult because of three factors :
1. The tendency of the coolant film to burn at
the surface of the liner which causes the
O cavity gas temperature to rise, thereby
changing the acoustic characteristics of the
FE 77165 assembly
2. The inability to accurately estimate , for
FIGURE 8.3.5e. -Ablative liner with dual arrays of com- acoustic design purposes , the liner aperture
mon-cavity resonators . gas properties
3. The uncertainty in absorbing characteristics
from two one-half chamber length liners ; one was caused by the presence of coolant flow over
fabricated for operation at a combustion pres- the apertures
sure of 1000 and the other for 200 psia . The Similar results were obtained from hot firings
50% N₂H -50 % UDMH coolant was injected of a gaseous hydrogen, transpiration-cooled liner. 284
over the liner face from 0.021 -inch diameter Analysis of combustion data showed that the
holes in a manifold on the upstream edge of the hydrogen coolant caused the test motor to be
liner assembly; a sketch of the test configuration more unstable than when no liner was used or
is shown in Fig. 8.3.5g. with no coolant flowing through the apertures . In
Short duration firings with no coolant at a addition, the data indicated that instability
chamber pressure of 200 psia were stable ; how- increased with coolant flowrate . The mechanisms
1.0
coefficient
Absorption
0.8
0.6
Open area ratio =7%
Aperture dia = 0.173 in.
0.4
Open area ratio =2.6%

Aperture dia =- 0.159 in.
0.2
2 4 6 8 10
Frequency - kHz
FIGURE 8.3.5f. -Theoretical absorption coefficients for ablative liner with dual arrays of resonators .
that cause the presence of coolant to degrade the maximum) . These antinodes usually occur at the
stability characteristics of the motor and acoustic chamber wall or other confining surface (baffle
liner are not yet known. Additional basic research surface or injector face ) . The first use of the
will be necessary before this type of liner can be corner location for an absorber was by Lawhead
considered for further application . and Levine in the early fifties.442 They investigated
various types of acoustic absorbers , both resonant
*
8.3.6 Further Acoustic Absorber Applications (Helmholtz ) and non-resonant cavities, for con-
The characteristics of acoustic absorbers and trol of combustion instability. Two-dimensional
and annular horns were evaluated in both acoustic
baffles are such that it is desirable, at times, to
bench tests and rocket firing tests. In one case,
use these devices in combination . A baffle arrange-
a 3000 pound thrust engine , which had been
ment can be employed to eliminate the lower
spontaneously unstable at 3600 Hz , was com-
modes (e.g. , a three-bladed baffle would eliminate
pletely stabilized (five tests ) with an annular
tangential modes below the third ) and the acoustic
horn, nonresonant absorber.
absorbers are then tuned to the remaining higher
modes. Since the acoustic absorbers (either Another type of absorber is the "acoustic slot . "
The usual acoustic slot consists of an annular
resonant or nonresonant ) tend to be more effective
cavity around the injector face with a thickness
at higher frequencies, this division of damping is
often less than inch and length on the order of
usually advantageous. In other examples cited
an inch520 (see Fig . 8.3.6a ) . This slot appears to
in this section the acoustic absorbers, in limited
numbers , performed the damping function alone . act in a manner similar to an acoustic liner , i.e. ,
it dissipates oscillatory energy. Because of its
One form of acoustic absorber , acoustic cavities or
location, cooling problems associated with the slot
slots , have been used both with and without
baffles , 510,520 are minor. Further, it is easily fabricated and
incorporated into existing designs . Thus, the slot
Acoustic absorbers have proved to be most
provides a very attractive stability aid. Acoustic
effective when located along the injector periphery
at or near a pressure antinode (unsteady pressure slots are not likely to have as large a damping
capability as full length acoustic liners . However,
* T. A. Coultas, C. L. Oberg, and J. M. Senneff, Authors. since damping due to the slot is introduced in the
Film -cooled acoustic liner

Liner cavity
Apertures
Injector
assembly
Film cooling ports
Graphite nozzle insert Ablative insert
FIGURE 8.3.5g.-Test motor with film-cooled acoustic liner.
pressure of 120 psia with N2O4/MMH propellants .

Without the acoustic slot this engine exhibited
marginal stability , being triggered unstable by
hard starts approximately 6 times out of 200 .
The instability was identified as the first tangen-
tial mode with a frequency of 9000 Hz . The
introduction of three baffle-like tabs in the engine
reduced the frequency of occurrence of instability
to approximately 1 percent, but did not eliminate
it . After an acoustic slot was introduced , no
instances of instability were encountered in over
-Radial slot 5000 starts with the engine.
A detailed bench-type acoustic modeling study
-Axial slot was carried out in conjunction with the slot design
effort for this engine. The models comprised an
FIGURE 8.3.6a.-Slot configurations . actual thrust chamber, a plastic plug to close the
nozzle, and several plastic injector simulants . The
most effective region, its damping is likely to be models were excited with an acoustic driver to
comparable to a short (~ length ) liner. amplitudes on the order of 155 dB ( referred to
Acoustic slots have been successfully applied to 0.0002 dyne/cm²) . Tests were made both with air
two different engine systems. * The first of these and with helium contained in the model. Data
engines produced 300 lbf-thrust at a chamber were obtained for five different slot configurations
and with no slot .
Significant advances have been made since the original Several interesting features were evident in the
preparation of this material. The reader is encouraged to results from this testing . For example, it was
consult more recent literature, e.g. , Ref. 520. found that the slot caused shifts in resonant
frequencies of the chamber. At times, the normal tainty did not seem sufficient to explain the
modes were split with two modes being evident in disparity.
the frequency range where only one appeared The second engine in which an acoustic slot has
without the slot . Further, the damping due to been successfully applied is the LM ascent engine.
the slot was found to be reasonably large and This engine produces 3500 lbf thrust at a chamber
surprisingly insensitive to slot dimensions . As pressure of 120 psia with N2O4/N₂H -UDMH
might be expected , the damping was different with ( 50-50) propellants. The injector design uses
the two test gases, greater damping being found three equally-spaced radial baffles and an acoustic
with helium. In an effort to develop rational slot along the periphery as shown in Fig. 8.3.6b .
means for extrapolating these modeling data to The baffles are designed to eliminate first and
motor conditions for design purposes, an approxi- second tangential modes. The slot is designed to
mate, linear analytical model was developed based eliminate the third tangential and first radial
upon a viscous mechanism . modes.
The analytical predictions agreed surprisingly From these test results, it is evident that
well with the acoustic modeling data (both modal acoustic slots do provide sufficient damping to be
frequencies and decay rates were predicted ) . The of practical importance for prevention of com-
analytical model was, however, much less success- bustion instability. However, proper design of
ful when applied to the hot firing case. In the slots requires an adequate analytical model.
latter case, the predicted damping was negligibly Such a model is currently under development,
small for the same slot design which had so com- which includes the nonlinear effects in the slot.
pletely stabilized the engine. Although the gas In addition , data are needed to describe the
properties in the slot were uncertain, the uncer- performance of the slot at high amplitudes.
FIGURE 8.3.6b. -Baffled injector with acoustic slots in the corner.

Next are some examples of liner-baffle com- in Sect . 7.4.2 ) . The aperture open area in the
binations as well as limited use of resonators. final version was slightly less than 1 % of the total
These examples were supplied by J. M. Senneff. wall area of the chamber . Other experiments
A single row of apertures connected to appro- leading to this design included units having twice
priately tuned backing volumes achieved a sub- the open area and twice the number of orifices.
stantial reduction in instances of instability when The reduced area design was found to be ac-
located near the face of the 8-inch diameter ceptable in both start spike and bomb tests. Some
unlike triplet/doublet injector having a three- aperture erosion was noted when the apertures
bladed , 1.25-inch long baffle. The backing volume were placed both between and in line with the
for the resonators required circumferential com- triplet orifices. This indicated gas flow in and out
partmentalization to be effective, otherwise of the toroidal cavity resonator. By placing the
communication beneath the baffle blades occurred apertures only between the injection elements this
and stability was not achieved (this is similar to flow was eliminated and erosion was absent . The
the history with baffle tip gap on the same engine resonator design with apertures between injection
where gaps of 0.01 inch were successful for orifices was incorporated in the final design and
damping, whereas 0.1 inch gaps were not ) . The tested under a variety of conditions for both
single-ring resonator approach was found to stability and duration with complete success.
achieve stability at a discrete time following
ignition with aperture open areas only 0.4 % of 8.4 THRUST CHAMBER SHAPE
the total wall area of the chamber. The time
8.4.1 General Considerations *
dependence involved the backing volume tem-
perature which varied significantly so as to In typical combustion chambers, acoustic
question the effectiveness of a single tuned design . liners and baffles may be considered as the
Multiple-sized apertures appeared to be beneficial primary damping devices and , as such, should be
but these experiments were not pursued sufficiently given first consideration by the designer. There
to provide a final design solution . exist, however, other practical approaches to an
Some experiments were also conducted with optimum-damping design which cannot be over-
this same injector using a Helmholtz resonator looked . These include the injector shape, the com-
array in the ablative chamber wall. The experi- bustion chamber wall shape , and the nozzle con-
ments indicated that significant damping resulted vergent section shape .
in the array tested . This array was in the form of In Sect. 8.4.2 , a discussion is made of some
twelve units each consisting of six apertures . The experimental observations of the effect of diver-
total open area of all elements was slightly less gent chambers on the transverse mode stability of
than 1 % of the wall surface area . The placement the engine . The interest centers on the velocity
was related to the baffle blades and the associated difference between gas and liquid droplets which
third tangential cavity mode. Four resonators is influenced by the divergence of the chamber.
were in each sector with two units in the center of Little is known, however, of the more interesting
the sector (at one pressure antinode) and a unit at effect of converging chambers (such as conical
either end of each sector ( the second antinode) . chambers ) on the stability.
The ablative chamber tests achieved damping No well-controlled experiments have been
but resulted in erosion and damage to the ablative performed which would compare conical chambers.
resonator elements from bombing. The design to cylindrical chambers. Also , no mathematical
was thus eliminated from further consideration analyses which predict the effect of tapering the
based upon the success of other stability solutions . chamber have been completed . Some discussion of
However, evidence from the testing indicated that this point is contained in Sect . 3.5.1 .
significant damping was achieved with a very small The linear analyses of various cylindrical
open area when resonators were properly placed . chambers where no tapering occurs but cross-
Another design used a single ring of resonators sectional geometries differ is also discussed in
at the injector-chamber interface with the 3-inch
hardware (the unlike injector design as described * W. A. Sirignano, Author.
that section . No explicit differences in the sta- role played by the fully tapered chamber as
bility relation are found among the various compared to a partially tapered chamber design .
shapes. Implicit differences which depend upon This point will be discussed from a theoretical
the cross-sectional shape occur in the acoustic viewpoint in Sect. 8.4.3, however, experimental
liner and nozzle effects . Also , the shape influences data using one injector, one contraction ratio ,
the frequency, which in turn influences the effect equivalent propellant flow and pressure , etc.,
of the acoustic liner, nozzle, and combustion while varying the taper, seem to be lacking.
response upon the stability. It should be noted Systematic tests, however, have been performed
that in a nonlinear situation, some other primary on a number of diverging chambers and these
differences may depend upon the cross-sectional will be discussed next. One problem in the
shape ; e.g. , transverse shock waves may form in an evaluation of diverging chamber designs is also
annular chamber but are less likely in a standard associated with the combustion rates, where high
chamber. rates can produce sonic flow in the diverging
The nozzle admittance has been shown to section itself. However the diverging chamber
influence the stability of the engine ( Sections 3.5 with no physical throat is a design that could be
and 3.6 ) especially for longitudinal modes of of future interest .
oscillation. The important information for the In Section 7.4 it was shown that variations in
designer is exact knowledge of the dependence of coaxial injector element details in a cylindrical
the nozzle admittance upon the nozzle shape or, thrust chamber can significantly affect the
more directly, the influence of the nozzle shape. stability of the LOX/LH₂ combustion process .
upon the stability. Since disturbances cannot By altering the shape of the thrust chamber,
propagate back from the supersonic portion , only additional control can be maintained over
the nozzle convergent section shape is of interest parameters affecting the combustion process and
from a stability point-of-view. A summary of the thus, presumably, acoustic mode combustion
effect of the nozzle convergent section is given stability. The velocity differential between the
in Sect. 8.4.3 .
The injector shape can also have a significant 280
influence on the stability of the rocket engine.
19.8"
temperature
One damping effect would be that the wave

Hydrogen
injection
reflection process is altered by curvature of the 240F 4" 10.78 7.8

injector face and another is that the combustion
,°R
profile is affected by this curvature . Our under- Injector

----30° Tapered chamber
standing here is still empirical but some useful 200
60° Tapered chamber.
design information is contained in Sect. 8.4.4.
Stable
Injector design factors affecting excitation are combustion
discussed in Sect . 7.3. 160
8.4.2 Combustion Chamber *

Unstable
combustion
In this section and the one that follows it is 120
T
immediately apparent that a close interrelationship Open symbol denotes transition

into unstable combustion
exists between the chamber components. When
Closed symbol denotes unstable
does the combustion chamber end and the nozzle 80- combustion
entrance begin? Certainly for the tapered chamber 10.78" Diam cylindrical chamber
the nozzle entrance would appear to begin at the
injector face, unless we specify a boundary be- 40
4 5 7 8
tween the two at some arbitrary point in the Oxidant fuel ratio , O/F
combustion process , say 90% complete.
Equally difficult to evaluate is the stability FIGURE 8.4.2a.-Effect of chamber shape on stability.
Oxygen/hydrogen propellants ; chamber pressure , 300
* J. P. Wanhainen, Author. psia.
combustion gas and droplets is an important of the hydrogen injection temperature for the
parameter in controlling the transverse-mode LOX/LH2 combination (the lower the tempera-
stability characteristics of a rocket combustor (see ture the more stable the combustor, see Sect .
Sects. 4.3 and 6.4) . Since the gas velocity is 10.6.1 ) . The comparison of the effects obtained
related to the chamber geometry, increasing the in these experiments with theory563 are only valid
velocity differential parameter to produce stable with the earth storable propellants because the
combustion can be accomplished by simply predominant mode of instability changed from
altering the shape of the thrust chamber . tangential to longitudinal as the combustor shape
Typical stability results for chambers em- was varied for the LOX/LH2 case . Increasing the
ploying a divergence section to increase the chamber gas-droplet velocity differential in-
combustion gas velocity axial profile are shown in creased the tendency for the longitudinal mode
Fig. 8.4.2a for the LOX/LH, propellants717 and in instability. For the N2O4/A-50 propellants, sta-
Fig. 8.4.2b for the N2O4/A-50 propellants. The bility generally improved with increasing com-
combustors were the same size in both experi- bustion gas velocity as predicted by the model.
ments; chamber diameter was 10.78 inches , The combustor incorporating the 15 degree half
contraction ratio was 1.9 and characteristic angle divergence was dynamically stable to at
length was nominally 42 inches. Stability rating least 41 grains of RDX explosive over the entire
was accomplished with directional explosive range of oxidant-fuel ratios investigated . (Note
charges for the storable propellants and ramping low mixture ratio instability for the 30° taper. )
60
Injector
23.25"
50- 5.5 10.78 7.8

,grains
ADAOD DA O
bomb
DO
RDX
size
40-
Bombed
Bombed stable
O
stable
Unsustained instability -O
30-
O Chamber cylinder
☐ 15° Taper
▲ 30 ° Taper
20
Open symbol denotes stability for all

bombs detonated up to the size plotted
10 Solid symbol denotes instability
Statically unstable
1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 24
Mixture ratio , O/F
FIGURE 8.4.2b. -Effect of chamber shape on stability. Earth storable propellants ; chamber pressure, 100 psia ; thrust,
6.7 K.
The effect of step variations in cross-sectional perature margin was improved by 24° R at an
area on stability in cylindrical thrust chambers is oxidant-fuel ratio of 5. However, the improvement
shown in Fig. 8.4.2c . The results were obtained in was less than the improvement with the axisym-
20,000-pound thrust size engine using a 397 metric sleeve, Fig . 8.4.2c . The pressure oscillation
element concentric tube injector operating at a frequency at the onset of instability varied
chamber pressure of 300 psig. 106,716 As shown , the generally between 3000 and 3500 Hz which
effect on stability is associated with the early corresponds to the frequency of a first tangential
combustion zone . Once a length of 4 inches mode for a 10.78-inch diameter chamber.
downstream of the injector is reached, the In summary, the chamber shape and the
stability associated with the higher gas velocity resulting combustion gas velocity gradients in
(smaller diameter chamber ) is attained ( H₂ the region near the injector are important factors
temperature at transition was 67° R which is in determining the stability of a rocket motor .
equivalent to the full length 8.35-inch diameter
cylindrical chamber) . Moving the step change in 8.4.3 Nozzle Convergent Section *
chamber diameter to distances less than 4 inches
In studying the stability characteristics of a
from the injector face results in a continuous rocket combustor it is important to understand
deterioration of the transition temperature finally the effect of the nozzle shape upon the pressure
reaching that associated with the 60 percent radial oscillations inside the combustor. Pressure waves
face coverage injector pattern ( see Sect . 7.4.4 ) . generated in the combustion chamber during
In Fig. 8.4.2d is shown the effect of noncombustion instability are known to enter the
symmetrical variation in chamber cross-sectional
nozzle, where they are partially reflected from the
area on stability of a LOX/LH₂ rocket combustor .
nozzle walls and partially transmitted through
The experiment was conducted with a 3-inch
the nozzle throat . From a practical point of view
long spiral sleeve whose internal radius varied it is desirable to maximize the amount of wave
from 4.18 to 5.39 inches. The purpose of the sleeve energy that is transmitted through the nozzle
was to interfere with spinning modes. In com- throat ; and in order to maximize this quantity,
parison to the stability limit of the 10.78 -inch
diameter combustor without sleeves , the tem- * B. T. Zinn, Author.
temperature
Hydrogen
injection
180
Injector
,°R
160-
140 10.8 " Dia.

8.35"Dia.
7,82" Dia. throat
120
100+
Stable
Stability limit of 8.35"
dia. combustor
80
Unstable
60 1
O 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Sleeve length , inches
FIGURE 8.4.2c .- Effect of variation in chamber cross-sectional area on stability. Oxygen/hydrogen propellants ; p . = 300
psia ; O/F = 5.0.
220 this energy balance it is important to determine

Open symbol denotes transition
into unstable combustion how changes in nozzle shape affect the nozzle
contribution ; that is, what changes are stabilizing
200- and which are destabilizing .
temperature
Hydrogen
Spiral - stepped sleeve The following nomenclature pertains to Sect.

injection
8.4.3 :
180
R
n Interaction index (see Sect . 4.2.1 )

Ice Radius of curvature at nozzle entrance
3"-
|
Tet Radius of curvature at nozzle throat
160- It Radius of throat cross-section
10.78 in.
Stable chamber diameter en Nozzle convergence angle
T Sensitive time lag (see Sect . 4.2.1 )
140-
ť An analytical study aimed at answering these
Unstable questions for the case of three-dimensional
Stable combustion instability is presented in Ref. 772.
120-
To simplify the analysis and reduce the necessary
amount of numerical computations it is assumed
Unstable in this study that the combustion process is
100+
Spiral sleeve concentrated at the injector face and that the flow
in the combustor and the nozzle is irrotational.
Using this simple model, the combustion process,
80%
5 6 7 the mean flow, and the nozzle represent the only
Oxidant · fuel ratio , O/F mechanisms capable of adding or deleting energy
from the system. In one phase of this study the
FIGURE 8.4.2d .-Effect of variable area thrust chamber shape of the nozzle was changed systematically,
geometry on stability of a 397-element injector. Spiral- and the resulting change in the combustion
stepped sleeve, 3 inches long.
response that is necessary for maintaining neutral
oscillations in the chamber was evaluated .
it is important to understand how the shape of the Crocco's time-lag hypothesis was used to describe
nozzle convergent section affects the flow inside the combustion process, and the stability maps
the nozzle during nonsteady operation. were described on an (n, 7) coordinate system .
Analytical studies of linear combustion insta- The nozzle under investigation is described in
bility usually yield a stability map (in an appro- Fig. 8.4.3a . Its shape was changed by changing
priate coordinate system) that is divided by a the radii of curvature of the circular arcs at the
neutral stability line into a stable and an unstable throat and nozzle entrance and by varying the
region. Each point along this line represents a angle of convergence of the conical section. The
physical condition during which there is no net details of theory used to evaluate the nozzle
energy addition to the rocket combustor. This admittance relation and the nozzle shape can be
energy balance is determined by the various found in Ref. 196 or Sect . 3.6. The results indi-
energy sources (e.g. the combustion process) and cated that increasing the convergence angle of the
sinks (e.g. droplet drag) that are present in the conical section and/or decreasing the radius of
system ; when one of these processes is disturbed curvature of the wall at the throat region and/or
the others will have to adjust themselves if the decreasing the radius of curvature of the wall at
energy balance is to be maintained . Such a change the nozzle entrance have a stabilizing effect with
is reflected on the stability map as a change in the regard to the first tangential mode. Typical
shape of the neutral curve, a change that will results are presented in Fig. 8.4.3b. The three
either increase or decrease the range of conditions U-shaped curves which appear in this figure
for which the operation of the rocket motor may respectively enclose regions in which the 1T,
become unstable. Since the nozzle contributes to IT-IL and 1T-2L acoustic modes may become
Ice=0
On-
On
On
Combustion
chamber
Ice
Region Region Region

III II I
FIGURE 8.4.3a.- Nozzle entrance profile.
unstable. The results772 indicate that changing the been studied experimentally.127,195 While in Ref.
angle of convergence has the greatest effect upon 195 the applicability of Crocco's one-dimensional
the stability limits. This study also indicated theory (see Appendix B, Ref. 179 ) was partially
that the addition of a circular section , which verified, the more important three-dimensional
smoothes the transition between the combustion theory still awaits an experimental verification .
chamber and the conical section, has a negligible In a different set of experiments107 in which actual
effect upon the calculated stability limits ;* hence rockets were used, a conventional smoothly-
the presence of such a section in actual systems converging nozzle was replaced by a sharp orifice
may be neglected in future analytical stability nozzle . The results of the study indicated that
studies . changing the nozzles had essentially no effect
Based on the above results the conclusion is upon the stability of the combustor in question .
that "slowing" the convergence of a nozzle with a In another publication by the same authors106
given contraction ratio has a destabilizing effect a wagon wheel nozzle was described . That short
upon the stability of the first pure tangential contraction section design also reinforced the
mode.172 The nozzle theory196 used in this study to argument that drastic changes in the nozzle shape
evaluate the nozzle admittance relation is only had little effect on the stability of LOX /LH2
applicable to slowly-converging nozzles, a fact chambers experiencing transverse resonant com-
that should be borne in mind whenever the above bustion.
conclusions are being utilized . In the case of In summary, available theories indicate that
longitudinal instability the indications are¹79 that smoothing the convergence of the nozzle is desta-
lengthening the convergent section of the nozzle bilizing with respect to pure transverse modes
has a stabilizing effect . Additional results showing and stabilizing with respect to longitudinal modes .
the dependence of the admittance relation upon Experimental results confirm the predictions in
the nozzle shape are presented in the appendices the longitudinal case . In the transverse case ,
of Ref. 196 . however, the effects are not so evident as has been
At present no experimental data exists that is shown using various test nozzles .
capable of checking the above-mentioned results .
Only the behavior of nozzles subjected to longitu- 8.4.4 Injector Shape*
dinal pressure oscillation in a cold-flow setup has
The shape of the injector face influences the
* Earlier calculations produced similar results regarding
stability." * A. J. Smith, Jr. , Author.
Y = 1.2 Le/Dc 1.5 Tet/rt 1.0 8n = 30° injector in the event of longitudinal high-frequency
Svh = 1.8412 me-0.3 --rct/rt 2.0 8 = 10° instability. Whereas a flat-faced injector will
1.2 permit the incident and reflected waves to simply
add, a concave-faced injector will introduce a
phase lag, when the waves at various radial
locations are compared, thereby helping to
1.0 attenuate the reflected wave. The degree of
attenuation will depend on the amount of curva-
ture associated with the concave face . This
,nnteraction
attenuation mechanism is similar to the atten-

.8
uation exerted by the convergent section of a
Iindex
typical exhaust nozzle as discussed in the previous

IT-2L- section.
Various investigators have measured the axial
69
combustion distributions associated with a number

of injector and propellant combinations, but the
three-dimensional aspect of combustion has never
-IT-IL been determined because of measurement diffi-
culties . For this reason there is no conclusive
experimental evidence that a flat-faced injector
produces a flat , three-dimensional combustion
profile or that a concave-faced injector produces a
concave combustion profile . However, it is not
unreasonable to assume that a given quantity of
1.6 2.4 3.2 propellant requires a finite chamber distance to
T,Time lag be converted into combustion products. If similar
orifice elements are used over the entire face of
FIGURE 8.4.3b.-Stability map of the first tangential the injector, then this same chamber distance
mode for various nozzle entrance configurations . may be assumed to hold approximately for all
locations.
stability of a rocket motor in several ways : Unfortunately the experimental evidence avail-
1. By affecting the reflection of incident able is such that no positive statement can be
pressure waves subsequent wave amplitudes made as to the relative stability of the two
are altered . injector shapes described . Tests have certainly
2. The initial axial location of the injected been made with various propellants, baffle con-
spray is associated with the axial energy figurations and element designs with both injector
release profile .
shapes but never for the specific purpose of com-
3. The generation of any winds transverse to paring the relative stability. Since from such
the injector face may be influenced by the tests no major differences were evident it would
face contour. be safe to conclude that flat-faced and concaved
The two most common injector shapes are injector designs were actually quite similar from
flat-faced and concave-faced, where the former is a stability standpoint.
predominantly used . There are many variations to
these two basic designs (such as, for example,
8.4.5 Annular Combustion Chamber *
concentric face depressions that are used in certain.
impinging designs ) . However, most injectors will The annular combustion chamber is receiving
generally be related quite closely to these two increased attention since it is the most logical
families of face shapes . combustion chamber geometry to be used with
It is generally recognized that the concave
injector shape is more stabilizing than a flat-faced * A. K. Varma, Author.
Aerospike engine
Injector ( Truncated plug nozzle
Chamber with annular chamber )
Nozzle
Segmented
annular chamber
Center bodies
Conventional and multiorifice nozzle designs
E -D nozzle
configuration
FIGURE 8.4.5a .- Representative annular chamber and nozzle combinations for rocket engines .
some of the advanced nozzle concepts. These more widely used in the near future. The annular
nozzles include the plug or aerospike, and the and the closely related toroidal geometry com-
expansion-deflection types.1.3 Fig . 8.4.5a shows bustion chambers have been proposed as
some possible thrust chamber designs. These method of applying high pressure thermodynamic
newer nozzle concepts present definite advantages cycles to rocket boosters.528 One approach is the
over the conventional conical or contour nozzles368 use of a combustion chamber formed by a series
for certain applications and are expected to be of wedge-shaped segments which, when tested
individually, provides the advantage of a less annular motor. Returning to the numerical
expensive test program . The suitably segmented example, if the annulus were divided into only
annular combustion chamber is also less sus- three equal segments the sensitive frequency of
ceptible to combustion instability-an advantage each segment is raised to 3090 Hz , thus improving
which incidentally also applies to engine clusters the segmented motor significantly from a sensitive
using a common plug nozzle. In contrast , a time lag standpoint (see Sect . 6.3 ) . Also in a
non-segmented annular chamber is more sus- segmented motor the velocity/displacement
ceptible to combustion instability than con- effects583 are reduced thus leading to greater
ventional designs . The improved combustion stability.
instability performance results from the reduced An interesting annular motor concept has
characteristic dimensions due to segmenting been suggested by Nicholls et al.512 Known as a
which raises the frequencies to higher, less rotating detonation wave rocket motor, it is an
sensitive , levels. attempt to use the characteristics of combustion
The frequency-motor size relationship for the instability to produce a more efficient motor with
first tangential mode of a cylindrical motor is lower engine weight per unit thrust. The proposed
f1T(cy ) = 0.586a/D. whereas for an annular geom- motor consists of an annular combustion chamber
etry the frequency of the first tangential mode is wherein a controlled tangential mode instability
given by fir(ann) = 2ā/π ( D。 + D; ) . Here a is the is encouraged to exist . A feasibility study of this
speed of sound, D. is the diameter of the cylin- concept raises the following important questions :
drical motor, D. is the outer diameter of the (1) Whether the performance potential would be
annulus and D; is the inner diameter of the competitive with conventional motors? (2)
annulus. If D. is held constant, the frequency of Whether the heat transfer to the walls will
the annular design is approximately 0.6 that of become excessive? ( 3 ) What are the characteris-
the cylindrical chamber. Thus in experimental tics of detonations at low temperature and high
research, to achieve the tangential mode frequency pressures and in a two-phase system as would
range characteristic of larger cylindrical chambers, exist in the chamber if cryogenic or storable
an annular motor can be used that is considerably liquid propellants are used? Unfortunately, the
smaller and hence can operate at a lower thrust desired spinning tangential waves were not
level. achieved in the test motor. With the limited data
Looking at a numerical example of cylindrical available it appears that the average heat transfer
and annular motors retaining the same injection is not intolerably large and is of the order of the
density and a nominal sound speed (3600 ft/sec ) , heat transfer at the throat of a conventional
a cylindrical combustion chamber of 12 -inch motor. The other questions regarding feasibility
diameter exhibits first tangential mode instability remain unanswered at this time.
at 2100 Hz . A thin annular motor with the same Application of the annular concept in current
cross-sectional area will typically have a 16-inch propulsion systems has not been without in-
outer diameter and a 10 inch inner diameter. stability occurrences. Combinations of baffles and
The full annulus has a first tangential mode acoustic cavities have been used to achieve
frequency of only 1030 Hz , i.e. , half the frequency stability but careful design has been necessary.510
of the cylindrical motor . Therefore, based upon Besides the practical application of the annular
frequency considerations, the full annular motor combustion chamber geometry, the annular
would be expected to be more susceptible to motor continues to be a valuable tool for com-
combustion instability. This trend has been shown bustion research. Considerable simplifications in
experimentally,192 where tests have indicated the governing gas dynamic equations are possible
that injector elements, which were dynamically for a thin annular geometry. The simplifications
stable in a conventional cylindrical chamber, in the analytical procedure allows one to obtain a
tend to produce self-triggered instability in the much clearer understanding of the conditions that
annular motor. Also elements that were non- influence the growth or decay of pressure waves in
linearly unstable in the cylindrical motor were combustion zones . In a narrow annulus it is
self-triggered into instability in the nonsegmented possible to use a one-dimensional treatment of
tangential wave propagation. By providing a rocket chamber the two competing effects would
continuous circumferential path for the wave usually result in a shock-type wave. A typical
propagation, an annular geometry avoids one waveform observed during unstable combustion
criticism of the normal two-dimensional chamber, in the annular motor is shown in Fig. 8.4.5b. In
namely, that the reflection of the wave at each the case of a cylindrical motor , due to the absence
sidewall could change the character of the wave of the inner wall, shock type solutions are less
and its effect in sustaining instability. likely. However, experimenters have reported
Because of these attributes the annular motor observing shock type waves in cylindrical motors152
has been used in combustion instability research (see Sect . 3.5.2.2 ) .
by almost every active group in this field . Priem In summary, the annular motor concept is
and Guentert563 developed a nonlinear theory for expected to be of increasing importance in the
a one-dimensional model considering an annular future with regard to both practical application
section of very small thickness and length. A and research. Even retaining the same injection
vaporization-controlled burning rate model was densities, suitably segmented annular motors can
used. A portion of the experimental research was compete with cylindrical chambers in areas of
carried out in a large toroidal combustor . Bonnell 109 performance and stability.
has studied the problem of combustion stability in
an annular gas combustor burning premixed gases .
8.5 OTHER DAMPING EFFECTS
His results are useful for estimating the stability
trends due to changes in the parameters that 8.5.1 Chamber Wall Materials *
characterize the gas phase of the combustion
The choice of chamber wall materials in the
process. Annular combustors have also been used
construction of a chemical rocket combustion
by researchers at JPL, Rocketdyne, Purdue
chamber normally depends upon factors such as
University and Princeton University .
strength, heat transfer, cost and ease of manu-
Typically, during unstable operation in an
facture. However, the effect of the material
annular combustion chamber, the wave shape of
choice on the combustion stability characteristics
the oscillations is different from those commonly
of the chamber must also be considered . Several
observed in full cylindrical motors . If a sinusoidal
investigations have been made to determine the
disturbance is present in an annulus it is found
differences in stability for metal chambers versus
that the inner boundary tends to make the wave-
form steeper while the outer wall tends to make ablative designs in liquid rockets .
Briefly reviewing the results of chamber
the wave shape smoother. In the case of an annular
material testing, one finds that two tentative
conclusions can be drawn. First, with marginally
unstable units, the choice of ablative rather than
metal walls can significantly reduce the instances
of resonant combustion. Second, in a high-
amplitude or spontaneously unstable unit , the
effect of the material choice does not appear to be
sufficient to bring about stability . The reasons for
this behavior have not been completely clarified
but the following discussion of the data should
prove helpful in outlining possible mechanisms .
First it should be stated that two distinctly
different methods for evaluating the stabilizing
characteristics of ablative versus metal chamber
walls have been used . One involves testing the
FIGURE 8.4.5b . -Typical wave form in annular combustors

(p. = 126 psia ; p' = 175 psia, peak to peak; fir = 1650 Hz * D. T. Harrje, Author, with contributions from R. R.
for a 9-inch-diameter chamber) . Goelz , R. J. Hefner, and J. M. Senneff.
actual hardware ; observing instances of insta- positioned at various locations. The frequency
bility , margin of stability, and measuring relative bandwidth and filter settings monitoring the
amplitudes. The other approach relies upon microphone signal were used to check frequencies
acoustic behavior, such as decay rate measure- from approximately 0.2 to 45 kHz . Measurements
ments, for comparison . The latter tests are con- followed the instantaneous cutoff of the random
ducted in a laboratory environment with sound noise signal imposed by the driver. The results are
generators and detectors as discussed in some plotted in Fig . 8.5.1a where it can be seen that the
detail in Sect . 9.6.6. ablative damping rates were higher, for all
The firing data from a series of chamber frequencies and locations, by a factor which.
material tests conducted at one company are varied from 1.3 to 5.6 with a 2.6 mean. These
summarized in Table 8.5.1. The ablative material tests were performed in air-filled chambers
was charred from approximately 460 seconds of (frequency was therefore approximately 0.3 that
firings. * The A's and B's in the table refer to of the hot environment ) . To better model the
injectors of similar design (i.e., A- 1 is similar to sound speed and molecular weight found in rocket
A-2 ) . Bombs were used to induce instability in chambers, helium and CO2 tests were planned but
these chambers. From the data it would appear never conducted .
that the choice of chamber wall material plays an In a third investigation291 three candidate
important stabilizing role, since a 73 % incidence chamber wall materials were evaluated ; virgin
of instability was observed when bombing in ablative, charred ablative and coated steel
metal wall chambers, while only a 2.2 % incidence. (0.030 inch protective coating of 0.012 inch
was found when the same tests were performed nichrome plus 0.018 zirconium oxide ) . The
in ablative chambers. ablative was made of high purity silica cloth
The first series of acoustic modeling tests of reinforcement and phenolic resin (33% by
wall materials were performed by another or- weight ) . The reinforcement fibers were directed
ganization in connection with an earlier engine downstream at 60° to the engine centerline . The
development program. The tests were instigated charred ablative chamber sample was obtained by
because of a higher incidence of bomb induced exposing the previously tested ablative chamber to
resonant combustion with metal versus ablative a 17-second firing. This resulted in an average
chambers (less than 10 % instability incidence char depth of 0.22 inch (surface roughness was
reduced to zero with ablative) . Tests were con- 0.06 inch peak to valley) .
ducted in a chamber-injector assembly with the The hot firings were conducted with LOX/LH₂
nozzle plugged. The acoustic driver was located propellants where the liquid hydrogen temperature
near the chamber wall and a microphone was ramping technique (described in Sect . 10.6.1 )
Average char depth was 0.90 inch with a surface was utilized to check the characteristic stability
roughness of 0.06 inch peak to valley. limits of each candidate material. Each chamber .
TABLE 8.5.1 .-BOMB TESTS OF METAL- AND ABLATIVE-WALL CHAMBERS
Injector design
Chamber Total instances of Incidence of

material A-1 A-2 B-1 B-2 C instability per total instability, percent
number of tests
Instances of instability per number of tests
Metal 6/9 5/5 16/20 3/7 30/41 73
Ablative 0/12 0/4 1/60 1/14 2/90 2.2

8 8
8
8
Decay
400- Ablative chamber
srate
( ec
o op
b
.
d
)/
‫ם‬0
200 8
‫ܘܩ‬
‫ܣ‬
8
BE
00
Steel chamber
100
880
80
60
200 400 1000 2000 3000 8000 16000 32000

Frequency ( Hz )
temperature
temperature
FIGURE 8.5.1a. Decay rates for ablative and steel combustion chambers.
Hydrogen
-injection
was stability rated over a range of mixture ratio .
,°R
,°K
55 100
Hydrogen temperature was continuously decreased Chamber Injector
during each rocket test until resonant combustion • Ablative 87
50
50 90 a Charred ablative 86
T
iHydrogen
was obtained . The results shown in Fig. 8.5.1b • Steel 87

-njection
indicate that the choice of material causes no ▲ Steel 86

Typical instability transition line
45 80
T
significant change in the engine stability thresh- Stable AD

olds (i.e. same hydrogen temperatures) .
40
700 -
Measurements of the chamber pressure oscil-
A Unstable
lation amplitudes also failed to indicate any 35
60 1 1 1
significant changes with material ( although an 3.6 4.0 4.4 4.8 5.2 5.6 6.0
amplitude difference of 60 psi peak-to-peak was Oxidant-fuel ratio , O/F, lb/lb ( or kg/kg)
observed between two different injectors) . The
instability amplitude was reduced by only 5% FIGURE 8.5.1b.- Variation in instability transition tem-
perature with chamber material.
with the ablatives (amplitudes were of the order
of 200 psi pk-pk) .
regime* with regard to the first waves produced
One factor that has not been discussed up to
by a bomb.
this point is the way in which a porous material,
An example of initial wave damping is found in
such as the charred ablative, might function as an
the testing of Helmholtz resonators with an
energy absorber . Specifically there has been no
incident shock wave.766 Regardless of whether or
differentiation between the behavior with regard
not the resonator is designed for the impressed
to the initial disturbance and the subsequent
frequency, the initial shock wave is significantly
functioning of the wall material in damping a
attenuated at the pressure antinode location
specific frequency of resonant combustion or of
(30% pressure loss was shown) . In contrast, the
impressed acoustic noise . The ablative might be
same untuned resonator provided a very low
expected to exhibit a certain degree of broad
damping rate for the single frequency pressure
frequency damping, possibly improving at higher
frequencies (because of the pore size ) . The
* With high unsteady pressure amplitudes tuning of a
ablative wall would be expected to behave as a
resonator becomes less important and damping can be
damping device operating in the quasi-steady achieved with off-resonant designs (see Sect. 7.2.2) .
oscillation that remained (comparisons were other mechanisms, viz, viscosity and heat transfer
made with a control experiment in which the in the gas phase, and vibrational relaxation of
resonator is removed from the chamber and with polyatomic molecular products of combustion.
resonators that were properly tuned ) . Similar The latter losses are small except at the highest
tests have recently been initiated to observe the frequencies, and are totally beyond the control.
effect of ablative chamber sections substituted of the designer . Damping by condensed phases ,
for the resonator . or particulate damping, is the only volumetric
In the tentative conclusions as to the applica- loss mechanism whose magnitude is significant .
bility of ablatives to damp instability, the point Interest in this damping mechanism is increased
of spontaneous versus triggered resonant com- by the possibility that control of its magnitude
bustion was stressed. As discussed in Sect . 1.2.3 , may enable the designer to use more effectively
the spontaneous initiation of resonant combustion . a loss mechanism that is present to some extent .
requires no threshold value of disturbance. Rather From the historical viewpoint , the first interest
it is a case of a balance between energy sources in particulate damping arose in connection with
and available damping. This is offered as an instability in solid propellant rockets. The in-
explanation as to why the ablative chambers used. cidence of either acoustic instability or the
in the LOX /LH2 materials test program described associated catastrophic burning rate was reduced
in this section only were capable of lowering the by the metallic aluminum added to the solid fuel
unsteady pressure amplitude 5 % (although for the purpose of increasing thrust . Early
differences in the measurement distances from suggestions that the improved burning resulted
the face may also partially account for the low from particulate damping by the Al2O3 formed by
percentage loss , see Fig . 3, Ref. 291 ) . The dis- the burning of the metallic aluminum were dis-
sipation of a high amplitude , short duration pulse counted . A subsequent series of investigations
no longer is a factor in this case. provide strong evidence that particulate damping
In bombing tests, such as those reported and probably is a dominant factor in controlling
those which justified the acoustic program, little instability in solid fuel rockets. Recent studies
doubt can exist that ablative wall material can suggest particulate damping may be a factor in
make a significant difference in stability for the combustion instability of liquid propellants .
triggered type of resonant combustion . However, The following nomenclature pertains to Sect .
because of the present lack of any theoretical or 8.5.2 :
experimental guidance as to the required char-
Cs Specific heat of particle material
acteristics of the ablative material (char thick- Cm
Mass of particles per unit mass of gas
ness , degree of porosity, etc. ) necessary to cure Acoustic energy
E
such a marginally stable engine, and because a
f(r.) Particle size distribution function
low incidence of bomb induced instability can
k Complex wave propagation constant
still be present even when ablatives are used , P Probability
complete dependence on the ablative chamber
Rpq Generalized mean radius , defined in
approach to dynamic stability cannot be recom-
mended at this time. Eq. ( 8.5.2-9)
Spatial coefficient of acoustic attenuation
୪
Td Dynamic relaxation time

8.5.2 Acoustic Damping by Condensed Phases *
Tt Thermal relaxation time
Condensed phases in a liquid or solid state that
consist either of a fuel or oxidizer component , or Subscripts :
that consist of a product of reaction between these opt Optimum value
S Solid particles
species, are always present in liquid-propellant
0 Smallest-size particle
rocket motors. These materials are spatially dis-
∞ Largest-size particle
tributed throughout the combustion chamber and
contribute to volumetric damping along with two
8.5.2.1 Theory of particulate acoustic damping.-
* R. A. Dobbins, Author. The theoretical basis for particulate damping is
obtained from the equations of motion for a gas- occurs when wra = 1 and wrt = 1 where is the
particle mixture ( see , for example , Ref. 463 , pp. circular frequency . (Particulate relaxation effects
175-215 ) for an unsteady, one-dimensional flow. give rise to dispersion, i.e., a dependence of the
The equations are linearized in the usual fashion . velocity of propagation on frequency , just as in the
to obtain a set of acoustic equations applicable for case of vibrational relaxation . A discussion of
the gas-particle mixture. The interaction terms particulate dispersion , which is significant at
in the momentum and energy equations are given high particle mass fractions, is not within the
by Stokes' drag law and the corresponding expres- scope of this article, but is available elsewhere.228)
sion for heat transfer rate . The details of this Equations (8.5.2-1 ) and (-2 ) , together with
calculation are given elsewhere,684 and here it is the remaining linearized conservation equations
noted that the linearized momentum and energy for both gaseous and particulate species and the
equations for the particulate phase* reduce to gas phase equation of state , represent a system of
диз Us -u six partial differential and one algebraic equation
= (8.5.2-1 ) in seven unknowns . By assuming a monochromatic
at Td
disturbance in the form expi (kx - wt) , the
aTs T -T equations are reduced to a system of linear

(8.5.2-2) algebraic equations specifying the complex wave
at Tt
propagation constant, k.684 When the mass of
where u and T refer to the gas-phase velocity and particles per unit mass of gas, Cm, is small com-
temperature, u, and T,S refer to the corresponding pared with unity, the particulate damping is
particulate properties, and t is time. The quanti- expressed as
ties Td
ra and Tt are the dynamic and thermal
απ WTd Cs WTt
relaxation times , defined as α= = + (y - 1)
wCm 1 + w²Ta²
2 rs2
Td = Ps (8.5.2-3 )
9 μ (8.5.2-5)
and where a = speed of sound in the gas surrounding

the particles, y = ratio of the specific heat at
3 Cs
Tt = Pr 7d (8.5.2-4) constant pressure to the specific heat at constant
2 Cp
volume of the gas, and a = the spatial coefficient
where c, is the specific heat of the particles, c, is of attenuation of acoustic energy or twice the
the specific heat at constant pressure of the gas , spatial coefficient for attenuation of acoustic
Pr is the Prandtl number of the gas, r, is the pressure ( E/E。 = e¬aax ==e-aat or p /po = e-ax/2 =
particle radius, μ is the dynamic viscosity of the e-aat/2) .
gas, and p, is the density of the particulate. The classical theory for the attenuation of
material. sound by a single droplet suspended in a gas due
Equations ( 8.5.2-1 ) and (−2 ) represent relaxa- to Epstein and Carhart251 can be expressed , by
tion equations of the classical type proposed orig- taking the appropriate limits, in the same form as
inally to represent the transfer of translational Eq . (-5 ) . Attenuation due to a finite particle
energy into an internal degree of freedom. For mass fraction and particulate dispersion of sound
this reason , we anticipate that the results of the are not given by the Epstein- Carhart theory .
study of acoustic propagation in gases with an From Eq . ( -5 ) it is apparent that if the two
internal degree of freedom will carry over directly relaxation times are nearly equal, the attenuation
to the case of acoustic propagation in a gas with per unit wavelength is a maximum when wrd = 1 .
particles in suspension . In particular, it is found A specified frequency of excitation is therefore
that the maximum attenuation per unit wave- most efficiently attenuated by particles of a size
length for each of the above loss mechanisms such that
9μ 1/2
* This assumes inert particles, i.e., no particle gasi- Isopt (8.5.2-6)
fication. 2p, w/
The noteworthy aspect of this result is the Cm increases and its position in dimensionless
dependence of the optimum particle size solely on frequency shifts (see Fig. 5 , Ref. 684) .
the square root of the dynamic viscosity of the The value of wra of interest in combustion
gas and its independence of all other gas properties. instability in the case that the Al2O3 particles are
In many instances, the small mass fraction formed by combustion reactions will range from
requirement is not fulfilled , and then it is not very small up to a magnitude of order unity. For
possible to express the attenuation in a simple example, for particles of 1 micron diameter, * for
algebraic form . Exact results for attenuation are a value of dynamic viscosity representative of
then found by solving Eqs. 33 and 34 of Ref. 684 propellant gases of 9.0X10-4 poise, and a fre-
simultaneously. Two cases have been investigated quency of 50 kHz , we find wra = 0.8 . Particles of
that give an indication of trends. For particles of one micron diameter are most efficient in atten-
aluminum oxide in propellant gases (c,/c, ~ 0.74, uating frequencies on the order of 65 kHz , and
y≈1.20, and Pr≈0.90 ) , Td
7a and 7 are numerically the value of a will then be about 0.55 . The high-
equal, and the second term in Eq . ( -5 ) contributes frequency disturbances in rocket motors usually
only about 13 per cent of the total attenuation . correspond to high order harmonics where the
The influence of finite mass fraction is depicted acoustic path length spans many wavelengths .
in Figure 8.5.2a, where it is seen that a change in The attenuation by optimum size particles of the
Cm from 0.01 to 0.4 has a small effect on ă . On high order harmonics over the distance corre-
the other hand, when the specific heat of the sponding to a half cycle of the fundamental mode
particle is higher, the two terms on the right hand would be substantial. Lower frequencies are
side of Eq. (-5) become more nearly equal and attenuated far less effectively by the same
the relaxation times more disparate. The mag-
* This is a typical value where size estimates range from
nitude of the maximum in a is then reduced when ½ micron to several microns.
0.6
0.5-
Cm =.01
0.4
Cm =0.4
ā 0.3-
0.25
0.1
0.1 10
ωτα
FIGURE 8.5.2a.-Specific attenuation (a /wCm) versus dimensionless frequency for small and finite mass fraction . Property
values correspond to aluminum oxide particles in propellant gases : c₁/cp = 0.74 ; Pr = 0.90 ; y = 1.20 . (From Ref. 228. )
particles because the attenuation per wavelength numerical results must be considered tentative.
is smaller and also because the acoustic path Other methods , discussed below, are available to
length is a smaller number of wavelength intervals. treat the evaporating particle.
A more detailed discussion of the role of damping The theory for the attenuation and dispersion
by particles of aluminum oxide is given elsewhere.228 of sound by inert particles has been subjected to
When the particulate phase is present in the two experimental tests. Zink and Delsasso768
form of fuel or oxidizer particles, then the average measured the attenuation and dispersion by
size of the particle will be substantially larger aluminum oxide particles in various gases and
than the typical size of the particles formed by their results show good agreement with the
combustion reactions . The frequency for which Epstein-Carhart theory, but their experiments
attenuation per unit wavelength is greatest is did not test the existence of a maximum in the
then shifted to lower ranges, e.g. , for a non- curve of a versus wra. Temkin and Dobbins685
evaporating particle of 50 μ diameter whose have more recently reported the results of their
specific gravity is unity , the value of a is greatest measurements over a wider range of wraа which
for a frequency of 100 Hz . However, fuel and show satisfactory agreement with the theory
oxidizer particles are evaporating, and therefore predicting a maximum attenuation per unit
the theoretical model is incomplete and the wavelength when wra = 1 , see Fig. 8.5.2b.
Frequency,
0.7- kHz
9.45
From
0.6- 6.40
Ref. 685
Δ 4.90
0
0.5-
00
0
0.4-
18
0.3-
0.25
Particulate relaxation theory

(skewed distribution function )
0.1
00
2 10
0.1
d ) 32
w (Tα
FIGURE 8.5.2b . - Comparison of measured acoustic attenuation and theory based on Eq . (8.5.2-5) . Oleic acid particles
in nitrogen ; y = 1.4 ; Pr = 0.71 ; c./cp=0.55 .
8.5.2.2 Role of particle size distribution . - The the theory for the attenuation of sound by
role of the particle size distribution in damping by monodispersed particles to correctly ac-
condensed phases is obtained from the results count for the effects due to polydispersions
given above by summing over all sizes in propor- in the low frequency limit when the above
tion to the number of particles of each size inequality is satisfied . This limit will often
present.684 We define the size distribution function be of applicable for the small size particles
such that its integral from size ri to r₂ is the formed by combustion reactions when the
probability of occurrence of sizes within this frequencies correspond to fundamental
interval , longitudinal or transverse modes.
2. When, for the smallest particle present ,
w ( r.²/μ) ps >> 1 , then the attenuation can
[
" f(r.) dr. = P[n < r < r ] ( 8.5.2-7)
be expressed as
The attenuation is then expressed as αλ 1 Cs 1
= + (y - 1 )
απ 1 wCm w(Ta) 31 Cp W(Tt)31
= f (r.)r,³
wCm R30 ΤΟ (8.5.2-12 )
WT WTt where ( a) and (7 ) 31 are the relaxation

times based on R31², e.g. ,
[ 1 Wrd
x[ + w²rd² + ( x - 1 ) C
Cp 1 +47+
w²Tt2] dr.
2 R312Ps
(8.5.2-8) (Td) 31 = (8.5.2-13 )
9 μ
where R30 is a special case of the generalized mean
radius defined by Thus, the R31 mean radius is to be used in
1/(p-q) the high frequency limit in the theory for
attenuation by monodispersed particles to
f(r. ) r,pdr,
ΤΟ account for size distribution. The high
Rpq = (8.5.2-9) frequency limit will often be applicable for
fuel or oxidizer particles when the fre-
f (r. ) r, dr,
quencies correspond to high order trans-
To
verse modes. The significance of these mean
In general , it is necessary to know the particle diameters was first noted by Kesselring
size distribution function, f (r, ) , in order to cal- and Oberg. 403
culate the attenuation of sound by a polydisper- Finally, it is noted that for arbitrary values of
sion of particles. In two special instances the wra, the specific acoustic attenuation can be
results can be expressed in a simpler form. expressed as a function of any arbitrarily defined
1. If, for the largest size present, mean size when the form of the distribution
function is prescribed . An example of this pro-
w (г.²/μ ) ps<< 1 ,
cedure is given in Ref. 685 where the R32 was
then the attenuation can be expressed as chosen as the relevant mean size because it
could be conveniently measured .
απ Cs
=
wCm = w ( Ta) 53+ ( y −1 ) Cp
w(Tt) 53
8.5.2.3 Particulate damping in rocket stability
(8.5.2-10) analyses. The role of particulate damping of
acoustic waves has been investigated in analytical
where (7a) 53 and (7 ) 53 are the relaxation
models of combustion instability . Kesselring and
times based on R53², e.g. ,
Oberg403 have used a vaporization-rate-limited
2 R532Ps version of the Priem theoretical model of com-
(Td)53 = (8.5.2-11 ) bustion instability (see Sects . 4.3.1.3, 6.4.1.1 ,
9 μ
and 6.4.1.2 ) modified to include the influence of
Thus, the R53 mean radius is to be used in inert particle drag. They were able to calculate
the influence of particle size in this nonlinear but more particulate damping was required
analysis and to calculate the stabilizing influence with metallic aluminum. (This difference
of various concentrations of particles of selected appears to be due to the destabilizing
sizes. They report that the optimum size from influence of heat released by burning
this nonlinear analysis agrees with the linear metallic particles .)
acoustic theory, viz, Eq. (8.5.2-6) . Thus , the 4. Control of particle size of Al2O3 formed by
simpler linear theory can be used to guide the burning metallic aluminum, in order to
detailed complex calculations intended to describe control particulate damping, was not
combustion instability. achieved . They report that the Al2O
Hoffman, Wright, and Breen359 have modified particle size was independent of all con-
the Priem-type analysis for an annular combustion trollable variables . (This observation is in
chamber to include the influence of drag by fuel agreement with the latest results of studies
and oxidizer droplets. Their results indicate the of the size of Al2O3 produced in metallized
stability is sensitive to the value of the droplet solid propellant . )
drag parameter when the dimensionless burning The reader is encouraged to refer to the report
rate parameter is small. The heat addition was of Kesselring and Oberg for further details on this
found to be more stabilizing than droplet drag at valuable experimental study.
higher values of the burning rate parameter. In summary, it appears that the attenuation
They point out the difficulty in obtaining general of sound by condensed phases plays at least a
results because of the many parameters which minor role in the acoustic stability of liquid
cannot always be independently varied . It appears propellant rocket motors. It is doubtful if damping
that an investigation of the role of evaporation on by fuel and oxidizer particles, even presuming the
particulate acoustic attenuation in both linear unrealistic possibility that droplet size and/or
and nonlinear regimes is a potentially important spatial distribution could be arbitrarily controlled ,
application of their analysis . can be effective against the strong driving
mechanism present in liquid propellant motors .
8.5.2.4 Experimental studies of particulate damp- Progress in the direction of using damping by
ing in liquid rocket motors.-An experimental condensed phases more effectively may result from
study of damping by chemically reactive and the studies of the improved analytical models of
inert particles in a rocket motor of 104 lbs . thrust combustion instability now being developed .
was conducted by Kesselring and Oberg 403 The
oxidizer was NO, and the fuel was gelled hy- 8.5.3 Corner Effects *
drazine mixed with various concentrations of
aluminum or aluminum oxide particles . Some The details of the region near the corner or
general results of their study are as follows : edge of an injector , i.e. , the region which adjoins
1. The observed increase in damping when the chamber wall or baffle surface , is highly
particulate materials were added to the important . From a stability standpoint the corner
fuels was in general agreement with location is unique in that it represents a pressure
particulate damping theory. The particle antinode for all tangential, radial and longitudinal
concentration required to produce stability modes . Thus this location is ideal for locating
was strongly dependent on particle size energy absorption devices. The injection in this
distribution . region substantially defines the injector-chamber
2. It was found that an aluminum content of compatibility, as well as affecting the injector's
about 11 per cent of total propellants was performance and stability. Generally, every
required to produce stability. The need for practical injector design employs a modified
this relatively large fraction of particulate injection configuration along the periphery from
material was attributed to strong driving that in the center. In one extreme , the outer
mechanisms present in liquid rockets . injector orifices are used exclusively for injection
3. Both aluminum and aluminum oxide were
effective in stabilizing the rocket motor, * T. A. Coultas and C. L. Oberg, Authors.
of film or boundary layer coolant . In other cases, important in large thrust engines as well as in
the departure from the normal injector pattern research-size hardware . One important location
along the periphery is modest . Injectors are was shown to be the corner formed by the baffle
generally designed to assure that only the more blade and chamber. There small changes in local
compatible reactive propellant (usually the fuel ) mixture ratio were noticeable and altered the
is allowed to contact the wall. The methods used damping times ( pg. 76 of Ref. 190 ) .
to assure high performance and chamber com-
patibility are beyond the scope of this section but 8.5.3.2 Radial winds . - One means of promoting
they are discussed in some detail in Refs. 356 , and stability, in a circular engine, is to induce a radial
224, and Sects . 1.1.3 and 2.5. wind , i.e., a velocity component directed toward
the chamber wall. Other terms which have been
8.5.3.1 Stability considerations.-Aside from the used to describe this or similar effects are curved
affecting chamber compatibility and performance , divergence, wall gap, humped distribution , etc.
the combustion environment in the corner region Radial winds are generally induced by employing
can profoundly alter stability . One well-known a reduced injection density along the periphery
effect is that due to nonuniform injection flux. of the engine. They may be obtained in other ways
The coupling between the combustion and acoustic as well, such as canting spray fans away from the
fields is altered by varying the mass distribution. confining surfaces. Virtually no analytical descrip-
This approach is discussed in detail in Sect . 7.2.5. tion of the radial wind or its effect on stability is
Another mechanism responsible for changes in currently available. Calculation of the radial
relative stability involves the generation of radial wind velocity in a rocket combustion chamber is
gas flow because of variations in the mass flux very complex because of its multidimensional
across the injector. These " radial winds" directly nature. A very simple approximate method is
affect the combustion by influencing the environ- described below for a two-dimensional case . This
ments of the individual elements and thereby method, coupled with the output from a steady-
effectively changing the stability environment. state combustion computer program (see Sect.
A third, and closely related , factor involves the 6.4.1.1 ) allows the quantitative determination of
local mixture ratio in the vicinity of chamber and the transverse gas velocity .
baffle surfaces . Local effects have been found The two-dimensional continuity equation may
Conditions A = 3.0
Vi = 100 fps
= 0.562 lb/in²- sec
A D30 = 60μ
i,ave
300 psi
Injection
Pc =
,%verage
density
m = 34% per inch

U = 100 fps
a
100
~ps
fv
Velocity toward wall

Velocity away from wall
50
O
3.4 " -3.4 "-
‫ىل‬
Wall Е Wall
FIGURE 8.5.3a .- Calculated radial wind velocity for nonuniform injector density.
Mixture
Mixture
ratio
ratio
2
2
M
ㅏ 3.4 "- ト 3.4"
Wall Wall
FIGURE 8.5.3b . - Mixture ratio distribution for N₂O₁ /A-50 propellants .
0.60 since there is no mass flux through the wall.

O Without radial wind Assuming that u is not a function of y ,
0.40
With radial wind
ap
and V 20
ду
0.20
-Av = 0.02
Sound speed = 2000 fps ди ap
Cross velocity = 100 fps then Ρ ax + u ~M
0.10 Эх
0.08
ἂν
thus Ρ M- M
0.04 ду
which can be integrated at constant z to give the

transverse velocity at any axial location, i.e. ,
0.02 -Av = 0.01
Ꮍ M
dy
v (x ) = ['0 M -Ρ X
This expression has been used to calculate radial

0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 winds in several 2D chambers, with the aid of a
m winj steady-state, one-dimensional combustion model.
L = tw
2π p f(y)
The assumptions made above appear reasonable
FIGURE 8.5.3c. -The effect of radial wind on the onset of in cases where the injection density is not ex-
instability. tremely nonuniform, the contraction ratio is
be written as* small, and the burning rate is high. A somewhat
extreme example is shown in Fig. 8.5.3a . In this
av ap ap ди
+v +u +p ==M example the local burning rate M was calculated
Ρ
ду ду ax дх from
The spatially-averaged , steady- state burning rate,

M , is M = M、
-M . (M ) .i
ди ap
M= p +u where M, is the fraction of total propellant burned
Эх ax
per unit length, and m/A is the local injection
* The general nomenclature and that of Sect. 4.3 is density.
used here. The mixture ratio distribution has little effect
on the transverse velocity for these propellants. approximately 50 %. This has little effect if
This velocity was calculated for the vastly is large. However, if ? is smaller than about 0.3 ,
different mixture ratio distributions shown in radial winds of this magnitude can significantly
Fig. 8.5.3b , but with the same injection density raise the Ap required to drive the engine unstable .
distribution . No perceptible difference in the Figure 8.5.3c shows this effect for two values of L
transverse velocity was found . and two values of Av . The increased stability is
The effect of a radial wind on stability can be shown by the shift from the points designated by
illustrated with the Priem instability map (Fig. the circles to the points designated by the squares
8.5.3c ) . It can be shown (although several for the radial wind . As shown, the change brought
assumptions and approximations are required ) about by the radial wind is through a modification
that the maximum effect of a 100 fps radial wind of the burning rate (Av remains constant for
is equivalent to reducing the value of by each example) .
CHAPTER 9
Experimental Evaluation of Stability Behavior
9.1 INTRODUCTION * It is not the intention of this chapter to provide

the reader with complete criteria and procedures
Previous chapters have described the analytical for the design , installation and operation of experi-
tools available to combustion dynamicists and mental hardware and instrumentation for in-
development engineers. They have also discussed vestigating combustion and combustion insta-
some of the design factors commonly used to bility . Rather the intent is to describe the
modify the stability characteristics of engines characteristics and limitations of various types of
when analysis or operating experience demon- hardware, instrumentation, and data evaluation.
strates the need for improvement . The objective techniques that have been utilized , which may aid
of the next two chapters is to describe the tools the reader with the selection and development of
and techniques used to evaluate combustion
techniques for his own requirements.
characteristics experimentally .
To evaluate the data from any test it is neces-
Chapter 9 describes some of the instrumentation sary to provide an accurate time base , simul-
and hardware commonly used to collect data taneously recorded on all test records . One
pertinent to the problem of combustion insta- technique that has been used for this purpose is
bility data . It also discusses the display and that of a sequenced blanking signal that blanks
interpretation of these data. Chapter 10 discusses the timing on all records for a few milliseconds.
the experimental tools and techniques used to An alternate method involves the use of the
evaluate the stability characteristics of liquid "IRIG Standard Time Code Format A, "25 which
rocket engines. permits determination of the absolute time to
This chapter considers the three interrelated 1/1000 of a second. The latter method is preferred,
topics of experimental hardware, instrumentation especially for large engine testing.
and data reduction, and evaluation of experi-
mental data. In addition to the description of 9.2 SPECIALIZED RESEARCH COMBUSTORS
various classifications of experimental hardware ,
the characteristics and use of various types of A wide variety of devices have been used to
instrumentation are given. More emphasis is investigate and study combustion instability
placed on the pressure transducer than any other phenomena in liquid rocket engines. Hardware
type of instrumentation both because of the wide. size alone has ranged from a wire holding a single
variety of pressure transducers available and the liquid drop to engines which produce well over one
general acceptance of dynamic pressure data as million pounds of thrust . It is beyond the scope
being the most widely used method for the detec- of this text to discuss all of the various experi-
tion and evaluation of unstable combustion in mental tools and techniques used to investigate
liquid rocket engines . Most of the data acquisition, these complex phenomena. The following
display, and evaluation techniques are discussed paragraphs will be restricted to brief discussions
with reference to the pressure transducer but the of representative types of apparatus that fall into
same equipment and techniques are generally one of the following categories : (a) full-scale
applicable to any type of dynamic instrumentation. simulators, which are geometrically similar to an
actual rocket engine but which are instrumented .
* R. J. Hefner, Author. to permit investigation and evaluation of details
451
within the combustor cavity, (b) subscale simula- techniques is given in Sect. 9.3.3 . The heat- sink
tors, designed to investigate the combustion chamber is also commonly used for stability
characteristics of a full-scale engine but which are rating when pulsing devices are to be employed,
more economical to operate and amenable to not only because of the advantages listed above,
specialized instrumentation , and ( c ) basic com- but also because of its ability to withstand the
bustion process apparatus , designed to investigate shock and shrapnel effects of the explosive device.
the basic mechanisms or processes of combustion . It should be noted that although the heat-sink
combustion chamber has many advantages for the
9.2.1 Full-Scale Simulators * investigation of instability, it may not provide an
accurate duplication of the stability characteristics
In the investigation of combustion instability,
the justification for full-scale simulation is that of the actual engine. For example, if the com-
often the actual engine design conditions can only bustion chamber being replaced by the heat-sink
chamber is regeneratively cooled , the feed system
be achieved by this approach.11.215,639 Special
instrumentation is required which is generally not dynamics of the engine will probably be altered .
Under these conditions , if either the actual engine
employed on flight hardware. Since nearly every
or the simulator is susceptible to feed system
engine at some point in development has been
plagued with the problem of combustion in- coupled instabilities , the simulator may provide
stability, it is most desirable to fabricate specially misleading data as to the stability characteristics
instrumented hardware to simulate the actual of the engine. Also , the nonabsorbent metal wall
of a heat -sink chamber may provide less damping
engine. These simulators range from actual
prototype hardware, modified as necessary to (less stability margin ) than the actual chamber.
This latter may be true if the actual chamber is
provide dynamic instrumentation, to heat-sink
combustion chambers highly instrumented with made of an ablative material ( see Sect . 8.5.1 ) .
Because of the inability of the heat-sink
pressure and vibration transducers , viewing
chamber to simulate all aspects of the actual
windows, and pulsing devices .
engine and because of the limited test durations
The most commonly used full-scale simulator
is a thrust chamber assembly comprised of all they impose , is is often desirable to provide special
prototype components except for a heat- sink dynamic instrumentation on prototype hardware .
combustion chamber. Typically a heat-sink This special instrumentation may vary from small
passage transducers inserted between tubes of a
chamber has the same internal geometry as the
prototype chamber, at least through the sonic regeneratively-cooled chamber to long probe
throat. It is constructed of heavy metal (usually transducers extended through the body or flanges
of the injector (such instrumentation is discussed
steel or copper) to permit operating durations of
from one to five seconds depending upon the in Sect . 9.3.2 ) . Because of the limited number and
operating conditions of the engine. Heat-sink location of this type of instrumentation , as

normally used, it is useful for detection of in-
chambers have the advantages of being amenable
to a wide variety of dynamic instrumentation and stability but is not generally sufficient for complete
of being able to withstand the adverse effects of diagnostic evaluation.
violent combustion instability for short durations.

9.2.2 Subscale Simulators *
The dynamic instrument most commonly used .
on heat-sink chambers is the high response pres- The objectives of subscale simulations are ( 1 )
sure transducer although nearly all of the instru- to develop design criteria that will substantially
mentation techniques discussed in succeeding reduce the necessity for cut-and-try testing in new
sections have been employed . The number of engine development programs, and (2) to attempt
pressure transducers has varied from only one in to understand the processes of instability well
some small chambers to as many as twenty on enough to eliminate any instability occurring in
some tests of the F- 1 Engine simulator. A dis- developed engine systems. Subscale research
cussion of optimum location and mounting combustors must necessarily be of low thrust level
* R. J. Hefner, Author. * T. A. Coultas and R. C. Kesselring, Authors .

EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF STABILITY BEHAVIOR $9.5 453
in order that research test facilities may accom- Spud or ring-type elements
Center
modate them. Hardware failures occurring with body>
these low-thrust models are , of course, much less
costly than hardware failures involving the full-
scale engines .
In order to model properly a full-scale com-
bustor, the characteristics of the combustor must
be reproduced as closely as possible.425 The
propellant injection density, the contraction ratio
and the chamber pressure should be closely
simulated to ensure that the liquid droplets are Nozzles
subjected to the same combustion environment Pulse motor Annular motor
(see Sect. 7.2) . This simulation is necessary since Injection element arrays
such quantities as combustion gas velocity, tem-
perature, and pressure affect the droplet vaporiza- 22
tion and burning processes and thus the stability
of the combustion device. By maintaining the
same injection hole sizes, impingement angles ,
element spacings, and injection velocities, it is
possible to duplicate drop sizes and atomization
and mixing characteristics of the injected liquid
streams .
A hypothesis regarding the physical processes
that sustain acoustic instability modes has been
formulated in which the displacement of droplets Wedge motor Square motor Two-dimensional ( 2 - D) motor
and vapor by an acoustic wave plays an important
role . 427,511 The acoustic displacement is inversely FIGURE 9.2.2a.-Sub-scale simulators.
proportional to the frequency of the oscillations .
Thus, it is necessary to have the instabilities conducted at reduced thrust levels while using
exhibited by the model lie in the same frequency full-scale combustion chamber cavities. To
range as those occurring in the full-scale combustor facilitate changes in injector patterns , the injector
if significant results are to be obtained . To meet design has been based upon eight (or more)
this requirement a characteristic dimension of the replaceable sections ( spuds) , which has resulted
model should be close to that of the full scale in a discontinuous injection pattern around the
chamber. Various methods of meeting the dimen- periphery of the combustion chamber as shown in
sional requirement have been utilized . These Fig. 9.2.2a. Approximately 10 to 20 percent of
methods are discussed below and are illustrated the orifices of a full-faced injector pattern have
in Fig. 9.2.2a . been incorporated into the spuds.
Although tests using the pulse motor approach
9.2.2.1 Pulse motor. The pulse motor was have provided one means for predicting stability
developed for the purpose of evaluating the trends in full-scale large-thrust hardware,242 certain
effects of chamber pressure, chamber geometry, design deficiencies also have been evident.541,94
and injector pattern on the tangential mode of Since the propellants are confined to the outer
combustion instability.94,190,242,540 The thrust cham- annular zone of the injector, the reduced overall
ber design favors the tangential mode by con- propellant flow requires a much higher contraction
fining the propellant injection to an outer annular ratio to achieve design chamber pressures. This in
zone of the injector with the chamber diameter turn results in combustion gas velocities that are
equivalent to that of the full-scale engine (hence lower than those normally experienced in large-
exhibiting the same tangential frequencies ) . This thrust units. Additionally, recirculation is also
permits stability tests in pulse motors to be enhanced , making the overall effect on local
velocities difficult to ascertain. It is difficult or combustion chamber is that wall effects are
impossible to determine quantitatively the effects accentuated . Tests in which a pulse motor was
of other factors, e.g., the discontinuous injection converted to an annular motor (with the same
pattern and how it affects the tangential dis- spud orientation and nozzle size) have indicated a
placement, or the relative role of the injection greater tendency toward high frequency insta-
hydraulics on spray atomization with an altered bility.192 This may be explained by the shift in
steady-state velocity environment . frequency of the tangential modes. Another point
The problem of discontinuous propellant in- to remember is that the nozzle conditions asso-
jection around the chamber periphery, experienced ciated with conventional hardware are difficult to
in the pulse motor, was avoided in the barrel model in the annular motor, although this design
thrust chamber.427 Retaining the basic design should better represent aerospike engine com-
features of the pulse motor, this model motor used bustors (also see Sect . 8.4.5 ) .
a limited number of ring-type injection elements
in the outer annular area of the injector. Natu- 9.2.2.3 Wedge motor. - The wedge motor-408,560
rally, with this fixed injector design the ad- also provides equivalent propellant injection
vantages of spud interchangeability as well as density and contraction ratio but only a fraction
spud orientation possibilities had to be sacrificed. of the total flow rate. The cross-section of this
As in the other pulse motor designs, the barrel model chamber is typically a 60° sector of a circle.
chamber faithfully modeled the chamber pressure, Since heat transfer conditions on the outer surface
particle velocity and particle displacement dis- area are representative of the full thrust unit ,
tributions of the acoustic field as well as the heat transfer data are directly available from
identical radial and tangential mode frequencies water cooling of this model. The use of a trans-
(including combined transverse modes) of the parent wall and pressure instrumentation in the
parent combustor. wedge motor provides a means for observing
combustion phenomena . Simulation is limited to
9.2.2.2 Annular combustion chamber.- Another longitudinal, radial and high order tangential
modeling approach which provides both an standing modes (the latter associated with the
equivalent propellant injection density and a wedge angle) .
reduced thrust level ( compared to the full- scale ,
large-thrust hardware ) is an annular combustion 9.2.2.4 Square motor . -One modeling approach
chamber. 164,192 This chamber employs a centerbody to observe injector element interactions has been
which effectively restricts propellant injection to to take a small square section (4 to 25 elements)
a limited number of circular rings in the annulus . from a high density injection pattern.184,189 The
If the annular chamber, like the pulse and barrel motor has been varied in length to observe c*
chambers, has the same outer diameter as the variations and thereby measure axial combustion
full-scale engine, the nature of the instability is distribution for pressures to 1200 psia. Sensitive
no longer that of standard chamber resonant mercury manometer pressure measurements and
modes . For example, the first tangential mode streak film records have also aided in the inter-
frequency is depressed (for a thin annulus the pretation of axial combustion rates. Small scale
frequency is only 55% of that found in a con- circular cross-section chambers have also provided
ventional chamber with the higher tangential data on combustion distribution.55.180 Both square
modes integral multiples of the fundamental ) , and circular sub-scale motors have also been used
and the wave shape is altered 192 (a shock-type to study longitudinal wave interactions with the
wave is characteristic) . To properly model the combustion processes-a subject more appropriate
frequency of the first tangential mode in a full- to other sections of this book (Sects . 3.5.2.1
scale cylindrical chamber the outer diameter of and 7.2.4).
the annular chamber must be decreased.164 The
radial mode frequencies in the full-scale chamber 9.2.2.5 Two-dimensional motor. -Another means
cannot be modeled in the annular chamber. of obtaining an equivalent propellant injection
One possible disadvantage of the annular density with a reduced thrust level is the two-
dimensional combustion chamber. In this section

the two-dimensional (2-D) motor will be used as
the detailed example of subscale simulation . This
chamber consists of a thin radial (or diametrical)
slice of a large thrust cylindrical chamber425
without the diverging nozzle section .†
The 2-D motor, through the use of transparent
chamber walls , offers the distinct advantage of
being able to utilize high-speed motion picture
photographic techniques to study the processes
occurring throughout the combustion chamber‡
under both steady and unstable conditions (see
Sect. 9.4) . Closeups of particular regions of
interest as well as streak pictures can be obtained .
(A further discussion of the photographic methods
FIGURE 9.2.2b . - High-pressure two-dimensional research
possible with the two-dimensional motor is found combustion chamber with transparent walls.
in Section 9.4 and Ref. 424. ) These photographic
data help determine velocities of liquid droplets ,
combustion gases, and pressure waves throughout approach also has certain disadvantages. The
transverse* acoustic mode of instability in this
the chamber. This ability to view combustion is
the most important capability of the 2-D motor, chamber only simulates the acoustic field dis-
tributions of certain regions of the tangential or
since it permits correlation of the visualized
combustion processes with extensive pressure data radial modes of a cylindrical chamber. The choice
of an appropriate chamber width will result in a
taken simultaneously. This correlation provides
frequency of the transverse mode in the 2-D
insight into the nature of stable combustion,
propellant droplet dynamics, triggering mecha- chamber close to the frequency of the mode of
interest in the chamber being modeled . If the
nisms resulting in combustion instability, and
instability oscillations, all of which are important original injection pattern and spacing are retained
in formulating process mechanisms and mathe- intact , and the 2-D slice width is limited to the
matical combustion models. In addition , the 2-D full-scale chamber diameter, then the frequency
of the first transverse mode in the 2-D will be
motor can be used to study the effect of varying
injector pattern, propellant combination, baffle 15% less than the 1T ( spinning or standing) mode
geometry, etc., upon the efficiency and dynamic in the cylindrical chamber, whereas the second
stability of the combustion process. transverse mode in 2-D is 3 % greater than the
Two examples of 2- D modeling are ( 1 ) a 2T mode in the cylindrical chamber. Velocity

1-inch-thick diametrical slice of a 20-inch diameter, oscillations and particle motions are restricted to
150,000-pound-thrust (full scale ) chamber,427 and the major dimension of 2-D chamber cross
section. Minimum pressure and displacement
(2 ) a 14 -inch slice of a 1,500,000-pound -thrust
combustor.67 The latter model shown in Fig. amplitudes occur near the spacer bar walls and at
9.2.2b has been operated up to 1100 psia with other nodal locations, whereas maximum values
identical injector orifice characteristics, propellant are found at the antinodes (midway between the
walls for the first transverse mode) . In contrast,
injection densities and velocities, contraction ratio
and chamber length as in the parent engine. the spinning and standing tangential mode
As with all of the subscale simulation, the 2-D velocities and displacements occurring in full-scale
hardware are generally perpendicular to those
occurring in the 2-D case and are far more complex
† None of the various model motors require a diverging
section for stability simulation.
Of course, observation ports and slits at locations of * Transverse, in the case of the 2- D hardware, is used
interest have been used in other model chambers as well to describe modes or displacements parallel to the major
as in full-size combustors. dimension of the injector face.
(e.g. , circular and curvilinear

elliptical, dis-
placements , see Sects. 3.5 , 7.2.5 and 8.2.2) .
Another source of error in stability simulation
is the choice of the narrow dimension (thickness)
of the 2-D chamber. Through the choice of this
dimension, the propellant injection density can be
maintained at the same level as the full-scale
chamber. However, if the narrow dimension of the
2-D chamber is too small and allows wall impinge-
ment of the propellant streams, the stability
modeling will be affected to an unknown degree.
200
Returning to the components from which the
238
2-D motor is constructed , the walls of 2-D
chambers may be either transparent or opaque.
The surface of the opaque (solid) wall provides
locations for various types of instrumentation.
The transparent walls typically consist of 24-inch-
thick Plexiglas to which are bonded 4 -inch-thick
0
sheets of Pyrex. The Plexiglas is used to furnish
the necessary mechanical strength and the Pyrex
is utilized to protect the Plexiglas from the hot
combustion gases during the firing . This prevents
burning of the Plexiglas which might obscure the
080808
combustion process as well as destroy dimensional
stability (throat area, etc. ) of the motor. The
chamber nozzle is formed by copper inserts which
are welded to (or machined integral with) the
spacer bars. The 1- to 12-inch-thick combustion
70
space is maintained by spacer bars which provide
longitudinal seals and a convenient location for
pressure taps along the chamber. Bomb holders
are also accommodated in these bars.
Flexibility of injector configuration is achieved
by use of a stainless steel combination body and
propellant manifold (Fig. 9.2.2c) incorporating
replaceable, low cost, copper orifice element
inserts. Thus, the injector element type (i.e. ,
like-on-like doublet, unlike doublet , triplet, FIGURE 9.2.2c.-A typical high-pressure 2-D injector.
showerhead, etc. ) may be easily changed . Thin
baffles may also be welded in a variety of positions heat transfer to the nozzle which leads to nozzle
on the injector face in order to observe stability erosion. Thus, the permissible test duration is
trends of such variables as baffle spacing, baffle calculated using a nozzle heat transfer analysis.81
length, and baffle gap. In summary, two-dimensional research motors
The two-dimensional thrust chamber, like the have been operated for many years to simulate
majority of the subscale model motors, is uncooled . full-scale engines. Variables have included : size ,
Thus the test durations are limited to approxi- pressures ranging from 75 to 1300 psia, a wide
mately 1 second of full-thrust operation . Tests in variety of propellant combinations, and variations
opaque heat- sink hardware, free from window in other operating conditions. Such motors have
erosion problems, can be of somewhat longer been found to be quite successful in duplicating
duration. The test duration is usually limited by many of the stability characteristics of the parent
engines, although, because of inherent design mentation and controls were mounted in a free
limitations of two-dimensional hardware, not all fall chamber to permit conducting the experiments
characteristics of the full-scale engines can be in a zero gravity field (Fig. 9.2.3a) .
simulated . The application of the two-dimensional A type of apparatus used to investigate the
motor to the study of resonant combustion is propellant mixing, atomization, vaporization, and
reported in Ref. 440. chemical reaction processes of a bipropellant
liquid injector is a combustor with a single
9.2.3 Basic Combustion Process Apparatus * element.252 The combustion chamber may be
constructed of a transparent material such as
The apparatus used to investigate basic com-
plastic or glass or it may be a conventional type of
bustion processes in liquid rocket engines can be
heat-sink chamber, with or without observation
divided into two classifications : those that are
used to study the characteristics and mechanisms windows. The most common type of instrumenta-
tion used is the high response pressure transducer,
of combustion during stable conditions and those
photographic equipment and performance meas-
used to investigate the combustion process during
uring instrumentation such as static pressure
unstable or perturbed conditions. The apparatus
transducers and propellant flow meters.
used within either of these classifications have
Two types of apparatus will be described as
varied from the combustion of a single liquid drop
being typical of those used to investigate com-
suspended in a gascous environment to rather
bustion under unstable or perturbed conditions .
large combustors with multiple orifice injection
Several groups have investigated the effect of
schemes.
shock waves and detonation waves on liquid
Probably the simplest apparatus used in basic
propellant combustion. Nicholls et al . ,514 used a
combustion process investigations consists of a
long vertical tube in which liquid drops were
single liquid drop suspended from the tip of a
allowed to fall through a gaseous environment. A
thermocouple and a high-speed motion-picture
camera. The drop is combusted with air in an
unenclosed environment with the thermocouple
and camera providing the data for investigation of
the basic mechanisms of the combustion process . Door Door
One variation of this technique has been to Test Chamber

Droplet
enclose the droplet in a transparent enclosure
which permits variation of the gas species with Background
which the droplet burns and the temperature and Mirror Light
pressure environment in which the combustion Solenoid
takes place.429 Other simple experiments utilized
candles in various environments, 696,695
A more sophisticated apparatus for studying
the normal combustion process of a single liquid Camera
H2 Igniter
drop was used by Faeth, Dominicis and Olson, 255,231 Tank
Their experiments covered a pressure range of
14.2 to 2000 psia and were conducted in a zero
gravity environment to eliminate the effects of
natural convection and to prevent the droplet
from falling from its support. The primary
instrumentation was a motion picture camera
although a thermocouple was used to measure the
liquid drop temperature on some tests . The
combustion chamber and all associated instru-
FIGURE 9.2.3a .-Sketch of free fall liquid drop combustion

* R. J. Hefner , Author . chamber.
shock wave was then introduced into the tube to From the growth rate of any resonant instability
investigate the droplet shattering and two phase initiated, a direct measure of the combustion
detonation characteristics resulting from the response can be obtained as a function of frequency.
shock. In these experiments both very high In the version illustrated, if the combustion
response pressure transducers and various pho- takes place near the injectors at the ends of the
tographic instrumentation techniques were used. chamber, the combustion will be near a pressure
A second type of apparatus used to investigate antinode which then provides data on the respon-
unstable combustion is the excitation chamber.708 siveness of the combustion process to pressure
In its original version the excitation chamber is an oscillations without any fluctuating velocity
"organ pipe" with an injector on each end and a influences. A variation of the longitudinal excita-
centrally located nozzle, Fig. 9.2.3b. The length tion chamber utilizes a thin combustor cavity
of the combustion chamber is varied to permit shaped like a sector of a circle with a curved
studying oscillatory combustion at various fre- injector at the periphery of the circular sector
quencies. The particular configuration shown in pointing toward a slit nozzle at the center of the
Fig. 9.2.3b with the nozzle at the center provides circle.436 This configuration permits transverse
minimum system damping for the fundamental oscillations with pressure antinodes at the edges
and all other odd numbered longitudinal modes of the combustor. The injection elements and
and maximum damping for the even numbered thus the combustion processes are distributed
modes. By placing a baffle through the nozzle at across the oscillating field where they are subjected
the center of the tubular chamber damping is to both the pressure and transverse velocity
provided for the odd numbered modes. Once effects. By varying either the sector angle or radial
combustion is initiated and allowed to reach length to the injector the fundamental resonant
steady-state, stable operation, the baffle is frequency is varied . Again, by measuring the
removed which permits the initiation and growth growth rate of any spontaneous resonant insta-
of one of the odd numbered instability modes. bility, or the decay rate of an induced instability
Annular Injector
Injector
nozzle
FIGURE 9.2.3b . - Excitation chamber for measuring combustion response to longitudinal mode instability.
EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF STABILITY BEHAVIOR §9.3 459
as the resonant frequency is varied, the respon- and the accuracy requirement for the performance
siveness of the combustion process to transverse measurement have made this impractical.732
oscillations can be directly measured with high For the analysis of combustion instability the
response pressure transducers . requirements imposed on a pressure transducer are
Only typical specialized research combustors often very stringent. In the measurement of
have been described to give the reader an intro- dynamic pressures a pressure transducer is
duction to the types of apparatus available to exposed to high heat fluxes and high acceleration
the combustion dynamicist . forces . It is also required to have a high frequency
response.151
In general, in specifying a dynamic pressure
9.3 PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS
transducer for hot gas measurements, one would
There are many ways of detecting combustion desire it to be small in size with a small diaphragm
instability. The most widely used diagnostic area. The small diaphragm area ( inch or less
methods are through the measurement of dynamic in diameter ) allows the required high frequency
pressures in the combustor cavity . Through response (resonant frequency to 100 kHz or
judicious selection of transducers and measure- better) . It should be capable of withstanding
ment locations within the combustion chamber , sustained high heat flux (35 Btu/in.2 sec . ) without
it is normally possible to make a sophisticated sensitivity or zero shifts . Acceleration sensitivity
diagnosis of the dynamic characteristics of the must be low or correctable. High transducer
combustion process , including instability mode output sensitivity is very desirable, since it allows
identification on unstable tests and the stability low magnitude signals to be recorded above the
index determination on pulsed tests.330 system noise level. Transducers should be of
The liquid systems dynamics are also important . sufficient stability to allow calibration in-place by
Many times an instability may be induced through electrical simulation. The design must be rugged
the feed system, including the propellant lines , enough to withstand the environmental conditions.
pump and injector cavities. It is important that and the required handling without failure.
these components be monitored as judiciously as Although not a technical requirement, transducer
the combustion zone, as a feed system coupled cost is a very real consideration .
combustion instability can often be eliminated by
modifying the propellant feed system . 9.3.1.1 Hardware considerations .- Consider
The following nomenclature pertains to Sect . 9.3 : some of the factors affecting a transducer selection
for a hot gas measurement in a combustion
AD Transducer diaphragm area
chamber.35 Each of these factors has a definite
AL Connecting passage cross-sectional area
effect on the transducer requirement.
Ce Cable capacitance
A. Type of combustion chamber
Ct Transducer capacitance
1. Heat sink
E Output voltage
2. Ablative or ablative liner
fe Filter cut-off frequency
3. Regeneratively cooled (tube-wall
fa Normalized frequency, f/fe
L chamber)
Connecting passage length
B. Size of combustion chamber
Q Charge sensitivity
1 . Chamber diameter
Vo Transducer cavity volume
2. Chamber length
9.3.1 Transducer Requirements * 3. Wall thickness
4. Access area for transducer and trans-
It would be most desirable to have one pressure
ducer mounting boss
transducer for performance measurements as C. Test conditions
well as stability characteristics . The environment 1. Propellants
in which the dynamic transducer must operate 2. Static chamber pressure level
3. Test duration
* R. D. Wesley, Author. D. Induced perturbations
1. Nondirectional bomb including dual diaphragms with water circulation

2. Tangential or radial pulse gun between the diaphragms, fluid dump (that is,
3. Gas injection dumping a cooling fluid into the chamber after
A variation in combinations of any of these passing over the diaphragm ) , ablative coatings
factors can alter the specific transducer require- and diaphragm isolation by means of the small
ment and hence the selection from among com- passage or helium bleed technique. All are
mercially available transducers. Some of the effective to varying degrees and all have special
specific transducer requirements will be examined applications .
to evaluate how they relate to the above factors. Vibrations in a combustion chamber can become
quite severe. Normal operating levels are 50 to
9.3.1.2 Response characteristics. - Dynamic 150 g's peak but may increase rapidly to 2000
pressure transducers must be capable of high g's peak (and above ) under unstable operating
frequency response. This is dictated for the most conditions. When analyzing the data this can
part by the combustion chamber dimensions, become a very important consideration , especially
because the frequencies of the instability modes if a transducer is unusually sensitive to vibration.
are dependent on the acoustical path length. As Most transducers used for dynamic measurements
the diameter of a combustion chamber is de- have a sensitivity of 0.001 to 0.002 percent full
creased, the tangential and radial mode frequencies range per g ( fs/g) . A 2000 psi transducer with a
for an equal order mode will increase in inverse 0.002 % fs/g vibration sensitivity in a 1000 g
proportion to the chamber diameter. Likewise as environment will produce a 40 psi indicated
chamber length is decreased, the frequency of pressure from the vibration environment alone.
equal order longitudinal modes will increase . In chambers where perturbations are artificially
Since the size of current liquid combustion induced by pulse guns or bombs , there are usually
chambers ranges from the very large (over 40 high velocity shrapnel particles associated with
inches in diameter ) to the very small (less than the detonation of the perturbing device . These
2 inches in diameter) the range of combustion particles are especially destructive to unprotected
instability frequencies can be quite wide (e.g., diaphragms (Sect . 10.2.3 ) . If a diaphragm is
500 to 17,000 Hz for the 1T mode) . penetrated, the transducer will burn out . A logical
It is evident that transducers are needed with a conclusion is that diaphragm protection must be
flat frequency response of greater than 20 kHz to provided or, at the very least , small diaphragm
monitor higher frequency instabilities. However, devices must be used to reduce diaphragm
10 kHz response is generally sufficient when damage.
chamber diameters are greater than 8 inches .
9.3.1.4 Range selection. When selecting a
9.3.1.3 Environmental exposures . - In order to range , one should always keep in mind the job.
obtain the maximum frequency and amplitude the transducer is expected to perform. This
response from a transducer, it is essential that it be usually depends on the type of testing and the
flush mounted with the inner wall of the chamber. normal steady-state pressure level . Experience
Under this condition the transducer will normally from previous test conditions is the best guide to
experience the most severe environmental condi- use in choosing a range. However, in the absence
tions . Heat flux , vibration and shrapnel from gun of prior experience on specific hardware it is
or bomb pulse devices must also be considered . usually sufficient to select a dynamic transducer
Typical heat flux levels to be expected may vary whose range is twice the expected steady-state
from 6 to 8 Btu/in.2 sec. under normal burning pressure level, providing the chamber is not going
conditions to perhaps 35 Btu/in.2 sec. during to be pulsed . On pulse chambers it may be
resonant combustion instability (see Sect . 9.6.5) . necessary to use a transducer which is rated at
The length of required exposure to the severe 3 to 5 times the steady-state chamber pressure
thermal conditions may vary from a few milli- level. This is, for the most part, dependent on the
seconds to several seconds . Many schemes are type of charge used , orientation of pulsing device,
used to protect the transducer from the heat, and the location of the transducers in relation to
the pulsing device. A charge directed toward a water-cooled types, although other protection
transducer can create a very high pressure initial methods are also used . Such transducers are
shock wave at the transducer. readily available in sizes which range from a
1 inch diameter down to inch diameter.16
9.3.2 Available Instruments * The methods most often used in dynamic
transducers to convert pressure input to electrical
Many transducers are commercially available output are the bonded wire resistance strain gage
for the measurement of dynamic pressures in bridge, variable capacitance, piezoelectric crystals ,
liquid propellant rocket engines. 16 Great strides and the piezoresistive (semiconductor) strain
have been made in the development of new gage bridge 394,433
transducers in recent years which have greatly Representative of the bonded wire strain gage
alleviated the pressure measurement problems in types are the Dynisco PT-49A and the Norwood
large liquid rocket engines.433 The relatively 14943 transducers , Fig . 9.3.2a . They are water-
recent development of small rocket engines , cooled with a thin diaphragm stitch welded to a
including pulse motors, presents new measure- coolant maze ribbon . The diaphragm is easily
ment challenges. For these small engines, the ruptured by pulse gun or bomb particles. A later
emphasis must now be placed on higher fre- Dynisco model, the PT- 134, shows improvement
quencies in conjunction with a small transducer over the PT-49A.433 Transducer output is low,
size. 3 mv/v with resonant frequencies in the 25 to
The characteristics of general types and the 30 kHz range .
applicability of available instruments will be Two widely used capacitance types are the
discussed rather than attempting to describe each Photocon models 307 and 352A. The Photocon
available transducer. 352A, Fig . 9.3.2b , has been very popular in larger
chambers ( diameters > 8 inches) which are com-
9.3.2.1 Transducers for combustion zone pressure patible with the relatively large transducer
measurements . - In order that the maximum diameter ( 1 inch) . The unique feature of this
response of the transducer may be met, it must be transducer is the flame shield that protects
flush mounted with the internal chamber surface . against diaphragm punctures from high velocity
Although desirable, flush mounting is not always bomb particles without seriously affecting the
possible . A flush-mounted transducer in an frequency response . This flame shield presents two
ablative chamber may result in transducer cooling surfaces to the hot gas, as both the flame
erosion along with the ablation of the chamber shield and diaphragm are water-cooled , and
wall. Regeneratively cooled chambers have space allows operation under high heat flux environ-
problems for transducer mounting . It can be seen ments (25 to 30 Btu/in.2 scc . ) . The resonant
that each type of chamber has its own unique frequency of the transducer (25 to 45 kHz ) is
mounting problems. compatible with the required frequency measure-
PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS FOR HEAT- ment range of the larger chambers . As is true for
SINK CHAMBERS : Heat-sink chambers are most transducers, the higher range units have.
generally the work horses of rocket engine develop- stiffer diaphragms and hence higher natural
ment . This heavy-walled hardware imposes only frequencies.
minor restrictions on the number of transducers For smaller chambers, where space is at a
used and the type of mounting configuration premium the Photocon model 307 is useful , Fig.
employed . The heat-sink chamber, especially in 9.3.2c . Its resonant frequency is approximately
the larger sizes, can adapt to a wide selection of the same as the previously discussed Photocon
available transducers . Transducers must success- 352A (25 to 45 kHz ) . Cooling is accomplished by
fully withstand the environmental exposure and recirculating water through a dual diaphragm.
yet produce valid data for subsequent analysis . Since it has an exposed outer diaphragm ( no heat
Most commonly used are the double diaphragm shield) , it is susceptible to puncture by high
velocity bomb particles ; however, the occurrence
* R. D. Wesley, Author. is reduced by the smaller diaphragm size.
Norwood model 14943
1-1/8 12 UNF-2 Cannon

Dynisco model PT-49 A MC14H-10-6PN
11/16 in.
1-1/8-12 UNF - 2A
Cannon MC14H- 10-6PN- 1/2 in.-
.316 in
-3-7/16 in .
11/16 in.
1/4 OD tubing fitting
conforms to MS33656-4
1/2 in.
1-13/32 in
Variable
FIGURE 9.3.28.-Dynisco and Norwood pressure transducers.
Water tubes
3/8-24 UNF-3A Coax cable
(mating connector -UG-89c/u)
Gas passage 4 provided.
1-14 NS-2A
(typ.)
2.25
Coolant passages Max.
625
Flame shield-
2.81 Max-
FIGURE 9.3.2b. -Photocon model 352A transducer.
A double diaphragm transducer of the solid-

state, strain gage type is the model PT- 150-5 ,
Fig. 9.3.2d , manufactured by Electro Optical 7/16-20 UNF- 2A
Systems, Inc. (EOS ) . It is a piezoresistive trans- BNC
ducer utilizing a diffused four arm bridge on a
silicon chip , which gives it a relatively high
-Coax
output, 300 mv full scale, prior to amplification . T
Because the diaphragm area is small , with a very .75 Dia.
short pin construction, it has been possible to +,000 Detachable water tubes
.375-002-
realize a resonant frequency of 100 kHz .
1.625
One of the piezoelectric types in use is the
Kistler 616 , Fig . 9.3.2e. It is representative of an FIGURE 9.3.2c.-Photocon model 307 transducer.
1.705
480
.310
‫שיוווו‬
4.125 Hex
-7/ 16-20 UNF - 3A THD
Figure 9.3.2d . -Water-cooled transducer (EOS model PT- 150-5) .
-Water tubes frequency (in excess of 400 kHz ) it will respond

faithfully to steep-fronted waves. Its main draw-
1/2-20
back, however, is the fact that it is an uncooled
0.75 Hex
transducer and will withstand only a few milli-
seconds of heat exposure without damage ; there-
fore further protection is needed . One popular
method, the use of ablative coatings , is discussed
OB in Sect. 9.3.3.2.
Only a small number of the available pressure
0.62 transducer models have been discussed , but they
are representative of the wide selection available.
Coax connection Other models, complete with their evaluations,
10-32 thd. 0.62
can be reviewed in Refs. 16, 393, 433, 596 and 732 .
PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS FOR ABLA-
FIGURE 9.3.2e.-Kistler model 616 transducer. TIVE CHAMBERS : The selection of dynamic
transducers which are usable in an ablative
uncooled transducer connected by a short passage chamber is very limited . As the name implies ,
in a water-cooled adapter. Although the trans- the chamber walls are cooled by ablation of the
ducer itself has a very high resonant frequency, wall surface and any instrument which is flush
the adapter limits its resonant frequency to the mounted may protrude into the chamber as the
40 kHz region . It has found applications in low walls char and ablate, thus subjecting the trans-
heat transfer environments and short duration ducer to erosion and eventual destruction. The
tests. 433 problem then becomes one of using a transducer
The preceding paragraphs have presented the which can survive some erosion and yet maintain
transducer types which are most commonly used data quality.
in development testing, where instability mode This has been made possible by utilizing the
identifications are of prime importance. Most of small passage technique.432 A typical transducer
these are somewhat limited, however, in meas- of this type is shown in Fig. 9.3.2f. In this concept
uring wave shapes of very steep-fronted waves. an uncooled miniature transducer is located at
One very useful transducer for this type of the end of a small diameter passage which usually
measurement is the small quartz crystal which is less than inch in length . Helium is bled under
utilizes the piezoelectric characteristics of the high pressure ( at least 2.08 times the expected
quartz. Kistler has been the principal supplier of peak pressures432) through a choked orifice , across
the quartz pressure transducers although other the transducer diaphragm and out the tube,
companies are now marketing similar products . filling tube and associated cavity with helium gas.
The Kistler 603A has been used extensively for The helium gas serves ( 1 ) as a signal path with
determining wave shapes and identifying modes known acoustic characteristics, (2 ) to cool the
of instability. Since it has a very high resonant transducer diaphragm , and ( 3 ) to prevent tube
-Spacer sleeve too, some chambers will not withstand the severe
Helium
inlet 9/16-18 UNF - 2A instability environment. It is desirable, however,
-Jewel orifice to make some measurement of stability on the
Kistler 601A final hardware design. As can be seen in the figure,
it is necessary to provide an external boss for
transducer mounting. The transducer tube is
inserted between adjacent combustor coolant
tubes which have been dimpled for this purpose .
Another approach to make dynamic pressure
Electrical
connector- -0.740 measurements possible in a regeneratively cooled
chamber is the fluid dump transducer of which
FIGURE 9.3.2f .- Helium-bleed transducer (Aerojet-Gen- two models are shown in Fig. 9.3.2i . This type
eral Corp. model HB3X ) . transducer is adapted to the injector or chamber
flange (rather than the chamber itself) and
clogging by combustion or ablative particles . mounted flush with the internal surface . The
Resonant frequencies will vary with the tube frontal size is 0.150-inch diameter with a dia-
length and cavity configuration as shown in Fig. phragm of 0.090-inch diameter. This particular
9.3.2g. For the transducer model shown in Fig. transducer utilizes water as a coolant which sprays
9.3.2f, which has a tube length of inch, the across the diaphragm and dumps into the chamber,
resonant frequencies range from 10 to 12 kHz hence the water pressure must be maintained
with a usable flat response ( ± 10 % ) to 3.5 kHz.16 sufficiently high to overcome the peak chamber
This can be extended with electrical compensation pressure oscillations . Therefore , a high pressure
to approximately 80 % of the resonant frequency.433 filtered water system is required for its use.
Utilizing the concept described, it is now
possible to insert the small tube (0.080 in. O.D. ) 9.3.2.2 Pressure transducers for propellant
through the ablative material flush with the inner systems. Requirements for dynamic pressure
surface. As the chamber material ablates, the tube data in the propellant systems, as with the
will burn back remaining flush with the wall. combustion chamber, dictate a transducer with a
Although the resonant frequency will change high frequency response capable of being flush
slightly with operating time, it will be in the mounted . Any recess or tube connection can
direction of an increased resonant frequency. degrade the data to a point where it is unusable
Prior to use it is best to determine each transfor dynamic analysis .
ducer's individual frequency response characteris- It is therefore highly desirable to flush mount all
tic via the shock tube or sinusoidal pressure propellant system transducers. In selecting a
generator.3394,433 transducer consideration must be given to the
PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS FOR REGEN- frequency required , signal levels to be recorded ,
ERATIVELY- COOLED CHAMBERS : The mounting configuration , measurement system
helium-bleed transducer just discussed was first compatibility, vibration environment and the
developed for use in regeneratively cooled cham- propellant characteristics and temperature. The
bers . This application is shown in Fig. 9.3.2h . wide variance in propellant temperatures from
Prior to its development it was impossible to ambient to cryogenic must be given prime
make a dynamic pressure measurement through consideration.
the side wall of a regenerative chamber, although AMBIENT TEMPERATURE REGION:
measurements in the combustion zone were Since pressure fluctuations in the propellant
possible through the injector face. This, however, system are often of low magnitude, the first
involved special modification to the injector face preference would be to use a transducer with a
for insertion of the transducer. relatively high output so that a better signal-to-
Stability tests are not generally conducted in noise-ratio might be realized . To this end several
tube-wall chambers because of the difficulty of good semiconductor transducers are available.
obtaining dynamic pressure measurements. Then Representative of these is the PT 3f- C2 manu-
30
3.0 Passage length vs resonant frequency
a
f=
4 ( L +Vo/AL)
2.5 Working fluid He @ 70° F
Ao-3.73 × 10-2 in²

( nches e
Passag
length
2.0 AL- 1.258×10˜³in²

)i
Volume ,
Vo Diaphragm area -Ao
.001 " gap
1.5
.004 " AL
Spring
.007 "
1.0 Gap
.010"
013 "
0.5
5. 10 15 20 25 30 35
Resonant frequency x 103 Hz
FIGURE 9.3.2g.-Passage length vs frequency for helium-bleed transducers .
П
3.000
3.900
5.75
80 0
Coolant tubes
He bleed transducer
FIGURE 9.3.2h. -Instlalation of helium-bleed transducer in a regeneratively-cooled combustion chamber.

PT 15 C-3 PT 15 D-1
T
3.00
3.00
1.10
1.10
0.30
min
90.31
+0.000
+0.000 1.540-0.003
10-32 UNF threads 1.620-0.003 1/4-28
0.190 Max Dia UNF - 3A
threads
+0.000 +0.000
0.150-0.002 in. Dia. 0.150 -0.002 in. Dia.
FIGURE 9.3.21 .- Fluid-dump piezoresistive transducers.
-1.50 Max frequency, in excess of 100 kHz . High pressure

units have been manufactured with a diaphragm
453
as small as 0.090-inch diameter.
Wire strain gage transducers applicable to the
.349 1.00
339 Dia ambient propellant environment are numerous. A
-
representative model would be the Dynisco

PT-76 . It has a 3 mv/volt sensitivity or nominally
-.750 Hex. a 30 mv full- scale output , is temperature com-
-Bendix PCO2E - 10-6P
-7/ 16-20 - UNF-3A pensated and standardized for shunt calibration.
-.750 Dia. This transducer is capable of being flush mounted
in a 2-inch thread size boss . Its resonant frequency
FIGURE 9.3.2j .-Piezoresistive pressure transducer for is 25 to 40 kHz .
propellant feed system. Quartz crystals , utilizing the piezoelectric effect ,
can be adapted to a flush-mounted configuration
factured by Microsystems, Inc. , Fig. 9.3.2j . This and ranged for any desired signal level. The main
is a standardized piezoresistive, strain gage type drawback to using these transducers is the
transducer with a 500 my full scale output prior to requirement for maintaining a high output
amplification and utilizes a standardized constant- impedance to ground. Connector contamination .
current bridge supply and signal conditioning is the main reason for the lowered output im-
system. The transducer is small ( adapts to a pedance which affects the transducer sensitivity,
modified 11 inch AN fitting) and is rugged enough low-frequency response and in many cases causes
to be easily handled without damage. It is a single the transducer to saturate with the ultimate loss
diaphragm device with silicon gages bonded on the of data. Care must be taken to keep all connections
back of the diaphragm. Because of its diaphragm dry and free from contaminants.
size and stiffness it has a very high resonant CRYOGENIC TEMPERATURE REGION :
Measurement of feed system dynamic pressures 7/16-20 UNF - 3A-

in the cryogenic region impose a new set of
28 Dia.
problems. Bonded wire strain gages exhibit radical
shifts in both sensitivity and zero in the extreme
low temperature liquid hydrogen region and are of 0.750 T
0.359
questionable use for this application. Early
attempts were made to adapt semiconductor-type
strain gages to this region of measurement with
similar results. Some of the shifts were as great as
0.450
100 % in sensitivity and/or zero at liquid hydrogen Flush
temperatures. Recent attempts utilizing heavily diaphragm -0.70
doped semiconductors have resulted in the
development of a transducer whose sensitivity and FIGURE 9.3.2k.-Miniature dynamic cryogenic pressure
zero shifts are less than 1 % per 100° F from transducer (EOS model 101003-0134).
ambient to the liquid hydrogen region. It is
designed to adapt to a inch AN fitting and has such water and splitting the diaphragm is
eliminated.
a resonant frequency in excess of 100 kHz , see
Fig. 9.3.2k. As can be seen, there is a wide variety of
The Kistler transducer discussed previously is transducers for use in propellant systems, both in
the ambient and cryogenic temperature regimes.
also useful in the cryogenic region. Although
The selection is often an individual choice which
there are some zero shifts associated with the
may consist of matching the signal conditioning
transducer in this regime , sensitivity shifts are
available to the test stand , or of matching specific
less than 2 % per 100° F. The major problem in
test objectives .
its use, as was discussed previously, is a low
output impedance to ground. This low output
9.3.3 Location and Mounting *
impedance is mainly due to the extremely cold
temperatures causing the connector to absorb The location of pressure transducers within a
moisture. This can be successfully controlled by combustor is an important consideration in
taking proper care to protect the cable connection diagnosing resonant combustion instability modes.
to the transducer at the time of installation . A single transducer is generally sufficient to detect
A third type of transducer for use in the the presence of resonant combustion instability
cryogenic region is the water-conditioned but, as will be discussed in Sect. 9.7, the positive
Photocon. This is different from those used in the identification of resonant modes requires multiple
hot gas measurement in that the area in between transducers which are properly located to provide
the two diaphragms has a dead air space. Water is the phase and amplitude characteristics of the
circulated through the transducer body, but not instability mode . Along with the location,
the diaphragm area, to condition the electronics mounting techniques play an important part in
which are susceptible to severe drifts with tem- the quality of data acquisition. The proper
perature changes. By maintaining the electronics analysis of combustion instability requires that
at a constant temperature through water con- frequency, phase and amplitude information must
ditioning, this drift and resultant sensitivity shift all be accurately detected and transmitted by
is minimized . Also by eliminating water from the the transducer.
diaphragm area the earlier problem of freezing
9.3.3.1 Transducer locations. - The location of
transducers should be chosen so that any acoustic
Doped as used here is the impurity which is diffused resonance of the combustor cavity can be posi-
into the semiconductor . The heavily refers to the concen-
tively identified by the instantaneous phase and
tration of the impurity. With very heavy concentrations
of the impurity, in many cases Boron, the gage factor of amplitude data . This can generally be accom-
the resulting strain gage remains relatively flat with tem-
perature allowing their use in the cryogenic regions. 625 * S. Rogero, R. D. Wesley, and R. J. Hefner , Authors.
plished in the larger heat-sink combustion

chambers, where typically only the cost and the
90°
possibility of structurally weakening the chamber
225° 135° 135°
limit the number and location of transducers .
With nearly all prototype combustion chambers, 135°
however, the type and locations of transducer
mounts is severely limited . For the optimum
2 transducers 3 transducers
location of transducers within a heat-sink com-
bustion chamber, consideration should be given to
the types of instability likely to be encountered .
The longitudinal mode is characterized by a
maximum pressure amplitude at the injector end 75°
90° 90°
of the chamber and also in the subsonic portion of 135°
the nozzle. For maximum utility the optimum
60°
60° 60°
transducer locations to identify this type of 75° 75°
instability would be three transducers located in
an axial alignment ; one near the injector face, one
4 transducers 5 transducers
near the sonic throat and one approximately
halfway between the injector and throat. The
FIGURE 9.3.3a. -Circumferential transducer locations for
transducer at the mid- acoustic length will record a transverse instability mode identification.
pressure node or antinode depending upon which
longitudinal mode is present ( 1L, 2L, 3L, etc. ) .
Odd numbered modes ( 1L, 3L, ... ) will record The phase and amplitude of a radial mode are
180° phase differences on the end transducers , the same at all points on the chamber wall at a
and a nodal point at the center transducer. Even single instant of time . Typically the transducer
numbered modes ( 2L, 4L, ... ) will exhibit no locations selected for transverse and longitudinal
phase difference on the end transducers but will mode identification are adequate to detect this
have an antinodal point near the center transducer characteristic . The frequency is the only char-
180° out of phase. It is possible to identify all acteristic that is available to distinguish among
longitudinal modes with these three transducers the various radial modes.
by the consideration of phase, relative amplitude As indicated, the number and location of
and frequency.35 pressure transducers to be used with a heat-sink
For transverse mode identification multiple chamber is flexible and should be selected based
transducers spaced at various circumferential on considerations outlined above. For other
locations are required . These transducers should types of chambers , however, both the number and
be located in a single plane parallel to and near permissible locations are quite limited and are
the injector face since there is often significant typically restricted by structural limitations.
distortion and/or attenuation of the characteristic
waveform with axial position . There is generally 9.3.3.2 Mounting considerations .- The severe
no physical restriction, corresponding to the environmental conditions associated with high
injector face for longitudinal modes, which frequency combustion instability place stringent
guarantees the spatial orientation of the trans- requirements on transducer location and mounting
verse waveform, however, the presence of baffles considerations. High heat transfer rates and
can often result in such positioning . Therefore, vibration levels make difficult the task of designing
no single circumferential pattern of transducers environmental protection that will not seriously
has been found to be optimum for all transverse compromise the quality of high frequency pressure
mode identification . Fig. 9.3.3a illustrates circum- measurements . As often as not the design of
ferential locations for varying numbers of trans- environmental protection and analysis of its
ducers that have been found to be well suited for effects on transducer characteristics may be the
transverse mode identification. major concern in the selection of a high response
pressure measuring system for use in instability engines may be in excess of 1000 g.433,597 Such
studies. extreme conditions may produce varying degrees
A prime objective in mounting a transducer in a of damage to the transducer or erroneous data due
combustor is to have the sensing diaphragm flush to acceleration sensitivity. In recent years trans-
with the chamber wall . Any recess between the ducer design has improved to the extent that the
combustor cavity and the diaphragm will have effects of acceleration on pressure transducers
resonant characteristics of its own which may have been greatly reduced . Considering the
significantly affect the data recorded by the severity of the conditions , however, the magnitude
transducer. This is particularly true for higher of these effects should always be determined in
frequency data or where accurate wave shape or new or unknown test situations.
phase angle determinations are required . One of the best methods for measuring the
Recessing of pressure transducers can also effect of vibrational acceleration on the output of
affect the heat-transfer characteristics at the a pressure transducer is to monitor the output of a
transducer and may even alter the stability char- transducer whose sensing diaphragm is isolated
acteristics of the combustor. The effect of recessing from pressure during a firing. The transducer is
on the thermal characteristics may be either to otherwise installed in a normal manner. Such
increase or decrease the flux to the transducer as testing is illustrated in Figs . 9.3.3b through
will be discussed later. The resonant characteristics 9.3.3d . In the first figure the blanked transducer is
of the recess may act as an acoustic absorber seen to exhibit a higher amplitude output , follow-
which could alter absorptive characteristics of the ing the pulse , than the normal transducer.
combustor and, thus, the stability characteristics Subsequent analysis of the blanked transducer
of the engine. revealed a loose coil. In such a situation the
ACCELERATION EFFECTS : Additional transducer tested obviously exceeded the manu-
complications may be encountered in mounting facturer's specification of 0.002 % fs/g. Fig.
because of the high vibrational environment 9.3.3c illustrates measurements taken with both
imposed upon the transducer by a combustion
. transducers operating properly. Even this amount
instability.151 The vibrational levels associated of vibration sensitivity can prove objectionable
with high frequency instability in some rocket with extremely high vibrational environments
Normal photocon 352 A

1000 PSI
5 Milliseconds
T
1000 PSI
Blank photocon 352A

with loose coil
FIGURE 9.3.3b .-Vibration output of defective photocon 352A.

Normal photocon 352A
500 PSI
5 Milliseconds
500 PSI
Blank photocon 352 A
FIGURE 9.3.3c .—Vibrational output of properly operating photocon 352A.
(a)
‫الله‬
Mu mm
100psi
Blanked , hard mounted.
(a) and (b) are outputs of non - acceleration

compensated Kistler 603, transducers
during resonant combustion firing T
(b) Blanked , shock mounted 100psi
200μsес--
-Increasing time 100 psi
(c)
ли
й
www
(c) and (d) are outputs of Kistler -Non - acceleration

603 tranducers , blanked and hard mounted compensated 603
during resonant combustion firing
(d) loopsi
Acceleration compensated 603A
FIGURE 9.3.3d .-Acceleration effects in the output of Kistler 603 transducers.
when amplitude ratios and phasing are critical . niques for reducing the acceleration effects in the
In such instances it may be desirable to use output of pressure transducers is shown in Fig.
acceleration compensated transducers or to shock 9.3.3d . The top two traces are the outputs of two
mount the transducer. Kistler Model 603 transducers recorded during
An example of an evaluation of various tech- instability. Neither transducer had any internal
EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF STABILITY BEHAVIOR $ 9.3 471
acceleration compensation features, both had worthless for making high response measure-
their diaphragms blanked and saw no pressure . ments. Uncooled transducers, such as the Kistler ,
The transducer whose output is shown in trace (a) can withstand added heat for only very short
was hard mounted whereas that shown in trace durations prior to burnout unless protected ,
(b) was shock mounted.151,596 In this instance although a carefully designed thermal barrier can
shock mounting reduced the output due to provide maximum protection with minimum loss
acceleration by a factor of ten over the hard- of frequency response. For these reasons the
mounted transducer. Traces (c) and (d) illustrate effects of thermal protection on the transducer's
the benefits of built-in acceleration compensation. ability to measure pressure must be determined .
In this case both transducers were rigidly mounted A considerable amount of work has been done
to the chamber wall with their diaphragms by various investigators in the use of ablative
blanked from pressure . Internal acceleration. material over the diaphragm of the transducer.
compensation reduced the output due to accelera- This is accomplished by recessing the transducer
tion by a factor of three over the noncompensated diaphragm (recesses of a few thousandths to an
transducer. inch have been used successfully36) , and filling
Although acceleration effects are usually mini- the cavity with a material such as silicone rubber
mized by the use of properly designed shock (e.g. , G.E. RTV 580 ) . Care must be taken to first
mounts, the particular application often dictates. prime the surface, and to apply the RTV to the
which technique should be employed . The com- diaphragm so that no voids or irregularities are
plications associated with shock mounting trans- present in the application of this ablative material .
ducers as shown in Fig. 9.3.3e may not be Ablative protection can extend considerably the
warranted if the acceleration levels are low or the exposure time of the transducer diaphragm before
effects not objectionable. Another consideration damage occurs.
may be the occasional loss of frequency response There is some effect on the resonant frequency
attendant with some non-flush , shock-mount of the transducer because of the RTV coating.
configurations .596 Whatever configuration is finally The effect is minimal with very thin coats and
decided upon it should be evaluated under test does not alter the data appreciably. A 0.020-inch-
conditions. If the vibration effects are to be thick coat of RTV on a Kistler diaphragm reduced
eliminated they must be prevented from becoming the resonant frequency approximately 25 % 36
mixed with the pressure data . Once the two have (400 down to 300 kHz ) .
been combined they are almost impossible to Figure 9.3.3f illustrates how various types of
separate. diaphragm protection affect thermal drift rates
HEAT TRANSFER EFFECTS : In addition to during bomb initiated instability firings. For
the influence on frequency response, if the trans- purposes of comparison the entire chamber
ducer is slightly recessed, the swirling action at pressure run record has been compressed to better
the edge of the transducer hole will cause the illustrate the thermal drift . Instantaneous heat-
chamber to erode around the transducer. This transfer measurements were not made, but were
erosion, if allowed to continue , will soon cause the probably on the order of 50 Btu/in.2/sec, sufficient
transducer to fail . Any protrusion of the transducer to burn through a 3 -inch-thick steel chamber wall
into the hot gas stream will have a similar erosion in less than 1 second . These records were played
effect starting on the edge of the transducer. back from analog tape through a 1 kHz filter to
Once metal has started to flow, severe erosion and eliminate unimportant (in this instance ) high
subsequent transducer failure is imminent. frequencies. Trace (a ) is the output of a Kistler
In a flush installation the transducer will be 603A transducer that lost its 0.060 inch coating of
subjected to heat-transfer rates which produce RTV 580 during instability. The change in drift
effects ranging from slight thermal drift to com- rate just before firing termination is quite ap-
plete diaphragm burn through. Many of the parent . Trace ( b ) shows a drift rate on the order
available transducers utilize cooling or insulating of 0.2 psi/msec throughout the entire period of
techniques which affect the transducer response ; instability. This rate, typical of those measured
some to the extent that they render the transducer when the ablative coating remained intact , is
Kistler transducer shock mount
Isolated mount with

603 transducer
.75 "
Chamber
wall
.73"
Pressure
balancing
ports
Transmissibility characteristics of pressure

compensated shock mount
Amplification
25.0
Output ( to transducer)
Amplification = Silastic
Input (to shock mount )
20.0 Input to shock mount top ring
held constant ‫ރ‬
Without compensating
15.0 at 10g's ( peak) press. feature @ 300 psi
Basic transducer
10,0 mount -300 psig Neoprene
top ring
With 128 gm added mass
300 psig
5.0
1.0
Basic weight of isolated portion of mount ~

20 gm with accelerometer
100 5 IK 5K IOK
Frequency, Hz
FIGURE 9.3.3e.- Design and performance of shock mount and transducer.

Resonant Bomb pulse

combustion ignition
Z
Protective coating lost
Drift (a ) Kistler model 603A
rate transducer, shock Resonant
0.42psi/msec mounted , recessed combustion
Firing termination 0.060 in . and potted Bomb pulse
(propellant valve with RTV 560. Ignition
starts to close) Run B948
Resonant Bomb pulse Z
combustion Ignition (d ) Kistler model 603A
'Drift rate in helium bleed
1.7psi/msec adapter model 615 A.
(b) Kistler model hard mounted, adapter
' Drift 603A transducer, flush . Run B994
rate shock mounted
0.19 psi/msec recessed 0.060in.
and potted with RTV 560.
RUN B948 Resonant combustion
-Bomb pulse Ignition
Increasing time
Resonant -Bomb pulse
combustion Ignition- -Protective
(e) Kistler model
coating 603A hard mounted ,
lost
flush, with thin
(c)Photocon model 352 Drift rate coating of RTV580
Drift transducer with
rate 67psi/msec over diaphragm .
water -cooled flame RUN BIO20
0.75psi/msec shield and diaphragm ;
shock mounted.
RUN B948
100 msec
FIGURE 9.3.3f. - Comparison of transducer thermal drift rates during combustion instability.
quite good when one considers the severity of the the inside chamber wall. A thin coating of RTV
environment. Trace (c) shows the output of a 580 (less than 0.010 inch average thickness)
Photocon 352A transducer with water- cooled was spread over the transducer diaphragm .
flame shield and diaphragm . Its drift rate prior to Needless to say, the drift rate was high, but even
the start of instability is lower than that of the here it is evident when the coating left the
ablative coated transducer, but during instability diaphragm . Prior to that point the drift rate
is higher than the uncooled transducer. Trace ( d ) appears to be acceptable. In an application where
shows the output of a Kistler 603A transducer maximum frequency response is required , this
mounted in a helium bleed adapter (Model 615 ) . type of installation could be used to obtain data
The drift rate here, while not objectionable, is in the early portion of a firing .
considerably higher than that of previous condi- A few basic guidelines to the improvement of
tions . The reason is probably that the transducer heat transfer characteristics can be summarized
diaphragm, although cooled , still sees a great as follows :
Ideal of heat due to radiation . In even a short 1. If the transducer has a double diaphragm
duration firing the radiation effects are significant with internal water cooling, the outer or
and the thermal sensitivity can be greatly im- exposed portion of the diaphragm should
proved by the application of a thin coating of be smooth- to minimize erosion by high
ablative or ceramic material. Helium- cooled velocity, hot gases. The use of such tech-
transducers have the advantage of being able to niques as nickel-gold brazing or electron.
withstand significantly longer duration firings beam welding of diaphragm to internal
than the ablative protected type. Trace (e ) is the passages220 is often desirable .
output of a 603A transducer mounted flush with 2. Cooling water pressure should be kept high ,
the only practical limit being the strength normal transducer mounting cannot be employed .
of the cooling passages or the point at which Several specialized transducers and mounting
flow rates begin to produce noise. techniques have been developed for such cases.
3. The diaphragm should be protected from For example, the small passage, helium bleed
heating effects caused by radiation as well transducer described in Sect . 9.3.2.1 was de-
as conduction. A thin coating of ablative veloped to fit between adjacent tubes of a regen-
or ceramic material will usually accomplish eratively cooled combustion chamber.
the desired effect without significantly Mounting through the injector flange is another
affecting frequency response. technique that can be used if space is available .
4. If one of the RTV compounds is used, the Again it is usually a specially designed transducer
cavity surfaces should be carefully primed for a particular application . This type of applica-
and the RTV material applied in such a tion is illustrated in Fig. 9.3.3g . In this case a
manner as to prevent voids. Poorly applied boss was adapted to the injector flange through
ablative material is of little value . As an the outer fuel channel of the injector. The trans-
additional safeguard against dislodging ducer shown in the boss is a helium bleed type
relatively thick ablative coatings during with a 25 kHz resonant frequency. Measurement
instability , the cavity can be slightly response is flat 10% to approximately 10 kHz
undercut at the diaphragm end.36 without any electrical compensation. With elec-
5. The technique of compressing firings into trical compensation it is possible to maintain a
periods of substantially less than one second flat response to 20 kHz . A measurement of this
with useful combustion information avail- type can be made with any type of combustion
able within 100 msec after ignition will chamber since the measurement location is made
greatly reduce the time the instrumentation. in the injector flange.
is exposed to the severe combustion environ- Recent advances in the heat transfer capabilities
ment and its damaging effects. When these of water-cooled pressure probes now permit the
firing procedures can be employed , signifi- measurement of high frequency pressure variations
cant simplification of the environmental throughout the combustion volume (rather than
protection will result . only at the wall) . Figure 9.3.3h illustrates two
The importance of temperature sensitivity on internal rocket motor probes designed and built
.
data is influenced largely by the use to which the by Greyrad Corporation19 for a JPL combustion
data will be put as well as the type of sensitivity instability program . The probes can be adjusted
the transducer exhibits . For instance , if de or within their adapters to measure high frequency
steady-state values are not required , thermal pressure variations at locations inch to 5 inches
drift rates may be of no concern at all . If they are from the inside of the chamber wall. Thermal
of interest and the drift rate is known they can be protection is provided by high water flow rates
corrected . Certainly of greater concern is whether through inner and outer tube bundles. Approxi-
or not there is a change in the output sensitivity
due to temperature . A significant change of this
type can render high frequency data worthless. Helium bleed transducer Fuel manifold
Fortunately, many of the high response trans-
ducers available show negligible output sensitivity
change with temperature, although they may
exhibit considerable zero drift under certain
conditions . It may be true , therefore , that thermal
effects are either unimportant or in some cases Helium filter
easily eliminated , but in all instances they must.
Injector flange Transducer boss insert
be considered .
9.3.3.3 Special mounting techniques. - It is often

FIGURE 9.3.3g .-Typical transducer mounting through
necessary to measure dynamic pressures when injector flange.
Transducer
cable
Water
connection
Clamp
Adapter
(to fit shock mounted STLERCLA
Kistler hole) RT
2" Adapter slides up and down

Inner tube probe to vary extension
bundle into motor
Outer copper
shell
Water exits here

Sensing area and at end of probe
(potted with RTV
580)
FIGURE 9.3.3h.-Internal rocket motor probe.
mately half the water is used to cool the outer tube response of 20 kHz and the assumption is that this
bundle and exits above the 90° bend in the probe. is the quality of the measurement . Although the
The remainder is forced across the sensing area of quality may very well be as quoted, often the
the transducer (Kistler Model 603A) and out signal conditioning system or the recorder is
into the motor chamber. In addition to the water incapable of meeting the response required .
cooling there is a 0.020 inch coating of RTV 580
on the transducer diaphragm to provide pre- 9.3.4.1 Signal conditioning.-To accommodate
viously discussed protection against thermal the transducers previously discussed any one of
radiation.
four types of signal conditioning systems is
required . These are ( 1 ) the strain gage system
9.3.4 Signal Conditioning and Recording *
(constant voltage) , (2) the strain gage system
The instrumentation system is only as good as (constant current) , (3 ) the dynagage capacitance
its weakest link and in many instances of dynamic system, and ( 4) the charge system. Each has its
instrumentation this is the signal conditioning own peculiarities but there are some general
equipment or the recorder. In the discussion of considerations which must be taken into account
dynamic pressure instrumentation the emphasis is in all of the systems if acceptable data are to be
usually placed on the transducer. For instance, obtained. For purposes of this discussion the
the transducer will be quoted as having a resonant signal conditioning is that portion of the system
frequency of 100 kHz with a flat frequency from the transducer to the recorder, including the
transmission cable and all intermediate elements.
* R. D. Wesley, Author. Frequency response has been discussed for the
transducer. Response is also important in the Ct transducer capacitance (picofarads)

signal conditioning.36 In the strain gage system the Ce cable capacitance (picofarads)
length of transmission cable from the transducer
to the amplifier and/or recorder will have a pro- As cable length is added the capacitance increases
nounced effect on the frequency response. Multi- and the sensitivity decreases. It is therefore
conductor cables are the accepted transmission recommended that the high impedance voltage
methods for strain gage systems and are quite amplifier be mounted as close as possible to the
satisfactory as long as certain precautions are test item, so that the transducer sensitivity may
taken in utilizing the data from the system. The be kept at a high level.
frequency response is quite poor with long trans- In using the charge amplifier the charge
mission lines. This is due primarily to the cable sensitivity of the pressure transducer can be used
capacitance but it is also affected by the trans- directly. Cable lengths have little or no effect on
ducer output impedance . Frequency response of a the transducer sensitivity, although there is some
given system can be calculated if the cable effect on response.151 If possible, cable lengths
capacitance is known ; however ; a measurement of between the transducer and the charge amplifier
the responses will verify the system as installed.596 should be kept to a minimum, especially if
The normal strain gage system which has a extremely high response is required. Longer cables
cable length of 500 feet and more is totally un- will also have a higher system noise level making it
satisfactory since at 10 kHz the output will be difficult to read low level signals. The use of low
only 50% or less than the cable input. This can be noise cable is recommended for all installations
overcome by installing wide band differential especially those with long cable runs (greater
amplifiers as a buffer near to the transducer.16 than 100 feet ) .
With the proper selection of cable type (low Advantages of charge amplifiers over high
capacitance) and location of the amplifier , a impedance voltage amplifiers include the following
usable system can be installed for the acquisition factors :
of dynamic data.
Cable capacitance effects on sensitivity
With the Photocon dynagage system, coaxial
minimized
cable (RG-8U or a similar type) is required . If
2. Less susceptible to noise
installed as specified by the manufacturer,
3. Possibility for low frequency response
maximum frequency response and linearity will be
realized from the system. Since neither the System noise is prevalent in all installations and
Photocon transducer or the associated electronics every precaution should be taken to subdue it.
are standardized , each transducer must be Having central recording facilities remote from
calibrated with the dynagage and channel used to the test stand can add untold problems. Some of
record data to obtain correct sensitivity factors.732 these noise sources are listed here :
This generally requires that the calibration be
1. Ground loops due to improper grounding
made on the test stand with an accurate external
2. Transmission noise due primarily to im-
pressure source over the full scale transducer
proper shielding
range . Unless this is done , measurement errors of
3. Power or high voltage line interference
system sensitivity could be 25 % and greater.
4. Cable generated noise because of cable
It is possible to make measurements from
vibration
crystal transducers with either a high impedance
voltage amplifier or a charge amplifier . With the Ground loops are due to circulating currents
voltage amplifier the voltage sensitivity of the through measurement circuits . The cause is
transducer is inversely proportional to the total usually that of more than one ground in the sys-
capacitance. tem . To eliminate this situation the measurement
Q system should be grounded in only one place.
E = 1000
et + Cc This is usually at or near the recorder. System
where designers should consider the best ground point
E output voltage ( mv/psi ) for each installation .
૨ charge sensitivity (picocoulomb/psi ) All cables should be shielded and grounded to
eliminate interference ( noise) from stray fields.36 gressed rather rapidly in the improvement of FM
This is especially true in low level input systems. tape records, so that 80 kHz is now easily obtained ,
Electrostatic shielding is provided on com- and many manufacturers are, indeed , furnishing
mercially available cables by using braided this capability in their FM tape recorders.35
copper, spiral wrapped copper, wrapped aluminum This higher frequency response is most desirable
foil and wrapped aluminized mylar. The better when recording steep-fronted waves. Use of the
materials for high frequency shielding are alu- tape recorder in the direct ( AM ) mode, although
minum foil and aluminized mylar which achieve the response is 500 kHz, is not recommended .
an effectiveness of nearly 100% against electro- The channels are neither as stable nor as easy to
static noise when properly installed . use as the FM channels and the noise level is
Magnetic fields can be effectively eliminated by significantly higher.
providing an additional high permeability outer Recordings can adequately be made with either
shield over the electrostatically shielded cable. 14 or 32 tracks on a 1 inch tape. All recording
Another way is to run the electrostatically heads should conform to the IRIG format which
shielded cables in heavy-wall steel conduits . All has become an industry standard.25 When re-
shields should be terminated but only at the cording the higher frequencies, 20 kHz and above,
system ground point . it may be desirable to make dynamic checks on
Power line or power components are a prime the heads of the recorders being used to account
source of system noise . The power lines can act as for phase shifts due to head stack variations . This
transmitter of externally generated noise or they is especially important when different tape
may introduce the power line frequency into other machines are used for recording and reproducing.
circuits through power line ground loops. Power FM tape recorders generally have a ± 1.4 volt
components such as motors , fluorescent lights , input capability. It is always a good practice to
heating equipment and welding equipment are all utilize the full dynamic range . If it is desired to
common noise generators . To eliminate the effects look at the entire profile of a test , the signal
of noise transmission via the power lines it may be should be recorded without high pass filtering so
necessary to add shielded line isolation trans- that the start transient , shut-down and steady-
formers at the power input . Most present day state are available in an absolute pressure sense.
instrumentation components contain shielded In this type of recording it is well to offset or bias
power transformers which may make the isolation the signal to a negative 1.4 volt , and range such
transformer unnecessary . that the full scale pressure is near a positive
Cable noise by vibration during a test is 1.4 volt .
common, especially in the piezoelectric and Usually when making stability measurements
capacitance transducers. Localized electrostatic the prime interest is in the AC portion of the data.
charges can be generated by the relative move- In many instances this can be as little as 5% of
ment of shield , dielectric, and inner conductor the static level. To improve the dynamic signal
during flexing. Specially constructed "low noise" on tape, a common technique is to filter out the
cable has been effective in reducing this noise by DC portion of the data . This can be accomplished
an order of magnitude . with an RC filter, taking care to keep the corner
frequency well below the data frequency of
9.3.4.2 Recording ofdynamic data .-Considering interest . Any insertion losses in the filter may be
the type of data that is required for combustion accounted for by calibrating with the filter in
instability, the methods of recording are very place , using an AC calibration voltage at a fre-
limited . If any detailed analysis is to be performed quency lower than that of the expected data, yet
on the data it must be recorded such that it is higher than the region which is affected by the
readily available in its raw form to various types filter roll-off. This has two basic advantages :
of analysis equipment . FM analog magnetic tape (1) the AC data can be ranged for optimum
recorders are ideal for this type of data handling. scaling on the tape, and ( 2 ) zero shifts due to
Since the interest involves frequencies which transducer heating or other causes do not affect
extend to 20 kHz and above, the recorder must the dynamic recording. Zero shifts can be very
possess this capability . The industry has pro- large and in many instances have driven channels
out of tape band limits when the recording is spaced longitudinally along the combustion cham-
being made in the DC mode. Since the high ber must be used . Again , if placed on the same
frequency transducer is not basically an absolute record , identification is accomplished more easily.
measuring device, little information is lost by It is possible to work between records as long as an
high pass filtering the data prior to recording identifier channel is carried as a common function
on tape. on all playback records.
It is desirable to look at all recorded data in its
9.3.5 Display Techniques * raw form-that is, as it has been recorded-in order
A wide variety of data presentations is available, to ensure that further analysis is performed only
with varying degrees of sophistication. These on valid data. This is normally referred to as a
extend from the presentation of raw data, which "quick look" record which is accomplished by
leaves the engineer to interpret and make hand using tape speed reduction and playing the data
calculations , to completely machine-analyzed back to an analog recorder that has sufficient
response to accurately present the recorded data.
data which is presented in reduced form.
There are four logical methods of handling As an example, 10 kHz data could be accurately
reproduced on an oscillograph which has 2500 Hz
data. Each presents the basic information in a
unique way to aid in the analysis of combustion galvanometers with a 4 : 1 tape speed reduction.
All that remains is running the oscillograph at
instability data . The methods are , of course, not
sufficient speed to adequately review the data. The
limited to only the analysis of combustion in-
stability, but rather apply to the general category type of testing being performed will help to
of all dynamic data analysis. It is the intent to establish this ; generally, an effective speed which
acquaint the reader with the many tools available allows one to count predominant frequencies is
sufficient for a first look. For 10 kHz , under the
to him so that he might select the most meaningful
above ground rule, an effective speed of 400
presentations in the solution of any given problem.
The four methods or types of data processing inches/second would be sufficient . This could be
accomplished on an oscillograph run at 100
operations are ( 1 ) analog playback, ( 2 ) analog
inches/second with a tape speed playback reduc-
spectrum analysis , ( 3 ) hybrid spectrum analysis ,
tion of 4 : 1 .
and ( 4 ) digital analysis. Each operation utilizes
In many instances where the run is longer, a
given types of equipment and leads to a variety of
much slower effective speed may be sufficient as a
data presentations as shown in Fig. 9.3.5a . It is
the intent here to show the different processing quick look to determine the general quality of
the data and areas of interest for further types of
operations available with a brief description of the
analysis. A direct-write device is recommended
resultant presentation method . In each case it is
since time is often a factor in development testing.
assumed that the data is available on FM tape,
which has been properly recorded , utilizing signal Several good direct-write oscillographs are on the
market, with speeds up to 160 inches/second and
conditioning systems and transducers capable of
high frequency response (recording light beam )
defining the frequencies to be analyzed.
galvanometers . A direct-write stylus recorder can
be used, however, the galvanometer response is
9.3.5.1 Analog playback . -Analog playbacks of
dynamic data, due to their oscillatory nature, low ( under 100 Hz ) and a very high ratio of tape
speed reduction would be necessary to obtain a
require a maximum parameter- limitation of 6 to 8
individual functions for a 12-inch oscillograph 10 kHz frequency response . It should be noted
that large tape speed reductions degrade the
paper width. It is therefore important to group
signal-to-noise ratio of the data (because of wow
functions for ease in instability mode identifica-
and flutter problems encountered in some tape
tion. All parameters on a single axial plane should
equipment ) but are satisfactory unless the data
.
be grouped on the same record . With this record
level is near the system noise level.
it is possible to identify a tangential mode . For
After a review of the originally recorded data,
longitudinal mode identification , transducers
many options can be exercised for further data
* R. D. Wesley and R. F. Hefner, Authors . presentation on the oscillograph. Some of these
Raw data Types of data Equipment Data representation

Reproducer
play back operations
Analog record - low effective speed

Analog (envelope amplitude record )
Oscillograph Analog record - high effective speed
playback
Analog record -special ( filtered )
Amplitude vs frequency
(fixed time span)
Sweep analyzer Amplitude vs time
X-Y plotter ( fixed frequency band)
Amplitude vs time
Analog spectrum (variable frequency band)
analysis
Amplitude vs time
Wave analyzer (wide frequency band)
FM Quick look level recorder Amplitude vs time
tape analog ( restricted frequency band)
Hybrid analyzer Amplitude vs frequency (fixed time)
X -Y plotter
Hybrid spectrum
analysis Amplitude vs frequency vs time
Hybrid analyzer (tabulated)
digital computer Amplitude distribution vs frequency
(fixed time)
Amplitude vs frequency (fixed time)
Phase - gain ; coherence
Auto and cross correlation
Digital High speed digitizer Spectral density and
analysis digital computer cross spectral density
Amplitude distribution
Shock spectrum
FIGURE 9.3.5a .-Typical data reproduction presentation methods.
are : 0.4 inch/cycle, which is sufficient to determine

LOW EFFECTIVE RECORD SPEED phase angles for mode identification. If one is
(ENVELOPE AMPLITUDE RECORD) : With considering a single frequency mode, the playback
this type of presentation, the pressure envelope can be accomplished without filtering and elimi-
can be determined over an entire run with a short nates the associated filter considerations . If
record, usually 4 to 10 inches/second. This is phase-amplitude analysis is to be accomplished
especially useful on a single frequency and is on a complex mode, it may be necessary to isolate
accomplished by either bandpass, high pass, or an individual frequency by filtering to make
low pass filtering, whichever is most appropriately identification of the combustion instability mode
and easily applied to the data being displayed . possible . Extreme care must be taken when
HIGH EFFECTIVE RECORD SPEED : filtering data so that the original data integrity is
Many different speed combinations are possible not destroyed.
with the wide variety of tape and oscillograph Since the high effective speed records use a
speeds which are available. The important point to considerable amount of paper, and a continuous
remember is to keep the playback system fre- record would present more data than it is possible
quency response compatible with the data being to analyze effectively, it is a standard practice to
reproduced. As an example, if one is interested in reproduce, at high speed, only selected portions of
determining the phasing characteristics of 5 kHz the test as established from the quick look record.
data between variously oriented transducers in a The recording of a time code channel is recom-
combustion chamber, an effective galvanometer mended for positive position location on the tape
response of 10 kHz and effective record speed of at with a minimal effort , especially on longer tests .
least 2000 inches/second is desirable. This allows ANALOG FILTERING : Special records are
often made through analog filters in order to data, or average-responding for Fourier analysis
separate the frequency components in a complex of deterministic data. The resulting data are
mode or to eliminate noise. Problems can be plotted on an X-Y plotter.
encountered with the analog filtering due to Several options are possible for displaying this
filter roll-off and ringing. Filters range from the spectral data depending on its end use. Some of
simple passive RC type to the more complex the most common are36
multi-order active filters . It is not intended that a 1. Amplitude vs. frequency (fixed time span)
complete discussion of filters be included here, 2. Amplitude vs. time ( fixed frequency band )
other than to indicate types available and special 3. Amplitude vs. time ( variable frequency
usage. band)
It was previously mentioned that it is desirable Another approach uses fixed band wave analyzer
to high pass filter when recording on FM tape. In equipment, represented by the Bruel & Kjaer
data reproduction it is best to use a multiorder 2111 Spectrometer and the General Radio 1564
active filter. Since the order of the filter determines Analyzer. On both of these instruments the data.
the roll-off characteristics, a high order ( generally may be passed through either -octave or 1 -octave
6) is desirable. A higher order filter produces a continuous filters , or may be unfiltered . The
greater attenuation above the cut -off frequency. output is usually recorded on a high speed level
Phase shift is another serious consideration recorder using a logarithmic ( db) amplitude scale .
when filtering data , especially if the phase shift The principal differences between this class of
through a number of filters is different for the instrument and the sweep analyzer are in the use
same input conditions. This however, can usually of fixed filters whose width is a constant per-
be specified when purchasing a filter for delivery centage of the analysis frequency rather than a
to acceptable limits. The optimum type of filter fixed bandwidth, and the use of an associated
to use-such as Butterworth, Chebyshev, Bessel, or recorder with much faster capability than the
Linear Phase-will depend on the type of analysis usual X-Y plotter. The relatively wide band
to be performed after the data is filtered.313,438,502,699 filters and high recorder speed permit following
The Chebyshev filter of a given order is a closer much more rapid changes in amplitude than with
approximation to the ideal filter than an equal the sweep analyzer.
order Butterworth filter ; however the Butter- As in the case of analog playbacks, a single
worth filter has flat frequency response without frequency mode can easily be displayed by a
peaking prior to roll-off, whereas the Chebyshev fixed-band wave analyzer to show the rate of
filter has some amplitude ripple and extreme phase decay or increase . It is also relatively simple to
distortion . Linear phase filters of which the calculate the decay rate with only one frequency
Bessel type is representative are generally present. Generally when an instability is induced ,
specified when time distortion is a consideration . multi-frequency components are present . One of
Fig . 9.3.5b depicts the amplitude and phase the indicators of the combustion stability index is
characteristics of the filters mentioned . the ability of an engine to sustain and recover
from an induced perturbation. If the engine
9.3.5.2 Analog spectrum analysis . Sweep anal- recovers , there will be some damping rate asso-
ysis is performed on equipment in which a rela- ciated with the pulse in that particular engine.
tively narrow, fixed bandwidth filter is swept or Further, each frequency associated with the
incremented slowly through the frequency range pulse may have a different damping rate . If a low
of interest. Since the rate of this sweep must be damping rate is indicated at a particular fre-
quite slow in order to allow the filter time to quency, further refinements on the hardware may
respond to changes in the data amplitude, it is be made concentrating on further damping the
the usual practice to select a time period repre- given frequency.
sentative of the data and make this sample. Types of presentations include³6
repetitive by means of a tape loop . The output of 1. Amplitude vs. time (wide frequency band)
the filter is applied to a suitable detector, either 2. Amplitude vs. time (restricted frequency
true rms for power density analysis of random band)
Amplitude
response
(degrees
-20 o -200
Phase
O
b
)error
)(d
-10 5 -100
HO 10
15 +10 15 +100
20
O.I 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 0.1 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0
fn În
Butterworth, 6th order Chebyshev, 6th order
Amplitude
response
11
-15
Amplitude response
)( b
-in db
d
and phase error --- in degrees

5
-10
of various filters vs normalized
frequency fn
-5
where :
= £
15 În fc
Analog filter characteristics

20
0
ΟΙ! 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0
In
Bessel, 6 th order
FIGURE 9.3.5b. -Analog filter characteristics .
9.3.5.3 Hybrid spectrum analysis. -A unique Record time length (effective data storage ) in
method of presenting a frequency-amplitude-time the fixed mode of operation is directly related to
profile is by means of the Hybrid Spectral Analyzer. the analysis spectrum to be analyzed as shown in
It is termed hybrid because both digital and analog Table 9.3.5 . It can be seen that very short sections
techniques are used in one analysis system to of data can be locked up and analyzed . Fig . 9.3.5c
produce the data.16 With this equipment, data can is an example of a pressure trace and its spectrum
be analyzed on a single channel basis in real time. analysis in a combustion chamber which has been
It is unique in that the analysis can be made in subjected to a gun pulse and recovered . The same
real time over an entire test , or selected small type of analysis can be made of unstable data
sections of a test, with various data presentations . over selected time spans.
A detailed analysis can be readily performed on as The most used mode of operation of the hybrid
little as 25 milliseconds of run data . analyzer is with a digital data processor. Here the
When used in conjunction with an X-Y plotter, same delay lines that were mentioned above are
the hybrid spectrum analyzer is used in the used . However, instead of locking the data up in
so-called "locked-up storage mode. " The analyzer the delay lines, new data bits are continually
uses delay lines with fixed bit storage capacity. added and old data bits are dropped out such
TABLE 9.3.5 .- HYBRID SPECTRUM-ANALYZER SPECTRAL SPECTRAL WIDTHS, FILTER Bandwidths,

AND EFFECTIVE DATA STORAGE TIME
Tape Analysis spectrum Narrow-filter bandwidth Wide-filter bandwidth Effective data storage
speed (frequency range), Hz (1/500 of freq. range), Hz ( 1/50 of freq. range) , Hz time, sec
1/1 0.01 to 5 0.01 0.1 100

1/2 10 .02 .2 50
1/4 20 .04 .4 25
1/8 40 .08 .8 12
1/16 80 .16 1.6 6
8421
1/1 0.125 to 62.5 0.125 1.25
1/2 125 .25 2.5
1/4 250 .5 5.0
1/8 500 1.0 10.0
1/16 1 000 2.0 20.0 .5
1/1 0.5 to 250 0.5 5.0 2.0

1/2 500 1.0 10.5 1.0
1/4 1 000 2.0 20 .5
1/8 2.000 4.0 40 .25
1/16 4.000 8.0 80 .125
1/1 2.0 to 1000 2.0 20.0 0.5

1/2 2.000 4.0 40 .25
1/4 4 000 8.0 80 .125
1/8 8 000 16.0 160 .062
1/16 16 000 32.0 320 .031
1/1 10.0 to 5000 10.0 100.0 0.1

1/2 10 000 20.0 200 .05
1/4 20 000 40.0 400 .025
1/8 40 000 80.0 800 .012
that the analysis is continually made on a fixed where complex or varying frequencies are present,
length of data storage in essentially real time. is to tabulate amplitude as a function offrequency
After analysis, the data is recorded in digital and time. Data are presented in a complete
form on a digital tape recorder for digesting and manner in that frequency spectrum analysis is
formating for useful presentations by a digital made incrementally with time. As an example, if
data processor. Again, as with the X-Y plotter the analysis spectrum is 0 to 10 kHz, each fre-
output , the analysis spectrum is pre-selected , with quency band is sampled every 0.050 second .
filter bandwidth and effective data storage time Once the data has been analyzed and recorded
as specified by Table 9.3.5 . The selectability in on the digital tape, one of the options available
the filter bandwidth is either narrow or wide as with the computer is to present the amplitude
indicated with a 10 : 1 difference between the two versus frequency over any number of periods of
filters . The frequency resolution is correspondingly test time, or the entire test . This is useful when
different between the two modes in that with the looking for energy levels over a discrete segment
narrow filter the analysis is made with 500 lines of a test such as that done under the analog
of data (that is, 500 equally spaced increments method with a tape loop. The advantage here is
over the analysis spectrum) whereas with the that the length is extremely flexible. Output can
wide band filter only 50 lines of data are presented . be in the form of a tabulation or a plot . Other
An excellent method to survey an entire run, variations are also possible .
300 PSI
T
1.510 1.535
20
Data sample time :

10 1.510 to 1.535 sec
‫لس‬
2500 5000 7500 10000
Frequency ( Hz )
FIGURE 9.3.5c.-Pulse spectral analysis .
9.3.5.4 Digital analysis.-Advances in the state- processing is known as phase-gain analysis since
of-the-art in analog-to-digital conversion equip- the phase and amplitude of the output data is
ment , digital processing equipment, and in developed and referenced to the phase and
program mathematics have made practical the amplitude of the input to determine the gain and
processing of dynamic data by completely digital phase shift characteristics of the system over the
techniques. A few years ago the prohibitive cost desired frequency range. Programs have been
of the large amounts of equipment time required written and are in use for this type of data .
for these types of processing made digital pro- Digital analysis of stability data is often carried
cessing impractical except for data of relatively out in the time domain rather than the frequency
low or restricted frequency range. domain because of the simpler programming this
The advent of analog-to-digital converters with method offers . The technique briefly consists of
basic conversion rates of up to 105 samples per multiplying the data at time "t" by itself (auto
second, higher speed computers, and the avail- correlation) or by another channel ( cross correla-
ability of computer routines such as the Coolty- tion) at time "t +dt. " A large number of products
Tukey fast Fourier transform,533 has made the are generated, averaged, and normalized at each
application of completely digital techniques delay time dt as the delay time is varied from a
practical for dynamic data processing of a general low to a high value. A plot of the resulting
nature. Some of the processes currently in use are normalized averages versus dt is the auto or
described in the following paragraphs as repre- cross correlation function .
sentative of this type of dynamic data analysis . If a definite periodicity is present in the data ,
One of the principal methods for the analysis of the correlation function will show a repetitive
the dynamic behavior of a physical device or shape with this period . The method has a powerful
system is by comparing the system output with practical use in extracting low level data at a
the input.36 The transfer function of a physical known frequency from very high accompanying
device or system can usually be determined from noise. Spectral analysis using either hybrid
these data, or the effect of it can at least be analyzers or digital filters has largely supplanted
plotted as a function of frequency. This type of correlation techniques due to the reduced machine
time or easier interpretation of the data they De Optical beam diameter at condenser lens
offer. Do Optical beam diameter at camera lens
Spectral density and cross spectral density D₁ Spark gap size
analyses may be thought of as special cases of D' Optical beam diameter at flame light stop
auto and cross correlation . Here, the delayed d Distance between field of view in chamber
function is also multiplied by the Fourier trans- and center of condenser lens
form into the time domain of the frequency F Size of image on film plate
response of a specified filter. Since the entire fe Focal length of condenser lens
process is digital, the frequency response of the fo Focal length of camera lens
simulated filter may be anything desired , even h Size of field of view
rectangular. The output is transformed to the m Magnification
frequency domain and plotted in mean square W Diameter of chamber window
units per hertz . Spark object distance
**
If the input data is digitized from the raw Distance from condenser lens to spark
analog, the output is equivalent to the amplitude image formed by condenser alone
probability distribution versus time. Detecting Distance from camera lens to field of view
***
and smoothing of the raw data, before digitizing Distance from camera lens to film plate
it, produces a probability distribution of the data X. Distance from camera lens to spark image
envelope versus time. formed by condenser
The peak response of a number of single degree Xs' Distance from camera lens to flame light
of freedom resonators to a transient waveform stop
makes up a shock spectrum. A plot of the shock
spectrum consists of the maximum acceleration 9.4.1 Cinematography *
experienced by these single degree of freedom
Motion picture photography is a long estab-
systems (with specified damping characteristics ) lished, well-proven tool for studying combustion
as a function of their own natural frequency in and combustion instabilities. The more sophisti-
response to an applied shock. Although used cated uses have been associated with transparent
primarily in environmental work, it has value in chambers or windows ; however , excellent results
stability work in investigating the effect on the have also been observed through the nozzle.
hardware of charges used in liquid engines . This Where it is impractical to view inside of the
method of analysis is also used to analyze shock combustion chamber, useful data may be obtained
tube data.
from plume photography. In terms of potential
failure analysis , overall test stand views are used .
9.4 OPTICAL MEASUREMENTS For instance, rocket engine production testing is
recorded with several high speed motion cameras.
Optical measurements rank close to pressure Because the testing is so routine, the film is not
measurements in both wide usage and in supplying developed . However, should a combustion in-
pertinent data on combustion phenomena. A stability or malfunction cause a premature cutoff,
wide variety of optical techniques have been used the film is processed and used to aid investigation.
which range from direct photography to analog Thus, careful selection of test cinematography
recordings from optical sensors . This section offers detailed data of the expected and , often,
describes some of the techniques that have been the only record of the unusual or unexpected .
employed , outlining advantages and limitations,
and how the techniques are dependent upon the 9.4.1.1 Combustion zone photography. Several
combustion environment under investigation .
techniques have been employed to obtain direct
The following nomenclature pertains to Sect . 9.4 . light emission photographs of rocket engine
combustion processes . The two most common
BCA
В Maximum bellows extension

usages of motion picture photographic recording
Xe/ fe
Ꭰ Optical beam diameter at chamber window * R. J. Hefner, T. A. Coultas, and W. M. Ford, Authors.
of combustion processes are those associated with involved . Framing photography is of most value
combustion taking place in an unconfined environ- to observe the onset or triggering of instability
ment and within special research combustors such as may be caused by a combustion "pop, "
employing at least one flat transparent sur- an ignition "spike" or the buildup of a linear
face, 514,608,88 There have been several techniques instability.
developed, however, to permit direct photographic Relatively small general observation windows
coverage of events occurring in full-scale rocket have been employed in the walls of the full- scale
simulators and in prototype rocket engines. uncooled combustion chamber simulators of the
Many of the subscale rocket simulators such as second stage Gemini engine. " For this application
those described in Sect . 9.2.2 employ transparent it was found that either quartz or transparent
windows or combustor walls to permit direct plastic was adequate to permit surveillance of the
photographic recording of events taking place overall combustion characteristics within the
within the combustor. Generally these viewing combustor . Although dramatic differences in
windows are constructed of heat resistant glass or luminosity between stable and unstable com-
transparent plastic, although quartz is frequently bustion were recorded, the speed and depth of
used if the dimensions of the window are relatively focus of the cameras used did not permit recording
small. The primary disadvantage of all of these data which could be used in diagnostic evaluation
window materials is that they generally limit the of instabilities.
test duration to less than two seconds due to their Another use of high speed framing cameras for
relatively low heat capacity and melting points. recording combustion instability within an engine
Quartz and heat resistant glass have higher involves the use of a window located in the center
melting points than the plastics and thus are of the injector face of a full-scale combustor. For
capable of withstanding longer exposure to the this application a small hemispherical quartz
combustion environment but they have the added dome is mounted in the center of the injector.
disadvantage of being brittle. Behind this dome is a complex system of lenses to
In steady-state combustion, high speed pho- permit wide angle ( 160° ) exposure of the complete
tography of transparent rocket chambers allows cross section of the combustion chamber (Fig.
the qualitative visualization of propellant and 9.4.1a ) . High speed motion picture cameras
combustion gas flow patterns , spray interactions, mounted behind this "periscope" record the com-
and jet breakup , and stripping* (Refs. 424 , 421 , bustion process within the combustor. It has been
and 74) . Approximate distances required for found that wave patterns of the transverse mode
consumption of gross liquid streams, recirculation instabilities can be clearly observed by the
patterns , cross winds ( and mixing patterns ) may gradation of illumination.525
be determined . Special effects such as ignition Both standing and spinning forms of transverse
and tap-off (gases taken from the main com- mode instabilities have been recorded using the
bustion chamber to operate turbo-machinery) apparatus shown in Fig. 9.4.1a. It was found that
may also be effectively studied with transparent with the spinning mode of instability highly
chambers and high speed cinematography.275,440 luminous waves , corresponding to the peak
In the study of combustion instability, trans- pressure of the unstable wave front , could be
parent chamber photography enables the in- observed rotating within the combustor cavity.
vestigator to observe the reaction of the injected With the standing transverse mode the luminosity
streams to a combustion wave, the mode of the periodically increased and decreased in specific
instability, the flow behind the combustion wave, regions of the cavity corresponding to the pressure
the response of the feed system and other effects antinodal planes of the instability. The camera
upon the combustion instability. In the case of speed used with this type of apparatus is not
resonant instability , most of the quantitative data critical so long as the shutter speed is sufficient to
is taken with streak photography rather than stop the wave motion within the cavity, and the
framing because of the very rapid processes frame speed is not an integral multiple of the
frequency of instability .
* Removal of the surface fluid from a jet or droplet. All of the transparent window materials men-
Doublet lens
Triplet A lens
Pupil Triplet B lens
Camera lenses Relay lens
Corrector
Quartz
Dome
Meniscus lens
Injector face
FIGURE 9.4.1a.-Injector periscope assembly.
tioned above are subject to surface deformation from the exhaust gases. This technique is limited
due to erosion which can result in distortion of the to propellants whose exhaust products are trans-
photographic images . In addition it has been parent in part of the visible spectrum and are not
observed that , under low chamber gas velocities , clouded with particles. Depending upon the
plastic materials will produce a combustion front optical path length through the hot gases, some
at the inner surface of the window. The flame of the combustion process detail is lost . Although
resulting from this phenomenon radiates strongly little may be seen of the detail, events such as
in the wavelength range of standard color and "pops," "spikes, " bomb or pulse guns are easily
black and white films and is quite sensitive to filmed through the nozzle. Combs has used streak
velocity. This characteristic can be used to cameras with curved slits to obtain quantitative
advantage to record wave motion at the chamber data through the throat.167 Clayton's movies150
wall by focusing the camera on the flame front at indicate the zones of intensified combustion as
the internal surface of the window. Under condi- well as showing what appears to be considerable
tions of instability the fluctuating velocity patterns amounts of propellants thrown out of the chamber
result in periodic ignition and extinguishment of unburned .
the flame at the surface of the window. For
observing phenomena within the combustion zone 9.4.1.2 Exhaust plume photography.- The ex-
caution must be used to avoid obscuring the haust gas plume from a rocket engine can provide
desired image. This can be accomplished either significant information about the combustion
by locating the window in a relatively high velocity phenomena within the combustor.405 This is of
region of the combustor to prevent the surface particular advantage when it is impractical to use
combustion or by using appropriate filters on high response instrumentation or high speed
the camera. photographic techniques to monitor the com-
Another technique that has been employed to bustion process. In Sect. 9.4.3 the use of radi-
provide data similar to that described for the ometry to record the temporal emissions from
periscope camera is to place a high speed motion exhaust gases is discussed , while here the tech-
picture camera beyond the chamber nozzle aimed nique of photographing the exhaust gases is
into the combustor cavity.655,163,150 The major covered.
difficulty of this technique is locating the camera When resonant combustion is initiated and
in such a position as to observe most of the interior sustained within an engine , motion pictures of the
of the cavity and at the same time protecting it exhaust typically record a dramatic change in
color or luminosity. The change in exhaust plume Oxidizers containing O , F & fuels containing H ,C,O & N
1000
characteristics is not well understood and may OH NH CH HF Very weak 100
HF 10
reflect different mechanisms with different engines . M CH Д H20
1.
It may be the result of a change in the com- .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
position of the exhaust gases or may be the result
of increased ablation or erosion of the chamber
walls . Regardless of the cause, the change of color Nitrogen tetroxide & 50 % UDMH + 50% hydrazine
intensity
Relative
1000
or luminosity of the exhaust plume provides a OH CH 100
scale
ANH NO2 10
Very weak H₂O
simple means of monitoring production engine.
tests for instabilities by photographic techniques . .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
More quantitative monitoring of the combustion
process by photographing exhaust gases can be
accomplished by taking high speed motion LOX /RP-I
1000
H
pictures of the first shock diamond in the exhaust OH CH C2 100
10
plume (see Sect . 9.4.3.3 ) . The forward surface of Carbon continuum
T T
this shock front is nearly flat and its relative .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 8 9 1.0
distance from the sonic throat of the engine is
directly proportional to the pressure within the
combustor. If a high speed camera is located so Hydrogen & oxygen
1000
that the plane of the shock front is normal to the OH WeakH₂O H₂O H₂O 100
10
film , changes in the location and the frequency of
the motion can be accurately recorded . .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
It has been found that this shock surface Spectral wavelength ~ microns
responds very rapidly to pressure variations Ultraviolet Infrared
within the combustor . Feed system coupled |
instabilities and combustion disturbances can be
easily detected by changes in the location of the
FIGURE 9.4.1b . -Typical propellant combinations-optical
shock surface . If the speed of the camera is suffi- spectrum .
ciently great , resonant instabilities can be detected
and identified by monitoring the motion of the
shock surface. It has been suggested that if species are OH at 0.31 micron and water at 0.65 ,
simultaneous high speed photographs are made 0.73 , 0.80, 0.93 and 1.1 microns . The characteristic
from different angles, the actual wave shapes of light blue associated with the hydrogen-oxygen
transverse and radial mode resonant instabilities combustion is generally considered to be due to
could be reconstructed from the motion of the an OH recombination reaction.529 From about
shock surface, but there are no published data 0.27 to 0.5 micron, emission from the OH species
indicating that this has ever been attempted . is an indication of combustion occurring since OH
is primarily a transient reaction species. Water,
9.4.1.3 Photographic techniques. - The key to on the other hand, is a product of the principal
maximizing information from high speed movie reaction and identifies regions where the reaction.
film includes an understanding of spectral char- is at least partially complete .
acteristics of the camera equipment , film lenses, When transparent chambers are used , the ideal
transparent hardware, filters and the reacting window would pass light wavelengths from 0.2
species. The spectral characteristics of several to 1.5 microns, * be easily machinable, be equally
representative propellant combinations are shown. strong in tension and compression , be insensitive
in Fig. 9.4.1b. The visible spectrum is indicated to thermal shock, have a high melting point and
for comparison purposes . The hydrogen-oxygen
reactions are characterized by species which in * Special hypersensitized film techniques are required to
achieve 1.5 micron sensitivity, whereas optical techniques
part emit light with wavelengths between 0.2
could supply useful data to 4 micron wavelengths or
micron and 1.2 microns . The principal emitting greater.
be inexpensive. Since such a material is not avail- supply voltage to the drive motor. Motors
able, compromise materials are often used . Those operating at voltages between 30 and 220 volts
which have been most successful are Plexiglas result in framing rates between 1500 and 8000
(or Lucite) , Pyrex, and fused quartz . The com- frames per second for the 16 mm frame size. The
posite of a Pyrex sheet (for dimensional stability) exposure time for each frame is orth the
bonded to Plexiglas (for mechanical strength) reciprocal of the framing rate, depending upon
with such adhesives as PS- 18, RTV 602 , or the camera model . A special eight sided prism
Uralane 5716 have been successfully used . Quartz offers twice the framing rate at the same film
windows, if they are kept small and installed very velocity by exposing only one half of each 16 mm
carefully to avoid being loaded in tension, even frame. This is called a split-frame camera.
temporarily, are also very good. Fig . 9.4.1c Lenses and rotating prisms are made from high
shows the transmission characteristics of various quality optical glass and coated to protect their
chamber and bonding materials. exposed surfaces. This equipment cannot pass
Many kinds and makes of camera have been wavelengths below about 0.4 micron. To pho-
used in combustion instability research, one of the tograph into the ultraviolet region requires special
most popular has been the Fastax camera,8 lenses and prisms . The transmission properties of
although recently the Hycam camera is also some typical lens and prism materials as well as
receiving considerable attention.367 The key fea- some typical filters are shown in Fig. 9.4.1d .
tures of the Fastax camera include a variable- Although there are many types of photographic
speed film drive, rotating prism, neon timing light , film available, only a few types need be con-
drive cut-off switch and supply and take-up sidered for combustion photography. The film
reels . The variable speed drive is controlled by the records the apparent brightness of the subject .
Black and white film records brightness over the
entire spectrum to which it responds, while color
NOTE : UNSHADED AREAS INDICATE TRANSMISSION
Note : Unshaded areas indicate transmission or response
Ultraviolet Blue Red Infrared

.3 .4 5 .6 .7 .8 1.0
Uralane 5716 Lenses
cb2-7μ
Quartz lens & sapphire prism
Regular lens & prism Co 2-5μ

Filters
RTV- 602 88A
Special OCLI
7-54
Plexiglas
12 OR 15
Film
B & W TIO3-0 U.V
Pyrex
B &W RAR 5498 U.V.
Melting pyrex emission
B&W I- N Negative I.R.
Type 101 quartz
False color 8443 I.R.
Regular color or B & W

.3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
.2 .3 .5 1.0
Spectral wavelength ~ microns Spectral wavelength microns
FIGURE 9.4.1c.-Transparent chamber materials-optical FIGURE 9.4.1d .-Film spectral response and camera equip-
transmission. ment transmission.
film records brightness at a characteristic color optimum film transport speed depends on the
wavelength. In general, for photography of velocity expected to be measured as well as the
combustion processes, color film shows more detail magnification of the optical system , and is selected
with better contrast . A summary of film spectral so that the streaks will be at approximately 45°
response is also shown in Fig. 9.4.1d . For observa- to the film edge . Figure 9.4.2a shows streak
tion in the infrared region there are false color camera coverage of a transparent two-dimensional
films and black and white negative reversal films . combustion chamber in which the film is con-
The false color IR film is unique in that the color tinually exposed to luminous emission from a
projected on the screen actually represents narrow field of view along the entire chamber
information received at another wavelength. For length. A typical enlargement of such an axial
instance, infrared records as red, red light as streak is shown in Fig. 9.4.2b. Each trace on the
yellow, and green light as blue, thus the entire film is of approximately parabolic shape and
spectrum is shifted toward the infrared . describes the trajectory of a particle ( or cloud of
particles) whose luminosity formed the image.
9.4.2 Streak Photography* The slope of such a trace represents the local axial
velocity of the particle as it traveled through
9.4.2.1 General principles. - The use of streak the chamber.
pictures provides a valuable adjunct to the usual A 90° rotation of the camera from the position
high-speed motion pictures. Streak pictures may shown in Fig. 9.4.2a permits transverse streak
be obtained by modification of high-speed cameras. photographs to be obtained. Fig. 9.4.2c shows
For example, the framing prism of the Fastax simultaneous pressure and transverse streak
camera can be replaced with a narrow slit (0.002 measurements during the occurrence of insta-
inch width typical) positioned at the film plane bility. The streak photo was again obtained from
and perpendicular to the film edges . The film is a two-dimensional motor403 and shows the sharply
then drawn past the slit at high speed with a defined change in luminosity which occurs when
direction of travel perpendicular to the slit . The the instability wave moves from one wall of the
chamber to the other. Pressure was measured
* R. C. Kesselring and T. A. Coultas, Authors . with a Photocon transducer located in the spacer
2-D Combustion chamber -Nozzle inserts
Field of view at chamber
Exhaust
+5"
20.32" -0.002 in. wide slit at

I 13.5" film plane in camera
Injector
26.45" 45.45
1.5"
Fastax camera with

framing prism removed
FIGURE 9.4.28 .- Typical axial streak-camera arrangement.

Distance
Time
injector
from
ó
FIGURE 9.4.2b .- Typical axial streak photo.
2000 psi
Pressure
Photocon
location
Chamber
width
107 (b) Time
FIGURE 9.4.2c. - Typical transverse streak photo with simultaneous pressure measurement .
bar at the same axial location at which the streak pictures have been obtained by direct
vertical slit was positioned. The arrival of the photography of the emitted light424 as well as by
instability wave at the spacer bar coincided with the use of silhouette photography in which a high-
a sharp increase in the pressure recorded by the intensity backlight is employed with a transparent
transducer. Further examination of the streak chamber (see Sect. 9.4.4) .
photo provides evidence of the spontaneous
growth of a transverse wave from negligible 9.4.2.2 Steady-state combustion distribution.-
amplitude to a 2000-psi disturbance in one pass The application of steady-state, streak pho-
across the 20-inch chamber, with damping tography to combustion instability is that of
observed after five passes. The total period , i.e. , determining the axial distribution of combustion,
point a to b, can be easily measured and the which is needed for all theoretical models . The
velocity of the disturbance calculated. combustion distribution is related to the mean
By using several streak cameras having different axial velocity of the combustion gases.402 Although
fields of view, it is possible to examine (in a two- analytical models are available for calculating the
dimensional motor) specific combustion zones, steady-state combustion distribution,421 many of
i.e., near the injector, in the convergent section the input quantities for these models (e.g. , drop
of the nozzle, close to the walls, etc. Successful size distributions, evaporation coefficients, etc. )
4000 in doubt , useful comparisons and conclusions can

3600 still be obtained , using the upper boundary of the
envelope, as identified with the combustion gas
3200 O
O velocity profile .
O
sVelocity
2800
O
9.4.2.3 Application to combustion instability.-
(ftec
)/
2400 Streak photography is one of the best methods by

2000 which the processes occurring during unstable
O
combustion can be delineated and the various
1600
modes of instability identified.
1200 In the study of unstable combustion involving
wave motion in the chamber, the alignment of the
800
desired field of view is dependent upon the mode
400 of instability to be photographed . For example,
Nozzle
convergence axially aligned slits give best results for longitu-
10 2 0 30 40 dinal wave motion. Tangential or circumferential
Chamber length (inches)
(transverse in the case of a 2- D engine) slits are
most informative when used to photograph
FIGURE 9.4.2d. -Typical axial streak velocity profile.
tangential (or transverse) wave motion . This
applies whether the tangential mode is standing or
are not known with any certainty. Thus, streak spinning. Streak photography shows that standing
photography data are necessary for accurate tangential waves have an appearance equivalent
analysis of combustion instability.419,158 to a pair of co-existing , counter-rotating spinning
Steady-state streak film data are usually tangential waves. Transverse waves in a 2- D
presented in the form of plots of streak velocity engine have the appearance (see Fig. 9.4.2c ) of
versus axial position in the chamber. Normally traveling, steep-fronted waves. Radial wave
there is a range of velocities recorded at any motion is best photographed with a radially
location, as shown in Fig. 9.4.2d . aligned slit. This, of course, entails viewing
Lambiris and Combs419 advanced the hypothesis through the nozzle or through a window in the
that luminous traces caused by evaporating, injector face.
reacting propellant particles (gases or very small Consider the cylindrical chamber and the slit
droplets ) traveling at or near the local combustion location pictured in Fig. 9.4.2c . Because the slit is
gas velocity account for the presence of the upper very narrow and its length corresponds to the
boundary of the velocity envelope . Possible film width (film running perpendicular to the long
explanations for the existence and meaning of the axis of the slit ) the wave motion creates a luminous
lower boundary of the velocity envelope have trace on the streak film such as shown in Fig.
been advanced and are discussed in detail in Ref. 9.4.2e. The shape of the luminous trace depends
162. Physical phenomena that may explain the on the type of wave motion (or instability mode)
lower boundary include : the existence of large encountered. Because the luminosity is intensified
liquid propellant droplets , 419,421,158 combustion gas by the wave front, a distinct discontinuity is
turbulence, concentration striations in the com- recorded on the viewing film as the wave moves
bustion gas stream,402 boundary layer effects ,402 along the slit. It appears sharp because the inter-
and condensation of water vapor near the in- section of the wave with the field of view from the
jector.162 Of these, the effects of unmixedness narrow slit produces a point source. (The lumi-
probably dominate in most cases, although the nous discontinuity of the wave moving through
other phenomena may contribute to a certain the combustion zone is almost always associated
extent , depending on the combustion system with the very front of the wave, the region of
studied . rapid pressure rise. ) The slope of the luminous
Although the true explanation for the lower trace on the film is determined by the film and
boundary of the streak velocity envelope remains wave speeds. Knowledge of the film speed allows
FITH Increasing time 427

0 0 ‫םם‬ ‫ם‬ ‫ם‬
Chamber
diameter
‫ם‬ ‫ם‬ ‫ם‬ ‫ם‬ XXXXXXXXX
‫ם‬ ‫ם‬ ‫ם‬ ‫ם‬ ‫ם‬
First tangential mode Second tangential mode

spinning spinning
FITH
0 | 0 | 0 ‫ם‬ ‫ם‬ ‫ס‬
XXXXXXXXXXXXXX___
‫ם‬ ‫ם‬ ‫ם‬ ‫ם‬ ‫ם‬ ‫ם‬ ‫ם‬ ‫ם‬
First tangential mode - standing

IR
FILT Slit location
o lo lo ‫ם‬ ‫ם‬ | ‫ם‬ ‫ם‬ ‫ם‬
Film travel
0 ‫ם‬
First longitudinal mode First radial mode
FIGURE 9.4.2e .-Typical streak film traces of various modes using circumferential slits .
determination of the wave velocity at any point in test firings using a baffled , cylindrical cham-
and the number of waves passing the observation ber.163 More recently, similar streak photography
plane in a given time. Thus, direction of wave with narrow fields of view along and perpendicular
travel, wave speed , frequency and mode identifica- to the axes of explosive bombs mounted inside a
tion are all possible from streak data. cylindrical chamber were used to determine shock
Luminous traces representing various modes of wave velocities at various distances from the
instability are illustrated in Fig . 9.4.2e for a bombs.167
circumferential slit location. The time corre-
9.4.3 Electro-Optical Techniques
sponding to the inverse frequency of the various
modes is also indicated in Fig. 9.4.2e . To best Several techniques have been developed to
study longitudinal or radial wave motion slit record optical data directly on magnetic tape.
configurations other than circumferential must be These techniques involve monitoring the com-
used. Fig. 9.4.2f illustrates luminous traces bustion zone or exhaust plume with photodiodes
representing various instability modes for axial or radiometers and recording the electrical
and radial slit alignment . In addition , the luminous output on a standard FM tape recorder. A display
trace representing a baffle compartment mode of record of the taped data, produced in the same
instability is presented for a semi-circumferential manner as pressure data records, provides an
slit positioned on the injector face. analog record of the optical emissions from the
Streak photographs obtained using circum- engine.
ferential slits have been used extensively in the Electro-optical measuring devices can be used
identification of high-frequency instability modes with transparent chambers in the same way as
in baffled, cylindrical chambers12 and in pulse cameras. When transparent walls or windows are
motor chambers.242 Views through the nozzle available, however, cameras and/or pressure
have been used to verify the coexistence of the transducers are normally used . The electro-optical
first radial and third tangential instability modes techniques are typically used when the direct
-3T1 FIR
‫ם‬
‫ם‬ | ‫ם‬ ‫ם‬ ‫ם‬
Slit = 1/2 baffle Chamber
length comp't circumf. radius
ㅁ ㅁ
Third tangential ( baffle compartment ) First radial mode
mode
-Slit location
3 Bladed baffle
-Baffle mode ( 3T)

Radial mode- slit location
slit location
Film travel
FIL 2R
O
Injector Chamber
throat radius
o -length
ㅁ ‫ם‬ ‫ם‬ ‫ם‬ ‫ם‬
Second radial mode
Increasing time
first longitudinal mode
FIGURE 9.4.2f. - Typical streak film traces of various modes using axial and radial slits .
methods are impractical. Three such techniques 4X10 sec . Through their application to the
are described. measurement of the variation in light intensities.
in the combustion chamber, it is possible to handle
9.4.3.1 Fiber optics . *-A unique method of the resultant data the same as that recorded from
optically measuring an instability frequency a flush-mounted pressure transducer (see Sects.
through an extremely small access area in a 9.3.4 and 9.3.5 ) .
combustion chamber has been developed with the In order to measure light intensities within a
aid of optical fibers in conjunction with pho- combustion chamber some means of access into
todiodes.16 The optical fibers transmit the radiant the combustion chamber at the point of interest
energy given off by the combustion process in the must be provided.
chamber to the photodiode, which provides an For cameras this requires a relatively large
electrical output that varies with the quantity of window in the wall of the chamber. Such a window
light incident upon the diode. Recording of the is difficult to install and still maintain the struc-
data is handled routinely on FM magnetic tape. tural integrity of the chamber. With optical fibers
Instability frequencies have been well-defined it is possible to provide this access through a very
by streak photography12 and photomultiplier small opening, (typically 0.080 inch diameter)
tubes,776,361 indicating the presence of a high into the chamber at any location where a boss can
intensity light phenomenon at the same frequency be placed. This method differs from the pho-
as the pressure wave. Small light sensitive photographic process in that the data can be recorded
todiodes are available which will measure changes on FM tape instead of film. The recorded signal
in light intensities with rise times as short as can then be processed the same as any other
dynamic data which is recorded on tape. Multi-
* R. D. Wesley, Author. point recording can be used to identify instability
modes by the same techniques utilized in analyzing Nitrogen inlet port

data from flush-mounted pressure transducers. Orifice
The two main components comprising such a Optical fibers
Encapsulated photodiode
transducer are the fiber optics and the photodiodes .
Optical fibers can be drawn from various materials,
the most common of these being optical glass
with a transmission spectrum of 0.4 to 2.0 microns.
This covers the visible spectra (0.4 to 0.76
micron) and into the infrared region . Fibers drawn 3.5 in
from arsenic trisulfide will extend the trans-
mission spectra farther into the infrared region ;
FIGURE 9.4.3a .-Typical fiber optic transducer.
however these fibers have a much lower melting.
point. For use in the visible and near infrared
region, glass fibers provide an excellent trans- successful acceptance ( solid view) angle into the
mission medium. chamber is 10° to 20° . A photoconductive silicon
Photodiodes have a wide variance in spectral photodiode is used because of its high output
response range depending on the type of material. capability and high frequency response char-
used to manufacture the diode . Silicon has a acteristics. To help maintain a clear optical path
spectral response range of 0.4 to 1.1 microns which into the chamber and preserve the fiber integrity
fits very well for measurements of light intensities in the high temperature environment, high
in the visible and near infrared regions. For pressure nitrogen gas is orifice-controlled and bled
response in the infrared region Indium Arsenide around the fibers , exiting into the chamber
would come under consideration because of its through the porous potting material. With the
spectral response range of 1.0 to 3.5 microns. fiber optics and the photodiode integral in a
A typical transducer, used to measure variations transducer, it is a simple matter to install the unit.
of light intensity in the visible and near infrared at any point in the chamber.
spectral region, was designed and fabricated from Data from large rocket engines using the
readily available components possessing the optical transducer and compared with pressure
desired spectral characteristics . For this trans- data indicate the same instability frequencies
ducer optical glass fibers and a silicon photodiode from both types of transducers. The oscillatory
were utilized . Since the optical glass fibers have a data in the spectral range observed (0.4 to 1.1
spectral range response of 0.4 to 2.0 microns they microns) tends to be in phase with the pressure
do not limit the light transmission in the spectral data at the same location. Total emission in this
response region of the silicon photodiode. They spectral range follows the pressure profile through-
serve three basic purposes : ( 1 ) to transmit the out a test.
light to the photodiode , ( 2 ) to isolate the pho- Major problems encountered with the use of
todiode from the hot gas source, and ( 3 ) to filter these transducers are ( 1 ) protection of the
out much of the infrared radiation which tends photodiode from saturation , (2 ) slight erosion of
to heat the photodiode. Intense infrared radiation the fiber ends during violent instabilities and ( 3 )
will damage the photodiode. standardization and calibration of the units.
The actual transducer design is shown in Fig.
9.4.3a , and consists of multiple fibers within a 9.4.3.2 AC radiometry. * —The use of an optical
small tube . Solid potting is used around the fibers technique termed temporal or "AC" radiometry
at the diode end of the tube as a pressure seal, allows the determination of chamber pressure
and a porous potting material is used to position oscillations without physical attachment of meas-
the fibers at the exposed end. The fibers are sub- urement equipment to the engine itself.348 Typical
sequently trimmed and polished flat at both ends. installations may place the radiometer four
of the tube. If a small acceptance angle is desired hundred feet from the test stand. The hot exhaust
into the chamber , the fibers can be recessed in the
tube at the combustion chamber end . The most
* R. Proffit and T. A. Coultas, Authors.
species (gases and/or particles) at the nozzle exit information and other dynamic measurements
of a rocket engine exhibit not only steady-state which may be made simultaneously.
radiation, but also possess a temporal variation . Consideration must be given to the field of view
It has been experimentally shown that the detec- of the radiometer . Since the variation in radiation
tion of the various chamber pressure oscillations is intensity is caused by varying chamber pressure,
possible by monitoring the time-varying com- if the field of view of the radiometer is such that
ponent of the radiation from the engine exhaust . both high and low regions of radiation intensity
Frequency analysis of the time-varying radiation are viewed simultaneously, the integrated AC
from rocket plumes has shown that this radiation intensity may be zero . For instance, if the radiom-
is of two types. The first is a continuous frequency eter views the entire plume, as in Fig. 9.4.3d (a )
distribution, possessing an 1/f" dependence caused only the radial and longitudinal acoustic modes
by random processes. The second type involves may be detected, since the tangential modes will
coherent tones discontinuously distributed in the be effectively integrated at any instant of time.
frequency spectrum which are caused by chamber To observe tangential modes, only a small portion
pressure oscillations. Measurements made on of the nozzle exit (along the edge of the plume) is
engines using a variety of fuels have shown viewed as in Fig. 9.4.3d (b) . To rigorously identify
excellent agreement of AC radiometry with flush- all possible acoustic modes, it may be necessary to
mounted high-frequency pressure transducers , utilize as many as seven radiometers simul-
both in frequency and in spatial phasing. taneously viewing different portions of the plume.
An AC radiometer is a simple instrument con- Usually, however, two or three are found adequate
sisting of an optical system to focus electro- for either monitoring or mode identification
magnetic radiation from the engine plume onto a purposes.
detector, a field stop to limit the field of view If the plume is optically thin, that is, very
of the radiometer to a particular spatial region of transparent , it may be possible for a radiometer
the exhaust , and filters which allow only selected to "see" completely through the plume. Thus a
wavelengths to reach the detector. Such a radiom- symmetrical view through the center of the plume
eter is shown schematically in Fig . 9.4.3b . Some would not be likely to detect a radial mode since
typical data obtained with an AC radiometer and the integration includes the entire plume. Thus the
compared to pressure transducer records are shown factors of opacity (at a particular wavelength)
in Fig. 9.4.3c . This is a record taken during a low must be considered in data interpretation.
frequency, feed system induced , oscillation . The proper wavelength regions of the spectrum
The output of the radiometer is usually re- to be used for the AC radiometry studies are
corded at several levels of amplification on separate primarily determined by the exhaust species.
channels on an FM tape recorder to provide The wavelength should be selected so that a major
accuracy over a wide intensity range. Typical combustion species is monitored . A typical
frequency response is as high as 20 kHz . Other system used for AC radiometry of hydrogen-
channels of the tape may be used for timing oxygen plumes uses a lead selenide photoresistive
Flat mirror
Spherical mirror Window
Field stop
Field lens
Detector
Incoming radiation
Filter
FIGURE 9.4.3b . -Schematic of radiometer optical system.

calculations which indicate that species excited

in the chamber should have had ample time to
decay before reaching the nozzle exhaust in some
AC radiometer
cases where AC radiometry had been successfully
used .
Another explanation is similarly based on
pressure variations causing gross effects on the
chemical kinetics and equilibrium of the com-
10 ms
bustion gases . Reaction rates and local mixture
ratio may be sufficiently disturbed so as to persist
into the engine exhaust . Insufficient measurements
Chamber pressure have been made to date to further elucidate the
basic mechanisms whereby chamber pressure
oscillations are manifested by radiation oscilla-
tions in the exhaust plume.
www STREAK RADIOMETER : A conceptual
radiometric device for measurement of instability
Lox manifold pressure
phenomena might be termed a "streak radiom-
FIGURE 9.4.3c . -Comparison of typical AC radiometer eter. " This radiometer could be used in essentially
trace with pressure measurement . the same way as a streak camera. Spectral re-
sponse not limited to the normal (visible)
detector and a germanium filter to monitor photographic regions could prove advantageous .
infrared radiation from the H₂O molecule. The The streak radiometer could consist of a lens or
filter transmits radiation of wavelengths greater mirror system to focus radiation onto a detector
than 1.8 microns, and the detector responds to array (usually 5 detectors in line ) , a filter to
wavelengths up to 6.0 microns. Another system isolate the wavelength band (thus isolating
consists of a photomultiplier detector and a species) of interest, and preamplifying electronics .
filter transmitting from 0.305 to 0.315 micron to In use, the object of interest (e.g. , a portion of an
monitor emission from the OH radical in the exhaust plume ) could be focused onto the detector
ultraviolet. array, and as a wave passes across the field of view
The mechanism whereby the oscillations in the the output from the detectors in the array should
chamber are exhibited in the radiation of the vary in proportion to the intensity of the traveling
exhaust is not precisely known. There are, how- wave . The electrical signals of the detectors when
ever, phenomenological explanations possible. recorded on a multi-channel recorder should
The radiation or radiance of a gas is dependent produce data similar to a streak photo .
upon the temperature and the number density
of the radiating species. During combustion 9.4.3.3 Shock cone radiation.* -A unique
instability, the combustion gases in the chamber method of determining the stability of the com-
experience a pressure variation in time and space . bustion processes, within a combustion chamber,
This pressure variation causes a corresponding is through the detection of emitted radiation from
change in temperature and density of the gas. the first shock cone . Since the shock cone is formed
The temperature variation causes a change in the downstream of the combustion chamber nozzle
population of the excited states of a molecule, and exit , it can be viewed or monitored without ex-
thus increases or decreases the amount of radia- posing measurement instrumentation to the
tion given off by that species . Similarly, the severe combustion environment .
density change will change the number of excited Associated with each firing rocket engine is a
species present at a point in space and time . As series of shock patterns in the exhaust stream.
these combustion gases move out of the chamber , The first of these downstream of the chamber exit
effects of chamber pressure oscillations are carried
to the exhaust . This explanation is weakened by * R. D. Wesley, Author.
Radiometer U ப Radiometer
Field of view angle 8 8
Nozzle exit plane
O
Side Front
(a )
Radiometer Radiometer
Ө
O
Side Front
( b)
FIGURE 9.4.3d . -Effect of field of view.
may have a flattened top and appear to be essen- at an angle past the nozzle exit toward the shock
tially a cone shape . In observing the shock cone in cone.
both stable and unstable operating conditions, it Analysis of the data from the FM tape can be
is evident that the surface disturbance and handled in the conventional manner as discussed
coloration has a definite change from one state to in Sect . 9.3.5 .
the other. To the trained observer the distinction
9.4.4 Shadow and Schlieren Methods
between stability and instability is quite evident
from the shock cone. The determination of the The function of both schlieren and shadow
type of instability or the absolute magnitude is methods is to determine small variations in the
another matter.
index of refraction of transparent materials . It
However, there are methods of obtaining
can be shown that, to a rough approximation, the
additional information. One such method is with
schlieren method measures the first derivative of
photodiode devices oriented to measure the
the refractive index, whereas the shadow method .
radiation from the shock cone . More conventional measures the second derivative. The direct
photographic methods are discussed at the end experimental application of these methods in
of Sect . 9.4.1.1.
the evaluation of stability behavior is somewhat
Measurements of light intensity of the shock limited. However, both schlieren and shadow
cone with photodiodes are capable of identifying techniques have proven useful in the study of
combustion oscillation frequencies even though
propellant injection and combustion processes
they are not well-developed. This can be ac- under both steady and unsteady conditions .
complished by the use of photodiodes which have
the desired spectral range capability discussed in
9.4.4.1 Schlieren applications. *- The general
Sect . 9.4.3.1 . The best data is obtained by limiting
principle of the schlieren system is illustrated in
the acceptance angle to the photodiode to include Fig. 9.4.4a . Light from a point source A is focused
only the shock cone flattened surface . The
on the knife edge D by the long focus, large
photodiode can be mounted remote from the
engine , but at engine level , with the line of sight * R. C. Kesselring, Author.
obtained by Urtiew andOppenheim.701 A signifi-

cant schlieren application in combustion stability
research is the characterization of a shock wave
generated by an instability rating device under
D "cold-flow" conditions , as discussed in Chapter
E
10, and illustrated in Figs. 10.2.1b and 10.3.2e.
9.4.4.2 Shadowgraph techniques. *-In this sec-

FIGURE 9.4.4a.-A simple schlieren system .
tion brief but sufficient instruction is given in the
art of recording on film the shadow images of the
diameter (schlieren ) lens B. If knife edge D is liquid content of a firing combustion chamber. A
moved upward into the beam until it blocks out simple two lens system is described and equations
the image of A, no light will reach film F provided are derived whereby a reasonably accurate pre-
that lens B is of good optical quality and that diction can be made of the field of view and its
there are no index of refraction gradients in the magnification obtainable with a particular optical
medium traversed by the light beam. If, however, system composed of elements selected from
the gaseous medium is disturbed in region C by a inexpensive commercial supplies .
shock wave, such that some of the light rays are The shadowgraph system to be described is
diffracted so that they pass above the knife edge primarily intended to provide the investigator
D, these rays are focused by the lens E and an with a qualitative insight into what occurs in a
image is formed on the film F. A detailed dis- firing combustion chamber. For example , Figs .
cussion of schlieren principles and techniques is 9.4.4b and 9.4.4c show sharp , high contrast ,
given in Ref. 30 . shadow images of the propellant spray produced
Schlieren examination of a shock wave in an by impingement of nitrogen tetroxide and a fuel
operating liquid propellant combustor near the blend composed of equal weights of hydrazine and
injector face presents a serious problem. The unsymmetrical-dimethyl-hydrazine. Although 50
index of refraction gradients (caused by density micron diameter liquid particles appear to be
gradients) in the gaseous medium (C) are prob- easily resolved, the optical system is not intended
ably sufficient to diffract a large percentage of the to provide precise quantitative information be-
light rays significantly in one direction or another. cause the optical system has a deep depth of field
If this diffraction were downward , only a weak and the images of small drops are surrounded by
image would be projected on F and the film would diffraction rings.
appear underexposed . Thus, any shock wave The optical phenomenon which produces the
appearing at a later time would be difficult to shadow images is refraction of spark light at the
observe. If the diffraction were upward, the film liquid-gas interface and not the absorption of
would appear over-exposed, creating similar spark light in the liquid . Thus the shadow images
difficulties. Optical distortions resulting from the of optically transparent liquid spheres are dark
high thermal gradients and high rate of mass circles . Conversely, a shadow image cannot be
transfer in the neighborhood of each liquid droplet formed of a transparent plane liquid sheet .
are unavoidable. Similarly, thermal gradients Figure 9.4.4d shows the optical system in simple
exist throughout the combustion gas and in the schematic form . The optical elements are ( from
injection/spray mixing region. These gradients left to right) a high intensity spark, a condenser
may become severe enough to limit apparent lens, two diametrically opposed windows in the
depth of field and droplet resolution . For these walls of the combustion chamber, a flame light
reasons schlieren photography is best confined to filter, the camera lens , a flame light stop and the
situations where very few (if any) index of photographic film . These elements must have the
refraction gradients normally exist in the gaseous following principal characteristics .
medium through which the light rays pass . For the best results, the flame light filter must
However, it should be noted that some excellent
schlieren pictures of gas-gas detonations have been * L. M. Wood, Author.
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

Inches
FIGURE 9.4.4b . -Shadowphotograph of spray fan produced by impinging one N2O , jet on one 50 % N2H4-50% UDMH
jet at 120 psia in a 2.5-inch-diameter windowed chamber. Spark, EG&G point light source, D. = 16 "; condenser, Aero-
Ektar, f. = 178 mm, (f/D) . = 2.5 ; camera lens, Wollensak Raptar, f. = 135 mm, (f/D). = 4.7 ; 22 inch maximum bellows
extension ; film plate, 4" x5"; d = 3.5 inch ; W = 1.4 inches ; m = 3.4 .
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Inches
FIGURE 9.4.4c. -Shadowphotograph of spray fan produced by two fuel jets impinging on one oxidizer jet at 120 psia.
Same apparatus as Figure 9.4.4b except condenser lens is Taylor-Hobson, with fo = 9.25 inches, (f/D) . = 2.5, and m = 1.6.
A (B) C E F G H
Do
Dc D's
F
Ds
Xc d -Xo
A Capillary or air spark E Flame light filter

B Condenser lens F Camera lens
Combustion chamber windows G Spark image , flame light stop
D Field of view HFilm plate
FIGURE 9.4.4d . Schematic of optical system for taking shadow photographs .
have a transmission no smaller than that required Also , this ideal lens is optically corrected for that
to attentuate the combustion flame light to a level range of object distances of the spark which will
insufficient to expose the photographic film during be used. In practice, multi-element lenses are
the open time of the camera lens shutter (not available with diameters between three and four
shown in the schematic) . A practical method of inches and at f-numbers as low as 2.5 . Although
selecting the filter will be given below. these lenses are most free of distortions at the
The spark must have an intensity many times designed object distances, the primary criterion
greater than the combustion flame light so that for selection is large diameter and low f-number.
after the inevitable reflection and absorption A suitable camera for combustion photography
losses, especially in the transit of the windows, is the Speed Graflex Camera. Its main limitation
the combustion chamber contents and the flame is a short bellows extension which limits high
light filter, sufficient intensity remains to form magnification. This can be remedied by using the
high contrast shadow images of the liquid content 22-inch bellows of a Calumet View Camera which
of the chamber. The spark duration must be a has its own 4X5 inch film holder and which will
few microseconds or less to provide " stop action " accept the lens board of the Graflex camera. The
images of the rapidly moving liquid particles. use of this lens outside the design range of mag-
Many capillary and open air sparks satisfy these nification produces image distortion , especially at
requirements . Note that the exposure time of the the border of the imaged field of view. These dis-
film is determined by the spark light duration and tortions were not found objectionable at 3.5
not the open time of the mechanical shutter of magnification, bearing in mind that qualitative
the camera. information is the primary purpose of this optical
The size of the condenser lens determines the system .
illuminated field of view. This lens is located as An image of the spark is formed inside the
close as possible to the chamber window. For a camera between the lens and the lens focal plane.
given field of view, the farther this lens is located The limiting spark rays of the bundle of rays
from the window, the larger is its required diam- which pass through three points of the field of
eter. The ideal condenser lens has a large diameter view in the chamber are shown in the schematic .
and a short focal length, that is, a low f-number It is seen that each image point receives spark
(the ratio of focal length to lens diameter) . light from the whole spark. This results in a nearly
uniformly illuminated background for the shadow the image of the illuminated field of view at the
images provided the spark intensity is independent desired magnification .
of direction . The spark image location is also the The location and size of the spark image and
location of the flame light stop, a thin metal plate thus the location and size of the flame light stop is
with an aperture whose dimensions are slightly dependent on the location of the spark and camera
larger than the spark image. Without the stop and lens , except in the case of parallel light . Then the
the flame light filter, each image point on the film image occurs at the focal plane of the camera lens
receives flame light from the whole camera lens irrespective of the camera lens location . With
and only spark light from a small portion of the nonparallel light, the spark image occurs any
lens . Use of a stop with an aperture the size of the place between the camera lens focal plane and the
spark image ensures the same solid angle of camera lens and even on the lens itself. The size
illumination at the film plane for both flame and of the spark image is greatest at the camera lens
spark light . Thus the effect of flame light on the focal plane and smallest at the camera lens. Thus
film is diminished without a reduction in spark for a particular optical system , there is a range of
light . This permits the use of a flame light filter observable fields of view. The following mathe-
with a much higher transmission than would be matical analysis permits calculation of the ob-
possible without the stop. servable fields of view and their magnification
The refraction of spark light by the density for a given spark, a lens chosen to serve as the
gradients in the combustion gas of the firing condenser lens , a windowed chamber, a selected
chamber causes the spark image dimensions to be camera lens and a given film size .
larger than is the case if the chamber is filled with The following equations describe the optical
ambient air. A flame light stop with an aperture system.498 Most of the symbols are defined in the
the size of the spark image under non-firing schematic . Of the symbols not defined X.' is the
conditions will act as a knife edge under firing distance from the condenser lens to the spark
conditions and will produce schlieren images of image formed by the condenser lens alone . This
the density gradients and a loss of definition in the image is a virtual image for the camera lens and
images of the liquid particles . A stop with dimen- lies on the optical axis at a distance X, from the
sions several millimeters larger than the spark right side of the camera lens . Its image size
image under non-firing conditions will prevent is Xe'Ds/Xc
unwanted schlieren effects . A suitable knife edge
Xefe
can be placed in the flame light stop when schlieren X = (9.4.4-1 )
-
X.f.
photographs showing the location of strong gas
density gradients in the chamber are desired .
X₁ = X,' - (d + X. ) (9.4.4-2 )
The film selection is a compromise between the
opposing film properties of high contrast and high Xsfo
X,' = (9.4.4-3 )
resolution and is dictated by the degree of sup- Xs +fo
pression of flame light relative to spark light .
Kodak Tri-X Panchromatic was used in Figs . (1 + m )
9.4.4b and 9.4.4c . X。 = .fo (9.4.4-4)
m
The spark to condenser lens distance controls
the size of the illuminated field of view. The Xo' = ( 1 + m ) fo (9.4.4-5 )
largest illuminated field of view is obtained with
Xe DB
the spark at the focal plane of the condenser Dc = h+ (9.4.4-6)
Xe -d Xe
(parallel light) . Moving the spark farther away
from the condenser produces a converging light
F
beam and thus a smaller illuminated field of view. h- (9.4.4-7)
m
The illuminated field of view is not necessarily
the observable field of view. The camera lens may
X.'D.' + FX ,'
not be large enough to intercept all of the spark D。 = (9.4.4-8)
Xo'-X,'
light, or the film plate may be too small to receive
Xo'≥d + X. (9.4.4-12 )
X X
D,' = • D (9.4.4-9)
X. X. The solution of Eqs. (9.4.4-10) through (-12 ) is
m≥A+ (A2 - B ) 1/2
In the derivation of these equations, the lenses
are assumed to be thin. This does not seriously (fc/f。) [ C− ( C − 1 ) ( d/fc ) ] + Ds/F— ( C — 1 )
2A =
affect the results. The sign convention of optics is (D /f) 。 (fe/ F ) [ C− ( C − 1 ) ( d/fe ) ] —D,/ F
not used, that is, all object and image distances
are positive. (C - 1)
B=
It is assumed that the chamber windows are
(D/f) 。 (fc/ F ) [ C— ( C− 1 ) ( d/fe ) ] —Ds/ F
sufficiently large so as not to be limiting apertures .
For the sake of simplicity, the spark is assumed to (9.4.4-13 )
be a thin circular radiating disk. Thus the illu- (F/f ) C
minated field of view and its image are circles . m>
( D/f) . [ C- (C - 1 ) ( d/f.) ] — (d/ fc) ( Ds/fe)
The dimensions of the imaged field of view is taken
to be the same as the fixed film size . Thus the (9.4.4–14 )
magnification, m , of the field of view is given by
(fo/fe) ( C - 1 )
the ratio of film diameter to the field of view m>
C− (C − 1 ) ( d/fe ) — ( fo/ fc) ( C − 1 )
diameter, Eq. (9.4.4-7) .
Eqs . (9.4.4-1 ) through (-5 ) are simple lens. (9.4.4-15)
equations specifying the locations of the centers. where
of the objects, images and lenses on the optical C = X / fe
axis . Eqs . (9.4.4-6 ) through (-9) specify the
For a chosen value of C greater or equal to one ,
diameters of the lenses, the observable field of
view and the spark image. The diameters specified the smallest magnification which satisfies Eqs .
by Eqs. (9.4.4-6) and (-8 ) may be less than the (9.4.4-13 ) through (-15 ) determines the largest
full diameters of the respective lenses . field of view observable with the chosen spark
In these equations, fe, fo, Da, F and d are con- location. Solving Eqs . (9.4.4-13 ) through (-15 )
for a range of spark locations determines the
stants of the apparatus. The constant d is given
range of observable fields of view and their
by the distance between the field of view in the
chamber and the center of the condenser lens . An magnifications which can be obtained with the
inspection of the schematic shows that the system given optical system.
is completely specified , within limits imposed by The limitations imposed by the chamber
windows are determined by solving the inequality
the maximum diameters of the given lenses , by
choosing the spark object distance Xe, and the D <W where D is the optical beam diameter at
the chamber window of diameter W. The limita-
magnification , m. The limitation imposed by
the camera lens is tions imposed by the maximum bellows extension,
B, is determined from the inequality Xo' < B.
The constants of the optical system used to
D.≤ .fo (9.4.4-10)
(?). produce Fig . 9.4.4b (parallel light ) and Fig.
9.4.4c (converging light) are given in the figures.
where (D/f) , is the relative aperture of the camera Fig. 9.4.4b was taken at the maximum mag-
lens , that is, the reciprocal of the f-number. The nification and Fig. 9.4.4c was taken at approxi-
limitation imposed by the condenser lens is mately the maximum observable field of view.
A rational selection of the flame light filter and
De< •fe (9.4.4-11) the photographic film requires knowledge of the
(
² ).·
relative magnitude and the spectral distribution of
Eqs. (9.4.4-1 ) through (-9 ) are valid providing the flame and spark light . Complete information
the spark image lies between or at the camera lens is never available a priori, at least for flame light
and the focal plane of the camera lens. This because the flame light intensity depends on the
limitation is expressed by the following inequality: composition , pressure and radiating path length
(chamber diameter ) . This information can be instability (such as high frequency wave motion
obtained from densitometer readings of spec- and low frequency chug ) that would not other-
trograms of spark and flame light taken through wise be detected.440 In this type of application
the windowed chamber at the same spectrometer shadow (silhouette) photography is employed .
settings. With this information, a suitable film This type of photography should not be confused
and filter can be selected . with the shadow method which measures the
In lieu of this approach, past experience can be second derivative of the refractive index . The
utilized to make it certain that the first firing test silhouette photographs are obtained simply by
will produce a good shadowgraph. Figures 9.4.4b . using a high-intensity monochromatic backlight
and 9.4.4c were taken with a Kodak Wratten (e.g. , a mercury vapor lamp ) . A narrow-band
47-B filter and Kodak Tri-X Panchromatic film optical filter which passes only the green line of
with 0.007 Estar stable base. The exposed film
. the mercury (5470 Å) is used to eliminate the
was 175 % overdeveloped in a Kodak Versamat combustion light within the chamber. A typical
Processor . The services of a professional pho- shadow picture of propellant fans is shown in
tographer are indispensable in selecting the proper Fig . 9.4.4e . As in the case of schlieren pho-
film and filter combination and in the processing tography, however, the presence of high thermal
and printing of the negatives. gradients may limit depth of field and droplet
The predicted performance of the optical system resolution .
provided by the analysis is approximate but Time-sequence silhouette photographs have
reasonably accurate . The analysis should be also been found useful in studying the phe-
checked by mounting the apparatus on an optical nomenon of droplet shattering upon arrival of a
bench, including the chamber windows, and taking shock wave under noncombustion conditions.598
shadowgraphs of the spray produced by an aerosol Figure 9.4.4f shows the various stages of shear-
can. This test also provides information on the type droplet breakup upon arrival of a shock.
optical resolution, the depth of field and the
shadow image sharpness and contrast .
Injector face
The optical analysis and the experimental
techniques just described are an extension of the
works of Rossmann608,607,606 which provide detailed
information on the experimental aspects of
combustion photography. MANJIWOJNA
Shadowgraph methods have also been used to
FIGURE 9.4.4e . -Typical shadow picture of propellant
investigate the breakup and vaporization of spray fans.
liquid jets in the absence of combustion. Details
on liquid droplets , ligaments and vapor patterns
9.4.5 Holography of Liquid Rocket Engine
(including displacement with pulsing ) have been
Combustion *
obtained using Freon-21 as the pseudo-pro-
pellant.638 A subsequent study investigated the A new technique of scene recording has evolved
effects of shockwaves and baffles on the spray
which yields a permanent three-dimensional
and vapor boundaries , 190 record of a high velocity event . It is called .
holography and is based upon the recording of a
9.4.4.3 Silhouette photography.*— In photo-
light interference pattern rather than an intensity
graphic studies of the combustion process in distribution as in photography. Although known
liquid propellant rockets it is often of interest to for 20 years by optics specialists ,281.27.28 the
observe the individual fuel and oxidizer spray
technique did not become practical for transient
fans during both stable and unstable operation. events until the invention of the solid-state laser
From such observations it is sometimes possible to
in 1960.460,459 Pulsed laser holography has been
determine the existence of combined modes of
* R. C. Kesselring, Author . * R. F. Wuerker and B. J. Matthews, Authors.

distinguish information in the presence of a strong

background of incoherent radiation. All of these
unique holographic features stem from the fact
that it is based upon the recording of a portion of
the stationary optical interference pattern which
occurs when two beams of coherent light pass
through one another. The recorded interference
pattern (called a hologram) can then be used to
recall the complete scene whenever it is illuminated
by a beam which closely approximates one of the
original beams. As a result , the recording and
examining steps are separated ; a hologram
recorded with a pulsed laser can be leisurely
examined in detail and under magnification at a
later time with any of the classical optical instru-
ments (eyes , microscopes, telescopes, cameras,
interferometers , schlieren systems , etc. ) .
Since lenses are not required in holography,
No. 4 170 μsec No. 5 1 = 90μsес No.6 100 μsec
-Shock direction there is no focusing problem ; as a result, small
Various stages of shear -type droplet breakup objects of unpredictable location or of large spatial
Liquid = RP - I distribution can be recorded completely. The
Drop diameter = 1780 microns recorded scene can be examined , measured , and
Gas velocity = 320 ft/sec objects located whenever the hologram is recon-
Drop magnification = 23 diameters structed . In essence, holography is free of the
Test section pressure = l atmosphere depth-of-field limitation of the conventional lens
which, under high magnifications , can be particu-
FIGURE 9.4.4f .-Various stages of shear-type droplet
larly restrictive, making it almost impossible to
breakup. Liquid, RP-1 ; drop diameter, 1780 microns ;
gas velocity, 320 ft/sec ; drop magnification, 23 diam- study anything but near static events with the
eters ; test section pressure, 1 atmosphere. classical microscope.
Holography is a coherent process. It therefore
successfully used to record combustion of the fuels requires the use of coherent illuminators which, in
and oxidizers used in liquid rocket engines.765 essence, are point monochromatic radiators equal
Holography of atmospheric (open flame) firings in size to their wavelength . The technique or
as well as combustion phenomena in windowed process of generating light via the amplification
thrust chambers of 3-inch and 18-inch diameter by stimulated emission of radiation (i.e. , by a
have been recorded to date. This section sum- laser) approximates, in most cases, the coherent
marizes the present state of the art in the develop- sources required in holography. For this reason
ment ofthis new diagnostic tool which, in addition holography did not come of age until after the
to other applications, is uniquely suited to the reduction to practice of the first operating laser
study of the chemical combustion process . in 1960.
On the deficit side is the inherent slow speed
9.4.5.1 Holography reviewed. - From a scientific (typically 1/5 ASA 1/300 ) of the photo-
or data recording point of view, holography is graphic plates required to store a part of the
important because it ( 1 ) records volumes rather optical interference pattern . Motion restrictions
than the planes recorded by conventional pho- are therefore a problem . The reconstructed scene
tography; and (2 ) makes possible interferometric can be greatly degraded by motion throughout
comparisons between either two holographically the space of the interference pattern by as much
recorded volumes or between a holographically as one-fourth of the wavelength.
recorded volume and a real volume at a later For scenes illuminated by the transmission of
time. In addition , it is a coherent process and can radiation through them, the motion restrictions.
are no different from those of conventional Pulsed lasers , as a result , require special pre-
photography . Therefore, resolution of the recon- cautions in the recombining of their radiations .
structed scene according to theory will be deter- When these precautions are followed , quality
mined either by the geometrical aperture of the holograms of high velocity events are achieved
system, or by the smearing of the event by an to high resolutions.
amount equal to the product of the velocity of the Holography's main value is the fact that it
original subject and the exposure time . Thus, a separates the recording and examining steps in the
hologram made with a laser having a 0.1 micro- permanent capturing of an event . As a result , with
second pulse duration requires a velocity of the a pulsed laser, dynamic phenomena of an uncertain
original event of less than 10 meters per second to and unpredictable location can be recorded . After
have a 1-micron resolution . For 10-micron resolu- the hologram has been recorded , it can then be
tion, the velocity must be less than 100 meters per leisurely examined with any of the classical
second, etc. For this reason, it is desirable to have optical instruments , or can be used to make
short exposure times for high velocity events of interferometric comparative measurements.328c For
interest ; however, the extreme insensitivity of the these reasons, the techniques should be of signifi-
films necessitates (in high resolution situations ) cant value in studying rocket engine ignition
illuminators of multi-megawatt irradiance . At characteristics , combustion phenomena, and ex-
present, only the solid-state ruby laser is adapted haust products .
to the holography of high-speed events. This is
due to the fact that the chromium ions in the 9.4.5.2 Application of holography to rocket
sapphire host are optical energy storage means combustion . Through the years, studies of liquid
(~0.2 joule per cubic centimeter ) which can be rocket combustion have been accompanied by a
made to emit in times measured in terms of the continuing evolution of optical systems designed
light transit time between the mirrors of the to further the investigator's understanding of
optical resonator. Pumped ruby rods can also be events occurring within the combustor . The
used as simple optical power amplifiers to step up application of pulsed laser holography is a natural
the oscillator radiation level to that needed to extension in the development of such instru-
expose the presently insensitive high-resolution mentation systems. However, utilization of this
photographic plates. technique to investigate high temperature com-
Of all the solid-state lasers, the ruby laser bustion phenomena is a comparatively recent
emits at a wavelength which is within the sensi- accomplishment .
tivity of high-resolution photographic plates and An early pulsed laser holographic experiment
has a bandwidth narrow enough so that the with combustion involved making holograms of
763
optical interference pattern is not smeared appre- acetylene-air mixtures ignited by a spark plug.7
ciably during the exposure of the plate . Ruby Another important holographic experiment with
laser systems have been built which emit as much combustion was the recording of a white-hot
as a billion watts ; however , in many cases the zirconium particle in free fall.31 These experiments ,
coherence can be quite low. Gas lasers, in con- while of considerable interest and importance,
trast, have intensities which are at best six to were not specifically directed toward liquid
seven orders of magnitude less intense . As a rocket combustion .
result, a gas laser can be used only in the In 1967-68, two research programs using
holography of quasi-static scenes or scenes span-
holography were initiated in the liquid rocket
ning such a narrow angle that the resolution is
combustion area. The first involves the study of
quite low. This is true in spite of the fact that
small droplets in a cold environment468 with
many gas lasers emit in regions of the spectrum
emphasis on ( 1 ) size resolution, ( 2 ) maximum
where films are more sensitive . Compared to
solid-state lasers, the gas lasers are more coherent droplet flux levels, ( 3 ) possibility of measuring
in terms of both the monochromaticity (temporal mixture ratio, and (4) position flexibility. The
coherence) and phase uniformity across a cross second program is directed toward the feasibility
section of the emitted beam (spatial coherence) . of using pulsed laser holography to record the
droplet dispersion of reacting sprays in liquid which is recorded is located between the focusing
propellant rocket engines.764 lenses and the hologram.
The two-beam holocamera arrangements used The hologram itself is a 4X5 inch glass pho-
in the two studies were improved versions of a tographic plate oriented at 671° . This angle was
basic design developed by Brooks , Heflinger and chosen so that the normal to the photographic
Wuerker.123 Representative of recent thinking plate bisects the angle between the direction of the
in the design of two-beam transmission holo- reference beam and the axis of the condensing
cameras764 is that which is presented in Fig . 9.4.5a. lens system. As a result, the interference pattern
As may be seen from the schematic of Fig. between scene and reference beam is perpen-
9.4.5a the holocamera has two spatially and dicular to the emulsion. Holograms made in this
temporally matched scene and reference beams. manner are thought to be freer of distortion than
Spatial matching is achieved by proper use of if the "blazing" is not perpendicular to the plate.
reflectors, a roof prism, and a large pair of con- Holograms to be made of rocket combustion
densing lenses. The latter pair of elements takes phenomena require adequate shuttering systems
the light scattered by a ground glass screen and to prevent pre-exposure of the film plate. A
focuses it back onto the hologram. The mirrors simple focal plane or "window shade" shutter
and the roof prism insure that each scene ray from an antique Graflex-type camera has been
combines once again with the equivalent reference used successfully for this purpose ; however, a
ray at the plane of the hologram. Temporal better arrangement includes a secondary leaf-type
matching is achieved by arranging the distances (capping) shutter to augment the focal plane
of the mirrors so that after division by the beam shutter and eliminate light leakage onto the
splitter, both scene and reference beams travel film.764
over the same optical path lengths ; the accuracy The two rocket propulsion oriented studies
of the path match is within the temporal co- involved the recording of holograms of impinging
herence limits of the laser illuminator. The scene stream injector droplet spray patterns.468,764 Both
Mirror
Diverging lens
Input ruby laser beam
Collimating lens
Mirror
+37.25 " 37.25"
Wedge beam
splitter Prism Mirror
Reference beam
plate
Scene beam
20°
Viewing
Ground angle
Shutter
glass
Roof prism diffuser Hologram
Mirror Focusing lens
Scene diameter = 22 "
FIGURE 9.4.5a . Schematic diagram of TRW focused ground glass transmission holocamera design for producing reacting
spray holograms.
reacting liquid propellants (open flame and available at the inception of the present programs
confined combustion) and non-reacting sprays and is preferred since it required a smaller laser
(cold flow simulations) have been recorded. illuminator, thereby making the whole holographic
These recordings have been made with Kodak system more portable.
649F and Agfa 10E75 and SE75 plates. The Fig. 9.4.5b is a photograph of the reconstruction
Kodak emulsion is panatomic* and has a resolution of a ruby laser water flow hologram recorded on an
of ~4,000 lines/millimeter with an ASA rating Agfa 10E75 plate and developed for 5 minutes in
of 1/40. It is even an order of magnitude less Eastman HRP. The scene was reconstructed by
sensitive at the ruby laser wavelength (0.69 properly orienting the hologram before a col-
micron) . In contrast, the Agfa emulsion is more limated beam from a 0.63 micron helium-neon
sensitive at 0.69 micron, being sensitized primarily continuous wave gas laser. The copy camera was
for the red and green regions of the visible spectra. focused on a plane passing through the impinge-
The Agfa emulsion is a new film which was not ment point and central portion of the spray fan.
This hologram is typical of various recordings
Extremely fine grain panchromatic (sensitive to all made during a series of holographic studies of
visible colors and ultraviolet ) film. injector water flow spray patterns.764
FIGURE 9.4.5b .-A reconstruction photograph of a laser hologram illustrating the water flow spray pattern from the
single element impinging stream injector operating at a pressure drop of approximately 300 lb/in.2 and a flow rate of
2.35 lb/sec; orifice diameters are 0.173 inch.
In addition to recording holograms, the holo- flame and combustion chamber experiments.765
camera may be used to produce laser-illuminated Tests were conducted with N2O, and A-50 and
photographs. This is accomplished by mounting with FNA- UDMH propellants flowing through
a bellows-type copy camera positioned so that it single element impinging stream injectors. In the
views through the mechanical shutters and is initial series, the propellants ignited and burned
focused on the spray fan produced by the injector in the atmosphere . Subsequent tests utilized
element . For laser photography, the reference windowed (acrylic ) thrust chambers.
beam of the holocamera is blocked and only the Holograms recorded of open flame reacting
scene beam is utilized . In this manner the copy sprays are typified by the reconstruction pho-
camera uses the laser and beam-forming optics tographs illustrated in Fig. 9.4.5d. This is a fan
as a high grade transmission type illuminator. plane view of the N2O, and A-50 reacting spray.
Such a laser-illuminated photograph of water Note the definite droplet wave formations present
flowing from the same type of injector element is in the first few inches of this reaction. The two
shown in Fig . 9.4.5c . photographs in this illustration were made of the
The feasibility of applying laser holographic and same focal plane within the reconstructed scene
photographic techniques to rocket combustion . but from slightly differing viewing angles (by the
studies has been verified through a series of open copy camera) . With the aid of a viewer, this pair
FIGURE 9.4.5c. - A direct laser-illuminated photograph of the water spray fan from a single element doublet injector with
a flow rate of 1.22 lb/sec.
FIGURE 9.4.5d .--Two reconstruction photographs from a hologram of N2O, and A- 50 open flame combustion . The photo-
graphs differ by the reviewing angle of the copy camera ; the photos are mounted as a stereo pair and may be so viewed
with the aid of an appropriate viewer.
of reconstruction photographs can be viewed at a rocket test site. This type of work is con-
stereoptically. (Also shown is a 4-inch wide steel tinuing. Areas which warrant additional attention
bar with a series of 4 -inch diameter holes on 1 -inch and refinement include ( 1 ) greater control of the
centers to permit the viewer to estimate the scene/reference beam intensity ratios in order to
magnification of the reconstruction photograph . ) compensate for absorption of the ruby light by
Figure 9.4.5e is a series of four reconstruction unburned oxidizer ; (2 ) lasers of shorter duration
photographs of a hologram of FNA-UDMH to eliminate image smear due to small droplets
combustion in a 3-inch diameter acrylic thrust traveling at very high velocity in the combustion
.
chamber. The four photographs correspond to environment ; and (3 ) lasers of greater spatial
different focal positions within the reconstructed coherence.
scene volume. For the lower photograph the copy Improved means of hologram reconstruction are
camera was focused on the near side acrylic needed in order to gain maximum resolution from
chamber wall. The upper photograph was made the hologram recording. One problem at the
by focusing on the opposite or far side inner present is the 10 % difference in wavelength
chamber wall. The remaining two photographs between the 0.6943 ruby light used to record the
were made by focusing on intermediate planes hologram and the 0.6328 helium neon light used
within the combustion zone. for reconstruction. Use of helium neon lasers for
The photographs of Fig. 9.4.5e serve to illustrate reconstruction instead of ruby is an economic
the depth-of-field feature of holography. Defini- choice due to problems of operating a ruby laser
tion of the reacting spray phenomena was some- continuously.764 Theory predicts that holograms
what degraded by the eroding acrylic chamber should have resolutions equivalent to that of the
walls (note the longitudinal streaking) . aperture subtended by the virtual image at the
Work conducted to date has demonstrated the hologram. At large working distances, the resolu-
feasibility of pulsed laser holography of reacting tion of holograms should compete with and
liquid propellant sprays under "field" conditions exceed the resolution of lenses.
9.5 ACCELEROMETERS AND ACCELERATION

DATA * Flow
When a rocket thrust chamber is subjected to

an internal pressure perturbation such as that
experienced during unstable combustion, the
loads applied to the hardware must of necessity
cause mechanical strains. The magnitude of the
strain is usually so small that measurement of the
actual displacement is extremely difficult . This is
especially true when pressure perturbations at the
rate of several kHz are experienced . However, as
displacement of any mass must involve accelera-
tion, a convenient method of monitoring the
response of the hardware to perturbations in the
combustion chamber pressure is the judicious use
of accelerometers . The data thus obtained can
sometimes provide useful information which
complements that derived from pressure trans-
ducers located in the combustion chamber.
9.5.1 Selection of Appropriate Instrument
There exist at present many types of accel-

erometers, all designed for specific purposes, and
care must be exercised in the selection of the most
suitable type.
Three basic types of instruments are available,
namely:
1. Strain gage
2. Capacitance
3. Piezoelectric
There are many variations of these three basic
types, so that the following discussion of their
relative merits should be regarded only as a
generalized summary of that type of instrument
and not as a description of any one instrument
produced by any manufacturer.
Strain gage type. As its name implies, this
instrument relies on the deformation of a strain
gage foil (by the inertia loads associated with FIGURE 9.4.5e .-Four reconstruction photographs of a
acceleration) to produce a change of resistance single hologram of FNA-UDMH combustion in an
proportional to the acceleration forces exerted acrylic thrust chamber. The photographs correspond to
different focal planes within the scene volume.
upon it. It is able to provide very accurate
information as to the amplitude of the acceleration
involved, providing that only low frequencies are celeration are experienced and accurate ac-
experienced. A typical application would be the celeration amplitude data are required .
acceleration measurements associated with a Capacitance type. The charge on a capacitor is
centrifuge, where low rates of change of ac- proportional to the thickness of the dielectric
between the plates. Therefore , if these plates are
* E. Howells, Author. distorted by inertia forces due to acceleration, a
change in capacitance will be noted which can be not substantially affect the structure to
correlated with the acceleration concerned. Such a which it is attached
transducer has good high frequency response 3. Sufficiently rugged to withstand overload
coupled with accurate amplitude measurement . and shock conditions.
However, mechanical design considerations usually The crystal (piezoelectric ) transducer meets
dictate that this instrument be somewhat larger most of these requirements and is therefore the
in size than the other types. A typical application
. type generally preferred for combustion instability
of this instrument could be the monitoring of a monitoring. A sketch of a typical crystal trans-
mechanical shaker used for vibration work. Here , ducer is shown in Fig. 9.5.1 .
the accelerometer mass would still be small as
9.5.2 Instrument Mounting
compared to the shaker.
Piezoelectric (crystal) type.-In a crystal ac- Care must be exercised in the selection of the
celerometer a measurement is made from the instrument mounting, so that the mount itself
charge variation obtained by the deformation of a does not compromise the quality of the data
piezoelectric crystal. Although this instrument output from the transducer. Typical examples of
does not usually provide amplitude measurement mounting techniques are
accuracies as good as those associated with the 1. The bonding of the transducer directly to
capacitor type , the crystal accelerometer does the structure itself
have a broad frequency response , extending into 2. Attachment of a mounting block , into which
the higher frequency ranges (e.g. , 10 kHz ) 406 the transducer may be screwed.
and is usually smaller in size than the previously The advantage of the bonding system is that
described instruments . the accelerometer may be placed at any convenient
All types of transducers can suffer from cross- location on the structure where space permits .
axis sensitivity, that is, acceleration in one plane However, problems can arise regarding the
induces an output in some other plane. However, bonding agent itself. It must possess sufficient
some form of compensation is included in most elasticity to withstand shock loads without
instruments . cracking. Yet it must not allow movement of the
During the investigation of combustion in- accelerometer relative to the face onto which it is
stability the prime requirements of any ac- bonded. A further complication arises when tem-
celerometer are perature changes are experienced , in that bonding
1. Suitable high frequency response agents are invariably degraded by high tem-
2. Miniaturized design, so that its mass does peratures (say in the area of 300° F and above) .
Coax connector Mass

Cable,
-Spring
-Plug
Plug-
Tapped hole for Body

attachment Crystal
Mica strip
FIGURE 9.5.1 . - Typical piezoelectric (crystal) accelerometer.

The mounting block system does circumvent 3. Filtered time history for the examination of
the problems inherent in the bonding process. the setting up of a particular frequency
However, this approach does possess its own 4. Correlation of acceleration with the internal
peculiar complications. Welding-on a block can, pressure field perturbations .
for instance, involve a stiffening effect on the These techniques are of course identical to
structure being tested and this stiffening will those which can be applied to high frequency
obviously change the response characteristics of pressure information (Sect . 9.3.5) .
the structure. Therefore, to minimize this effect.
the block should be as small in size as is reasonably 9.5.4 Typical Applications
possible. It is also true that not all structures are 9.5.4.1 Detection and characterization of com-
either accessible for or amenable to welding. bustion instability. Initial stability testing of an
However, if a mounting block is used , it is usually injector is usually carried out in a chamber
possible to arrange for the installation of more designed with adequate instrumentation , particu-
than one instrument into that block. This is larly for chamber pressure measurements . In the
especially useful when it is required to monitor early development phase, tests may be run for
acceleration in various planes. As an example, comparatively short periods of time so that
accelerometers mounted on adjacent faces of a temperature effects on pressure transducers are
rectangular block (as shown in Fig. 9.5.2) will kept to an acceptable level, whereas the duration
monitor acceleration in three mutually perpen- of the actual mission duty cycle of the flight
dicular planes . engine may far exceed this.
Accelerometers can usually be placed in
9.5.3 Acquisition of Data locations where heat flux is at a minimum ( such
The output signal from a crystal accelerometer as the back face of the injector) and also are
is similar to that obtained from a crystal pressure easily installed on most hardware whether it be
transducer and is handled in a like manner (see R and D or flight-type. If both accelerometers and
pressure transducers are provided at the develop-
Sect . 9.3.4) . Once acquired on magnetic tape the
ment stage, the acceleration "patterns" can be
information is readily available for subsequent
correlated with the chamber pressure perturba-
analytical manipulation such as
tions which are responsible for these acceleration
1. Time expanded playback for examination
patterns. The accelerometer records obtained
of pulse "shape, " etc.
from flight-type hardware can then be correlated
2. Frequency (harmonic) analysis and power
spectral density determinations. with those previously obtained pressure per-
turbation versus acceleration patterns , and
AXIS
reasonable deductions made regarding the be-

-Z
havior of the pressure field even though adequate

pressure monitoring was not possible .
The term "acceleration pattern" has been
Block welded deliberately used because it is important to note
to hardware the envelope shape of the signal as well as fre-
quency content and amplitude. This is necessary,
for example, when the chamber pressure per-
AXIS-Y' turbation frequency is lower than the hardware
AXIS-X' resonant frequency. A pressure pulse will then
excite the hardware, which will oscillate at its
resonant frequency. The hardware vibration will
decay according to the inherent mechanical
Accelerometer mounting damping of the system . A subsequent pulse in the
holes in adjacent faces. pressure field will re-excite the hardware causing
FIGURE 9.5.2 . - Mounting block for monitoring accelera- the process to repeat itself. This type of signal
tion in three perpendicular planes. (shown in Fig. 9.5.4a ) therefore contains both
Forcing function same frequency

as P perturbation
-Typical decay
pattern
Expanded time
acceleration history
axial plane ( injector)
-Hardware resonant
frequency
FIGURE 9.5.4a .- Typical acceleration pattern generated by a chamber pressure perturbation of lower frequency than the
resonant frequency of the hardware.
mechanical resonance and "forcing function" acceleration of the injector relative to the chamber,
information. The forcing function , of course, is and acceleration of the engine relative to the
the chamber pressure fluctuation and is the stand, as well as any movement of the stand.
information of most interest . This rather simple Therefore, it is expedient to instrument some
example shows the importance of the overall portions of the test stand itself. This would enable
envelope shape in the interpretation of accelera- these rigid body modes to be discerned and hence
tion data. discounted from the rocket engine hardware
frequency analysis.
9.5.4.2 Determination of hardware resonance The information to be gleaned from such a test
effects. Unstable combustion occurs at certain can only be of an approximate nature due to the
well-defined frequencies . Care must be taken to lack of pressurization effects on the hardware.
ensure that the frequencies of the acoustic modes These effects would obviously be present during
of the combustion chamber and the mechanical engine firing ; however, they are normally of second
resonant frequencies of the hardware do not order importance and do not seriously compromise
coincide. With such precautions, and the proper the data acquired .
positioning of the accelerometers , data can be
obtained on the combustion phenomena occurring 9.5.4.3 Estimation of hardware distortion during
in the chamber. A typical arrangement to check instability. During unstable combustion the
for hardware resonance effects is shown in Fig. hardware usually oscillates at a high frequency
9.5.4b where chamber "ringing" frequencies will and experiences high acceleration forces. Some
be displayed by accelerometers Y₁ and Y2, while reasonable estimate of the displacement of the
Y3, X and Z will display the mechanical response hardware may be obtained by assuming that the
of the injector to acceleration originating in the hardware moves with simple harmonic motion.
chamber and transmitted upstream through the The displacement from its "at rest" position is
structure. The excitation in a cold test is provided then given by the expression
by a sharp blow delivered to the chamber at a
Point A. When interpreting data from such a test x=
one should remember that the accelerations 4( f)2
recorded are of an absolute nature and include where x is the displacement from the "at rest"
Arrows show planes in

which acceleration
is monitored.-
-Point A
X
IN
FIGURE 9.5.4b.--Positioning of instruments for hardware resonance investigation.
position, a is the acceleration , and ƒ is the oscil- obtained when the chamber is struck during
lation frequency. If the acceleration is measured resonant hardware frequency testing. That is, it
in g's, as is typical, this expression becomes consists of a single excitation pulse followed by a
x (inches ) = 9.788a/f2 . It can readily be seen that decaying mechanical resonant frequency. Of
if the frequency (f) is several kHz , the dis- course, this type of signal is usually of quite low
placement (x ) is very small indeed , probably less amplitude, but is nevertheless important during
than one thousandth of an inch . It is for this the study of combustion phenomena and injector
reason that actual measurement of this displace- design. An example of such an occurrence is shown
ment is seldom attempted and that accelerometer in Fig. 9.5.4c . Here , an acceleration output of
measurements are taken instead. 730 g's was experienced in the thrust axis of the
The assumption that the acceleration is simple- engine with no corresponding perturbation in the
harmonic is certainly an over-simplification (the chamber pressure field . The monitoring accel-
signal is usually more peaked than sinusoidal) . erometer was located on the back of the injector
However, the estimated displacement usually (i.e. , accelerometer "X" in Fig. 9.5.4c ) . This
provides a close approximation to that measure- perturbation occurred well into the steady-state
ment which could only be provided by quite period of the run and clear of all start transients ,
exotic instrumentation techniques. etc.
The foregoing applications are typical of those
9.5.4.4 Detection of short-duration combustion current in the industry at present. However,
perturbations. It is possible for localized ex- advances in transducer design which increase
plosions to take place in the combustion chamber their frequency range and amplitude reliability
and be either so positioned or be of such a short (while reducing their physical size) will un-
duration that they are not detected by chamber doubtedly lead to still more sophisticated applica-
pressure transducers especially those transducers tions.
that are either frequency limited or nonflush-
9.6 OTHER MEASUREMENTS
mounted , such as the helium-bleed type. However,
if such an occurrence takes place close to the The following nomenclature pertains to Sect . 9.6 :
chamber wall (especially in an all metal chamber) , CF Thrust coefficient
the shock wave would result in an acceleration F Thrust
output . Typically, this output is similar to that fo Resonant frequency
F. M. record
expanded time replay
Pc - 1[Statham ]
Pc-2 [ Kistler ]
Pc -3 [Kistler ]
730 9.1
Inj.accel . "X "
Switch pip
Time code -.001 sec
FIGURE 9.5.4c. - Portion of test record showing accelerometer response and no apparent "po" perturbation .
ƒ1 , ƒ2 Half-power frequencies necessary to determine transfer functions in the

ge Gravitational constant, 32.17 lbm- propellant system. Although there is much work
ft/lb-sec² yet to be done for dynamic flow measurements ,
Pt Acoustic pressure amplitude at any time several transducers are available with limited
Pmax Maximum acoustic pressure amplitude capability . Some of the most common flow meas-
po Amplitude before driving signal cut-off urement transduction methods and their limita-
Q Quality factor of resonant system tions follow.35
α Decay rate Turbine flowmeters.-This type of flowmeter is
the most commonly used for the measurement of
Subscripts:
a Ambient static propellant flow rates in rocket engines . As
its name indicates, a turbine is employed which is
C Chamber
rotated by the fluid at a rate proportional to the
e Nozzle exit
stream velocity. A sensitive coil measures the
Chamber stagnation
speed of rotation as the blades pass the coil . The
9.6.1 Propellant Flow Rate* device is extremely linear over an operating range
of about ten to one. Static accuracy of the flow-
The use of an instantaneous flow measurement
meter is excellent with an uncertainty of 0.1 %.
device as an aid to the analysis of combustion
Since the flowmeter provides a direct measure-
instability is highly desirable. There are scores of ment of velocity, mass flow rate is easily obtained
companies which manufacture flow measurement .
when the fluid density is known. The inlet velocity
devices, including both steady-state and dynamic profile, however, has been shown to dominate the
types of flowmeters. The usual consideration is for
flowmeter performance.687
highly accurate steady-state flow measurements The dynamic capability of the turbine flow-
for performance calculations. Dynamic con-
meter is rather limited.298 The main cause of the
siderations are important when it becomes
frequency limitation in turbine meters is the
* R. D. Wesley and R. J. Hefner, Authors . inertia of the rotor. Measurements on different
models ofinch flowmeters yielded typical time a 1 millisecond rise time from 10 % to 90% of
constants of 2 to 5 milliseconds.640 full scale output.26
For additional information on turbine meters Hot-wire anemometer. - By providing a constant
the reader may wish to consult the 42 references electrical current through a wire suspended in the
in the recent report by Thompson and Grey.687 propellant stream,2 it is possible to obtain a
That report also includes a turbine meter users' measure of flow velocity by measuring resistance
survey. changes in the wire as its temperature varies due
Electromagnetic flowmeter. -The electromagnetic to changes in heat transfer to the fluid ( King's
305
flowmeter is used to measure non-steady flow.30 law ) . This is a simple description of a " constant
It is based on the principle of an electrically current " hot-wire anemometer, however, where
conducting fluid through a magnetic field , which high frequency measurements (order of kHz ) are
produces an e.m.f. proportional to the fluid required, electronically compensated anemometers
velocity . By locating electrodes on opposite sides that maintain "constant temperatures" on the
of the pipe and 90° to the magnetic field , the wire are also available. Both types are relatively
resulting voltage can be measured . Types of fluid easy to use but the probes are subject to breakage
which can be measured with this principle are or corrosion damage. Since the probe is sensitive
those which have free ions , such as the acids , to flow in more than one direction data analysis
White Fuming Nitric Acid ( NNO3 ) , Red Fuming can become quite complicated .
Nitric Acid (NNO3 +NO2 +H2O) , Nitrogen Drag body flowmeters. - The drag body flow-
Tetroxide (N2O4) and certain of the hydrazine meter works on the principle of impacting the
fuels. Measurements have been made experi- flow stream on a target connected to a beam on
mentally with conductivities as low as 2.8 × 10−6 which strain gages are installed.289b As the target
mhos /cm.75 deflects due to velocity of the flow stream the
With the use of a constant magnetic field the beam will bend causing an output from the strain
flow measuring device experiences electrode gages. The force on the target is proportional
polarization. This is detrimental to measurement to the fluid density and the square of the fluid
of steady-state flow due to signal drift . To combat velocity. The resonant frequency of the device is
this electrode polarization, the use of an alter- somewhat dependent on size, generally in the
nating magnetic field is employed . This does away range of 500 to 600 Hz , although some have been
with the electrode polarization, but due to the higher. The frequency response for pulsating flow
behavior of rapidly changing currents in circuits measurements will be limited by the resonant
containing inductance , it is difficult to alternate frequency.
the field at the frequency necessary to provide the
response desired without introducing transient 9.6.2 Injection Characteristics *
voltages beyond tolerance . Furthermore , frequency
Many attempts have been made to quantita-
response is only a fraction of field frequency, e.g. , tively determine the mixing, atomization,
60 Hz allows 10 Hz measurements.
vaporization, drop size distribution, and mixture
Electromagnetic flowmeters with an alter- ratio distribution in bipropellant liquid rocket
nating magnetic field have gained wide application combustors with combustion taking place. The
in industry for measuring non-steady liquid flow. most successful of these investigations conducted
They are structurally simple and reliable to to date, however, have resulted in providing only
operate, although their use must be confined to qualitative information.
conducting fluids . Some devices have been manu- A more common method of investigating
factured with a 500 Hz frequency response.400 injection characteristics is to measure the char-
Flowmeters which use a constant magnetic acteristic injection parameters in a simulated
field have a theoretically unlimited frequency nonreactive environment and then to observe the
effects of varying these parameters on the per-
response. However, this has not been found to be
formance and stability characteristics of the
the case in practice . One such device has been
manufactured for pulse flow measurement with * R. J. Hefner, Author.
engine. The following will describe some of the of the propellants. The mixing characteristics of
typical techniques used in this approach . the actual propellants were determined by using
There have been many methods employed to a combustor that was segmented into two halves
measure the mixing and atomization characteris- just below the impingement point of the injected
tics of nonreactive liquids . These generally liquid streams . This permitted the droplet
involve using either high speed photographic or breakup and mixing resulting from the impinge-
sampling techniques. By gathering samples of the ment of the two streams but prevented any
liquid spray with a small diameter collecting secondary mixing from turbulence and diffusion .
probe at various points, a three-dimensional By injecting additional fuel into one side of the
pattern of the mass and mixture ratio distribution segmented chamber and oxidizer into the other
can be reconstructed . High-speed motion pictures side well below the original combustion zone,
of the spray provide data on the drop size and they were able to establish that the hypergolic
mass distribution. If differently colored liquids reaction at the initial impingement point resulted
are used to simulate the fuel and oxidizer, the in forcing the unlike propellants apart, this
mixture ratio distribution can also be determined resulted in fuel-rich and oxidizer-rich zones
from the photographs. beyond the impingement point that had not been
Typical of the type of investigation where the observed with the nonreactive simulators .
nonreactive injection characteristics are related to Water flow tests are commonly used to check
the combustion characteristics of a single element the nonreactive flow and impingement char-
injector is the work of Evans , Stanford and acteristics on most full scale injectors. This type
Riebling 252 They investigated the effect of of testing is primarily intended to detect plugged
injector element coarseness on the mixing and or misaligned orifices, but it also provides data on
combustion characteristics of hypergolic pro- the gross impingement and droplet breakup
pellants. To accomplish this they measured the characteristics. More quantitative measurement
mass and mixture ratio distributions generated of the mass and mixture ratio distributions
by various sizes of unlike doublet injector elements generated by full scale injectors have been made
using simulated nonreactive propellants. Then by using nonreactive sampling techniques.12,485 Figure
investigating the characteristics of the same 9.6.2a illustrates a sampling probe used for
elements with the actual propellants they were measuring the mass distribution of simulated
able to determine in a gross sense the effect of the propellants as they emerge from the injector. The
hypergolic reaction on the mixing characteristics probe is sized to cover a single orifice or single
Oxidizer inlet Probe assy.

Injector
Fuel inlet -
Access port
Positioning bolts
Face seal
Back pressure valve
Drain flow
Air
Probe assy.
Orifice flow- to
Venturi detail
FIGURE 9.6.2a.-Injector orifice flow sampler.

injection element and is sealed against the ment is repeated with the inlet end of the col-
injector face by air pressure. The injector and lecting tubes located at different distances from
probe are sealed in a chamber to permit flowing the injector face, the nonreactive mixing char-
the injector with a combustion simulated back acteristics can be established as a function of
pressure. By moving the probe from orifice to distance from the injector. For this type of sampler,
orifice or element to element the mass flow dis- where flow is collected from the time the flow
tribution through the injector under simulated starts until it ends, it is necessary to run repetitive
steady-state operating conditions can be deter- tests with different durations to separate the
mined.12 steady-state and transient injection characteris-
Another type of nonreactive flow sampling tics. The use of a flow shutter device has been
device that has been successfully employed on full used to eliminate multiple testing.22
scale injectors485 is illustrated on Fig. 9.6.2b . The Only a few of the many techniques employed
entire simulated propellant flow is collected in attempting to determine the injection char-
simultaneously in an array of tubes . The tubes are acteristics of liquid propellant engines have been
sufficiently long to collect all of the flow generated mentioned. As stated previously, most of these
during the start and shutdown transients plus up techniques involve investigating the characteristics
to several seconds of steady-state flow rate. By of simulated nonreactive liquids which may or
measuring the quantity and composition ( if may not bear a direct resemblance to the actual
immiscible nonreactive liquids are used ) of liquid combustion case. The general inability to deter-
collected in each tube, the mass and mixture ratio mine the characteristics of drop size, mixing,
distribution can be determined.615 If the experi- atomization, vaporization and mass distribution
in an engine with combustion has been a major
Oxidizer factor in limiting the advancement of the state of
Fuel inlet
inlet knowledge and control of liquid rocket com-
bustion processes .
9.6.3 Thrust and Other Performance Data *
-Injector 9.6.3.1 Measurable quantities related to per-

formance and stability.-Measurable parameters
which are useful for determining rocket engine
performance include : thrust , F; area ratio ,
Ae/At ; propellant temperatures, Tox, TF; mass
flow rates, mox, mr; ambient pressure, pa ; nozzle
exit pressure , Pe ; and chamber pressure, pc. The
absolute performance in terms of specific impulse
Air
vent · (Isp) is determined by thrust per unit of mass
flow, F/ (mox + mF) . The parameters are useful
for relating performance to the theoretical value,
extrapolating to other operating conditions ,
comparison of multiple tests on the same or similar
units and for engine balancing of the flow rates
via line orifices to achieve design mixture ratio .
THRUST : Thrust measurement is a necessity
for experimental evaluation of rocket engine
performance. This measurement can be avoided
only if sufficient tests on a particular unit have
been completed to allow correlation of thrust
with some other parameter (such as p.) within
FIGURE 9.6.2b .- Injector total flow sampler. * R. Valentine, Author.

desired statistical accuracy. If any changes are however, as the p. measurement is rarely repre-
subsequently made to the injector, chamber or sentative of true stagnation pressure for the nozzle
operating conditions, then recalibration is neces- entrance even when velocity corrections are
sary to insure accuracy of measured performance. made. Measured pressure at any given point in a
It is advisable to measure thrust on all tests , as no thrust chamber is a function of injector and
other parameter will permit accurate performance chamber design, and varies both axially and
evaluation under all operating circumstances . circumferentially . A method for evaluation of
AREA RATIO : The ratio of nozzle exit area, performance independent of P. and c * measure-
A to throat area, At determines the degree to ments is given in Ref. 703 .
which pressure may be converted to kinetic
energy with corresponding enhancement of thrust . 9.6.3.2 Effects of instability on measured quanti-
These parameters are generally measured pre- and ties. The incidence of combustion instability can
post-test, as no satisfactory method is available cause changes in measured thrust , mass flow, and
for direct measurement during firing. chamber pressure. Various combinations of effects
PROPELLANT TEMPERATURE : Fuel and have been noted . Performance can vary upward or
oxidizer temperature have a secondary effect on downward when an instability occurs. Very high
performance. Enthalpy effects alone account for performance units generally suffer a loss in Isp
0.01 to 0.03 sec Isp per degree Fahrenheit . An effect while low performance units often gain in per-
of similar magnitude may be noted as a result of formance .
temperature on surface tension and droplet These observations may be explained as follows :
vaporization characteristics.564 High performance units generally exhibit rela-
MASS FLOW: Knowledge of the rate of all tively uniform mox/mF distribution across the
primary and secondary propellant flow to the injector face and an injector which is highly
thrust chamber is necessary for any meaningful efficient for atomizing the propellant stream into
performance evaluation. Mass flows are best small droplets. This leads to rapid droplet
measured by use of redundant flow meters, vaporization, a relatively sharp energy release
calibrated with propellants . The total flow rate, gradient and consequent high performance if
mox +mr is used to evaluate Isp , while the mixture combustion length is sufficient . These same
ratio , mox/ṁF, is required to relate the Isp to characteristics are generally considered adverse to
theoretical expectations. achieving combustion stability . If instability
PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS : Ambient occurs , the motion of gases in the chamber can
pressure (pa) is measured during most rocket result in misimpingement of the liquid streams
engine firings so that the measured performance and sprays, thus producing a less satisfactory
may be related to vacuum performance by addi- distribution of the mixture ratio . Designed mixing
tion of the quantity p₁A, to the measured thrust . is also upset, which together with the off-mixture
If pa is not constant on all external surfaces of the ratio , results in lower Isp.
engine , the axial component of the actual gradient Conversely, lower performing units are often
must be evaluated to determine thrust loss at characterized by uneven mox/mp distribution,
ambient pressure versus the vacuum value . large orifices or poorly designed elements which
Nozzle exit pressure, p. can be related directly do not yield a small droplet size distribution .
to chamber stagnation pressure, p. if the exit Instability in this system may result in mixing of
velocity is known. This parameter is rarely zones of varying mox/mr and more rapid droplet
measured, however , due to the extreme difficulty vaporization as a consequence of higher gas
of measuring a representative value considering velocity past the drops . These phenomena may
the normal pressure gradient at the exit plane . lead to higher Isp.
Chamber pressure is commonly used as a per- The design and operating factors which tend to
formance parameter by evaluating characteristic improve I , performance of rocket engines are
velocity, c * = peAtge/ (mox + mr) . Specific impulse generally in the direction of reducing stability.
is then determined by the expression Isp = For example, performance is enhanced by even .
c*CF/ge. This method is not recommended , mox/mr distribution, small orifice size and even
mass distribution . These same parameters work siderable gas sampling has been done downstream
against the achievement of stable operation . A of the nozzle exhaust.155,316 To assure a repre-
satisfactory rocket engine must exhibit a balance. sentative sample , considerable care is required in
between the factors influencing performance, positioning the probe. In addition to the radial
compatibility and stability. It will not be ideal boundary layer effects, it has been found that
from any standpoint, but must meet minimum variations in compositions may be nearly as great
requirements of each . in the tangential direction.620 Gas samples are
normally taken during stable combustion , but it is
9.6.3.3 Post shutdown observations. - The ther- possible to sample during combustion instability
mal, chemical and gas dynamic environment in a or during the start transient .
rocket combustion chamber is determined pri- Sampling has been done in two ways. Usually
marily by injector design characteristics. Analysis a gas sample is removed from the engine, stored
of local mox/m zones and the mass distribution in a container and analyzed at a later time. This
at the injector face permits prediction of approxi- method is always used when liquid and/or solid
mate char and erosion patterns on ablative phases are expected to be found . ( Sampling of
chambers, or thermal zones on instrumented solid particles is discussed in Reference 34. ) The
metal chambers . Observation of fired chambers other method uses an on-line mass-spectrometer
generally shows evidence of heat marks or char and the gas is continuously sampled and
and erosion patterns which are characteristic of analyzed.674 In the latter case particular attention
the injector design.704 For example, on ablative must be paid to the fluid system which leads
chambers the protected zone near a film coolant from the chamber to the ionizer of the mass-
orifice may generally be clearly seen. If an in- spectrometer. Stratification must be avoided and
stability occurs however, the characteristic pattern the skimmers* are designed to deliver a repre-
will be obliterated . Chambers subjected to sentative sample of the original gas to the ionizer.
unstable operation exhibit rough textured sur- In the former method of sampling, stratification
faces, often with streaks indicating tangential is perhaps not so severe since a larger sample is
flow of erosive gas streams. Observation of the actually used and, if necessary, the lead lines of the
post-fire condition of a chamber cannot be con- system may be cleaned out and used as part of
sidered a satisfactory means of characterizing the sample. To assure getting a representative
instability, however, due to the qualitative and sample in the bottle system it is usually necessary
variable nature of the results . to purge the system prior to and after taking the
sample . A typical arrangement for purging,
9.6.4 Sampling of Combustion Gases * valving and gaging is shown in Fig . 9.6.4 .
In either sampling system it is essential that
Experimental combustion gas sampling is
valuable where theoretical predictions are sus- the probe have several attributes. If the flow is
pected or difficult . Gas sampling provides a direct subsonic , the flow through the probe during
sampling should be isokinetic, that is, the flow
measure of mixture ratio , species distributions
and average molecular weight.316 This information into the probe should be at the same velocity as
is particularly useful for gas properties of tap-off the surrounding free-stream gases. Recently a
subsonic type of probe has become commercially
gases for turbo-machinery operation , acoustic
available.19 If the flow is supersonic, the shock
absorber entrance conditions , engine start condi-
tions , mixture ratio distribution, and chamber wave should be swallowed by the probe such that
boundary layer cooling. If concurrent static. the bow shock standing off the probe tip does not
pressure and temperature measurements are deflect particles or striate the gas flow. One of the
most stringent design aspects of the probe involves
taken, the combined data allows nearly all of the
sampled gas properties to be calculated . its structural integrity . It must be thoroughly
Gases may be extracted from either the com-
bustor core flow or the boundary layer. Con- * Skimmers are entrance orifices for the on-line mass
spectrometer required to reduce the sample pressure to
* W . M. Ford, Author . the order of 10-8 torr.
Cooling
water in rates were very high and severe hardware damage
occurred." Actually, this helps explain why the
Hot gas amount of information is limited- first , these
Purge F/M flow
increased heating rates during unstable operation
often jeopardize hardware integrity, thus in-
Sample control valve
creasing testing risk; and second , since unstable
Cooled
sampling probe combustion is not a normal operational mode,
thermal measurements have been considered to
Sample
tank be of academic interest and therefore neglected.
On some occasions thermal measurements have
Probe
mount been used to identify the existence and nature of
Sample tank block Thrust chamber
service valve wall combustion instability. Burrows130 describes a
Cooling method for using thermal radiation as a tool in
water out
analyzing unstable combustion. He shows that
differences can exist between the thermal radiation
FIGURE 9.6.4. - Cooled sampling probe. emitted from the combustion gases during stable
and unstable firings. Other investigators have
identified the existence of combustion instabilities
cooled and designed to withstand the corrosive
from the rapid response of thermocouples welded
environment and the aerodynamic loads imposed
to the chamber walls . When an exceptional
by the rocket engine hot gas flow. temperature rate is evident the firings can be
The probe must also be designed to prevent
stopped before physical damage begins . This
further reaction of the sample . Reaction quenching
simple method of detecting an instability could be
may be accomplished by immediate expansion of particularly valuable when heating rates are
the sample, quickly reducing the sample tem-
normally low and pressure instrumentation is not
perature by heat transfer, or by dilution with an readily available.
inert fluid .
Within the framework of the available data one
is forced to direct the discussion towards two
9.6.5 Thermal Measurements*
simple goals : ( 1 ) identification of the experimental
The main purpose of thermal measurements in work, and ( 2) a qualitative reflection on the
a thrust chamber is the identification of heating important parameters. In 1959 , the most detailed
rates that must be accommodated by some cooling study dealing with thermal measurements during
method within the thrust chamber walls . The work resonant combustion in model-size rocket motors
of Bartz382 indicates the types of studies that have was reported.320 Thrust chamber heat flux dis-
been conducted to obtain experimental data and tributions were measured for intentionally in-
to develop correlating expressions for predicting duced longitudinal instabilities using LOX/Hy-
thermal conditions during stable operation. This drazine propellants (the first longitudinal mode)
particular work represents only one important and for transverse instabilities using LOX/
segment of a multitude of similar studies that have Ethanol (the first tangential mode ) . The measur-
been carried out. From these, a fairly significant ing instruments were water-cooled , plug calori-
amount of thermal information exists for stable meters flush-mounted along uncooled chambers.
combustion and the methods of predicting heating These calorimeters were capable of accepting heat
rates in rockets. While admittedly not perfect, fluxes near 15 Btu/in.2 sec . Figure 9.6.5a , taken
these methods are acceptable. The same cannot from Ref. 320, displays heat flux and pressure
be said for unstable operation. Here , the amount of measurements from a longitudinal instability
experimental information is quite limited and case with a 32 in. long combustion chamber. The
often rather qualitative in nature, sometimes steady combustion heat flux value of just under
taking the form of an observation that "heating 2 Btu/in.2 sec was observed to increase by factors
of nearly 3 with the instability. A direct and
* N. E. Van Huff, Author. expected correspondence existed between the
5
150 1200
amplitude
2increase Uncooled corporal engine
-pPeak
temperature
oeak
Heat
,i/Bnsec
flux tu
125
t, si
& 1000- Pc:~ 300 psia
frequency : 1800 Hz
Wall
0.020
100
3
,°F
800-
Unstable(~1500psi amplitude)
at
in
.
75
Hydrazine / oxygen Unstable ( ~200 psi amplitude)
600
Pc~300 psia
50
400-
25
Stable
200
1
5 10 15 20 25 30
Distance from injector , in.
O.I 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Time from ignition , sec
FIGURE 9.6.5a .-Heat flux increase with longitudinal
instability. FIGURE 9.6.5b .- Wall temperature/time curves with
transverse instability.
axial heat flux profile and the velocity variations
that would be induced by the local pressure amplitude change had only a small effect on
changes. Furthermore, the factor decreased linearly heat flux.
with increasing chamber length varying from Another source,477 involving an "accidental"
about 3.5 for a 15 in . long chamber to 2.2 for a instability, indicates an increase in heat flux to a
48 in. chamber. For the 15 in. long chamber, water-cooled baffle by a factor of 1.7 for a trans-
oscillations were observed with peak-to-peak verse instability in a high pressure engine . This
amplitudes of 129 psi and frequencies of 980 Hz . relatively low factor is actually consistent with
For the transverse instability case, heat flux the other information at higher pressures stated
values increased by factors of about 4 for a above . The implication is that local disturbances
nominal chamber pressure of 150 psia and 2.5 for from instabilities have a far greater effect on
the 550 psia case. The oscillations during some of lower heat transfer coefficients than they do on the
the transverse instabilities were noted to have already high coefficients which would exist at
peak-to -peak pressure amplitudes of 200 psi and higher pressures .
frequencies of 4300 Hz . Still another aspect which can influence the
Information from Rupe and Jaivin,620 on the factors quoted above is the amount of local cooling
other hand, was obtained "accidentally" when an expected from either intentional or unintentional
unintentional transverse instability occurred in film cooling near the injector. The onset of an
their experiments (most likely, the first tangential instability tends to eliminate this cooling and
mode ) . This "accidental" aspect is often the under certain conditions, chamber heat fluxes have
manner in which thermal measurements are made actually increased from near zero values with
under unstable conditions. Their primary inten- stable combustion and film cooling to near 3
tion was the study of injector mass distribution Btu/in.2 sec for an equivalent unstable firing.635
on local heat transfer rates during stable operation. The information above reflects , in general, the
with Stabilized Fuming Nitric Acid/Corporal scarcity of thermal measurements during com-
Fuel propellants. Temperature/time responses bustion instabilities. No bona fide method is
from uncooled thermocouple plugs were used presently available to predict the severity of the
to infer heat fluxes ; three typical curves are shown thermal conditions which may arise , although
in Fig . 9.6.5b indicating the extreme wall tem- the work of Harrje319 on heat transfer in oscillating
perature variations that can occur. These curves , flow is worthy of mention because he did explore
when converted to heat flux, indicated ( 1 ) this problem in reasonable depth. Thus , the topic
increases in heating rates by factors greater than can best be summarized by a series of qualitative
10 had occurred , and ( 2 ) the 200 psi to 1500 psi observations that are based on the experimental
data. These are : ( 1 ) increased heat transfer rates chamber may be excited either by a broad band,
have been measured with transverse and longitu- "white noise," signal or by a single frequency
dinal instabilities of significant amplitudes ; ( 2) varied slowly over a wide frequency range. Either
transverse modes tend to create greater heat flux method gives the same cavity response.553
levels than longitudinal modes ; ( 3 ) combustion If the chamber damping of a particular mode is
instabilities at lower pressure indicate greater low, the response curve will have a high maximum ,
thermal variations on a percentage basis than at but will decrease rapidly for frequencies above
higher pressures ; and (4) disturbance of a film- and below the resonant frequency. If the mode
cooled boundary during an unstable firing can damping is high, the response peak will be lower
be particularly damaging. and the curve broader. This behavior suggests the
use of the bandwidth or quality factor "Q" as a
9.6.6 Acoustic Modeling * measure of damping. The quality factor is defined
9.6.6.1 Introduction and scope.-Pressure and by
velocity oscillations during high-frequency com- Q = time-average energy stored
bustion instability (resonant combustion ) may be 2π energy loss per cycle
closely identified with the normal acoustic modes
of cylindrical cavities. Even extreme distortion of The Q factor may be written in terms of the half-
power bandwidth :
the chamber shape from the cylindrical , by baffles,
long conical nozzles , and curved injector faces, fo
does not destroy this acoustic identity. It is , Q=
f2 -f1
therefore, worthwhile to study separately the
acoustic aspects of combustion instability. The where fo is the resonant frequency, and fi and f₂
objective of such a study is to determine the are the frequencies below and above fo for which
effects on the acoustic field of variations of the the response power is half of the peak power.
The half-power point corresponds to a pressure
physical characteristics of the combustor. These
variations may be caused by the presence of liquid amplitude 0.707 times the maximum ( or 3 decibels
down from the maximum) . A typical response
particles, gas flows, injector-face baffles, or non-
rigid walls . The effects of oscillations on combus- curve, showing the measurements required to
compute Q, is given in Fig. 9.6.6a .
tion and liquid flow processes are not included in
these acoustic modeling studies. The Q measurement is especially suitable for
In this section, methods of characterizing and high damping rates (low Q ) , where the response
measuring the damping of acoustic modes in
simulated combustion chambers are considered .
Although the results of specific experiments will be
presented, the investigations will not be discussed
Amplitude
in detail. Acoustic and hot-firing test results are

compared, and the usefulness of acoustic modeling
in rocket engine development is appraised .
Pmax
Q =10/12-11
√2120max
9.6.6.2 Acoustic damping coefficient. -The most
useful measure of the response of an acoustic field
to a specific system is the acoustic damping
coefficient . If acoustical energy is put into a cavity
over a broad frequency range, the energy will be
distributed into a number of modes of resonance .
Si fo f2
The "response," i.e., the amplitude of sound
Frequency
pressure within the cavity, will show maxima at
frequencies that correspond to each mode. The
FIGURE 9.6.6a .-A chamber response curve (the ratio of
the chamber to driver oscillation amplitude versus
* P. R. Wieber, Author .
frequency) .
curve is broad and insensitive to errors in fre- all comparisons . Furthermore, the measurement is
quency measurement . Determination of high Q sensitive to location . It has been observed that
values requires very accurate frequency measure- the pressure antinode can shift when devices such
ments . For example, for a typical Q value of 55 at as baffles are inserted into a chamber. Thus, it
a longitudinal mode frequency of 550 Hz , an error must be verified that the pressure transducer is
of 1 Hz in the measurement of either of the half- truly at the antinode if the measurement is to be
power frequencies fi, f2 will produce a 10 % error meaningful.
in Q. If two modal frequencies are very close The dynamic measurement of damping is given
together, their response peaks overlap and the Q by the damping rate a, which is the rate at which
factor cannot be determined . Often the power of the amplitude damps after the driving source
the driver varies with frequency . In such a case, abruptly stops exciting the chamber. If the cavity
the response curve must be normalized to a con- oscillates as a lumped parameter system with
stant driving power. linear losses, the cavity pressure will damp ac-
Although the Q factor is derived from a lumped cording to the law
parameter model and is strictly applicable to
linear systems , it is also usable as a measure of the Pt = Pmaxe at sin 2πfot
damping in systems that are nonlinear and have
distributed elements . A thorough discussion where pt is the acoustic pressure amplitude at any
of the assumptions which apply to the use of the time t and Pmax is the amplitude before the driving
Q factor is presented by Culick and Dehority , 204 source is cut off at t = 0. A typical exponential
The acoustic models of combustion chambers are damping curve (from Reference 737) is shown in
distributed parameter systems, but their behavior Fig. 9.6.6b . The damping rate a can be found
can be characterized successfully by the Q band- graphically by plotting ln (êt/êmax) against time,
width measurements . The feasibility of this where the pt value is measured at the oscillation
approach has been shown by Buffum et al.127 peaks. Such a plot will give a straight line with a
from tests on solid propellant rocket motors . slope of a. The damping rate per cycle is simply
Lawhead423 obtained Q values for elliptical a divided by fo. For isolated modes, it has been
chambers, and Lawhead and Levine428 used Q shown that the Q and a measurements are
values to evaluate the effectiveness of various related.127
absorbing devices for use in liquid propellant The damping measurement works well if damp-
combustors . ing is low. It fails at very high damping rates
Another damping measurement has been used because several oscillation peaks are needed to
by Phillips and Morgan.553 At the resonant fre- establish the damping curve. The presence of
quency, the damping rate is inversely proportional nearby modes can complicate the measurement
to the amplitude of the acoustic pressure measured of a damping rate because the waves may inter-
at a pressure antinode. This method allows a fere, giving rise to beat frequencies or a succession
quick comparison to be made between the damping of different damping rates.
abilities of two chambers that have roughly the The measurement of damping rates has been
same resonant frequencies. The use of a single used in research studies of the effects of chamber
measurement is also an attractive feature . How- shape and baffle configuration737 and of acoustic
ever, the input power must be held constant for liner design.553 This approach has also been used to
0.001 sec
Timing mark-
Driver W
Microphone-
Time
FIGURE 9.6.6b . - Typical damping trace for first standing transverse mode in a simulated rocket chamber.
guide the development of baffles for full-scale the cavity and that better agreement would have
engines. 15,599 been obtained from the shock tube tests if
extraneous frequencies had been filtered out.
9.6.6.3 Driving techniques.-The basic equip- The pulsing techniques are not desirable for
ment needed for acoustic modeling consists of a acoustic model tests because they bring into the
driver, with its associated power supply and measurement the ability of the pulser to excite
controls, to supply acoustic energy , and a pressure the acoustic field . Moreover, the spectrum of the
transducer or microphone to detect the cavity pulse produced by the shock tube or explosive
response. The instrumentation and analysis charge must be examined to verify that acoustic
methods are essentially the same as those used on energy is being produced in the frequency range
hot firings (Sect . 9.3) . However, the different of interest . For these reasons, electrodynamic or
driving techniques deserve attention . electropneumatic drivers used with the technique
If no flow is needed , an electrodynamic loud- of abruptly switching off the driver are more
speaker driver can be mounted in the chamber desirable in measuring acoustic damping rates.
wall, injector, or nozzle . The acoustic output of
these drivers is low-less than 100 watts. One 9.6.6.4 Applications. -Acoustic modeling has
driver can produce any standing mode that has a been used with success in rocket engine develop-
pressure antinode near the driver location.737 Two ment programs for preliminary evaluation of
drivers separated by 90° around the chamber proposed design changes aimed at stabilizing
circumference , with inputs out of phase by 90°, oscillatory combustion. Lawhead and Levine428
are needed to drive traveling transverse modes.509,553 studied several kinds of absorbing devices in
When bulk gas flow is included in the experi- acoustic model tests. Horn absorbers, which
ment, a siren or modulated-valve electropneumatic showed good damping, reduced or completely
driver can be used to deliver both air flow and eliminated spontaneous instability in the hot
acoustic energy. These devices can deliver from firings.
100 to above 10,000 watts of acoustic power. An extensive acoustic model study of injector-
The electropneumatic driver can reproduce acous- face baffles was carried out as a part of the Gemini
tically an electrical input over its working fre- Stability Improvement Program. 15,331 It was shown
quency response range. Gordon and Smith295 that the variation of both frequency and damping
used a reciprocating, porous piston to provide a with baffle height gave generally the same correla-
combination of steady air flow with acoustic tion for both hot and cold tests , even though the
oscillations. excitation on the hot tests was supplied by
Transient driving may be produced by pulsing explosive charges . These results are illustrated by
the cavity with a directed or non-directed explo- Fig . 9.6.6c .
sive or by introducing a pulse of gas or a shock In applying the results of acoustic model tests.
wave from a cold gas shock tube. However, such to full scale combustion chambers, the differences
techniques have seldom been used in acoustic in geometrical scale and speed of sound between
modeling studies. the model and the prototype must be taken into
The various methods of driving were compared account. It must also be remembered that the
by Buffum and his co-workers.127 Q-factor data effects of vaporizing propellant sprays, inhomoge-
were obtained using a siren-type rotary valve. neities in the chamber gases, and detonation-like
These data, transformed into values, agreed very waves are not modeled by the acoustic tests.
closely with damping rates measured directly by Nevertheless, the good correlation between cold .
shutting off the power to an electropneumatic and hot damping rates gives credence to the use of
driver. However , damping rates of a shock from a acoustic models as valid approximations of com-
cold gas , burst-diaphragm shock tube were bustion acoustics.
noticeably higher , and damping rates of a shock In addition to measurement of the damping of
from a powder cartridge were even higher. The the various modes of the combustion chamber ,
investigators concluded that the gases from the acoustic modeling has proven useful in other types
burnt powder altered the acoustic properties of of tests related to combustion instability.
Nestlerode , Chadwick, and Gleason509 modeled less of the type of instrumentation employed, the
the feed system of the F- 1 engine in an attempt positive identification of the specific mode of
to find damping devices that would decouple the instability experienced ( and whether it is spinning,
feed system from the combustion chamber . standing or precessing ) requires a reconstruction
Insertion of the most promising devices in the of the wave formation within the combustor.
prototype engine eliminated feed system oscil- The following is a description of techniques
lations in engine testing. Rosen and Oberg599 commonly used to translate data from analog
measured high acoustic gas velocities over the pressure records of high response transducers into
tips of baffles in a model combustion chamber and a form amenable to the identification of the specific
predicted a potential trouble area in another mode of resonant instability encountered during
booster engine development program. Nozzle the test. This will be followed by a discussion of
impedance measurements (see Sect . 3.6 ) have the evaluation of these reduced data in deter-
been made, using acoustic modeling techniques, mining the mode or modes of instability experi-
to supplement theoretical studies of the effect of enced . Although the discussion describes the
the nozzle on combustion instability.126,195,295 reduction and interpretation of analog pressure
Water table modeling has had limited use in the data, the same techniques are applicable to other
study of acoustic liners.40,41 Although there is types of analog data .
little experience in quantitative applications, the
pictures of wave patterns can give interesting 9.7.1.1 Analog data reduction techniques. -In
qualitative understanding of the interactions order to positively identify the specific mode or
between incident waves and acoustic resonators . modes of resonant combustion instability experi-
enced during a rocket engine firing, it is necessary
9.7 INTERPRETATION OF TEST DATA * to reconstruct the identifying characteristics of
the waveforms that existed within the combustor.
9.7.1 Resonant Combustion
There are several ways of doing this from the
The most destructive type of combustion analog data recorded by multiple high response
pressure transducers. Three commonly used
instability experienced in liquid rocket engines
techniques will be described . Basically, all of the
involves a coupling of the combustion process with
one or more of the acoustic resonances of the techniques involve the reconstruction of the
pressure within the combustor as a function of
combustor cavity. This type of instability is
variously referred to as resonant combustion , position and the change of this pressure profile as
a function of time. The analog recording of a
acoustic instability , or high frequency combustion
instability. A discussion of the combustion single transducer provides the pressure versus
mechanisms and physical manifestations resulting time history at one point in the combustor,
from resonant combustion are presented in whereas the instantaneous pressures (recorded by
Chapter 1. This section outlines the physical several strategically located transducers) provide
characteristics of resonant combustion and de- the data for reconstruction of the instantaneous
scribes methods for the detection and identification pressure profiles within the cavity .
of the various modes of resonant instability. For Transducers located circumferentially on the
chamber wall provide data for identifying pure
background see Refs. 495 , 503 , and 93 .
Resonant combustion can generally be detected transverse pressure wave formations. Similarly
in a liquid rocket engine by the oscillatory signal axially located transducers provide data for
recorded by a single high response pressure identifying pure longitudinal pressure wave forma-
transducer. For diagnostic purposes, however, tions. The combined data from both of these
multiple high response pressure transducers are planes permit reconstruction of the identifying
characteristics of the three-dimensional wave-
most commonly used. Streak photography, high
speed motion pictures, and multiple light sensors form, although the radial wave characteristics can
have also been employed for this purpose. Regard- generally be deduced only indirectly . For purposes
of illustration only circumferentially located
* R. J. Hefner , Author. transducers will be used to describe the data
(decibels
ycle
gain
Net
)/
c
2 3 4 5
Effective baffle length ( inches )
O
-5
--
ODDO
Hot pulse tests
O
Full scale acoustic tests
o Half scale acoustic tests
-10
FIGURE 9.6.6c . -Comparison of acoustic model and hot pulse test data on the effect of baffle length on chamber damping.
reduction techniques. In practice, however, the Transducer 1, 12 13

same techniques should be applied to transducers 7.5
in all planes for which data are available.
A
One method of reconstructing the tangential T5
wave patterns within a combustor is to produce a 10
pressure vs angular position vs time plot of the B
analog data. This is accomplished by measuring
the magnitude of the oscillatory pressure from 7.5
-7.5
cach transducer at one instant of time and plotting
these values on an amplitude vs angular position
8.7
diagram . By repeating this process at several time -13 -8.7
instances during a single wave period , the time D
history of the pressure profile can be observed . AX
11.5
Fig. 9.7.1a illustrates this method of reducing the -11.5 -7.7
analog pressure data where, for clarity of illustra- E
tion, instantaneous times have been taken during
successive wave periods rather than during a FIGURE 9.7.1a.-Analog pressure record of idealized
single wave period . Fig . 9.7.1b shows the physical standing transverse mode of instability.
location of the various transducers and the
amplitude-angular position-time diagram con- angle between transducer recordings . An alternate
structed from the data. This particular waveform technique requires measuring the phase relation-
uniquely describes a standing first transverse mode ship between the various pressure traces and only
of instability, as will be discussed later. the maximum peak-to-peak amplitude encoun-
The technique described above requires tered for each trace during the wave period . The
numerous instantaneous pressure measurements phase angle is determined by measuring the
but does not require measuring the relative phase fractional wave period that the peak positive
TRANSDUCER LOCATIONS
A
15
10
Amp
60° B
)(psi
E
60°
75° 14
-5
+3
-10
90° C
-15-
D ABC DEA
O T 120 240 360

Angular position ( degrees )
FIGURE 9.7.1b .- Transducer locations and amplitude-angular position-time diagram for an idealized standing first trans-
verse mode instability.
pressure on one trace leads or lags that of a Consider the analog pressure record illustrated
reference trace . (One wave period corresponds on Fig. 9.7.1d . The boldface points on the phase
to a 360° phase angle. ) Fig. 9.7.1c illustrates the diagram represent the times to successive maxi-
method of constructing maximum amplitude and mum pressure peaks measured from the analog
phase diagrams as functions of angular position record . The smaller points on the diagram repre-
by this technique . In this case the physical sent the times to the smaller positive pressure
locations of the transducers are the same as that peaks appearing on traces A, B and D. From
shown in Fig. 9.7.1b and, as will be discussed, the these data points the path of the major and minor
particular phase and amplitude diagrams uniquely pressure waves can be reconstructed as shown .
describe a spinning second transverse mode of This phase diagram together with the maximum
instability. amplitude vs angular position diagram characterize
Either of the above techniques works well when a standing first tangential mode with steep-
the raw analog data indicate relatively sinusoidal fronted waves .
waveforms with high signal-to-noise ratio . If the
waves are steep-fronted , irregular, or have second- 9.7.1.2 Resonant combustion mode identifica-
ary perturbations superimposed on them, it is tion . In order to identify the mode or modes of
generally desirable to make time-to-peak pressure resonant combustion from analog pressure data it
vs angular position and maximum peak-to-peak is necessary to understand the identifying char-
amplitude vs angular position diagrams. This is acteristics of resonant combustion in rocket
accomplished by constructing a reference time engines. To aid in illustrating some of these
line on the analog record and measuring from this characteristics, consider a small diameter pipe
reference the times that the first five to ten open at both ends with a continuous sine wave
positive pressure peaks are recorded on each generator at the left end of the pipe. The pressure
trace . By plotting these times vs the angular within the pipe as a function of time and position ,
position of the various transducers, the path ofthe as the waves travel through the pipe, can be
positive pressure peaks can be reconstructed as a expressed by
function of angular position and time. This in X
effect is a reconstruction of the phase angle vs p = p+ cos
cos (212 )
angular position except that it covers several
wave periods rather than a single cycle . where
)( egrees
Phase
360-
angle
360°-
d
A 25 240-
120 ° 120-
B в с DEA
25
25
O 120 240 360
240° Angular position (degrees)
amplitude
Maximum
C 25
30-
)(psi
་
.09-
20
D 25
✓
10
210
B C D E A
25 1 I
E
120 24 360
Angular position (degrees )
FIGURE 9.7.1c. -Analog pressure record, phase and amplitude diagrams of a spinning second transverse instability mode.
P+ maximum positive pressure of generated constructed from individual records of maximum

wave (psia) amplitude and wave arrival times at the various
lw wave length (ft ) , a/f transducer locations . Figure 9.7.1e illustrates these
a speed of sound (ft/sec ) characteristic diagrams for pipes of one and two
f frequency ( Hz ) wavelengths, where to is taken to be zero.
t time (sec) Although the above equation is for a one-
X distance from left end of pipe (ft ) dimensional traveling wave in a pipe it is analogous
If the length of the pipe (L) is exactly one wave- to the circumferential pressure profile at the wall
length (L - lw ) , it can be shown from the above. for a spinning tangential mode in a cylindrical
equation that a positive pressure peak passes chamber. Thus , a spinning tangential mode is
any point x in the pipe at time t = to +x/a, where characterized by a constant peak-to-peak pressure
to is the time that a positive pressure peak passes as a function of angular position and a linear phase
the left end of the pipe (x = 0 ) . The magnitude of angle as a function of position . The order of the
this pressure peak is ±p at every point as it tangential mode corresponds to the number of
passes through the pipe. If the pipe were two positive pressure peaks occurring simultaneously
wavelengths long (L = 2w ) there would be two within the cavity.
positive pressure peaks in the pipe at any instant If a continuous sine wave generator with peak
given by t = to + 2x/a for 0≤x/L≤0.5 and pressure output p_ were placed at the right end
t = to + 1-2x/a for 0.5≤x/L≤1.0 . The maximum of the pipe, instead of the left , the instantaneous.
amplitude and phase diagrams in the pipe are pressure would be given by
Ref
time
A
1.0
мил
Time
(s
)m
B
0.5
wwwu
D E A
C
120 240 360
ниш
Angular position ( degrees)
милл 200
Max mp
).( si
pa
E
www 100-
Ims
в с DEA
Time Mo
120 240 360
Angular position ( degrees )
FIGURE 9.7.1d .-Pressure analog (phase and amplitude diagrams for standing first transverse mode with steep waves) .
X of a combustor, this is the general equation for

p = p_ cos the pressure profile of a longitudinal mode
08 ( 2 +2 )
instability. Again, if x is expressed in terms of
The phase and maximum amplitude diagrams angular position, rather than linear distance, the
would be identical to those for the generator at the above equation describes the pressure at the wall
left except that the slope of the phase angle would for transverse mode instabilities in a cylindrical
be negative. Thus, not only does the constant chamber. If either p+ or p is zero the equation
maximum pressure profile and linear phase angle describes a classical spinning tangential mode .
diagram uniquely characterize the spinning tan- If p+ = p- the equation reduces to
gential modes, but the slope of the phase angle
X at
plot also characterizes the direction of motion p = 2p + cos
08 ( 21 ) cos ( 21lw)
of the wave .
The more general case of one-dimensional
which is a classical standing mode . Solving for the
pressure waves in a pipe occurs when both genera-
time when the peak positive pressure is reached
tors are operating simultaneously. If they are and the magnitude of that maximum pressure as
both activated such that a positive pressure peak
functions of position yields the phase and ampli-
enters both ends of the pipe simultaneously, the tude diagrams illustrated in Fig. 9.7.1f for pipes.
pressure within the pipe as a function of time and
one and two wavelengths long . In this case the
position is given by
maximum pressure profile as a function of position
.
X at at varies continuously with length going from a value
p = p+ cos ( 2π: of ± 2p+ at the ends of the pipe ( pressure anti-
-p + cos ( 2-2 ) + p - c08 (2 +2 )
nodes) , to zero a quarter wavelength away from
If x is the linear distance from the injector face the ends as illustrated . The phase angle is a dis-
2P+
T
( egrees
720
)Phase
angle
. x.amp
d
540- 2P+ L=lm L= 2lw
Ma
L= 21w
300- L=lw
180
.25 .5 .75 1.0 25

.25 5
.5 .75 1.0
Axial position (x /L) Axial position (x /L)
FIGURE 9.7.1e.-Phase and maximum amplitude diagrams for a traveling wave in a pipe.
To lw
고
2P+ 2P+
T T
)( egrees
720
Phase
angle
L=&w L=21
d
540- L = 21 4P+
. mp
Ma x
360-
a
L=lw 2P+
180-
.25 .5 .75 1.0 .25 .5 .75 1.0

Axial position (x/L) Axial position (x/L)
FIGURE 9.7.1f.- Phase and maximum amplitude diagrams for a standing wave in a pipe.
continuous function having a constant phase maximum amplitude diagrams for such a case. It
angle with a 180° phase shift at every point where can be seen that as p_ increases and approaches
the maximum pressure is always zero (pressure P+ the peak-to-peak pressure increases at the
node) . antinodes and decreases a quarter wavelength
If the amplitude of the waves are not equal in from the antinodes . At the same time the phase
both directions (p+ p-,) the resultant wave angle diagram shifts from the characteristic
formation has characteristics different from either linear curve of the spinning mode toward the dis-
the spinning or classical standing modes of continuous step-function of the classical standing
instability. Figure 9.7.1g illustrates the phase and mode. The magnitude of the peak-to-peak pressure
lw.
2p+ L =l 2p
360
P =O
P =0.5P+
270 P =0.9 P P_FP+ p_= . 5p+
4P+
P_ =P + p_=.9p
P =O
3P+
180
2P+
90
P+
1
.25 .5 .75 1.0 .25 .5 .75 1.0
Axial position (x/ w ) Axial position (x/lw)
FIGURE 9.7.1g.- Phase and amplitude diagrams for opposed traveling waves in a pipe .
at the antinodes is equal to p++p- and at a point the resultant pressure vs time history at several
a quarter wavelength away (corresponding to the points along the pipe.
nodes of a classical standing mode ) is equal to At a point one quarter of a wavelength from
P+ -p . This type of instability is generally either end of the pipe, opposing sine waves would
referred to as a quasi-standing mode. exactly cancel at all times resulting in a pressure
The preceding paragraphs described the char- node. For the steepened waves illustrated , how-
acteristics of resonant combustion modes when ever, the resultant is a periodic wave pattern with
the waveform is sinusoidal . More often in actual a wave period one half that of the component
rocket engine instabilities the waveform is steep- waves and peak amplitude somewhat less than
fronted . For a spinning tangential mode with that of either component wave. At any inter-
steepened waves the characteristics are the same mediate point between this point and the end of
as those described for a sine waveform, but for all the pipe the waveform appears as a double peaked
other modes the characteristics can be different . wave. One peak is larger than the other and the
For example, consider the small diameter pipe time period between peaks of equal amplitude is
one wavelength long but with generators intro- the same as that of the component waves. The
ducing equal amplitude, steepened waves at each time period between the larger and smaller peaks
end of the pipe such that a maximum peak decreases as the position approaches the end of
pressure enters both ends simultaneously (i.e. , the the pipe. This is, of course , the result of the super-
second longitudinal mode) . The waves moving in position of the two component waves resulting in
each direction are mirror images of each other as the peak pressures being in phase at the pipe ends.
illustrated in Fig. 9.7.1h. The peak positive The phase angle between adjacent peaks increases
pressures of both waves in this case pass the two linearly to 180° a quarter wavelength from the
ends and the center of the pipe simultaneously pipe end. The shapes of the component waves
resulting in pressure antinodes. The maximum determine how close to the end of the pipe (pres-
amplitude at these antinodes is the sum of the sure antinode) the two peaks can be distinguished .
maximum amplitude of the component waves, as The phase and maximum amplitude diagram of
in the case of sine waves. The resultant pressure a typical standing first tangential mode instability
halfway between the antinode points is never zero with steepened waves is illustrated in Fig . 9.7.1d .
as it is with sine waves. Figure 9.7.1h illustrates As can be seen in that figure the component waves
x/ L= 0,1.0
x /L = 0.25 , 0.75
ww лиш
Л &
L=w_ ^
ш www
x/L =0.06 , 0.96 X / L= 0.1,0.9
FIGURE 9.7.1h.-Pressure versus time for steepened waves in a pipe.
forming the standing mode can be distinguished alternate clockwise and counter-clockwise shift
by the individual positive pressure peaks . Each over a sector of the chamber. The rate of pre-
one produces a phase diagram characteristic of a cession of the standing tangential wave formation
traveling transverse wave but the maximum can vary over a broad range . Typically the entire
peak-to-peak amplitude varies as a function of oscillating pressure profile may rotate completely
position, characteristic of a standing mode. This around the combustor cavity in from five to one
diamond-shaped phase diagram and varying hundred cycles of the resonant instability fre-
amplitude, maximum pressure diagram char- quency .
acterize the standing transverse modes with Figure 9.7.1i illustrates a precessing, standing
steepened waveforms . The location of pressure first tangential mode of resonant combustion with
antinodes within the cavity correspond to the steep-fronted waves . The peak-to-peak pressure
positions where the peak pressure vs position oscillations recorded by each transducer vary
curves intersect on the phase diagram. The order significantly in a cyclic fashion with the amplitude
of the tangential mode is equal to one half the changing from a maximum to a minimum in
number of antinodes existing around the chamber. approximately four cycles of the resonant com-
Another variation of standing tangential mode bustion frequency (8 cycles/period ) . The inter-
resonant combustion commonly experienced with section of the times of peak pressure vs angular
liquid rocket engines is the precessing tangential position on the phase diagram correspond to
mode. This type of instability has the characteris- pressure antinodes in the cavity . From this
tics of either the sinusoidal or steepened wave diagram it can be seen that the pressure antinodes
tangential modes previously described , except are moving clockwise at a rate of approximately
that the pressure antinodal points do not remain thirty degrees per cycle .
at a constant position with time. That is, the Thus far the identifying characteristics of the
entire wave formation shifts circumferentially pure tangential modes of resonant combustion
within the chamber . This motion of the standing instability have been described . The characteris-
tangential wave formation may be either a tics described for the standing and quasi-standing
continuous rotation about the chamber or an tangential modes with either sinusoidal or
steepened waves are the same as those for the

corresponding longitudinal modes when angular
a) 500 PSI
position is replaced by axial distance in the cavity.
If there were radially oriented pressure trans-
ducers located in the chamber or on the injector
b) 500 PSI face, the characteristics of the phase and amplitude
diagrams with radial position would also be the
same as those described for the tangential and
longitudinal modes. Normally this orientation of
c) 500 PSI instrumentation is not available. Thus the radial
modes can typically be identified only indirectly.
This is accomplished by determining that the
d) 500 PSI
instantaneous pressure is everywhere the same at
the chamber wall and the frequency of the oscil-
lating pressure corresponds to one of the radial
modes analytically computed for the cavity
PHASE DIAGRAM
(Sect . 3.5.1 ) .
2.0 In addition to the pure tangential , longitudinal
I or radial modes, it is not uncommon to have
PRESSURE combined modes of instability. A combined mode
NODE (or complex mode) is a unique resonance of the
1.5
combustor which can be thought of as a com-
TIME bination of two orthogonal modes. The frequency
(MS)
of this type of resonance is equal to the square root
1.0
PRESSURE of the sum of the squared frequencies of the pure
NODE
component resonances. For example, a so-called
first tangential-first longitudinal mode ( 1T = 1L)
0.5
is not merely a combination of the two pure modes
coexisting in the cavity but is a unique resonance
B D A of the cavity with a frequency f = ( fir² +fir2 ) ¹/2.
0 The phase and amplitude diagrams for this mode
0 100 200 300 400
ANGULAR POSITION (DEGREES) have characteristics of the first tangential mode
in the circumferential plane and characteristics of
the first longitudinal mode in the axial plane.
Multiple modes of instability can also coexist
AMPLITUDE DIAGRAM
within the cavity at one time. The coexistence of
800 instability modes may persist for long periods of
time or may exist only briefly during the transition
600 from one mode of instability to another. Figure

AMPLITUDE 9.7.1j illustrates coexisting first and third longitu-
(PSI) dinal modes. The broken lines on the phase diagram
400
characterize the first longitudinal mode while the
solid lines characterize the third longitudinal
200 mode.
M
B C D A There are so many variations of wave shapes
and resonant modes that can, and have, been
0
0 100 200 300 400 encountered in liquid rocket engine tests that it is
ANGULAR POSITION (DEGREES) impossible to describe them all. Only typical
first transverse examples have been considered here. Experience
FIGURE 9.7.1i.- Precessing mode
instability. has shown that instabilities involving only the
EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF STABILITY BEHAVIOR §
$9.3 535
DA DA
A
A B
)( egrees
720
Phase
angle
d
540
360
B
180
.25 .5 .75 1.0

Axial Position ( x /L )
Ref
time
FIGURE 9.7.1j .- Coexisting first and third longitudinal instabilities.
lower order modes are readily identified by the High response pressure transducers are by far
methods described . However, when higher order the most common form of instrumentation used to
modes or multiple modes are encountered the detect and identify low frequency instabilities.
identification by these techniques is generally At least one transducer is required in each of the
quite difficult . This is due both to the high propellant feed circuits and in the combustor to
frequency associated with the higher order modes identify this type of instability . For diagnostic
and the problem of separating the resonant purposes multiple transducers are desirable in the
pressure fluctuations from random noise on the feed system as well as in the combustor .
analog record. Feed system coupled combustion instabilities
typically generate relatively low amplitude quasi-
9.7.2 Low Frequency Instability
sinusoidal pressure oscillations. It is generally
Low frequency, or feed-system coupled , com- easier to identify this type of instability than
bustion instabilities are characterized by oscil- modes of resonant combustion instability both
lations in one of the propellant feed circuits because of the normal absence of steepened waves
coupled with the combustion process in the and the lower frequencies.
chamber. This type of instability is generally The analog pressure records from both pro-
less damaging to engine hardware components pellant feed circuits typically reflect the pressure
than resonant combustion instabilities . Low fre- oscillations characteristic of low frequency in-
quency instabilities have been known to cause stabilities . Typically, only one of the circuits
ruptured feed lines or joints as a result of vibration actively contributes to the instability while the
or accelerated ablative chamber erosion resulting other is merely driven by the oscillating chamber
from the propellant flow fluctuations, but typically pressure . In this case the most difficult feature of
the adverse effects of low frequency instability identifying feed-system coupled instabilities is
appear as a loss of combustor performance. the determination of the role of each feed circuit.
If there is more than one pressure transducer ingly distributed circumferential pressure dis-
located axially along the feed circuit , feed system tribution in the combustor cavity (also see Sect .
resonances can be identified by techniques 5.4) .
described in the previous section. If not , the active Because low frequency instabilities are typically
circuit must be identified indirectly. This can be less damaging than resonant combustion insta-
done either by comparing the observed frequency bilities, they have not received the same degree of
with computed resonances of the two circuits or concern or investigation by either the researcher
by careful examination of the oscillations in each or the development engineer. Experience has
circuit . Often the passive circuit does not respond shown, however, that feed-system instabilities
to the instability until the amplitude reaches a have often been as prevalent as resonant insta-
relatively high value. In this case the active bilities . Problems with this type instability are
circuit can be identified by observing where the often late in appearing and can result in a serious
oscillations first appear. setback to a development program. This late
Sometimes the passive circuit can be identified appearance results from the dependence of low
by the relative amplitude of the oscillations in the frequency instability on the propellant feed system
two circuits . The amplitude in the passive circuit and the normal development practice of per-
may be significantly lower than that of the active forming early thrust chamber testing in facilities
circuit , but relying on this may lead to erroneous that do not duplicate the flight-type circuits . For
conclusions. For example, if the transducer in the example, the degree of dissolved pressurizing gas
active circuit is located near a pressure nodal in the propellant can dramatically affect low
point of the resonant oscillation, the recorded frequency oscillations.
amplitude may be significantly lower than that.
observed in the passive circuit. 9.7.3 Combustion Disturbances
Thus far only the characteristics of the pro-
pellant feed circuits have been considered . For The combustion process in a rocket engine , by
classical "chugging" modes of low frequency its very nature, exhibits random pressure fluc-
instability the wavelength of the instability tuations. Normally this combustion noise , although
frequency is typically very large compared to any random in frequency, exhibits a fairly constant
characteristic dimension of the combustor cavity. amplitude of approximately one to two percent of
.
This results in bulk fluctuations of pressure within the steady-state chamber pressure . Occasionally,
the combustor. Therefore , this type of instability however, a disturbance may appear in the com-
can be identified by resonant oscillations in one of bustor which is significantly greater than the
the feed circuits , as previously discussed , coupled random noise level . These functional disturbances
with a bulk oscillation in the chamber as identified cause a pressure perturbation whose amplitude
by uniform instantaneous pressures throughout may reach levels twice that of the steady-state
the combustor. chamber pressure . Typically these functional
A second type of feed-system coupled com- disturbances excite resonant oscillations in the
bustion instability observed with larger engines combustor which may either be damped or sus-
involves a resonant oscillation in one of the feed tained as a resonant instability. It is beyond the
circuits coupled with a distributed oscillation in scope of this article to discuss the various causes
the combustor cavity. This can occur if the of these "spikes" or "pops. " The objective here is
frequency of the feed-system oscillation closely to discuss the measurement and interpretation of
approximates a resonance of the combustor or if the physical characteristics of these disturbances.
the resonant oscillation in the feed system is not In addition to functional or accidental dis-
uniform across the injector. For example, if turbances which occur spontaneously in rocket
an annular distribution manifold is used to feed engines, artificial disturbances are often inten-
one of the propellants to the injector, a resonant tionally introduced to excite instability or rate the
oscillation in the annulus will have a circum- stability characteristics of engines . These artificial
ferentially distributed pressure amplitude and disturbances are discussed in considerable detail
phase profile . This would result in a correspond- in Chapter 10 , but many of the measurement and
300
100
Amplitude
250 psi
30
Unfiltered
10
)(psi
3 ~ mmelweer
30
Filtered 25 psi 10
for first 3
transverse
frequency
10 ms
- Time
FIGURE 9.7.3 . -Analog and integrated logarithmic pressure decay from a combustion disturbance .
data reduction techniques used are the same as pressure cycle . By repeating this process at several
those used for spontaneous disturbances . times a plot of amplitude vs time can be con-
The high response pressure transducer is most structed . The slope of the resulting curve is the
commonly used to detect combustion disturbances damping rate of the unfiltered combustion re-
and the resultant effect on the combustion process , sponse to the disturbance (also see Sect . 9.6.6 ) .
although accelerometers and photographic tech- Another technique is to play the tape recording
niques are also used. Many pressure measure- of the analog data through a logarithmic amplifier
ments taken directly from the analog records are and record the output on a level recorder. This
used to characterize combustion disturbances and produces an envelope of the amplitude of the
the resultant combustion response . Among these oscillating pressure from which the logarithmic
are the amplitude of the initial perturbation, the decay rate can be directly measured as the slope
peak overpressure of the maximum resultant of the amplitude vs time.
oscillation, the peak-to-peak amplitude of the When either of the above techniques is applied
maximum resultant oscillation, the time required to the unfiltered pressure data, the decay rate of
for the resultant fluctuations to be attenuated , the overall pressure oscillations generated by the
etc. These characteristics are obtained by direct disturbance can be determined . Often , to measure
measurement from the unfiltered analog pressure the damping characteristics of specific resonant
records and are used to compare the stability modes of the combustor it is desirable to filter the
characteristics of various injector designs. data prior to applying either of the above re-
A second type of information used to char- cording and data reduction techniques . When
acterize the result of combustion disturbances filters are used it is desirable to play the analog
both to compare injectors and as a direct quantita- tape recording through the filter and display
tive measure of the damping characteristics of equipment in reverse. This is necessary because it
the engine is the damping rate of oscillations normally takes three to five cycles for the filter to
generated by the disturbance . There are several become sufficiently charged to output the full
techniques used to determine damping rates or amplitude of the filtered signal. By playing the
growth rates from analog pressure data . One tape in reverse only the low amplitude cycles near
method is to measure the peak-to-peak amplitude the final stages of decaying oscillation will be
of a single pressure cycle and the time interval distorted . Figure 9.7.3 illustrates the linear analog
between the initial pressure perturbation and this and integrated logarithmic data for the unfiltered
and filtered pressure oscillations resulting from a artificially or spontaneously induced disturbances
combustion disturbance. In this figure positive provides the primary means of rating the stability
time is from right to left indicative of the reverse characteristics of liquid rocket engines. Some of
the instrumentation and data reduction tech-
direction in which the tape playback was made.
niques used to interpret the effects of disturbances
The slope of broken lines on the level recorder
have already been described . The following
output is a direct measure of the decay rates as
chapter discusses methods of utilizing combustion
discussed above. disturbances for rating the stability of liquid
The utilization of the reduced data from both rocket engines .
CHAPTER 10
Stability Rating
10.1 INTRODUCTION * that it is still a practical necessity to obtain

relative ratings in order to determine the most
10.1.1 Purposes of Stability Rating Tests effective means of stabilization for a particular
It is often necessary to obtain some measure of combustor and its specific operating conditions.
the susceptibility of a liquid rocket combustor to A third objective of stability rating testing may
the occurrence of unstable combustion. Several be the determination of the mode of instability
techniques have been used for accomplishing this most likely to be encountered during normal.
goal ; their application is usually referred to as engine operation, so that effective preventive
combustion stability rating.426 measures may be tailored to that mode .
The primary purpose of combustion stability Finally, rating techniques can be used for
rating tests is to determine, in as few experiments investigating the effect of various engine design
as possible, the relative resistances of candidate parameters and operating conditions on com-
engine systems or engine components to objec- bustion stability. This is particularly true for
tional combustion instabilities. The underlying applied research studies.
philosophy and justification for stability rating The following nomenclature pertains to Chap-
tests is covered in Sect . 1.2.4 . It is important to ter 10 :
recognize that all stability ratings are relative. B (r) Energy parameter in blast-wave theory
Current understanding of unsteady combustion Dox Oxidizer injection orifice diameter
and flow processes precludes an absolute deter- E Energy of explosion , ft-lb
mination of stability. Knowledge is needed in the g Parameter defined by Eq . ( 10.3.2-3 )
areas of instability initiation mechanisms , the gc Gravitational constant , 32.17 lbm-
degree to which a rating technique simulates ft /lbf-sec²
natural initiation mechanisms, and instability Pms (X) Mean wave front pressure at distance
driving and damping processes. x from origin, psi
A second purpose of stability rating tests has N° Universal gas constant, 1545.3 ft-
evolved from the development of effective lbm /mole-° R
stabilization devices, such as baffles and acoustic rs Shock front radius, ft
absorbers. That purpose is the demonstration that rbe Outer radius of bomb case, ft
dynamic stability has been achieved , i.e. , that Tw Surface temperature , ° R
recovery to steady operation will follow any Ty Temperature of solid material a dis-
arbitrary disturbance. This viewpoint arose from tance y below the surface, ° R
the expectation that properly designed devices Uo Initial velocity of bomb case particles,
could virtually eliminate the occurrence of un- ft /sec
stable combustion and has been given increased V aco Ablation velocity of semi-infinite slab,
impetus by the inclusion of quite specific stability ft/sec
requirements in engine development contracts. Wer Correlation factor, see Eq. ( 10.6-1 )
We
Accumulated experience with stabilization de- Total weight of explosive charge , lb
vices suggest, however, that none is a panacea and X Distance from entry point to ex-
panding shock front in combustion .
* L. P. Combs , Author . chamber, ft
539
220
Χο Distance to shock front measured is observation of the percentage of tests in which
along = 0 axis , ft instability arises spontaneously during normal
y Distance normal to (and into) ablating operation. For systems which have been de-
830
surface, ft veloped to the point that they are moderately to

α Thermal diffusivity, ft2/sec very stable, this method ordinarily becomes
Bomb case thickness , ft prohibitively expensive. Evaluation, for example,
Angle from shock entry coordinate, of the effects on system stability, when seemingly
degrees minor component variations or improvements
Subscripts : are made, would require a large number92 of engine
bc Bomb case tests. * Recognition of this fact gave considerable
ct Gas-flow connecting tube impetus to the development of artificial dis-
e Explosive charge turbance rating techniques .
H Hydrogen An alternative rating method based on spon-
r Radial orientation of pulse gun taneous instabilities employs a systematic varia-
S Shock front tion of operating conditions until a region of
1 Undisturbed ambient medium spontaneous instability is found and its boundaries.
233
Immediately behind shock front mapped out, at least partially ( Sect . 10.6 ) . The
Behind contact surface in shock tube proximity of the normal (presumably stable )
3A, 3B Behind contact surface, upstream and operating conditions to the stability boundary is
downstream, respectively, in shock presumed to be a direct indication of the com-
tube with area change at burst bustor's resistance to the occurrence of spon-
diaphragm taneous instability. The stability rating then
4 Driver section of shock tube consists of determining how boundaries of unstable
regions shift when engine components or operating
10.1.2 Experimental Approaches
conditions are changed . Parameters that have
Stability rating techniques may be divided into been varied in this kind of stability rating are the
two broad categories : ( 1 ) those which rely upon injection mixture ratio , the chamber pressure (by
spontaneous occurrence of unstable combustion, variation of either propellant flowrates or chamber
and ( 2 ) those in which finite disturbances are contraction ratio ) , instability frequency, and
introduced to initiate instabilities artificially. propellant temperature . Typical components
The second category embraces the most used varied are propellant injection pattern, injection
methods , which will occupy our attention through- hole sizes, chamber length, chamber contraction
out much of this chapter. Definite advantages and ratio and propellant feed system details .
shortcomings may be ascribed to each category; Most stability boundary mapping has been
these are summarized before proceeding to a dis- conducted with research-scale rocket motors
cussion of the individual techniques. It is noted designed for relatively inexpensive and frequent
that the degree of stability of the combustion testing. Its greatest use in large engine develop-
processes is usually presumed to be related to the ment has been in rating oxygen/hydrogen engines
magnitude of some characteristic disturbance from by varying the hydrogen injection temperature
which recovery to steady operation may be
experienced.
* With restartable or pulse engines, large numbers of
tests may not be very expensive, so that this method may
10.1.2.1 Spontaneous instability methods. - Dis-
be a preferred stability rating technique . In a recent de-
turbances large enough to trigger an instability velopment program, for example, the stability of a small
may occur naturally during normal rocket engine pulse engine was evaluated by observing the number of
operation; if they occur quite often, every test unstable pulses among 600 pulse firings in a single test
may be unstable, if infrequently, only an occa- sequence. A characteristic sharp pressure transient (spike
or hard-start) at the beginning of each pulse would occa-
sional test may be unstable . One method that
sionally initiate the first tangential spinning instability.
may be used for stability rating, particularly Use of this rating method resulted in very rapid develop-
during the early development stages of an engine , ment of effective stabilization devices.
STABILITY RATING §10.1 541
(Sect . 10.6.1 ) . It should be noted that the mapping Two fundamentally different approaches have
of stable and unstable operating regions is not been taken in perturbing steady-state combustion
only done with spontaneous instabilities ; use is for stability rating : ( 1 ) introduction of distur-
sometimes made of artificial disturbance methods bances in one of the propellant feed systems to
(Sect. 10.6 and Ref. 7) . disturb the combustion processes , and ( 2 ) direct
Some advantages of using rating techniques disturbance of the combustion processes . While
which rely on spontaneous occurrence of insta- propellant feed system perturbations have occa-
bility are that the ratings are associated with sionally been found to initiate high-frequency
naturally-occurring disturbances, the normal pro- combustion chamber acoustic instabilities524,712
pellant and combustion gas flow patterns are not and they are of interest for production engine
disrupted by foreign bodies or substances, and rating, their effects seem to be critically dependent
when stability boundaries are mapped, they are upon point of application , feed system capacitance,
usually quite reproducible. In addition to the entrapped gas pockets , etc. Their applicability is
relatively large number of tests that may be usually restricted , therefore, to studies of low and
required to obtain a single rating, there are two intermediate frequency instabilities. Design and
major disadvantages to the stability mapping application of feed system perturbation devices
method . First , the mode of instability experienced are discussed in Sect . 10.5 .
at a boundary may be different than the mode. Three methods have been used for most ratings
most likely to be initiated by an occasional large that have been obtained or sought by disturbing
disturbance at the normal operating conditions. the combustion processes directly. They are ( 1 )
Second, stability region boundaries may be asso- explosive bombs placed at selected locations.
ciated with different instability driving mecha- within the combustion chamber, (2 ) explosive
nisms than those which are operative at normal pulse guns connected to the combustion chamber
operating conditions , e.g. , regions may be encoun- by a connecting tube (barrel ) through the cham-
tered where combustion instability is coupled to ber sidewall, and ( 3 ) flows of inert or reactive
feed system resonances . Finally, these techniques gases similarly directed through the chamber
do not provide an indication of the initial dis- sidewall. The succeeding three sections in this
turbance magnitudes responsible for triggering chapter are devoted to descriptions of the methods
the instabilities experienced . and discussions of their application . The re-
mainder of this section is essentially introductory,
10.1.2.2 Artificial initiation methods.-The providing a brief overview of the general features
second category of stability rating methods of the methods. A discussion of their relative
provides a means for obtaining ratings at the .
merits and limitations appears in the final section
normal operating conditions. Although uncertain- of this chapter.
ties as to the validity of the ratings are comparable The degree to which a rating technique simu-
to those of the spontaneous methods, the intro- lates natural triggering mechanisms is pertinent
duction of finite artificial disturbances into a to the technique's validity . Although a large
rocket system offers such distinct advantages that number of phenomena have been identified or
several techniques have been widely used . Ad- postulated as being probable instability triggers ,
vantages are that ( 1 ) disturbances can be it has usually not been possible to isolate any as
sequenced in graduated sizes so that quantitative being solely responsible for particular modes, etc.
relative ratings can be obtained , ( 2 ) the time of As a result , it is not possible to define the degree of
instability initiation can be controlled so that simulation for a rating device . It would appear,
limited exposure of the system to a potentially therefore, not to be possible to obtain an un-
destructive instability may be scheduled , (3 ) the equivocal quantitative stability rating for a com-
number of tests required may be reduced by bustor . A corollary to this qualification is that a
introducing more than one disturbance in each correspondence is not known to exist between an
test , and (4) the mode of instability initiated artificial disturbance stability rating and the actual
sometimes may be selected by a proper choice of combustion stability. (Indeed, in the statistical
disturbance device and its placement . correlations of Ref. 82 , such a correspondence was
found to be absent . ) Nonetheless , these reserva- of the first radial mode and testing where it is
tions have not been considered to invalidate desired not to favor any one mode but find which
stability ratings by artificial disturbance tech- is most likely to occur. From this standpoint,
niques . Rather, it is usually recommended that small bombs probably come closest to simulating
more than one of the methods be used in a test natural trigger phenomena .
matrix which includes different disturbance It is usually found that the disturbances are
positions and directions to improve confidence in most effective when placed (or directed ) in a
the validity of a rating. 540.161,163 region immediately downstream of the propellant
The phenomena that might act as natural injector.161 This presumably reflects a greater
instability initiators have sometimes been con- degree of sensitivity of the injection , atomization ,
sidered to provide varying degrees of combustion mixing and combustion processes in this region.
field pressure disturbance and/or velocity dis- than further downstream in the chamber. When
turbance.540 Suppose, for example, that the pro- comparing stability ratings among injectors
pellant combustion processes are quite sensitive which may have different spatial distributions of
to pressure disturbances and relatively insensitive these processes , it is advisable to attempt to
to perturbation of the combustion zone velocity establish regions of maximum sensitivity to
field . Then a rating device that provides primarily pulses , and then make the comparisons for those
a pressure disturbance would be expected to regions. Gas flow ratings have indicated that long
better simulate natural triggers than would a narrow rectangular entry tube slots could give
method which provides primarily a flow dis- more reliable ratings than did circular cylindrical
turbance. Bombs and pulse guns provide strong tubes,386 but this approach has not been pursued
pressure disturbances. The associated velocity for pulse guns .
disturbances which may be strong initially, are so The bomb and pulse gun rating devices are
short-lived that only a transient effect may be essentially single-shot tools which discern the
felt . In contrast, directed gas flows provide only instantaneous sensitivity at the particular instant
velocity disturbances . Even these interpretations that they are fired . There is some evidence that
are subject to question since the weak velocity the combustion processes may possess a random
disturbances behind a bomb blast wave are strong distribution (in time) of sensitivity.161 If that is so ,
enough to cause immediate, appreciable secondary the gas flow method would tend to delineate the
droplet atomization and greatly increased pro- minimum sensitivity during its period of applica-
pellant vaporization rates. Also , the effective tion and thus might be expected to provide more
directionality of the pulse gun is well known. reproducible ratings than could bombs or pulse
Similarly, it is conceivable that gas flows perhaps guns.
distort the combustion field enough that it be-
10.2 EXPLOSIVE BOMBS *
comes susceptible to moderately low amplitude.
pressure disturbances, such as are naturally In rating rocket combustion instability with
present in the combustion noise. bombs, small explosive charges are detonated at
Detonation of a bomb within a combustion strategic locations within an operating combustion
chamber is usually considered to produce an chamber, and the responses of the rocket engine
essentially omnidirectional pressure disturbance . are measured and analyzed . The bombs employed
The pulse gun produces a general pressure dis- generally have three basic components : ( 1 ) a
turbance at its muzzle which propagates in all charge of high explosive , (2 ) a device for initiating
directions but is strongest along the direction of charge detonations, and (3 ) an insulating casing
the gun barrel's axis. Some degree of selectivity structure. The explosive charges used may range
as to mode of instability initiated results from in weight from only one or two grains to a sizable
this directionality, e.g. , tangential pulse entry fraction of a pound depending upon the bomb
into cylindrical chambers is frequently employed design and placement, the extent of the com-
for preferential triggering of the first tangential bustor's response and the kind of response de-
mode. In other situations, the nondirectionality sired. As discussed earlier, the pressure amplitude
of the bomb is attractive . Examples are initiation * L. P. Combs , R. J. Hefner, and J. M. Senneff, Authors.
STABILITY RATING $ 10.2 543
of the bomb's shock wave is its output char- nondirectional, i.e. , to provide spherical shocks.11
acteristic which is considered to evoke that An ideal bomb configuration, then, might be a
response. The initial shock pressure amplitude spherical explosive charge tightly confined in a
may be predetermined in designing the bomb. spherical insulating shell. A spherical shell, how-
Design techniques and compromises required ever, introduces so many design and fabrication
for sufficiently long bomb life and for avoiding difficulties that most stability rating bombs are
bomb shrapnel damage are discussed extensively of a simple cylindrical design. Departures from
in the following articles. Also discussed briefly are the ideal spherical shock structure are particularly
methods for predicting the pressure amplitude of pronounced in the immediate neighborhood of the
the shock as it expands away from the bomb. bomb, but tend to be averaged out in the shock
This is ultimately determined by the response of expansion processes. 167 This is illustrated in Figs.
the combustion field , so that prediction must rely 10.2.1a and 10.2.1b . Whether such shock asphe-
upon the analytical methods of Chapters 3 and 4. ricity is important to the stability rating depends
However, the steady-state combustion calcula- upon how rapidly the combustion processes
tions are not very well developed for the case of respond to the wave's passage .
the initial response to a finite shock. In many applications, stability rating bombs
simply are commercial high-explosive detonators
10.2.1 Typical Designs housed in a protective case (Fig. 10.2.1a ) .
Bomb disturbances are usually intended to be Typically, such a design might be used for charge
+
4,65 in
Time from initiation

of detonation
μ sec
9.4 23.6 37.7 56.5
2.4 16.5 30.6 47.1
13.5 gr detonator
(Hercules D - 135 ) 1/8 in . thick nylon case
FIGURE 10.2.1a.-Shock front propagation from a cylindrical bomb.

of nylon. Its internal diameter is oversized for the

detonator which is precisely and firmly positioned
in the bore of a teflon adapter and held by the
blasting cap wires. With large external threads ,
this assembly is threaded into a steel mounting
member which is, in turn , attached to the injector
face. An external ablative shroud was added for
additional protection . The design was evolved
over a long period of developmental thrust-
t= 11.8 microsecond t=23.6 microsecond
chamber testing. It normally withstands 5- to
7-second-long ignition and starting transients and
on the order of 0.8 second of mainstage operation
before thermal detonation occurs.
Another design feature sometimes used for
promoting controlled thermal detonation is shown
.
in Fig. 10.2.1e . The hole in the tip of the case is to
permit heat to leak in to ensure thermal actuation
of the detonator prior to any thermal decom-
position of the explosive charge. Although the
moment of thermal actuation of the detonator is
t= 35.3 microsecond t=47.0 microsecond primarily controlled by the temperature and
pressure characteristics within the combustor
FIGURE 10.2.1b.-Schlieren photographs of shock wave following ignition, some control can be achieved
propagation during a bomb cold flow test. through the shape of the tip end of the bomb and
the length and diameter of the hole in the tip . The
Foamed plastic wadding more streamlined the tip, the greater the tendency
High explosive to delay actuation . A long, small diameter hole
base charge
also tends to delay actuation times. Thermal
Lead 7777 detonations have been achieved as long as five
wires
seconds after ignition in full-scale rocket engines
Bomb case
Electric detonator by careful bomb case design. The overhanging
thread design of the case is to prevent the drag
FIGURE 10.2.1c.-Bomb assembly with base charge and forces of the combustion gases from shearing the
detonator.
bomb from its base mount .
Stability rating bombs utilize high explosives
weights up to about 15 grains . For larger charges, exclusively. Their detonation is important for
the addition of a base charge of secondary ex- achieving reproducible shock pressure amplitudes
plosive to the commercial detonator is illustrated and pressure-time profiles. Low explosive (gun
in Fig. 10.2.1c . These are examples of a fairly powder) charges burn so slowly that the confining
simple design which has been used for electrical case is ruptured before charge combustion is
initiation of a single bomb early in a test. completed ; erratic initial shock amplitudes and,
More complex designs have been used in occasionally, multiple shocks were observed in
applications requiring thermal protection or cold-flow characterization experiments. 163 Typical
mechanical strength for longer periods of time . An high explosives used are PETN (pentaerythritetra
example, shown in Fig. 10.2.1d, is the bomb . nitrate ) , RDX (cyclotrimethylene-trinitramine)
developed for stability testing a 1,500,000-pound and plastic explosives such as Composition C -4
thrust booster engine. The explosive charge is a (which is principally RDX ) . Among these , there
commercial detonator containing 13.5 gr. (equiv . ) are only minor variations in detonation velocities.
of PETN; it is initiated thermally . The moderately Thermal initiation of detonation is sometimes
heavy-walled case is machined from a single piece relied upon, as has been indicated . However, for
Nylon case
Commercial detonator Teflon adapter Steel mounting member
Ablative shroud
‫ יויןיוי‬2‫זין‬ ' ' ‫יןיו‬ 5

‫י‬ 1 ‫יז‬6
FIGURE 10.2.1d .-Thermally initiated bomb for high thrust booster engine rating.
precise control of the moment of detonation, Injector body

electrically-actuated bombs are preferred. In most
applications the lead wires are fed through the
bomb mounting structure from the outside of the ///
engine. This requires access through the engine
wall or through a propellant manifold (together
with tortuous insertion through injection pas-
sages) and a leadwire seal design.
A variation of the use of electrically actuated
Teflon case Explosive charge
dentonators , particularily when access through the
engine structure is impractical, is to use time-
delay electrical detonators. A bomb design similar
to that shown in Fig. 10.2.1e has been used except Thermal detonator
that an electrically-actuated time-delay detonator
is used with the lead wires extended through the
throat of the engine. The detonator is actuated by
the signal to ignite the engine and then the time-
Vent hole
delay detonator controls the moment of explosion.
Time-delay detonators are commercially available
which can be used to control the moment of FIGURE 10.2.1e.-Thermally initiated bomb.
detonation quite accurately for up to two seconds
following ignition of the engine.
in which thermal sensitivity is undesirable, direct
The preceding detonation initiation methods are initiation of a secondary explosive charge may be
all based on use of commercial detonators . These
obtained with an exploding bridge wire.167 In
devices contain small primer charges of primary
addition to eliminating thermal sensitivity, han-
explosives, such as lead azide and tetryl . Primary
dling hazards are reduced and the explosive
explosives are considerably more sensitive to
charge is contained within a simple configuration
thermal (as well as shock or impact ) initiation
whose shape, wall thickness, etc. , are fully con-
than are secondary explosives . For applications
trolled ( Fig. 10.2.1f) . This latter feature will be
Bridge wire leads from thermal initiation of detonation or burning

of the charge. These design variables are dis-
Attachment thread cussed quantitatively in the next two sections.
Mounting methods are commented upon briefly in
Section 10.2.4.
Lock nut
10.2.2 Effects of Design on Blast Amplitude
Spacer The information presented in this section is a

summarization of results reported in Refs. 163 and
Bridge wire holder
167, on the characterization and improvement of
stability rating devices.
Bomb case 10.2.2.1 Effect of explosive.- The blast wave

pressure amplitude is, to first order, directly
proportional to the energy of the explosion. For a
given explosive, then, shock amplitude increases
Exploding bridge wire
linearly with charge weight . This may be seen from
Explosive charge the results of blast-wave theory, the name given
to a simplified similarity solution of the con-
servation equations for an explosion.623,392 Shock
0.300 in velocity for spherical expansion is given by
drs 1/2
Ege
FIGURE 10.2.1f.-Exploding bridge wire initiated bomb. v ¥= = F -3/2 ( 10.2.2-1)
dt
seen in the next section to be desirable when
Substitution in the Rankine-Hugoniot relation for
predicting the shock characteristics and when
a perfect gas
trying to eliminate shrapnel damage .
Another recent innovation that may prove to Ps = 21 γ- 1
be useful is direct initiation of a secondary M2- ( 10.2.2-2 )
Pi γ+ 1 γ+ 1
explosive charge by focusing a laser beam,
conducted through an optical fiber bundle, on the upon taking M₁ = Vs/a₁ and a₁ = ( yR°T₁/W) 1/2
surface of the explosive. This technique, developed results in
for reduced hazard of radio-frequency initiation, 443 Ps = 2E γ- 1
has apparently not been used for stability rating 3 ( 10.2.2-3)
Pi 144 (y + 1 ) B ( y) pirs³ r+ 1
device initiation .
The bomb case design is most important to Although useful for illustrating the effects of
adequate performance . The most influential design explosive energy (or weight) on shock pressure ,
variables are the case material, its thickness and blast-wave theory is not generally applicable to
the mounting or attachment method . Some bomb configurations used for stability rating.
commonly used materials are teflon, nylon, Principal reasons are that blast-wave theory
phenolic-cloth (Micarta ) and phenolic-refrasil . assumes ( 1 ) the region of interest is far enough
Others less frequently used are rubber, balsa from the source that the finite mass of the ex-
wood , monofilament-wound quartz and both solid. plosive is negligible¹21 (for typical rating bombs ,
and pressed cork. Material selection is based on such a distance is of the order of typical rocket
consideration of structural strength under high combustion chamber diameters ) ; ( 2 ) all of the
temperature conditions, thermal degradation and energy is transmitted to the shock front (absorp-
ablation and potential for inflicting shrapnel tion of energy in accelerating case particles is not
damage to engine components . Case thickness is treated) ; (3 ) the ambient pressure is negligible
similarly determined by the material strength, compared with the shock pressure (pressure
ablation rate, and the desired period of protection
. ratios in typical rating applications rarely exceed
values of 3 or 4 which are too low to satisfy this 1000

assumption) .
To a limited extent , it is conceivable that the
type and shape of the explosive charge can be used
.
to control the shape and peak amplitude of the
aoverpressure
, tmospheres
shock wave for a given quantity of explosive by
Shock
taking advantage of the approximately constant
O L/D = 1.0 or 1.3
detonation rate characteristic of the explosives .
OL/D = 2.7 or 4.0
That is, the same total energy release from an 100
explosive can be controlled to produce relatively
slow pressure rise rate, long dwell and slow decay
or a more rapid rise and fall with correspondingly
higher peak amplitude. The former would result
from a long, thin cylinder of explosive while the
latter would result from a short fat cylinder of
explosive. The blast-wave theory prediction for a
10
cylindrical charge is similar to that of Eq.
( 10.2.2-3 ) except that the amplitude decays as
r² rather than r³ . As will be seen, it is found
experimentally that cylindrical charges with
length-to-diameter ratios ( L/D) as high as 6 : 1
0
behave essentially as spherical charges. Perhaps
L/D values in excess of 20 would be needed to
approximate the infinitely long cylinder solution.
1.0
The degree of control over pressure rise rate may .05 .10 .15 .20 .25
be inferred by considering that if a given charge
weight were elongated by one foot , the total Scaled case thickness, [1.5948 /w ] , in/grains /
detonation time would be increased by about
40 microseconds . FIGURE 10.2.2a.- Initial air-shock overpressures with
high-explosive, nylon bombs .
10.2.2.2 Case design effects .-The influences of
bomb case thickness and explosive length-to-
diameter ratio on air blast shock amplitude were as the initial case particle velocity, analytical
studied experimentally using nylon and Micarta expressions for the particle velocity may be used
to calculate overpressures. Correlation of the
cases similar to those of Figs . 10.2.1a and c.163
Initial overpressures* at the outer surface of the preceding air blast data to one expression for
bombs were calculated by substituting initial cylindrical bombs686 and another for spherical
shock velocities (obtained by streak photography) bombs301 again revealed that the stability rating
in Eq. ( 10.2.2-2) . The results from 5.5, 13.5 and bombs behave more nearly as spherical charges.
50-grain bombs, shown in Fig. 10.2.2a , were found The latter correlation, shown in Fig. 10.2.2b ,
to be independent of charge L/D ratios between supports the use of Gurney's expression for pre-
1 and 4.4 dicting initial bomb shock velocities .
It was observed in these experiments that the 1/2

2Ege me/mbe
bomb case fragments usually had the same initial Uo = (10.2.2-4 )
We 0.6 (me/mbc ) +1 ,
velocities as the shock waves ; the shocks became
distinct only about one bomb radius or more away In using this formula the energy output per unit
from the surface. Therefore, by assuming the mass of explosive (E/W ) is needed and the
inverse, that the initial shock velocity is the same explosive and case masses for an equivalent
spherical charge are calculated using the actual
* Peak pressure minus steady pressure. bomb's charge diameter and case thickness.
12000 the initial velocities could not be measured ; shock

pressure amplitudes were measured with a number
D of Kistler pressure transducers located 4.5 to
10000
7.2-inches from the center of the bomb. The shock
Observed
velocity
overpressure amplitude data, analyzed by multiple

/s,ftec
8000
regression techniques, exhibited a functional
dependence on ambient medium properties as
6000 follows:
0.35
1.85P10
4000- Aps - ps -Pi~ ( 10.2.2-5 )
220.25
For hot-firing conditions reported in Ref. 167

2000
(N2O4/A-50 at 150 psia) , this expression predicted
shock overpressures only on the order of 37
per cent of the air shock values for fixed bomb
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
parameters. It is seen in the next subsection that
Theoretical velocity , ft/sec
this value is in good agreement with actual hot-
firing results. Eq. ( 10.2.2-5 ) is recommended for
Explosive Case thickness , in use with the empirical correlation discussed there
Weight L/D
grains ratio 0.063 0.125 0.250 0.500 0,016 in predicting shock overpressures some distance
50 1.0 O Ꮕ Q away from the bomb .
50 4.0 Q
13.5 1.0 Δ Δ Δ Δ 10.2.2.4 An empirical scaled blast correlation.-
13.5 2.7 ウ 8 As discussed in Sect. 10.2.2.1 , the similarity
5.5 1.3 » solution of blast wave theory is based on assump-
tions to which stability rating bombs do not
conform. These bombs' blasts do, however, exhibit
FIGURE 10.2.2b-Bomb case particle velocity (experiment
versus theory for spherical bombs) . some correspondence163 to existing empirical scaled
correlations of blast waves from large explosions.
10.2.2.3 Ambient medium effects . Substitution An example is shown in Fig . 10.2.2c where the
of the foregoing calculated case particle velocity shock overpressure from a bare 13.5 grain com-
(or its assumed equivalent shock velocity) into mercial detonator is compared favorably with a
the Rankine-Hugoniot pressure relationship , Eq. correlation of Reutenik and Lewis, 588 The deviation
( 10.2.2-2 ) provides a prediction of the initial of the detonator's overpressures from the Reutenik
shock overpressure in any medium. The agreement. and Lewis curve at scaled distances less than
between theory and experiments in ambient air about 1.5 presumably results both from ap-
was quite good* for bombs initiated with blasting proaching too close to the explosion source and
caps . from the detonator's finite case thickness (0.016-
Additional experiments were made with bombs inch polyethylene ) . Reutenik and Lewis ' experi-
detonated in a chamber pressurized with various ments were with charges weighing 217 and 12,000
inert gases (He, Ar, CO2, N2 ) .167 In this apparatus, pounds ; it is remarkable that a correlation should
* be found with charges weighing only 2X 10-³

Subsequent cold characterization of the exploding
pound.
bridge wire initiated bomb of Fig. 10.2.1f gave less satis-
factory correlation with the theory, particularly with Additional data are compared with this correla-
small charges in moderately thick cases. While most of the tion in Fig. 10.2.2d where, it will be noticed , the
data were within a factor of two of the predicted values , coordinates have been modified by inclusion of
a limited number gave experimental shock overpressures the ambient pressure. This change was made so
nearly an order of magnitude higher than the predicted
values. The measurements in this case were made with that rocket motor firing data could be compared
high speed motion photography rather than streak with cold flow data. The open circles labeled
technique. "cased bombs" are the same data which appeared
in Figs . 10.2.2a and b; their values of scaled

100% distance are based upon the outer radius of the
Detonator data
overpressure
bomb case . These points then represent the initial

shock wave amplitudes. Within a factor of about
Shock
si P
2 , they are reasonably well represented by a

p,P
straight line. Charge weights and case thicknesses

T
were both varied by factors of about eight . This

10 correlation then represents a reasonably accurate
method for predicting a bomb's initial shock
amplitude.
The value of that correlation of initial shock
amplitudes is greatly enhanced by the hot-firing
data in Fig. 10.2.2d . These data were obtained by
Reutenik and Lewis
correlation direct streak photography of bomb detonations
within an operating rocket motor by means of a
streak camera viewing through the exhaust nozzle.
Shock-front velocities were reduced from the
streak films and, with the assumption of equilib-
‫لسي‬ rium combustion product properties, were used
10 40 in Eq . ( 10.2.2-2) to calculate shock pressure
Scaled distance r¸ /W /³ , ft/ lb /³ amplitudes . Each set of connected points in Fig .
10.2.2d is from a single bomb firing, with the point
FIGURE 10.2.2c. -Comparison of 13.5 grain detonator at the smallest scaled distance representing the
blast with empirical scaled blast correlation . initial shock wave. These initial shock points fall
among their one-atmosphere cold-flow counter-
parts , a result that is strongly suggestive that the
N204/A-50 at 150 psia P indicated correlating line is perhaps valid for other
overpressure
100A8 combustor-operating conditions. * The equation of

▲ 2 gr bomb
)/P-Reduced
13.5 gr bombs the initial shock line is

O
shock
28 gr bomb
,( is
Jogee (P.- P )
-Reutenik and Lewis Ps
1/31
Pi
10 == 0.536–1.61 log10 rbc ( 10.2.2-6)
[ The 14.7We
from which the shock overpressure is
e
Aps = ps - p1 = 0.815rbc- 1.61W0.536p10.4 64 ( 10.2.2-7)
In designing a bomb to give a particular over-

pressure, it is recommended that values be cal-
Initial shocks
culated both by Gurney's theory , Eq . ( 10.2.2-4)
0.37 times
Reutenik and Lewis with Eq . ( 10.2.2-2 ) , and by the foregoing Eq.
Various cased bombs (10.2.2-7) and that the higher of the two resultant.
in ambient air
initial pressure amplitudes be used.
0.1 w‫ل‬
ww‫س‬ . It is noted that two 13.5 gr bombs in the hot-
0.1 10 40 firing conditions gave initial shock amplitudes
Scaled distance, [ p, / 14.7W ] " ,ft -atm³ / lbs that differ by a factor of about two , which is
FIGURE 10.2.2d.- Comparison of cold-flow and hot-firing

bomb shock overpressure with empirical scaled blast * Only nylon and Micarta case materials are represented
correlation. here.
comparable to the deviations noted among the gas temperatures are on the order of 5000° F.
cold-flow data. This degree of irreproducibility is With such high temperature gradients, acceptable
apparently what one must expect to experience heating rates are achieved through judicious
with cased cylindrical bombs . Inconsistencies in material selection and provision of an adequate
explosive packing density and in the initiation of thickness.
detonation, eccentric case machining and irregu- Selection of bomb case materials has usually
larities in case material density and (in the hot been based on qualitative considerations of
firings) nonuniform ablation probably all con- conductivity, strength, shrapnel damage potential
tribute to this degree of uncertainty . and probable mode of erosion or ablation . Many of
As the shocks expand away from the bombs the materials used have also been used for other
their amplitudes decay and, at scaled distances on applications, such as ablative chamber walls , heat
the order of 5 to 8, appear to reach limiting values shields, etc. Analytical methods, together with a
somewhat less than the Reutenik and Lewis large body of experimental data , are available for
correlation (see Fig . 10.2.2d and Sect. 10.2.2.3 ) . effecting quantitative evaluation and selection.
Supporting data were obtained from pressure Recently, their applicability has been demon-
transducers in the combustion chamber wall. At strated by correlating dummy bomb case erosion
distances from the bomb up to about 5 or 6 inches, rates with analytically predicted rates for three
the direct transducer data (without correction for materials167 in an N2O4/A- 50 rocket motor
wave incidence angle) fell along that asymptotic operating at 150 psia chamber pressure . The
curve . Except for the 2 gr charge, transducers analytical work * is summarized briefly in this
further from the bombs than 6 inches registered section.
increased overpressures, indicating shock-wave Erosion or ablation analysis was based on
augmentation by the propellant combustion axisymmetric flow of rocket combustion products
processes. parallel to the axis of a cylindrical bomb .† A
This correlation clearly reveals the manner in further analytical simplification, valid if the
which a bomb's shock would behave in an operating thermal penetration depth is small with respect
rocket if there were no interaction with the to the bomb case radius, is the treatment of the
combustion processes . The several techniques cylindrical bomb case as a semi-infinite plane solid.
summarized in this section are recommended as Based on a chamber pressure of 150 psia, a
quantitative design bases. Interaction with the chamber contraction ratio of 2.54 and N2O4/A-50
combustion processes may result in either more propellants, several methods were considered in
rapid attenuation or amplification depending arriving at 2 Btu/in.2-sec. as an expected cold wall
upon the propellants, the spray field established convective heat flux to a bomb case for use in the
by the injector and the position of the bomb. A following calculations.
design based on no interaction may need to be Erosion or ablation mass loss may take place by
scaled up or down to account for an experienced one or a combination of mechanisms. It is impor-
combustion effect, but still represents a reasonable tant to know which mechanisms dominate for
starting point in the absence of combustion cach material and to account for them in the
response information. analyses . Basic mechanisms include
10.2.2.5 Bomb case erosion and explosive Physical phenomena : melting, vaporization,
--- sublimation
heating. Adequate performance of stability rating
bombs is critically dependent upon protection of
the explosive charge from premature detonation
(or burning) as a result of explosive heating. As * Performed by Dr. J. D. Seader, Jr., of the University
described earlier, this protection usually is of Utah.
A flow direction normal to the bomb's axis is unde-
provided by encasing the explosive in an insulating
shell made of some heat-resistant material. Most sirable, both from an analytical standpoint and from the
asymmetric erosion that results. Neither prediction nor
explosives have thermal explosion temperatures
control of the shock pressure amplitude are normally ade-
lower than 500° F and typical rocket combustion quate with this latter orientation.
Chemical phenomena : pyrolysis, oxidation, 1.0

depolymerization Nylon ( instantaneous melt removal )
Mechanical phenomena : surface shear, spalling
and stress failure ,
particle impingement
thickness
Ablated
depth
char
Three types of material having mass loss mecha-
or
,in
Nylon
nisms typical of most other available materials
.10
were studied : teflon (amorphous melt depoly-
merizes to monomer vapor at about 680° F) ,
nylon (viscous melt formed at about 507° F may N
flow, pyrolyzes with little char at about 750° F) ,
phenolic-silica (pyrolysis gases leave a dimen-
sionally stable, silica-reinforced , porous char T Phenolic - silica
which may melt if surface temperature exceeds
3,115° F) . .01 N
For teflon and nylon, the surface recession
analyses of Landau422 and Sunderland and Grosh675 Teflon
were applied . For phenolic-silica, a one-dimen-
sional computer program595 was used which solves Cylindrical bombs in N204/A-50
the differential energy balance equation by an Combustion products at 150 psia
implicit finite difference method .
Calculated results are shown in Fig. 10.2.2e .
.001
Single predicted curves are shown for teflon and 0.1 1.0 10.0
phenolic-silica, whereas two curves are shown for Time , sec
nylon, one for the extreme condition of instanta-
neous melt removal and the other for substantial FIGURE 10.2.2e.-Predicted ablation rates for selected
melt retention and surface pyrolysis . Observed bomb case materials.
ablated depths for dummy teflon and nylon bomb
cases in 0.5 to 2.0 sec. rocket engine tests are also
shown in Fig. 10.2.2e . Good agreement is seen for
teflon. The results with nylon suggest that sub-
stantially no melt removal by surface shear forces
occurred.
Flow direction
Downstream of step decreases in bomb case
diameter, there was a distinct necking of the bomb FIGURE 10.2.2f.-Flow effects on erosion.
case as shown in Fig. 10.2.2f. The maximum
surface regression rates in this necking were
transient temperature profile was part of the com-
approximately 50 per cent greater than those near puter program output . To illustrate the approach,
the downstream end. A tapered shoulder, as
it was assumed that an RDX base charge was to
shown in Fig. 10.2.1f, eliminated this undesirable be electrically detonated at 0.5 sec. into mainstage
behavior. For teflon and nylon, thermal penetra-
of a rocket test in which negligible heating oc-
tion was computed from the quasi-steady-state
curred in ignition and pre-stage periods . The
solution of the moving-boundary conduction thermal explosion temperature for RDX was
problem for a semi-infinite slab
taken as 500° F. The results are given in Table
Ty - Ti -Va∞oy 10.2.2. A study of that table will reveal that the
= exp (10.2.2-8) thermal penetration is very shallow (or , for
T -T₁ α
phenolic-silica, very slow) and that quite thin-
where y is measured from (and into ) the receding walled bomb cases should suffice for this applica-
surface. For the charring phenolic-silica, the tion.
TABLE 10.2.2. -PREDICTED THERMAL PENETRATION
Ablated or char (*) Residual case Minimum Minimum case wall Maximum wall
Case thickness at 0.5 thickness for 500 ° F initial wall mass remaining for mass loss,
material sec , in. inner wall , in. thickness , in. 500 ° F inner wall, percent
lbm/in.2
Teflon 0.0073 0.0117 0.019 0.00153 38.5

Nylon (without .016 .004 .020 .000822 80.0
melt removal)
Phenolic-silica .012* .005 .017 .00102 9.8
10.2.3 Control of Shrapnel Damage effects on engine operation . Holes are customarily
repaired before reuse of the damaged component .
The use of explosive devices always presents the With tube-wall chambers, repair is considerably
threat of causing damage to the engine . The size of simpler with small holes than with large holes.
the explosive charge can be made large enough to Increasing severity of damage might then progress
critically damage the engine simply by over- as no deformation, area deformation, rounded
pressurization . This is not the type of damage dents, sharp dents, few small holes, many small
normally experienced in rating liquid rocket holes, few large holes, many large holes.
engines, however, since the quantity of explosive The simplest approach to reducing shrapnel
charge used is usually selected to produce a damage is to locate the bomb as far as possible
prescribed maximum overpressure which is well from sensitive engine components . For all but the
within the structural limitation of the combustor. largest chambers , this approach alone is inadequate
The type of damage usually encountered as a because large fragments maintain enough momen-
result of using explosive bombs ( aside from tum to inflict significant damage at distances in
damage resulting from an induced instability ) is excess of one foot . Additionally, this restriction on
damage inflicted by shrapnel . Shrapnel from an bomb placement is undesirable with respect to
explosive bomb may penetrate the coolant versatility and preferred mode initiation.
passages of regeneratively cooled chambers or Several design techniques are available for
damage and distort the injector face and baffles. reducing the potential for shrapnel damage. One
It may also rupture the cooling or sensing dia- method would be to simply reduce the weight of
phragms of pressure transducers . the explosive charge which , in turn, can directly
The types of damage observed with thin metal reduce the velocity imparted to the case fragments
structures, such as regeneratively cooled chamber ( Eq . 10.2.2-4 ) . For a fixed case design, however ,
walls, may be divided into three broad categories : this implies a reduced shock pressure amplitude ,
area deformation, dents and holes. It is difficult to which may be undesirable. Perhaps a more useful
establish absolute criteria for assessing the degree approach is simultaneous reduction of charge
of damage . However, heat transfer, material weight and case thickness . Even though case
stress and repair cost considerations indicate that particle velocity may not be reduced with this
area deformation and dents will normally cause approach, less shrapnel damage usually results
very little , if any, degradation of engine per- from reducing the case thickness, probably as a
formance or reliability. One exception to this result of reduced case mass as well as of frag-
might be very sharp dents with small radii of mentation to smaller pieces.
curvature at the apexes ; there may be a possi- Some degree of control can be exercised over the
bility of the metal eventually cracking from fragmentation characteristics. Two major design
repeated thermal stressing of such tips in engines factors in this regard are the materials used in the
fired many times . Holes are obviously undesirable, bomb and the shape of the charge and bomb case .
although many times they may have no deleterious All metals should be avoided as far as possible in
-0.
900400
|
Unshaped charge Shaped charge
FIGURE 10.2.3a .-Effect of charge shape on case fragmentation.
the bomb design (this includes the detonator achieved , viscous drag brings about more rapid
casing) . Fiberglass, teflon and other plastic bomb deceleration and less impact momentum is
cases can be designed to fragment into very small exchanged . Impact strengths , as determined by
pieces which are either consumed within the notch testing at ambient temperatures, vary by
combustion zone or are sufficiently softened by the more than an order of magnitude among candidate
time they reach a wall that little or no damage plastic materials, Table 10.2.3 . Bomb cases made
occurs. of Lucite, polystyrene or cellulose acetate are
It has been found that a cylindrically shaped attractive from this standpoint. Both Lucite and
explosive charge encased in a relatively thin case cellulose acetate were used in the uncooled motor
like that shown in Fig. 10.2.3a will produce a tests of Ref. 167 and observed to have comparable
band of small fragments which move radially ablation rates (about 20 to 40 percent higher than
away from the cylindrical sides of the explosive nylon) . Cellulose acetate bomb cases, used in
and large fragments which cover about a thirty rating a high thrust hydrogen oxygen engine,
degree cone as they move away from the end of the
cylindrical charge . If these large fragments from TABLE 10.2.3. - IMPACT STRENGTHS OF
the end of the case can be directed out through SELECTED MATERIALS
the throat of the engine, the probability of
shrapnel damage can be greatly reduced. The
Material Impact strength,"
relatively narrow pattern of large fragments
ft-lb/in.
resulting from a cylindrical charge in a cylindrical
case can be altered to form a broader pattern of
much smaller fragments by changing the shapes Polymethylmethacrylate 0.4
of the charge and case, e.g., as illustrated in Fig. (Lucite, Plexiglas)
Cellulose acetate 0.4 to 1.9
10.2.3a .
Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) 2.5 to 4.0
Other material properties of importance are Nylon 66 0.9 to 2.0
density, impact strength and the ability of frag- Polystyrene 0.25 to 0.33
ments, already mentioned, to be softened quickly Methylpolystyrene 0.33
Polyethylene (high density) 0.4 to 6.0
by convective heating. Lightweight materials are
preferred because, for a given case thickness ,
less mass is involved, lower particle velocities are a ASTM D 256, Izod notched.
produced considerably less shrapnel damage than integrity make it more attractive than other low
nylon when bombs were discharged during full density materials such as natural cork, pressed
mainstage operation. However , they gave com- cork (large particles) , balsa wood, foamed teflon,
parable damage when detonated during prestage styrofoam and foamed polyurethane.167 Increased
at approximately 40 to 70 percent of mainstage thicknesses of Insulcork, over those required for
chamber pressure. It was not determined how thermal protection, are needed for structural
much of this difference was due to (1 ) hardening strength .
of the cellulose acetate because of its exposure to Cold-flow experiments for evaluation of shrapnel
cryogenics early in the start transient, (2) altered
. damage usually involve detonation of bombs at
fragmentation characteristics from the same various distances from (and with various orienta-
cause, or (3 ) increased fragment softening before tions with respect to ) metal structures. The
impact under mainstage conditions . witness structures in some tests have been sections
Another material having excellent characteris- cut from discarded regeneratively-cooled cham-
tics for reduced shrapnel damage is Insulcork, a bers. A recent approach167 utilizes a cylindrical
moderately high density reconstituted cork pro- structural cage with replaceable witness sheets.
duct with particles smaller than 0.03-in. diameter. An eccentric positioning of the bomb, illustrated
Both its low ablation rate and good structural in Fig. 10.2.3b, provides simultaneous variation
Bomb support bracket
Bomb
Witness sheets
Witness sheet support cage
FIGURE 10.2.3b . -Apparatus for evaluating relative shrapnel damage potential for bombs.
of distance and fragment impact angle. Results of smaller explosive force are used at several loca-
such evaluations, while qualitative, are valuable tions within the combustor to obtain a broader
for performing an initial screening and reducing knowledge of the stability of the injector design.
the number of hot firing tests required . Explosive bombs may be mounted in the
desired location by any convenient method.
10.2.4 Application to Combustors Frequently, a threaded attachment to the injector
face or the downstream edge of a stabilizing baffle
There are several factors to be considered in the has been used. Provision of electrical leads to
application of explosive bombs as stability rating such an installation may become complicated ,
devices in liquid rocket engines. Among these are with conduits through propellant supply systems.
the bomb location, physical access to that loca- Particularly with uncooled workhouse chamber
tion, mounting method and the physical size of assemblies, more ready access may be found by
the bomb assembly. Each of these factors is inserting the bombs through the chamber wall.
influenced to some degree by the bomb design In any event , the preferred orientation of a
parameters and characteristics already discussed , cylindrical bomb is with its axis parallel to the
such as the charge weight, case thickness, method local flow direction . A chamber-mounted bomb
of initiating detonation, shrapnel damage poten- installation might then appear as sketched in Fig.
tial , etc. Some different influences are examined 10.2.4a . Rotation of such a mounting device
in this article. about the elbow has sometimes been used for
In using a bomb to evaluate the ability of a varying bomb position and orientation . 15
combustor to damp a specific mode of resonant Reduction of shrapnel damage to a bomb by
instability, it is desirable to locate the bomb near detonation of another one and modest case thick-
a pressure antinode for that instability mode. ness increases to offset increased erosion rates
This gives the highest probability that the energy during instability appear to make regular use of
generated by the bomb will go into exciting the multiple bombs feasible. The design of the bomb
desired acoustic resonance. The most commonly mount appears to be the key to being able to
used locations are near the chamber wall at axial retain a bomb intact through a brief period of
stations near the injector, in a central chamber instability initiated by an earlier-detonated bomb.
location and at the entrance of the nozzle . Development of strengthened bomb mount de-
There are no well established criteria for signs is needed.
obtaining the desired excitation characteristics The physical size of the bomb may disrupt and
within a combustor by use of explosive bombs . distort the gas flow pattern within the combustor,
For this reason many different procedures have which may also alter the excitation effects of the
been used for establishing stability characteristics
through explosive bombing techniques . One Teflon case
procedure sometimes used during engine develop-
Explosive
ment programs is to use one standard bomb size
and location to rate various candidate injector Electrical detonator
designs. After this initial screening, one or two
Chamber wall
injectors are subjected to a series of bomb tests
during which the bomb size and location are
Steel arm
varied. Generally for the initial screening tests,
an intermediate bomb size (one producing an
overpressure between 50 % and 100 % of the
steady-state chamber pressure) is used . A location
near the combustion chamber wall and close to
the injector is normally selected since this location Lead wires
is near a pressure antinodal point for all resonant
modes of instability. Once the candidate prototype
injectors are selected, bombs with larger and FIGURE 10.2.4a. -Chamber wall mounted bomb.
detonation . In small combustor applications , this 500

possibility places limitations on bomb placement
chamber
locations and on the number of bombs which can
pressure
Spike
be accommodated .
,psia
O
400-
Bo
10.2.4.1 Possibility of overbombing. - The type
and amount of explosive charge may also affect
300
‫ܘܘܣ‬
T
O
the energy input to specific resonant modes.
TO
-
through the shape and amplitude of the shock
O
O
wave generated . The size of the bomb to be used
200
T
has been the subject of many investigations . Some
O
investigators have indicated that an increase in
the size of the bomb increases the probability of
instability. However, a number of instances have 100 O Stable test
been reported in which larger disturbances proved • Unstable test
less effective in producing instability than smaller
ones.188,11 Two examples may be cited. In the
evaluation of a 3500 pound thrust engine, two Injector number 1 2 2 3 3 4
grain PETN bombs were used . In several in- Test series A A B A B A
stances during a bomb location survey , unstable
operation was initiated by these bombs . The FIGURE 10.2.4b .-Peak chamber pressure recorded on
transient spikes and bomb detonations in a 300-pound
occurrence rate was less than 100 % ; more like engine.
1 out of 5. It was hoped that larger bombs would
produce a more severe rate of incidence to reduce 100
the testing required . When 5 grain, 15 grain and
remaining
unstable
Percent
25 grain bombs were used ( at the same location

tests
and operating conditions ) no instances of in-

of
80
stability were noted.
This sensitivity to bomb size can be illuminated
further by the observations made during the 60
stability evaluation of a smaller engine in the 300
pound thrust class. It was first determined that
instability could be self-induced during the
40
altitude start sequence , primarily if a high pressure
spike occurred at ignition . Normal operating
chamber pressure on this unit was 125 psia but
20
20
the starting pressure spike varied from a negligible
overpressure to nearly 500 psi . Bomb tests were
then instituted to develop a stable configuration.
A
A test series was conducted to find whether a 120 200 280 360 440 520
relationship could be established between the Spike chamber pressure , psia
starting spikes and bomb shock pressures.
FIGURE 10.2.4c.-Percentage of tests in 40-psi chamber
Fig. 10.2.4b shows the stability data obtained
pressure intervals which remained unstable.
during tests of an undamped injector configura-
tion, including tests with and without bomb The data were then correlated in 40 psi pressure
detonations . The stability results are indicated as increments with the ratio of the number of
a function of measured overpressures . These data unstable tests to the total number of tests in that
verified that variations in the rate of unstable. pressure increment . The result of this correlation
occurrences could be correlated with overpressure is shown graphically in Fig. 10.2.4c . The left-
whether self-induced or produced by a bomb. hand-side of the curve would leave little doubt
that the ratio of unstable to stable tests increases 600

with overpressure up to a given size. In this case,
a range of overpressures between 300 and 400 psi
pressure
500
acoco amaxα o
Spike
produced nearly 100 % incidence of unstable.
, sia
operation and hence bombs were subsequently
p
400
sized to provide mean-disturbance amplitudes in
that range. (The shock pressures obtained with
varied charge weight are shown in Fig. 10.2.4d . ) 300
1
Beyond this range there were indications of too
large an overpressure (400 to 500 psi ) which
200
resulted in a lower incidence of triggered in-
stability. The results of these tests were inter-
preted as indicating the existence of an optimum 100
bomb size to evaluate a given combustor design .
In considering reasons for the apparent ability
to overbomb a combustor , it has been suggested 40 80 120 160 200 240
that a link may exist between the disturbance and Bomb size , mg lead azide
the response of the feed system . According to this
hypothesis the bomb overpressure (or the over- FIGURE 10.2.4d . -Peak chamber pressure amplitude ob-
pressure resulting from massive acceleration of served in bombing a 300-pound-thrust engine at a p. of
125 psia.
the combustion processes) essentially stops the
propellant flow, resulting in a stable restart after
the induced chamber wave motion has decayed for and those which use high explosives . Influences of
pulse gun design variables on the blast admitted
lack of sustaining propellant sprays in the
chamber.440.759 to the chamber are discussed in Section 10.3.2
using a natural subdivision into breech pres-
surization processes , barrel wave propagation
10.3 PULSE GUNS * phenomena, and expansion of the blast wave into
the combustion chamber. 110 Considered in Sect.
Pulse guns were originally used as an applied
10.3.3 is its interaction with the combustion
research tool to aid in investigating the basic
process as affected by the operating conditions .
mechanisms of initiating and sustaining in-
stabilities. The pulse gun has now become one of
10.3.1 Typical Designs
the two most used engine stability rating devices.
Many pulse gun characteristics and application As implied by its name, a pulse gun is normally
techniques are different from those of explosive comprised of a breech, an explosive charge , a
bombs, although their stability rating objectives firing mechanism and a barrel . The original
are the same. Thus , the two rating devices are designs, as well as most of those in current use,
about as much complementary as they are com- are modifications of small firearms ' components
petitive. and , therefore, utilize gun powder charges encased
Pulse guns usually embody an explosive charge in standard caliber cartridges. Only recently have
which is mounted outside of the rocket com- designs been modified so that high explosive
bustion chamber. Explosion products are directed charges might be used . In either case, a burst
into the chamber through a connecting gun barrel. diaphragm is normally placed at the discharge
Several different designs are in current use. end of the breech to protect the explosive charge
These are described in Section 10.3.1 which is from the adverse thermal environment of the
divided into discussions of those guns which use combustor . For gun powder charges , the burst
small arms cartridges loaded with a gun powder diaphragm acts, as well, to confine the explosion
and intensify the initial blast before it enters
* L. P. Combs, R. J. Hefner, D. T. Harrje , and H. the combustor.
Bloomer, Authors. Some pulse guns have been designed to operate
with premixed gas charges rather than explosives . weight of smokeless powder* held in place by a
One design was very similar to the gun described paper wad. The quantity of powder used has
in the following article, having a gas charge varied from as little as three grains to as much as
admitted through a valved port in the side of the 400 grains .
breech, contained in the breech by a burst Burst diaphragms used to close the discharge
diaphragm and detonated by an electrical spark end of the breech normally are matched to the
plug which replaced the firing pin . Another gun powder charge weight. Burst diaphragm
interesting design391 had a continuous supply of burst pressures ranging from 1,000 to 20,000 psi
detonable gases supplied to a pulse tube which normally are used , although in some instances
had no burst diaphragm ; alternating accumulation even weaker and stronger discs have been used .
and detonation produced a series of repetitive In most designs , plain precision burst diaphragms
pulses. are specified. It has been shown recently167 that
reduced shrapnel damage results from using
10.3.1.1 Pulse guns with gun powder charges.— thicker scored diaphragms which rupture in a
Figure 10.3.1a illustrates a typical pulse gun controlled pattern with little or no fragmentation.
design. The breech assembly is comprised of an For introducing multiple pulses at a single
electrically-actuated primer charge, a firing pin, a point in a combustor , a modified machine gun
cartridge housing and a burst diaphragm housing. may also be used as a pulse gun.652 A .30-caliber
It should be noted that a spring-actuated firing machine gun was mounted on a single-port bomb
mechanism typical of firearms breech designs is ring (Sect. 10.3.1.2 ) in either a tangentially or
not generally used for pulse guns because of the radially-oriented manner. Slight modifications to
requirement of gas-tight seal at high static pres- the gas-operated bolt were necessary. The machine
sures. (The breech of a typical small arm is not gun was also altered by inserting a low mass
leak tight prior to firing but is sealed by the check valve in the barrel. This was needed to
expansion of the cartridge case upon discharge of prevent jamming at chamber pressures above 100
the gun. ) The breech housing and barrel of the psi . The valve distorted and attenuated the pulse
pulse gun are typically thicker than those of greatly, but it was possible to pulse the combustors
small arms to accommodate the higher peak unstable with the valve. Standard .30-caliber
pressures attained when a burst diaphragm is blanks were charged with a single base, tubular
employed . nitrocellulose propellant . During a normal run,
The cartridge housing of the pulse gun is eight increasingly larger gunpowder charge sizes ,
typically designed to accommodate one of the
standard , small-arm cartridges such as the .22-
Afast-burning pistol powder (Hercules Bullseye No. 2)
caliber long rifle , .38-caliber pistol , the .300-
is commonly used . Slower burning, less energetic powders
caliber magnum rifle cartridges or shotgun shells. have been tried but not found to offer any particular ad-
The cartridge itself is preloaded with a prescribed vantages in improved repeatability or reliability.
Center -fire cartridge
Firing pin Cartridge housing Barrel Mounting threads
Primer
Burst diaphragm
FIGURE 10.3.1a.- Typical pulse gun design .

which ranged from 18.5 to 39.0 grains , were fed combustion chamber section. A schematic of a
to the gun via a standard link belt. The number typical bomb ring is presented in Fig. 10.3.1c.
of charges detonated consecutively was limited by It has four tangentially-oriented ports located
run length, but generally eight charges were around the circumference. Each port is loaded
fired within a two-second time. with a specific size charge of explosive. The
explosive can be a relatively low-energy gun-
10.3.1.2 Pulse guns with high explosive charges.- powder or a high brissance RDX with the ex-
Design modifications have been made to the plosive charge controlled by the number of
basic pulse gun illustrated in Fig. 10.3.1a. The pellets of explosive. Normally, increasingly larger
burst diaphragm seal has been improved to size bombs are electrically detonated in a con-
prevent leakage prior to rupture,167 direct elec- secutive manner during a run. A 1.63-grain PETN
trical initiation is used to eliminate misfires. charge is used as an initiator, while each RDX
related to the firing pin and high explosive has pellet weighs 4.36 grains. Ten bomb sizes, ranging
been substituted for the gunpowder. The change from 1.63 to 40.9 grains of explosive, can be made
from gunpowder was made in anticipation that by varying the number of RDX tablets in each
the pulse wave shape (Sect. 10.3.2) would be bomb. A typical bomb assembly is also shown
simpler and more reproducible and thus more schematically in Fig . 10.3.1c .
easily correlated to the combustor's response. A
10.3.2 Effects of Design on Pulse Amplitude
cross-sectional view of the modified gun is shown
in Fig. 10.3.1b. This device has been used with The pressure amplitude of the blast wave from
charges of both PETN and RDX (as well as a pulse gun may be considered in discrete stages:
Bullseye pistol powder) ranging from 5 to 80 (1) breech pressurization and formation of a
grains . Somewhat improved reliability wasob- shock front , (2) propagation of the shock (and
tained, but the wave shape was essentially subsequent flow) through the gun barrel, and (3)
unaltered . Greater brissance of the high ex- expansion of the shock and explosion products
plosives increased the shrapnel damage potential : into the combustion chamber.
leaves of petal-leaf-scored burst diaphragms were
consistently broken off by high explosive charges 10.3.2.1 Breech pressurization . - The pressure
larger than 20 grains as compared to no leaf frag- amplitude of the shock wave produced by a low
mentation with 40-grain and some break out with explosive pulse gun is dependent upon charge
80-grain gunpowder charges. weight, breech volume and burst diaphragm
A more compact high-explosive pulse gun strength. Excessive void volume may grossly
design has been incorporated into a so-called bomb offset a substantial increase in charge weight . For
ring,652 which is designed to replace a standard example, it was found that the peak pressure
Lead styphnate - coated

Burst diaphragm
bridge wire
Swagelok Diaphragm washer
Lead azide
"O" ring Washer Mounting threads
boost charge
Charge retainer
Lead wires
Cement-filled Breech Spacer Base charge Barrel

lead - in tube in cardboard cylinder "O" ring
FIGURE 10.3.1b. - Pulse gun designed to fire either high explosive or gun powder charges.
Detail view
op
RDX pellets
Electrical leads
PETN initiator charge
Bomb ring looking

toward injector
Plastic insulating cap
Detail view of bomb in port
FIGURE 10.3.1c.-Bomb ring and explosive bomb details.
amplitude observed from the use of a 160-grain high degree of uniformity in the disturbances
charge in a gun designed for a maximum charge produced . 183
load of 400 grains was equivalent to that observed Charge-volume effects have been examined
from a 60-grain charge in a gun designed for a analytically and are explicable in terms of constant-
maximum charge of 80 grains . The only difference volume combustion and diaphragm rupture
in the internal breech design of these two guns was pressure.167 A good design practice for gunpowder
the volume provided behind the diaphragm . This charges is to coordinate charge weight and
volume was approximately seven times greater diaphragm strength so that the calculated pressure
in the case of the 160-grain charge in the large for constant-volume combustion exceeds the
breech than that of the 60-grain charge in the diaphragm rating by 20 to 30 per cent. Then the
smaller breech. maximum breech pressure is approximately equal
With a pulse gun in which the cartridge essen- to the diaphragm burst pressure. However, if the
tially fills the entire breech volume, improved burst pressure is 20,000 psi or greater, the com-
reproducibility may be gained by controlling the bustion reactions accelerate so much as the
ratio of charge weight to cartridge or shell volume. pressure increases that pressures substantially
Since one shell size is normally chosen for a given higher than burst pressure may be reached before
pulse unit, a wide range of charge weights may the diaphragm ruptures. In this case the maximum
vary conditions from a lightly-loaded shell and a breech pressure is approximately equal to the
relatively large void volume, at one extreme , to a pressure that would be attained by constant-
heavily-loaded shell with a minimum volume at volume combustion in a cavity that is 10 % larger
the other. To achieve a more reproducible breech than the actual breech. This result holds also when
pressurization by making the filled volume the constant-volume combustion pressure is more
fraction nearly constant , filler blocks can be used. than twice the diaphragm burst pressure.
Fig. 10.3.2a shows this design arrangement for a With high explosive charges, the burst dia-
small charge. Uniform grain compaction is pro- phragm exerts little, if any, effect on pulse am-
vided by filling the remaining volume with a plitude because the breach is pressurized by a
metal spacer containing a central passage to guide detonation, essentially at constant volume, before
the primer flash to the charge. The grains of much gas can escape. Again a pseudovolume of
powder are constrained (by a sheet of tissue 1.10 times the actual volume is recommended for
paper) from filling this passage. An oaktag disk calculating predicted constant-volume breech
cemented in place with Pliobond cement com- pressures.
pletes the configuration. When used with precision Some typical values of measured maximum
burst diaphragms, this approach has resulted in a breech pressures (using a Kistler Model 607A
Bullseye " pistol powder ( up to 50 grains )

Solenoid tripped
Precision burst disk firing pin
Metal spacer
T
Chamber 4"
1/2" +
Priming charge
-.410 shell
Tissue sheet
Oaktag .013 " wad
FIGURE 10.3.2a.-Use of a metal spacer to control ratio of pulse gun breech volume to charge weight.
transducer) are shown in Fig. 10.3.2b for a pulse defined shock wave is normally obtained with
gun like that of Fig. 10.3.1b with 10.7 cm³ breech charges smaller than about 15 grains, while larger
volume. A linear relationship between charge charges characteristically produce double-peaked
weight and breech pressure is seen to hold for profiles, Fig. 10.3.2c . The source of the second
Bullseye charges while a moderate curvature is pressure peak has not been determined . Wave
observed with high explosive charges. analyses of the breech and cartridge do not support
any reflected wave hypothesis . The second peak
10.3.2.2 Shock propagation in the gun barrel.— has been attributed163 to continued burning of
Following the rupture of the burst diaphragm, a powder in the breech after diaphragm rupture,
strong pressure wave is propagated down the gun but a similar occurrence with high explosive
barrel. It is followed by a flow of explosion charges appears to refute that interpretation.
products which may still be reacting and may Perhaps it is a secondary wave of the sort analyzed
contain burning grains of gunpowder. In general, numerically by Brode¹21 for spherical explosions ,
these processes result in the discharge of a shock in which inward propagation of a rarefaction wave
wave into the combustion chamber. How much of is reflected from the center of a finite mass of
the barrel length is needed to effect steepening explosion products as a shock wave. Transducer
and coalescence of the pressure wave into a shock measurements of pulse gun shocks in inert gas-
wave depends primarily upon the type of explosive , filled chambers have revealed that the double
charge weight and combustion chamber back- fronts coalesce to a single front soon after expan-
pressure. High explosive detonations apparently sion from the gun muzzle and so they may be
result in immediate shock-front formation under unimportant to the pulse gun's use as a rating
all practical conditions. The blasts from gun- device.
powder guns fired into ambient atmospheric The maximum pressure in the barrel is usually
pressure are not steep-fronted, and are observed associated with the second pressure peak. Trans-
to broaden as they propagate along the barrel . ducers placed at various positions in a gun barrel
Under back pressures of 65 psia and higher, shock have shown that there is little attenuation of
formation within 6 inches from the diaphragm has initial shock amplitude from charges of 40 grains
been observed . 167 and smaller. In contrast, significant losses in
Pressure-time profiles in the barrel produced by maximum pressure were observed with charges
different explosives are nearly identical at elevated larger than 20 grains.167
pressures, differing primarily in the effect of The amplitude of the initial shock in the barrel
explosive energy on amplitude. A single, well- may be calculated by ideal shock tube theory if
60
50
High explosive
( RDX + PETN )
pressure
Breech
40
|
0-3
,psi
8
1x
30-
8
20 HB gun powder
10
10 20 30 40 50 60
Charge weight - grains
FIGURE 10.3.2b. -Maximum pulse gun breech pressure from gunpowder and high explosives in a 10.7 cm³ breech.
Initial Maximum walls-that calculated initial shock amplitude

shock pressure may be a valid measure of the disturbance intro-
duced into the combustion chamber. It is shown
in Ref. 167 , by analysis and experiment, that this
2500
is indeed the case. The analysis method given

psi
/m
c
there is based on the formulation of Alpher

and White62 for a shock tube with variable cross-
sectional area. The governing equations are
7274/(74-1)
P4 = P2 1 ΥΑ 1
1+ Ma (10.3.2-1 )
Pi Pi g 2
200 μ sec/cm
a1 24 74-1
Upper trace 1.44 in from burst diaphragm M3== g(74-1)/274- ( 10.3.2-2 )
Lower trace -6.00 in from burst diaphragm V2 a1 2T
FIGURE 10.3.2c.-Pressures in a pulse gun barrel showing

1/2
double pressure spikes from a 30-grain HB charge. (3B
(2+ ( Y4−1 ) M3в2
g= X
(2+ (Y4−1 ) M3A²)
the breech pressure is known or predictable.
Then, if the barrel is of moderate length-so that
(2+ ( 74−1 ) M3B
the initial shock amplitude is not degraded much ( 10.3.2-3 )
(2+ (Y4-1 ) M3A)
by frictional and thermal losses to the barrel
mately as an expanding hemisphere radially across

A₁ M3B [2+ (Y4-1 ) M3A2
= (10.3.2-4) the combustor cavity . The directional orientation
A2 MзA [2+ ( 4-1 ) MзB2_ of the gun barrel has been found to have only a
moderate effect on the propagation of this initial
11/2
212
shock wave. In order to study the history of the
expanding wave , a double-pass schlieren system
V2 γι
= P2 was used with an optically-ground injector plate,
a1 a low L/D chamber to preference tangential
P2
( +1 ) +( - 1) modes, and a full chamber diameter, thick glass,
Pi
nozzle-end viewing window 61,185 With that hard-
ware, plus suitable optical and timing arrange-
(10.3.2-5) ments, it was possible to follow the path of the
generated spherical shock wave. Time histories
Solutions are for barrel-pressure ratio , p2/P1,
were constructed from a number of replicate tests
as a function of breech pressure ratio , p4/P1 ,
using identical burst disks and charge weight
specific heat ratios, 4 and 71 , sound speeds , a4
combinations, but with a variation in the time at
and a, and area ratio , A4/A2 . For the case in which
which photographs were taken ( as lighted by a
A4 =- A2 , then g = 1 and the equations then yield
one-microsecond spark) .
the standard shock tube equation relating the
Figure 10.3.2e shows a typical schlieren pho-
breech pressure ratio to the shock pressure ratio :
tograph of the strong spherical shock produced
by a 4-inch-long, 4 -inch diameter pulse gun using.
P4 = P2
X the hardware just described . The tangential
Pi P1
orientation of the pulse gun is seen to be of
secondary importance with regard to the early
-274 /( 4-1)
history of the wave. Indications of the initial
P2
( 4-1) shock wave profiles at several times and for
D () ( -1)
various chamber pressures are illustrated in Fig.
10.3.2f. It is clear that the initial wave expansion
√27 √√√2n + ( n + 1) ( -1 is basically hemispherical with only small varia-
Pi
tions due to changing pressure levels.
A similar schlieren photographic technique,
(10.3.2-6)
which used a Beckman-Whitley Model 189 high-
Typical calculated results are compared with speed framing camera ,167 provided data on shock-
experimental data from firing gunpowder and high front profiles similar to those in Fig. 10.3.2f but
explosive charges into pressurized nitrogen in Fig. with more precisely known time intervals (since a
10.3.2d . Also shown are calculated values for the series of as many as 25 photographs were obtained .
hot firing cases when the barrel is initially filled during each shock's expansion ) . An example of
with combustion chamber gases ; shock amplitudes initial shock expansion from a radial pulse gun
in this case are only about one-third to one-fifth illustrated in Fig. 9.4.4b, is shown in shock-front.
those observed in cold flow experiments . sequence form in Fig. 10.3.2g. Both radial and
tangential pulse gun orientations were used . In
10.3.2.3 Shock expansion into the combustion view of the lack of a strong effect of chamber
chamber. There are two distinct effects imparted pressure on the wave profile , Fig. 10.3.2f, the
in the combustion chamber by a pulse gun firing. cylindrical chamber section was left open to the
The first is a shock wave which propagates through atmosphere at both ends.
the chamber cavity similar to that produced by an The minor distortions from a truly hemispherical
explosive bomb and the second is a momentum shape preclude quantitative comparison of the
imparted to the gases in the combustion chamber . experimental shock-front profiles with ideal shock
The initial shock wave emerges from the barrel expansion theory . To promote such a comparison,
as a plane wave but then propagates approxi- Kuluva¹67 derived empirical expressions for the
10³
X
O H.B. powder
RDX explosive
pressure
X
Barrel
ratio
O
-I
P
/ 2
RDX
ΙΟ
X
oxo
Hercules
Xxx
ODO
Bullseye
X
Guns fired into
nitrogen RDX
10
XX
X
Hercules Bullseye
Predictions for guns fired into

N204/A- 50 combustor at 150 psia
‫لس‬
10 102 10³ 10*
Diaphragm pressure ratio - P4 /PI
FIGURE 10.3.2d.-Comparison of measured barrel pressure ratios with ideal shock tube performance for RDX and Her-
cules Bullseye explosives .
P
over the entire wave front, Pms/P1 . This latter
value is related to that which ideal hemispherical
shock-expansion theory yields. For details of the
method and a discussion of the experimental
evaluation of its validity, the reader is referred to
Appendices D and E of Ref. 167.
The pulse gun's gaseous explosion products, as
they emerge from the barrel, impart a momentum
to the gases in the chamber. The gas flow char-
P
P
acteristics in the combustor are thus altered for

some period after the passage of the initial shock.
The primary design parameter affecting the gas
flow momentum exchange is the directional
orientation of the gun. If the gun is mounted so
that the barrel is tangentially oriented with the
combustion chamber wall, the gaseous reactants
from the explosive charge will tend to impart a
vortex motion to the gases in the combustor. If it
Shock pulse P= pressure transducer is oriented radially the tendency will be for a
sloshing gas motion in the chamber. The quantity
FIGURE 10.3.2e. -Schlieren photograph of shock pulse. of powder used and the internal diameter of the
gun barrel also influence this effect since these
shock-front pressure ratio, ps/p₁, at any radial factors influence the quantity of explosive re-
distance x and angle 0 (from reference pulse entry actants and the duration they are emitted into
points and axes ) to the mean integrated value the chamber.
When the initial motion is placed in proper

perspective with the subsequent tangentially-
oriented gas stream, which is believed to be
responsible for the rapid generation of tangential
modes (as contrasted to the initially-nondirected
motion of gases associated with the bomb tech-
niques) , one is better equipped to analyze typical
Sh
pul
oc
k
pulse gun stability-limits data. Such pressure se
records (as shown for both hot and cold testing
in Fig. 10.3.2h ) normally indicate the decay
history of the shock wave phenomena in the first
few cycles of the tangential mode oscillations.
Although the tangential mode often requires a
cycle or so to reach maximum amplitude, it is
quite apparent that the tangentially-oriented
pulse gun arrangement is highly efficient in
generating both the spinning and standing O psig
tangential modes. A radial orientation alters the 100 psig
200 psig
gas stream, whereas the shock phenomena are -300 psig
unaffected, with a resulting general preference
exhibited for radial and standing tangential mode FIGURE 10.3.2f. -Profiles of the initial shock wave as it
generation. travels across the chamber for various initial chamber
pressures . The shock precedes the spinning first tan-
10.3.3 Effects of Combustor Operating Conditions gential mode oscillations .
The discussion in Section 10.3.2 of shock
expansion into a chamber was concerned with the was made under the restriction of complete spray
behavior of ideal nonreacting gases. It has been combustion immediately behind the advancing
found that the propellant injection and com- shock wave, 167 Execution was stopped after one
bustion characteristics can result in alteration of complete wave passage across the chamber. The
the shock wave as it propagates through the results were inconclusive because numerical
chamber.514 That is, the initial wave may be either difficulties were encountered when initial ampli-
amplified or attenuated as it traverses the com- tudes were high enough to be realistic.
bustor. This effect can be so great as to over- In stability evaluations, using both machine
shadow the shock expansion processes described gun and bomb ring techniques652 with two different
previously, and makes the correlation of the propellant combinations, conflicting results were
effects of combustor design and operating param- obtained regarding pulse growth. A storable
eters difficult . propellant combination (N2O4 /A- 50) was burned
Some examples illustrate the complexity of at 100 psia chamber pressure yielding 6700 pounds
observation and interpretation of a combustor's thrust . The second propellant combination was
response to and interaction with the pulse gun hydrogen and oxygen burned at 300 psia chamber
perturbation. The same lack of well-established pressure and yielding 20,000 pounds thrust . The
techniques and criteria exists for pulse guns as pressure history of each explosive pulse was unique
was noted in Sect . 10.2.4 for bombs . Perhaps the for each propellant combination . With the storable
most fruitful approach would be application of an combination, amplitude growth was noted as a
analytical model, such as that described in wave traveled across the chamber. This was
Section 4.3 , to calculation of the initial shock probably due to chemical augmentation . Con-
wave's perturbation of steady-state. (Presumably, versely, amplitude decay with distance traveled
continued operation of the analysis would also was noted with the O2-H2 combination. In both
give a prediction of the ultimate stability be- cases, higher chamber pressures resulted in larger
havior, as well. ) An attempt at such an analysis amplitude pulses . The effect of varying the
Chamber wall
16 32 48 64 80 96 μsec from
1st appearance
of pulse
Pulse gun
Note charge 30HB / 20K

back pressure 14 psia
FIGURE 10.3.2g.-Shock front shape at successive times for a radially fired pulse gun.
oxidant-to-fuel ratio on pulse amplitudes was point in the chamber. Not only does instrumenta-
marginal with each combination . Finally, for the tion location become critical but also each pulse is
O2-H2 combination , decreasing the hydrogen directed at a different location with respect to the
injection temperature resulted in larger amplitude injector pattern. Hence, large variations in
pulses . stability rating can occur. The machine gun
Amplitude is affected by the distance the wave eliminates both problems by keeping the location
travels through the combustion gases . Thus , if of the injection port (barrel ) constant while.
distance variations exist between instruments pulsing, 652
and/or port locations , amplitudes will be in doubt The explosive used also affects the pulse
as a stability parameter. Since the bomb ring amplitude. The RDX explosive used with the
incorporates four individual ports, a problem bomb ring produces a high energy detonation
arises in that each bomb is detonated at a different with high brissance . A plot of typical results
Shock waves
O Linear tests
Maximum
pressure
Ref. 679
,spike
ppeak
Maximum peak- to - peak pressure
eak
-tosi
и
Cold
‫ا‬ ‫شید‬
Spinning IT mode 200
F
Typical pressure pulse
160-
wwwm
Hot
O
Time 120
FIGURE 10.3.2h .-Comparison of pressure versus time
DDD
DO
∞
records from cold-flow and hot-firing experiments .
80
888
appears in Fig . 10.3.3a where pressure spike
amplitude is plotted as a function of RDX bomb
D
size in grain. The nitrocellulose powder used in 400
O
the machine gun tests burns rapidly (rather than
exploding) and produces a lower brissance pulse .
It was found, generally, that larger amounts of 10 20 30 40 50
nitrocellulose, compared with RDX , were required RDX bomb size, grams
to pulse combustors unstable .
Under conditions such that the chamber pres- FIGURE 10.3.3a. -Pressure spike amplitudes produced by
bomb ring blasts in storable engine firings.
sure oscillations induced by a pulse gun dis-
turbance gradually decay, a useful indication of
the influences of operating conditions may be to the injector face where axial and circum-
obtained by measuring the decay rate. While ferential variations in local fuel and oxidizer
tests in a closed cylindrical chamber with a well- concentrations are prevalent (especially in like-
known inert gaseous environment have exhibited on-like designs ) . Under these conditions wave
reproducibility to within a few per cent ,183 the enhancement effects may prove quite complex. *
same cannot be said for actual rocket applications . In general enhancement effects are extremely
Fig . 10.3.3b illustrates such controlled inert significant and must be taken into account for all
environment testing where the charge weight, stability rating techniques .
burst disk combination has been varied in one test In high chamber pressure rating experiments7
series and the chamber pressure has been varied it has been observed that with combustion taking
in the other. place in the engine the initial shock wave propa-
The increase in scatter and in the initial peak gates hemispherically from the exit of the gun
values of similar pulse guns fired into a liquid barrel, but the amplitude of the wave is not con-
rocket chamber (9 -inch diameter , LOX/ethanol , stant over the hemispherical surface. That is, it
150 psia, F = 1000 lb ) is quite evident in Fig . has been found that the observed peak pressure
10.3.3c . Different initial amplitudes and damping of the initial shock wave is greatest at a point
rates were shown to be associated with the mixture directly in line with the center line of the gun
ratio environment that was present . This is even barrel and decreases proportionally in all direc-
more clearly shown in another series of tests as tions . Some general observations that have been
shown in Fig . 10.3.3d where it would appear that made are
the enhanced combustion results from a rapid
utilization of the available excess fuel in the
* In Refs. 149, 618 and 704 such enhancement coupled
chamber under low mixture ratio operation.
with disturbances initiated by stream fluctuations is postu-
Tangential pulse guns are generally placed close lated as the responsible mechanism for popping.
300
pamplitude
A 15 - grain charge , 7, 500- psi burst diaphragm
)-t(,Pressure
B 30-grain charge ; 10,000-psi burst diaphragm 200
oeak
8888
si
100 c 45- grain charge ; 20,000-psi burst diaphragm
)-pt(amplitude
Pressure
p'= 74e -1241

oeak
100
, si
f = 2,000 Hz
80
p'=40 e-67+
f = 1400 Hz 60 O
p'- 53 e-104+
f = 1700Hz 40
-621
Pover= 185 e-6
A B C
20
O
10 20 30 40 50
Time , millisec
9" Dia FIGURE 10.3.3c .-Pressure amplitude versus time for a

number of 30-grain charges using the 10,000-lb burst
ம்
Station
disks in the stable, high mixture ratio range (r~2.0) .
(a) 4" -
Fo
10 20 30 0 10 20 30 (a) The perturbation amplitude decreases

0 10 20 30
with increasing combustor size.
(b) The dimensionless perturbation amplitude
(peak amplitude divided by steady-state
100 chamber pressure ) is approximately con-
Pc = 300 psi stant for a given charge size for chamber
= 107 e-19.2 1
pressures below about 1000 psia .
)-pt(amplitude
Pressure
f = 1000Hz
(c) The perturbation amplitude is independ-
, si eak
oeak
ent of the steady-state chamber pressure

for pressures above approximately 1000
psia.
Pc = 150 psi (d )
The observed perturbation amplitude
p' = 104 e-30.7 t decreases with increasing coarseness of the
f = 1100Hz
O
injector pattern.
Tests have been conducted for direct com-
Pe = 14.7 psi
p' = 53 e -1041 parison of transducer-measured pressure ampli-
O f = 1700Hz tude data with predictions of the shock expansion
9" Dia theory described in Sect . 10.3.2.163,167 A liquid
O
Station #5- rocket combustor ( 11.4-inch diameter, N2O4/A-50,
150 psia, F = 10,500 lbf) was pulsed with a
radially-oriented pulse gun (Fig. 10.3.1b ) during
"
(b) firings with two injectors . One injector had an
20 40 60 80 100 120 unlike triplet pattern while the other had a
Time millisec
relatively slow-burning fuel showerhead, oxidizer
(a) Effect of variation in charge weight and burst doublet pattern designed for gelled fuel applica-
diaphragm combinations. tion (gel injector) . Three flush-mounted Photocon
(b) Effect of variation in initial chamber pressure (with 30- pressure transducers were located near the pulse
grain powder charges and 10,000-psi burst diaphragms) . gun muzzle ; their centers were 15, 30, and 45
FIGURE 10.3.3b .- Pressure amplitude time history of first
degrees, respectively, from the gun's axis.
tangential spinning wave produced by pulses introduced
into a nitrogen-filled , 9-inch-diameter, cylindrical Values of the average pressure along the wave
chamber at 1 atmosphere . front divided by the initial steady-state pressure
200
oscillating
amplitude
pressure
Initial
180
)-t( oeak
psi
p
160
140
120
100
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6
Mixture ratio , O/ F
FIGURE 10.3.3d . — Variation of initial pressure amplitude of the spinning first tangential mode with mixture ratio when
pulses are fired into an oxygen-alcohol rocket motor (45-grain powder charges and 20,000-psi burst diaphragms) .
(Pms/P1 ) were calculated directly from the hot- This may be an indication that droplet dis-
firing data by use of the Kuluva method . 167 The integration is a tremendous momentum sink .
effective distances, xo, from the points of measure- Before the waves have propagated more than
ment on the wave front to the pulse gun exit along about 2 inches ( effective ) into the chamber ,
the axis 0 = 0 were obtained from geometrical combustion reinforcement controls the response.
considerations . Comparisons between the semi- The combustor , propellants and operating
analytical predictions and the hot-firing data are conditions for the triplet tests were the same as
shownin Fig. 10.3.3e for the radial pulse guns with those bomb test results that were discussed in
both injectors using RDX high-explosive charges Sect . 10.2.2.4. There the scaled-blast correlation
(little difference was seen between the HB and appeared to be valid for about 4 to 5 inches from
RDX explosives) . It is evident that there is almost bombs before combustion-augmented amplifica-
no comparison between the cold-flow results and tion was experienced . The apparent disparity of an
the experimental hot firings. The presence of ideal gas correlation being valid for bombs , but
rapidly occurring combustion reinforcement of not for pulse guns, is related to the disturbance
the shock wave in the chamber is most pro- locations . The centers of the bomb charges were
nounced, especially in the case of the gel injector. 4 to 5 inches from the injector, whereas the pulse
In general, it appears that the initial shock wave, guns were only 2 inches fromthe injector. Although
as it enters the chamber, is attenuated much more comparable tests were not made, it is expected
rapidly than is predicted by the semianalytical that pulse gun disturbances introduced further
correlation. A suggested mechanism for this downstream would behave as predicted . Rigorous ,
effect is rapid conversion of shock overpressure detailed analyses of the pressure wave interaction
momentum to propellant spray momentum. A with the sprays and combustion processes could
curious observation is that, with the triplet give improved predictions but fully developed
injector, shocks from charges of 10 to 80 grains models are not now available.
were attenuated to about the same amplitudes The ordering of the data points in Fig. 10.3.30
before combustion augmentation became effective . suggests that the wave penetration distance ,
20
Curves from ideal shock expansion theory .
Data from N2 04 /A- 50 test at 150 psia Pc
10
Solid symbols ; gel injector
Open symbols ; triplet injector
5 gr charge O 5 gr charge
10 gr charge Δ 10 gr charge
20 gr charge 40 gr charge
Pressure
40 gr charge 80 gr charge
ratio
DX
80 gr
40
2
20
DO
10
D04
문
5
O
2 3 4 5 6 7
Distance , Xo- inches
FIGURE 10.3.3e.-Pressure ratio versus distance for spherical expansion of a pulse gun shock-comparison between theo-
retical predictions and hot firings with RDX explosive.
before reinforcement became effective , was appre- bustion chamber with only an access hole for the
ciably shorter for the gel injector than for the barrel, more than one gun can generally be
triplet . Furthermore , with the gel injector , the mounted on the chamber. As many as five pulse
attenuation apparently did not persist long guns have been successfully employed on an eight-
enough to accomplish as much degradation of the inch-diameter chamber to produce multiple per-
higher amplitude shocks as occurred with the turbations in graduated charge sizes during a
triplet. single firing.
Along with the operational advantages of pulse
10.3.4 Application to Combustors
guns listed above is the disadvantage that they
There are several design and operational normally cannot be used with prototype com-
features of pulse guns which have made their bustion chambers . As discussed in Sect . 9.2.1 it is
application popular as a stability rating device. often necessary to perform final stability evalua-
Among these are the ability to utilize more than tion tests in an actual prototype engine. This can
one pulse on a single test firing, easy access for often be done by mounting an explosive bomb
reloading between firings, no obstruction to the from the injector but it cannot be done with a
gas flow characteristics within the engine, and pulse gun.
reduced hazard of shrapnel damage. Since the The barrel of a pulse gun is threaded near the
pulse gun is mounted on the outside of the com- exit end and equipped with an O-ring or crush seal
to permit mounting in an adapter on the com- time, a first longitudinal oscillation will begin to
bustion chamber wall . Only sufficient barrel emerge from the remainder of the decaying
length is provided to permit access to the breech
. oscillations . With time, this longitudinal mode
while the gun is mounted on the chamber. The instability will grow to some limit cycle amplitude
chamber adapter is normally designed such that which will persist throughout the duration of
the gun barrel, when mounted , is directed either the test.
tangentially or radially into the combustion The use of multiple pulse guns permits per-
chamber. turbing the combustion process at different
The radially-oriented pulse gun has been used locations or with different charge sizes during the
as a stability rating device during some develop- same test . The normal procedure is to time the
ment programs but it has been found to offer no actuation of the various pulses to permit at least
advantages over the tangentially-oriented pulse a 100-millisecond interval for the combustion
gun. Because of the similarity between the results. process to return to normal or for an instability .
obtained by either orientation and the greater to develop fully prior to a subsequent perturbation.
quantity of experience gathered with the tangen- Although both the bomb ring and machine-gun
tially-oriented gun, the radial gun appears to be rating techniques have been easily adapted to
losing popularity. For this reason the following research-type combustors, some doubt exists in
discussion of the application of pulse guns will be adapting such devices to flight-type engines. Due
directed toward the tangential pulse gun but much to the inherent design of such engines, i.e. , cham-
of the discussion is applicable to either. ber geometry, strength of materials, regenerative
The tangentially-oriented pulse gun has a cooling, etc. , the placement of a heavy, multiport
tendency to excite the first tangential spinning ring around the thrust chamber may be im-
mode of resonant instability. However, all of the possible . In this respect, the single-port injection.
basic types of resonant and feed system coupled used with the machine gun would be more easily
instabilities have been excited in this manner . adopted . Besides the previously mentioned ad-
The predisposition for the first transverse spinning vantages of the machine gun in regard to the
mode can be explained by the characteristics of the measurement of quantitative data (Sect . 10.3.3 ) ,
pulse gun as discussed in Sect . 10.3.2.3. this technique is more economical to operate while
The initial shock wave is reflected from the providing finer charge graduations. Down time.
chamber walls and injector at varying times and between runs would also be shortened , since the
angles, resulting in multiple , reflected waves link belt contains enough cartridges for several
being propagated through the cavity. As the runs.
propellant sprays stored in the chamber are then The pulse gun is commonly used on rocket
burned at a higher rate , a rise in the mean chamber engine development programs as a stability rating
pressure occurs . This pressure rise is sufficiently device . It is also widely used on applied research
prolonged to affect the flow through the injector and technology programs to initiate instabilities
orifices and thus may initiate a low frequency and to obtain a measure of instability damping
oscillation. It has been observed that this complex characteristics . Recently, when it has been used on
mixture of high and low frequency oscillations can engine development programs it has been used in
excite any mode of instability to which the engine conjunction with the explosive bomb . On a typical
is susceptible. development program two or more tangential
If the engine has a high stability margin for the pulse guns would be used in conjunction with a
first tangential mode but a low margin for the single explosive bomb on all heat sink chamber
first longitudinal mode, for example , the pressure .
pulse tests to screen various injector design
traces from the test will typically record a few variations. The pulse gun perturbations may be
cycles of a clearly-defined first transverse spinning actuated either before or after the explosive bomb.
mode superimposed on a complex mixture of low This technique provides a wider variety and
and high frequency oscillations . This tangential greater quantity of perturbation data on the
mode will be spinning in the direction the gun was candidate injectors than with the bomb alone in
aimed and will be rapidly attenuated . At the same the same number of tests. This procedure provides
a higher probability of success when the one or been found to be an effective means of initiating
two best injectors are selected for testing with acoustic instabilities in rocket combustion cham-
prototype chambers where only the explosive bers. Stability rating with this method consists of
bomb can be used. measuring some characteristic parameter asso-
For either development or applied research ciated with the flow, such as the gas stream
testing the tangential pulse guns are typically weight flowrate or momentum flux at the instant
mounted on a heat-sink combustion chamber in a of onset of the instability . Directed gas flows are
single axial plane approximately two inches down- not as widely used as bombs and pulse guns,
stream from the injector face . Although referred principally because not all combustion systems
to as a tangential pulse gun, the barrel is not are susceptible to instability triggering by them ,
typically directed tangent to the inside surface of they are less directly associable with natural
the combustor wall. * Rather it is normally directed instability triggers, and a moderately extensive
tangent to an imaginary circle typically two gas supply facility is required . In situations to
inches inside the chamber wall. If the chamber is which it is applicable, however, this technique has
sufficiently large to accommodate the desired some very strong advantages in minimization of
number of pulse guns and high frequency pressure test requirements and in reproducibility .
transducers in the same axial plane, it is desirable Inert gases (nitrogen and helium) have been
to do so . This will provide the most accurate used most often, in which case the directed gas
measure of the perturbation characteristics intro- flow apparently provides primarily a displacement
duced by the pulse . If this is not practical, several and velocity disturbance . The technique must
transducers are placed circumferentially in a plane then affect the velocity-sensitive combustion
as close to the pulse gun plane as possible . Also , mechanisms of atomization, spray mixing and
additional transducers are desirable at various spray evaporation. In general, the mechanisms
longitudinal locations to permit resonant in- whereby a finite amplitude pressure wave results
stability mode identification . A more detailed from displacement disturbance of steady-state
discussion of the mounting of transducers and combustion are not understood at present .
interpretation of test data is found in Chapter 9 . High-speed motion photography of inert gas
It should be noted that although the pulse gun flows disturbing LOX/ethanol combustion424 some-
charge is located external to the combustor, the times showed very appreciable displacement of
time of actuation must be reasonably early in at the propellant sprays for relatively long times
test. Depending upon the operating pressures and before any pressure wave growth was evident ( if
temperatures of the engine the actuation may be it ever occurred) and , at other times, showed no
as late as five to seven seconds after ignition. If apparent effects prior to an abrupt onset of
actuation is delayed too long radiant and con- instability . Some limited investigations using both
ductive heat effects may deteriorate the explosive oxidizer and fuel gases161 have shown that reactive.
charge. gases may give different ratings than inert gases .
A word of caution should be given when using
pulse guns , particularly multi-gun arrangements . 10.4.1 Typical Designs
Since there is a definite cavity volume involved
even prior to firing, and an even greater volume Several types of gas flow control systems have
after firing, these volumes may aid damping . This been used. Each contains elements for limiting
is important to keep in mind for marginal systems the magnitude of the maximum flowrate (e.g.
(see Sect. 10.7.2.6 ) . source pressure regulation) and for controlling
the rate of variation of flowrate (e.g. a flow control
10.4 DIRECTED GAS FLOWst valve) . The simplest method of control provides
for rapid activation of a simple shutoff valve to
The injection of directed flows of gases into the
effect a more or less impulsive establishment of a
propellant spray combustion region has sometimes
constant flowrate. In an extreme application, the
* This is the chordal orientation of Fig. 10.4.2b. valve may be opened rapidly enough that a weak
† L. P. Combs and M. F. Heidmann, Authors. shock wave attends the onset of gas injection into
the combustor. This constant flow approach 10.4.1 . The flow valve is instrumented with a
provides a single data point for each rocket engine linear motion transducer for sensing valve stem
firing so that multiple firings and staircase testing. position which is the primary control variable.
techniques are required. Preprogrammed control of the gas flowrate is
A more productive flow control approach uses accomplished by scheduling the desired valve.
slow actuation of a linear or proportioning flow position as a function of time. Here, a servosystem
control valve, so that the gas flowrate increases is used to compare the actual valve position with
gradually in a well-controlled and reproducible the desired position and drive the valve stem in
manner. Most often, linear variation of flowrate the proper direction to reduce the difference
with time has been sought but the controls may be between them. This method of control requires a
tailored to give a desired variation of some other prior calibration of gas flowrate versus valve
parameter, e.g. , linear variation of momentum position. Full servo control, based on measured
flux with time has been used.540 In this way, a gas flowrate, has also been used , 163
wide range of an appropriate flow parameter may Other typical gas supply systems for stability
be covered in a single engine test . If the variations rating have differed from this one in respect to
are slow enough, the magnitude of the flow param- (1 ) scale (the size of lines used, surge volumes
eter at the instant of instability initiation provides and magnitude of flowrate) ( 2) metering system
a direct quantitative indication of relative sta- (some have used venturi meters ) , (3 ) valve design
bility . Potentially, a stability rating may be and actuation (butterfly valves, plug valves with
obtained from each test firing in which an in- various opening versus travel characteristics ,
stability is initiated . quick opening and linear travel rates) , and (4 )
A schematic diagram of a gas flow supply connecting tube design, as discussed in the next
system reported in Ref. 163 is shown in Figure section.
Helium supply Nitrogen supply
Hand
shutoff
valves
M
Hydraulic pump
Pressure Filter
regulator
Hydraulic
cylinder
Servo valve
Combustor
T HAP T
Surge volume Orifice Control Connecting

meter valve tube
(A bank of gas cylinders )
FIGURE 10.4.1 .-Supply system for directed gas flows.

10.4.2 Effects of Design Variables flow at the instant of initiation will be only slightly
greater than the earlier, effective flowrate . A
Many gas flow system design variables , e.g. ,
supply pressure, supply volume, line sizes, system determination of how rapidly the flowrate may be
pressure drop and surge volume, do not ordinarily varied without influencing the rating should
affect the stability ratings directly, but only probably be included in each engine application
indirectly as reflected by their effects on the of this rating method. *
The connecting tube design can also affect the
maximum attainable gas flowrates and the
rating results greatly. Increasing the diameter of
permissible rates of change of flowrates.
A major effective design variable is the choice of a cylindrical tube requires higher gas flowrates .
an impulsively initiated constant flowrate or a For impulsively started , constant flowrate gas
flows, the effect may be approximated , as noted
slowly and continuously varying flowrate. It has
been noted that the former approach requires earlier, by assuming constant momentum flux.
For continuously varying flows, it has been found
.
multiple tests to attain a single rating and so is
that tube diameter and shape effects may be
at a relative disadvantage. With that approach,
however, variations of connecting tube diameter approximated roughly by⁹
and pulse gas resulted in ratings which indicated. Wgas gas
= ( 10.4-1 )
that the effective rating flow parameter is the Ac)
(
~~ t - (Act
- )2
pulse gas momentum flux (wV/ge) entering the
combustor.161 The continuously varying flows Connecting tubes with rectangular cross-
have sometimes failed to corroborate this indica- sections may provide more valid ratings than
tion or to delineate any other fundamental circular cylindrical tubes with comparable cross-
correlating parameter.540,161 sectional area, particularly if the combustion field
Another effect observed with constant flowrate contains a discrete position of maximum sensi-
rating tests is that a highly variable time delay tivity. It has been found that a connecting tube
from initiation of the gas flow to actual onset of having a long rectangular slot spanning the zone.
instability almost invariably occurs* even though of maximum sensitivity produces ratings which
the gas flow magnitudes required to initiate. compare well with those from small ( less than
instability are quite reproducible . It has been 0.5-inch diameter) circular cylindrical connecting
suggested that this may be the result of a dis- tubes located at the point of greatest sensitivity.386
tribution in time of the combustion processes' An example is shown schematically in Fig . 10.4.2a
sensitivity to disturbances , with the most sensitive for a number of ratings obtained with a particular
conditions occurring relatively infrequently. Then injector and fixed operating conditions (the throat
the constant gas flow rating might correspond of the exhaust nozzle was 28 inches from the
with the highest value of sensitivity which injector) . When rating different injectors, whose
occurred as frequently as the time duration of the zones of maximum sensitivity may lie at different
pulse ; the next occurrence of a sensitivity of that distances from their faces , a rectangular slot
magnitude or higher might take place soon after connecting tube should be much preferred to any
the flow is started or much later.161 which affect only a small local region.
It is conceivable, then, that the appearance of The connecting tubes are customarily oriented .
instability with a constant varying gas flow dis- with their axes contained in a plane normal to the
turbance is really the result of an earlier flow than combustor's axis . For cylindrical or annular
that metered at the time of initiation.540 If the combustion chambers, a tangential or chordal
rate of change of flowrate is small, the metered entry direction is usually preferred ( Fig. 10.4.2b) ;
enhanced sensitivity to initiation of spinning or
* An exception was noted in gas flow ratings of the
Redstone engine. In those tests which experienced in-
stability, it was initiated within 10 milliseconds of the * In an extensive series of rating tests, a linear ramp
pulse entry into the combustor. This apparently was flowrate of nitrogen was injected into a 150,000 lb thrust
caused by the control valve opening so fast that the flow combustor through a 0.50-inch diameter connecting tube
initiation coalesced into a shock wave within the con- with ramp slopes of 6 + 1 lb/sec². For one set of conditions ,
necting tube.160 doubling the slope did not alter the rating obtained.
Region with no propellant injection
All connecting tubes,circular cylinders,

except rectangular one noted
instability
bob
Nitrogen
flow
Act
Tangential Chordal Extended tube

/at
,w
FIGURE 10.4.2b . -Typical gas flow connecting tube

orientations.
1 1/2"x5/8" rectangular slot

varied components ( injectors and chamber con-
traction ratios ) , operating conditions (mixture
ratio and chamber pressure) , and propellant
combinations. Gas species used have included
nitrogen, helium, oxygen and methane.
Directed gas flowrating was used to evaluate
the stability of seventeen different hydrocarbon
fuels in a barrel combustion chamber-a large
2 diameter, low thrust combustor having pro-
Distance from injector , inches
pellant injection concentrated along a circle of
about the chamber radius. Individual propellant
FIGURE 10.4.2a.-Comparison of stability rating for
stability ratings varied over a range of about 6 : 1
various connecting tube cross-sections.
in flowrate. However, when some of these pro-
pellants were rated by the same technique in a
traveling tangential modes is expected. In some two-dimensional research combustor and in a
cases , tangential orientation has been found to
150,000 lb thrust engine, no differences among
give more reproducible ratings than radial them were found in either engine.425
orientation. In some applications where there has
When gas flows of nitrogen, methane and oxygen
been an appreciable injection-free space between were used to rate the stability of LOX/ethanol
the chamber wall and the nearest propellant
propellants , considerably lower flowrates of oxygen
injection, the connecting tube has been extended were required to initiate instability than of either
into the combustion chamber (Fig. 10.4.2b) . nitrogen or methane. That observation was inter-
Greater sensitivity (or lower required flowrates) preted as supporting a displacement mechanism of
resulted , but the ratings were extremely sensitive sustaining instability,76 wherein displacement of
to erosion or distortion of the extension ; unless
mostly vaporized oxygen spray into fuel sprays
damage can be completely prevented, this ap- results in considerably greater transient energy
proach should not be used.
release than does displacement of fuel spray into
an oxygen rich region (see Sect . 3.3 ) .
10.4.3 Applications
Experimental rating data on 150,000 lb thrust
A majority of applications for directed gas flow combustors led, in 1961 , to a hypothesis that the
stability rating that can be cited were conducted steady-state combustion rate in the neighborhood
several years ago and primarily with liquid of the injector is limited by interspray propellant
oxygen/hydrocarbon propellant combinations . In mixing rates. Gas flowratings were taken as
addition to research-scale barrel and two-dimen- indications of how relatively easy or difficult it is
sional combustors , full-scale engine evaluations to accomplish additional forced transient mixing.
have been obtained or attempted on Redstone , 160 A geometric representation of the interspray
Atlas-type 150K,9 X- 15457 and Transtage729 engines. mixing was formulated, and all parameters
Comparative ratings have been obtained with thought to influence that mixing were tabulated.
An empirical evaluation of influence coefficients 201

was conducted, and a single stability factor was
defined that proved to be capable of correlating
Directed
gas flowrating data ( Fig. 10.4.3a ) .386 Stability
rating
/s,lflow
gas
5
N₂ bec
ratings having a range of about four to one are
seen to be quite well correlated . While this
correlation approach was considered to be success-
ful, it was developed at the same time that
e
g
combustion chamber baffles were found to offer
d
10
a
the possibility of achieving dynamic stability.
B
As a result, this approach has not been carried to
the point of predicting the stability of other
unbaffled injector designs and extending the range
5
of correlation.
Directed gas flows have recently been found to
be ineffective for initiation of instability with
N2O4/A- 50 propellants in full-scale engines.163,729
Photographic evidence of strong transverse flow
displacements and formation of a large circulating
Combustion stability factor
eddy near the injector with no attendant chamber
pressure disturbances indicate that combustion of
this propellant combination is insensitive to FIGURE 10.4.3a.-Gas flow stability rating correlated to
stability factor calculated from mixing considerations.
"steady" transverse flow velocity effects .
A tangentially directed gas flow has been
successful in two-dimensional circular combustor and alignment angle affected the stability limit
*
experiments. The configuration is shown in Fig. flowrates inversely to the effect of such variables
10.4.3b. The gas, usually nitrogen , was injected on the tangential momentum of the gas jet .
from a tangentially aligned orifice at the circum- A stability rating with tangential gas flows for
ference of the combustor. Both steady and a range in total propellant flowrates338 is shown in
ramping flowrates were injected in amounts up to Fig. 10.4.3c . This rating was obtained using
about 20 percent of the total propellant flow gaseous hydrogen and liquid oxygen as propellants
rate. For each design or operating condition , a in the research combustor shown in Fig. 10.4.3b .
threshold flowrate could be established above The rating can be interpreted in various ways.
which the combustor exhibited traveling trans- For constant total propellant flowrates, stability
verse mode instability. Pressure amplitude varied is shown to improve at both very high and very
with flowrate above this threshold value in the low mixture ratios . A mixture ratio for minimum
region of linear instability. Above a certain stability exists for any value of total flowrate .
amplitude and flowrate the instability for some Tangential flowrating was also used to evaluate
propellant combinations became independent of the effectiveness of particulate damping on the
the tangential gas injection indicating a nonlinear stability of this combustor at a fixed value of
stability limit . The flowrates establishing these propellant flowrates.342 In these tests the tangen-
linear and nonlinear limits were used as indices of tially injected gas, containing a constant mass
the degree of stability. fraction of aluminum particles, was ramped to
With tangential gas flowrating of research relatively large values . Such increases in gas flow
combustors , the parameters affecting the tan- increased the fraction of aluminum particles in
gential momentum of the gas jet appeared the combustion gases and affected the amplitude
important.334 Jet area, total pressure , gas density of pressure oscillations as shown by the solid line
in Fig. 10.4.3d . The dashed lines represent an
* A pancake-shaped combustor see Refs. 337, 335, 334, interpretation of this effect . The slope of the
338, 342. dashed lines was predetermined in tests without
Hydrogen
Camera
Injector ring
Red filter
Oxygen
Condensing lens
Light source
FIGURE 10.4.3b .-Two dimensional circular combustor and photographic arrangement .
aluminum addition . Assuming this slope is main-

tained for constant fractions of aluminum addi-
Stable
Nitrogen flow rate , lb/sec tion, as was done in constructing Fig. 10.4.3d ,
Unstable
particulate damping is shown to be effective in
improving linear stability limits .
sOxygen
1.0
flow
,lec
b
10.5 FEED SYSTEM PERTURBATION *

/
.8 .222
Stability rating by introduction of disturbances
.6 directly into the combustion chamber has been
discussed in the preceding three sections. A differ-
.112 ent stability rating technique, indirect disruption
.4 of the propellant combustion processes by per-
turbing one of the propellant feed systems, is the
.055
subject of this section.
.029 As noted in Sect . 10.1.2.2, feed system per-
turbations are sometimes capable of initiating the
combustion chamber acoustic modes of insta-
.2
.05 .I .2 .3 bility but are primarily of interest for evaluating
Hydrogen flow , lb/sec stability to the low and intermediate frequency ,
FIGURE 10.4.3c. -Stability boundaries in two-dimensional

circular combustor. * D. Fairchild and J. Vincent, Authors.
.20
No aluminum
/c
.16
P -kkP
amplitude
Pressure A
(
)
p
.12- .05 %
(
aluminum
.08 .04
-1-.03
.02
.04-
.01
4 8 12 16 20
Jet impulse , F/WT , sec
FIGURE 10.4.3d.-Indicated stability rating for aluminum addition.
feed-system coupled modes. Two distinctly dif- large injection rate (and , as a result , burning rate)
ferent approaches have been used : pulsers, to fluctuations . Design and installation must be
provide single, short duration pressure pulses of engineered carefully to avoid gross attenuation of
moderate to very high amplitude ; and sirens, to pressure disturbances before they reach the
provide continuous feed system pressure oscil- injection orifices. Such attenuation can result from
lations of only moderate amplitudes. Ideally, the locating the device far from the injector ( or
output of the pulser approaches a unit impulse or upstream of propellant valves, filter, etc. ) , from
Dirac delta function, which is capable of exciting having high feed system capacitance (e.g. ,
all frequencies, so that any inherent instability flexible manifolds , expansion joints or trapped gas
can conceivably be initiated by a single pulse . pockets ) or from tortuous injector passages .
The output of the siren, on the other hand, is
often nearly sinusoidal so that excitation is 10.5.1 Siren (Continuous Oscillations)
limited to a fairly narrow frequency band near the
siren's operating frequency ( and , of course , to Several siren designs have been used.605,182,469,15
harmonic multiples ) . Thus, in principle, the siren One design approach is the sinusoidal displace-
is best suited for evaluating stability of a particular ment of a piston in the wall of a propellant line.
known mode while the pulser may more readily This has been used in model motor firing experi-
reveal whether any mode of instability is likely ments182 for measuring the combustion time delay
to be encountered . and interaction index as functions of frequency.
Whether or not meaningful results are obtained With bi-propellant combustion , both the fuel and
with either device depends critically upon its oxidizer systems were perturbed simultaneously
being positioned properly to achieve sufficiently with mechanically-coupled piston displacements.
Another design approach is the intermittent Variances in average bleedoff flows are accom-
release of a quantity of propellant from a feed- plished by adjusting the gate position to vary the
system by installing a siren in a bleedoff line. slot area.
Extensive stability rating experiments605 employed The siren was developed to explore the sensi-
a siren integrally designed around a section of tivity of the combustion process to continuous
feed line with a rotating cylindrical sleeve alter- feed-system disturbances, and to determine the
nately opening and closing perforations in the dynamic response characteristics of the feed
feed line wall. Experimental results from tests systems. Designed for use with nitrogen tetroxide,
with the siren in either the fuel or oxidizer system the siren was evaluated in the laboratory with
gave quantitative pressure oscillation amplitude water. For example, while 169 lb/sec of water was
and phase relationships throughout a research- flowed through a pressure-instrumented , calibrated
scale combustor system. A more recent series of line, the rotor was driven at 600 RPM to achieve
tests15 using a siren for bleedoff oscillations is the an oscillation frequency of 200 Hz . Amplitudes in
subject of the remaining discussion of sirens. excess of 200 psi peak-to-peak were experienced
The siren was designed to vary the bleedoff with a fairly sinusoidal wave shape. The physical
flows from 0 to 20 lb/sec by opening and closing vibration of the siren was excessive, however, and
two diametrically opposed inlet slots . A rotor with structural failure resulted in a weld on one of the
20 slot openings matching the inlet slots is inlet elbows. No further testing has been at-
supported on two sets of matched radial ball tempted .
bearings and is rotated inside the siren housing by The chosen bleedoff siren concept is completely
a motor-driven protruding shaft, Fig. 10.5.1 . feasible as a feed system continuous pulse method .
Linear potentiometer Inlet
Rotor in "open"
position
Rotor.
Driver shaft
fotol Totor
Outlet
Rotor in
"closed"position
Flow control gate
FIGURE 10.5.1 .-Cross-section of siren for continuous perturbation of propellant feed system.
The cyclic pressure amplitude can be adjusted to the hammer to be driven along the cylinder ; ( 3 )
meet a typical test requirement (e.g. exceed 25 before contacting the stop, the hammer strikes
psi ) yet avoid excessive vibration loads at high the piston which has been positioned for the
amplitudes . The adjustment can be made by collision by system back pressure ; (4) following
removing part of the obstruction that prevents a the momentum exchange, the piston travels
tangential flow direction between the rotor and through a stroke adjustable from 0.100 to 0.200
the housing to the adjacent slots in the rotor when inch before wedging into the piston housing ; (5 )
the rotor is in a "closed" position . With this the resulting compression of the liquid generates a
alteration, flow is never fully obstructed , only the high-energy, short-duration pressure pulse.
direction of the flow is varied . The explosive pulse generator was designed with
the intent of rating the stability of a 165,000-
10.5.2 Pulser (Single Pulse Generator) pound thrust engine with a nominal chamber
pressure of 600 psi.712 The engine, at that time ,
A classical method of determining the dynamic. utilized an injector configuration which was not
characteristics of a linear system is to measure its dynamically stable (conclusively demonstrated
response to an impulse which , in principle , excites during an extensive bomb test program) . Chamber
equally all frequencies of the system under test. baffles were successful in suppressing the acoustic
In practice , of course, unit impulse functions modes of the engine when bombed ; however , a
cannot be obtained . If, however, a pulse function mode in the 200 cps region was consistently
(finite amplitude and rise time ) can be generated triggered . The propellants for that engine were
which has the same amplitude and phase char- liquid oxygen and RP- 1 . Program objectives were
acteristics as the impulse function in a limited to demonstrate that a pressure pulse in the feed
frequency band, then the two functions are system would induce the same instability observed
identical in that band. in the bomb test series, and to determine the
To produce a steep-fronted , high-energy pres- optimum pulse input location. During the course
sure wave in the propellant feed system of a rocket of the test program , three pulser locations were
engine, the impact of a high-velocity "hammer" evaluated : ( 1 ) tangential entry into the fuel
upon an "anvil" piston (in contact with the injection manifold , (2) radial entry into the fuel
propellant ) is used . By proper adjustment of the injection manifold , and ( 3 ) on the oxidizer dome
mass ratio between hammer and piston, a velocity (manifold) . The 200 Hz mode of instability was
amplification can be transmitted to the piston successfully triggered repeatedly by pressure
which results in greater pulse amplitudes than pulses in the fuel injection manifold . Peak ampli-
would be achieved from using only the hammer tudes of the pulses were varied between 10,000
portion of the device. Pulse characteristics can be and 15,000 psi when measured at the interface
adjusted with appropriate design of the apparatus. between the pulser and the fuel injection manifold .
Two designs are described below, one using Pulses of less than 10,000 psi did not result in
explosive actuation712 and another using gas sustained instability. Rise times for these pulses
pressure actuation.15 The explosive pulser is averaged approximately 70 microseconds and
illustrated in Fig . 10.5.2a. In the explosive design , total durations were 150 to 200 microseconds .
shear pins of different materials, employed to Some differences were observed between the
retain the hammer until predetermined driving
tangential and radial pulser locations. Both
pressures are reached, provide a means of altering positions were used to induce instability ; however,
pulse amplitudes . Piston travel is varied by using
the tangential location often resulted in a stronger
spacers of selected sizes which control the duration
chamber pressure disturbance than did the radial
of the generated pulse . Its method of operation is
position. The radial position failed on one occasion.
(1 ) an explosive charge mounted in the hammer
to generate a measurable disturbance when the
housing cover plate (and contained within the
hammer cavity) is ignited by an electrical signal ; injector was inadvertently rotated during as-
(2) when the burning charge generates sufficient sembly such that a chamber baffle was aligned
pressure, the hammer-holding pins fail, permitting with the pulser. The absence of a direct path to
Hammer cylinder cover plate

Piston stop
Piston Retainer
Spacer
Piston housing
Stop
Hammer
Hammer housing
FIGURE 10.5.2a .-Linear system block diagram.
the combustion chamber in this instance was pressure-actuated , retractable trigger. Gas pres-
enough to critically attenuate the pulse. sure (up to 1000 psig) is stored in the dome to
The LOX dome mounted pulser did not produce control the amplitude, and the cavity between the
any detectable disturbance either in oxidizer two pistons is evacuated . When the trigger is
injection pressure or chamber pressure during the disengaged, the hammer is driven against the
tests . It is undetermined whether the compressi- anvil , thus transferring energy to the anvil
bility of the propellant or improper bleeding through impact . The anvil then transfers the
procedures was to blame. Since the engine was impact energy to the fluid , producing the required
tested in a vertical attitude, the pulser could not pulse . The Belleville washers act as shock ab-
be oriented to completely eliminate the possibility sorbers to limit the travel of the anvil.
of a gas bubble at the piston face. The pneumatic , single-pulse generator was
Subsequent tests with this device were con- developed to evaluate the dynamic response and
ducted on the same engine but with an injector coupling characteristics of the feed , injector, and
type which had been demonstrated to be dynami- combustion systems . For the fuel system, the
cally stable. No instabilities were triggered pulser was installed on the feed line between the
during the remainder of the program and pulse pump and the thrust chamber valve ; some cases
induced disturbances were of such low mag- were run with the pulser mounted on a fuel
nitudes as to be virtually undetectable in chamber injection pressure tap . On the oxidizer circuit, the
pressure data . pulser was mounted directly on the oxidizer
The second design, the pneumatic single pulse injector dome.
generator (shown in Fig. 10.5.2b) , was developed Calibration tests of the pneumatic pulser were
to induce a pressure pulse with an overpressure conducted with a simulated engine and water
20 per cent greater than the static pressure in the flowing at rated flows. For the fuel system, the
propellant at the point of pulse generation . The pulse pressure was measured at the chamber inlet,
design locks the hammer in position with a nearly two feet down-stream of the pulser . For
Vent port
Belleville washers
Micro -switch
Hammer Anvil piston

Dome piston Trigger
FIGURE 10.5.2b. -Pulse function .
the oxidizer system, the pulse pressure was Hydralab pulser calibration
300
amplitude
measured adjacent to the mount on the injector

Fuel
,pPulse
dome . Fig. 10.5.2c depicts the measured pressure

si
for pulser dome pressures up to 1000 psig. When --

200
the fuel pulser was mounted on a 1-inch pressure
Oxidizer
tap at the injector inlet , pulse amplitudes less
Pulse press @ oxid . inj. dome
than 10 psi were measured in the manifold w = 167 lb/sec
100
adjacent to the pulser. Pulse press chamber inlet
OW = 114 lb /sec
The calibration tests showed that pulser dome
pressure of 500 psi would meet the pulse amplitude
requirements for both propellant circuits . In 200 400 600 800 1000
subsequent engine tests the pulser perturbed the Pulser dome pressure , psig
fuel system with a 326 psi pulse and associated
820,000 psi/sec pressure rise rate . The oxidizer FIGURE 10.5.2c .-Amplitude and phase characteristics of
unit produced a 360 psi pulse with a 3,500,000 unit impulse function.
psi/sec pressure rise rate . The measured dis-
turbances in each feed system are pictured in psi disturbance was transmitted to the combustion
Fig. 10.5.2d . As in the calibration tests , the fuel as a result of the oxidizer pulse. No instabilities
system pressure disturbance was measured both at were generated ; however, the pulsers were used
the chamber inlet (regeneratively cooled, two-pass only on systems with demonstrated, dynamically
system ) and at the injector inlet . The pulse stable injectors . (Dynamic stability had pre-
amplitude and rise rate criteria were met at the viously been demonstrated with 220 grain, non-
chamber inlet . The oxidizer system disturbance directed pulse charges mounted in the combustion
that is illustrated was also measured at the in- chamber. )
jector inlet . The oscillations created in the feed In summary, it would appear that the principal
system due to the single pulses were attenuated role of the feed system pulse generators is in the
within 12 milliseconds. The fuel pulse caused no evaluation of the feed system itself. Since the
perturbation in the combustion pressure, but a 30 present trend in engine development is to use
+352 psi
Oxidizer injector
inlet pressure
10 ms
Time code
при
10 ms
362 psi T
Chamber coolant (fuel )
inlet pressure ‫پسر‬
11 p
Fuel injector inlet pressure 7 siT
Time code
m
при
FIGURE 10.5.2d . —Theoretical pressure time characteristics of pulse generator output.
dynamically stable injectors, which have yet to be either simulate natural disturbances or produce
driven unstable via feed system pulsing, only the oscillations within a combustor. Factors such as
exceptional situation where other rating methods damping rate, disturbance duration , amplitude,
cannot be employed would encourage further feed etc. , serve as measures for determining the margin
system pulsing as a means of injector stability of stability. In this section another stability-limit
evaluation. concept is discussed , namely, alteration of com-
Within the feed system the pulse data can be bustor environment. Techniques include pro-
interpreted to define feed system transfer func- pellant change-of- state variations through
tions for frequencies below the fundamental temperature control, frequency variations through
transverse mode of the combustion chamber. alterations in the combustor dimensions, and
Data reduction techniques such as cross-correla- combustion changes through variations in mixture
tion, auto-correlation, and Fourier spectrum can. ratio , chamber pressure, etc. Such approaches
be used to describe the transfer functions . Further, have often been used in conjunction with the
the feed system resonance characteristics can be rating techniques previously discussed .
described by performing spectral analyses of the
pulse data, and the pulse attenuation can be 10.6.1 Liquid Hydrogen Temperature Ramping *
determined at discrete resonant frequencies using
filtered playbacks of the pulse data. For rocket engines burning the liquid oxygen/
liquid hydrogen (LOX/LH2) propellant com-
bination, the relative combustion stability
10.6 OTHER RATING TECHNIQUES
normally is rated by a somewhat unique tech-
In the previous sections of this chapter attention
has been concentrated on rating techniques which * D. E. Sokolowski, Author.
nique. The technique is to decrease the tempera- simultaneously increasing the liquid flow rate in
ture of the liquid hydrogen prior to being injected order to maintain a constant total flow rate, a
into the combustion chamber until acoustic mode rate of temperature reduction of as much as
combustion instability is initiated . Consequently, 25° R per second ( 12.9° K/sec) can be realized .
this technique is commonly called liquid hydrogen Liquid and gaseous hydrogen are mixed by
temperature ramping.5,719 The quantitative rating swirling the liquid into a gaseous stream of flow.
parameter is the hydrogen injection temperature The mixing section is in a manifold just upstream
when the transition from stable to unstable of the injector. This section is four feet ( 1.312 m)
combustion takes place. A stability boundary for long and has a volume of 1140 cubic inches
a specific combustor configuration may be (0.0187 cu m) . In Fig. 10.6.1a is shown a schematic
established by varying the operating conditions of the mixing section. Flow rates of gaseous
(such as, oxidant-fuel ratio or chamber pressure) hydrogen and liquid hydrogen to the mixer are
of the combustor between tests . By making a controlled by valves which are operated by
relative comparison of stability boundaries, dif- several electrohydraulic servosystems .
ferent combustor configurations then can be Operational parameters necessary for the servo-
evaluated. In general, the most stable configura- system include chamber pressure, flow tempera-
tion would have a stability boundary at low tures, and flow rates. In Fig. 10.6.1b is shown a
hydrogen injection temperatures. diagram of the propellant flow system and
Changing the temperature of the injected necessary test instrumentation types and loca-
hydrogen is accomplished by mixing warm tions to record the operational parameters . An
gaseous hydrogen with liquid hydrogen . Nor- oscillograph record of these parameters for a
mally, a test begins with specific flow rates of typical test is shown in Fig. 10.6.1c . In this
liquid hydrogen at 60° R ( 33.3 ° K) and gaseous example, combustion instability was initiated at
hydrogen at ambient temperature. By reducing a hydrogen injection temperature of 70° R.
the gas flow rate at a predetermined rate while Hydrogen injection temperature ramping is a
Liquid hydrogen
Swirler
Gaseous hydrogen
Cold hydrogen
gas to injector
FIGURE 10.6.1a.-Hydrogen temperature ramp mixing station.

(2)
Flowmeter
-Liquid-oxygen
T9 fire valve
Liquid- T2
oxygen
tank P15 T3
P7 P13 T8 T4
P14
P12
P6
Gaseous- Gaseous- Injector
P2 P1
hydrogen
10
hydrogen Mixer .3.25-in.

tank fire valve- P3 P5
(0.0826 m)
-135°
Liquid- P4 -4 in.
T10 hydrogen
fire valve- (0.1016 m)
P11 T6 Engine
P8
P9
T7
-Liquid-hydrogen tank
Pl Static chamber pressure ( injector face) , four- P14 Oxygen -injection differential pressure, four-
arm strain -gage transducer 1 arm strain -gage transducer
P2 Static chamber pressure ( injector face), four- P15 Oxygen -injection pressure, four -arm strain-
arm strain -gage transducer 2 gage transducer
P3 Dynamic chamber pressure, water -cooled quartz T1 Hydrogen -injector temperature, carbon resistor
pressure transducer 3 sensor probe 1
122
P4 Dynamic chamber pressure, water-cooled quartz T2 Hydrogen -injector temperature, carbon resistor
P5 Dynamic chamber pressure, water -cooled quartz T3 Hydrogen -injector temperature, carbon resistor
P6 Gaseous-hydrogen orifice differential pressure, T4 Hydrogen -injector temperature, carbon resistor
four-arm strain -gage transducer sensor probe 4
P7 Gaseous -hydrogen orifice pressure, four-arm T5 Hydrogen -mixer temperature, carbon resistor
strain -gage transducer sensor probe
P8 Liquid-hydrogen venturi differential pressure, T6 Liquid-hydrogen line temperature, carbon
four-arm strain -gage transducer resistor sensor probe
P9 Liquid-hydrogen venturi pressure, four-arm T7 Liquid-hydrogen venturi temperature, platinum
strain -gage transducer resistance thermometer
P10 Hydrogen -mixer pressure, four -arm strain- T8 Oxygen - injection temperature, copper -constantan
gage transducer thermocouple
P11 Liquid-hydrogen line pressure, four -arm T9 Oxygen flowmeter temperature, platinum
strain gage transducer resistance thermometer
P12 Hydrogen -injection differential pressure, T10 Gaseous-hydrogen orifice temperature, iron-
four-arm strain -gage transducer constantan thermocouple
P13 Hydrogen -injection pressure, four -arm strain-
gage transducer
FIGURE 10.6.1b.-Instrumentation diagram for hydrogen temperature ramping.

Hydrogen injection temperature with the J-2 production-type injector assembly.

This program demonstrated that liquid hydrogen
X70° temperature ramping of a large hydrogen-oxygen
High-frequency chamber pressure combustor is an accurate technique for the
determination of stability boundaries.
160 psi At present, no mechanism has been hypothesized
-300 psi
to fully explain how this rating technique causes
Static chamber pressure instability. However, from the evaluation of data
from research-type engines which were run over
Liquid oxygen a wide range of geometric variables and operating
flow rate conditions, a correlation was obtained which
Gaseous hydrogen
flow rate represents the stability boundary.716 The correla-
Liquid hy- tion is represented by the expression
drogen flow
rate 1/2 1/2
2де Дрн )
Run marker Wecr = Pox (Dox) 1.25
·()"
(10.6-1)
-2 -1 0 2 where
Time, sec
Арн hydrogen injection pressure drop
PH hydrogen density at injection
FIGURE 10.6.1c.-Oscillograph traces of typical resonant ροχ oxygen density at injection
combustion test illustrating the hydrogen temperature
Dox oxygen injection orifice diameter
ramping technique.
r oxidant-fuel ratio
For the range of variables investigated, Wer had a

valid and reliable technique for rating the relative
combustion stability of an engine . Although this constant value of 4.4 . At values ≥4.4 , combustion
was stable, whereas combustion was unstable at
technique has been used extensively at the NASA
values below 4.4 .
Lewis Research Center for evaluating research-
For purposes of comparing the hydrogen
type engines , it also has use in development
temperature ramping technique with the explosive
programs for flight-type engines. For example, in
rating technique,652 several tests have been con-
the J- 2 development program, this technique was
ducted using both techniques at the same time.
useful for selecting high performance and stable
injector configurations . The J-2 engine injector Results show that exploding a large explosive
utilizes a coaxial injection pattern with a tran- charge at a hydrogen injection temperature far
from the stability boundary produces only a small
spiration-cooled face plate. The development
program for this injector configuration included amplitude perturbation in chamber pressure.
an extensive test program in which the stability Repeating this at a temperature closer to the
characteristics of several coaxial injector element boundary results in a much larger amplitude and,
designs were determined over a range of pro- quite possibly , initiates combustion instability.
pellant flow rates and hydrogen injection tem- This seems to imply that a powerful damping
process exists at temperatures far from the
peratures. Injector variables evaluated included
boundary.
injection areas, hydrogen injection method and
location, oxygen injection with and without
10.6.2 Variable Frequency Testing *
"swirlers," and premix cup shape and length.
Analysis of data from these tests resulted in Another stability-limits testing technique has
stability maps for each injector configuration involved changing the resonant frequencies of
which then permitted reasonably accurate pre- combustion chambers through changes in the
diction of the stability limits over wide ranges of physical dimensions, while retaining the same
operating conditions. Repeatability of approxi- injectors and combustion patterns, and thus
mately one degree Rankine was commonly
observed over a wide range of operating conditions * D. T. Harrje, Author of Sects. 10.6.2 to 10.6.4.
preserving the associated characteristic com- 10.6.3 Mixture Ratio Alterations

bustion response. Two examples of this approach
Since the operating conditions of a given engine
are the variable length hardware used to alter
are customarily specified within narrow limits,
the longitudinal mode frequencies, 180,184,634,773
major variations in the combustion require
shown in Fig. 10.6.2a, and the variable sector
changes in the injector design itself. Much of
hardware designed to change the characteristic
Chapter 7 was devoted to that subject . However,
standing tangential mode frequencies184,187 (see
in the testing phase, variations in the mixture
Fig. 10.6.2b ) . Examples of the stability-limits
ratio are sometimes employed as a means of
data provided by such tests were given in Sects .
providing additional insight to the margin of
4.2.2.2 and 4.2.3.1 .
combustion instability safety of an individual
Another alternative might even include the use
injector design.
of chambers of several diameters which would
In the stability-limits testing described in
alter the frequencies associated with both radial
10.6.2, mixture ratio was the other variable
and tangential modes. However, a major dis-
which provided data on the combustion effects.
advantage of such a test program would be the
In general , it was found in those tests that
necessary changes in injection pattern and spacing.
improved linear combustion stability could be
In the two approaches previously mentioned no
achieved through such off-design mixture ratio.
changes were made in these parameters which are operation.180 However, the variation of mixture
so critical to the combustion behavior. The sector
ratio to alter the triggering level in nonlinear
motor did require portions of the injector face to stability-limit testing has also been found useful
be blocked off but injection density and element when testing the effect on stability of other
spacing were maintained . 187 parameters .
Hydraulic
jack
4 by 4 grid injector ( type IV )
Oxidizer
Pressure transducer ( 6 or more used )

Typical chamber sections
Nozzle
Fuel
Static pressure
taps (14 used )
Pulse gun located

at either nozzle
or injector end Lengths to 100"
with round adapter
FIGURE 10.6.2a. -Square motor assembly.

FIGURE 10.6.2b .-Sectionalized view of the variable-angle sector motor.
10.6.4 Pressure Level Changes which development programs face stability-limit

changes because of increased chamber pressure.
Still another variable that lends itself to
In such instances, changes in the injector have
stability-limits testing is chamber pressure. In
been necessary to maintain dynamic stability.
N2O4/A- 50 testing, for example, stability was
found to be more critical in the start transient
where only partial chamber pressure had been 10.7 COMPARISON OF RATING TECHNIQUES*
attained. " However, it must be stressed that only
10.7.1 Correlations Between Techniques
partial flow rates were present in those tests and
such marked injection differences plus the The several stability rating techniques described
associated alteration of feed system coupling were in the preceding sections of this chapter disturb
no doubt more important than the chamber the steady-state operation of a combustor in a
pressure itself. number of different ways, as previously discussed.
Retaining the identical flowrates while altering The interaction or response of the combustion
the throat diameter was the basis for a series of processes to these influences is very complex and
pressure level stability evaluations. 186 Such results has not been fully delineated . It is not possible,
are shown in Fig . 7.4.3g and the general subject therefore, to draw direct, definitive comparisons
of chamber pressure effects is discussed in Sect . among the rating methods on the basis of the
7.2.1. effects of their input disturbance characteristics.
Upgrading the thrust level of existing hardware
via higher propellant flowrates is one situation in * L. P. Combs and R. J. Hefner, Authors.
Direct comparisons between two techniques instrumentation limitations make it difficult to

have often been obtained experimentally, but determine accurately the nature of the dis-
usually for rather limited ranges of variation in turbances the rating devices produce in an engine
engine design, operating conditions, etc. Some and to discern effects of interaction with the
typical observations may be summarized, but combustion processes .
exceptions have been found to nearly every Each of the rating techniques has some specific
generality. limitations upon its application to rocket com-
Ratings obtained with artificial initiation bustors. These are summarized , along with the
methods are sometimes parallel to those obtained techniques' advantages , in Table 10.7.2 . The more
by spontaneous initiation methods. For example, important items listed there are discussed briefly
an engine that has exhibited a higher incidence of in the following section.
spontaneous instability than has another engine
would usually require a lower amplitude artificial 10.7.2.1 Disturbance profile effects. Both
disturbance to initiate a sustained instability. bombs and pulse guns appear to provide , primarily,
Similarly, smaller artificial disturbances have transient pressure disturbances . Stability ratings
been needed to trigger instabilities as an insta- obtained with them are, therefore , indications of
bility boundary has been approached . This latter the relative sensitivity of the combustion pro-
phenomenon has been observed in all types of cesses to pressure perturbations. A combustor's
boundary mapping, including variations of mix- sensitivity may be directional, e.g. , a bipropellant
ture ratio , chamber pressure, chamber length and spray combustion field may be so structured that
hydrogen injection temperature . Unfortunately, it is greatly influenced and responds massively to
the converse of this observation ( i.e. , that the a transverse disturbance yet is only slightly
requirement of a larger disturbance is associated affected by a longitudinal pressure wave. The
with improved inherent stability) has too often rating devices provide pressure disturbances that
been found invalid . Some specific instances are are nondirectional (or , more precisely, omni-
discussed in Ref. 161 . directional) in the case of the bomb and somewhat
Disturbances from bombs and pulse guns directional in the case of the pulse gun. This
frequently cause a combustor to experience difference may be a limitation or an advantage,
identical sustained instabilities, even though the depending upon the particular application . The
intermediate period before the establishment of pulse gun's directionality offers some degree of
the ultimate instability may be quite different selectivity as to the predominant mode of in-
for the two devices . Frequently, there are often stability initiated . For example, when it is desired
unexplained differences in either the magnitudes to rate the tangential modes of instability,
of disturbances required to effect sustained tangential pulse entry is frequently employed for
instability or in the fraction of tests which are preferential initiation of those modes. In other
unstable with the two types of disturbances. instances, the bomb's omni-directionality is
appropriate ; an example is general rating tests in
10.7.2 Limitations of Available Techniques which it is better not to favor one mode but
to find which mode is most likely to occur.
The primary objective in stability rating is
assurance that the rocket engine will perform all 10.7.2.2 Access ports through chamber walls. - A
of its mission requirements without sustaining an major advantage of bombs is their positional
uncontrolled instability. To accomplish this , versatility. They are not restricted to insertion
stability rating devices are intended to simulate through the combustion chamber wall but can be.
any and all disturbing forces that might be mounted in almost any convenient location in the
encountered naturally by the engine. There are combustor . Pulse guns and gas flows are almost
two major limitations which make the achieve- exclusively directed through the chamber wall ;*
ment of this goal a very difficult task. First , the
types of disturbances to which an engine might be * There are isolated instances in which pulse gun ports
subjected are never completely known . Second, have been machined in injectors.
TABLE 10.7.2 . -ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF RATING TECHNIQUES
Rating technique
Bombs Pulse Guns Gas Flows
Advantages
1. Affect pressure sensitive processes, 1. Affect pressure and velocity sensi- 1. Affect displacement sensitive pro-
primarily. tive processes, depending on orien- cesses, primarily.
2. Disturbances are omni-directional. tation. 2. Directional disturbance permits
3. Have positional versatility ; not 2. Disturbances are predominately forcing particular modes.
restricted to neighborhood of directional. Permits forcing partic- 3. No disruption of chamber flow
chamber walls. ular modes. processes prior to use.
4. Use of wands permit several posi- 3. No disruption of chamber flow 4. No shrapnel damage potential.
tions from a single attachment processes prior to use. 5. May provide ratings in very few
point. 4. Minimal shrapnel damage now tests.
5. Several bombs per test sometimes possible. 6. Precise control of timing.
possible. 5. Multiple guns per test sequenced 7. Good reproducibility of ratings.
6. Adaptable to regeneratively cooled routinely. 8. Limited handling hazards.
combustion chambers. 6. Electrical firing precisely timed .
7. Only modest external engine access 7. Charges protected from heat,
required for most designs if internal thermal initiation avoided.
access is available. 8. Handling hazards minimized (for
8. Small size. gun powder charges).
9. Handling hazards reduced for 9. Charges not fired in a test are not
exploding bridge wire bombs . discarded .
Limitations
1. Bomb orientation may influence 1. Limited to chamber wall applica- 1. Pressure sensitive processes are
combustion sensitivity . tions. Difficult to apply to regenera- little influenced.
2. May disrupt normal chamber flow tively-cooled engines. 2. Natural triggers are not known to
prior to use. 2. Ports may interact acoustically with be simulated .
3. Non-uniform heating or ablation of chamber and influence stability. 3. Extensive supply and control sys-
the case may introduce directional 3. Multiple bosses required for multiple tem may be required .
effects. pulses or for varying location. 4. Large quantities of gas may be
4. Subject to structural failure ; often 4. Requires reasonable access to posi- needed for triggering .
limited to one per test. tions external to engine. 5. Ports may interact acoustically
5. Most designs liable to thermal with chamber and influence sta-
initiation of detonation. bility.
6. Some shrapnel damage to engine 6. Multiple bosses required for vary-
parts possible. ing location.
7. Electrical initiation requires 7. Limited to chamber wall applica-
external access . tions.
8. May be more hazardous to handle
than pulse gun charges.
9. Must dispose of live bombs not
exploded during a test.
10. Possibility of ejecting live bombs
from the chamber.
this practice becomes a particularly severe ensure detonation of the base charge, the ex-
limitation when a regeneratively-cooled engine is ploding bridge wire bombs contain no such booster
to be rated and is usually not attempted for and, as a result , are not sensitive to thermal
obvious reasons. Adapting bombs for use in these initiation . This certainly can be considered to be
engines needs only the simpler provision of an advantage in some cases, e.g. , thermal initiation
injector or baffle mounting and of electrical of detonation during pre-stage (before the bomb
lead-ins through the injector or thermal initiation case is partially ablated and before the additional
of detonation. fragment drag due to higher gas density has
become established ) may entail greater shrapnel
10.7.2.3 Shrapnel damage.- Little use has been damage potential. This might be particularly true
made of the preceding bomb advantage because of with cryogenic propellants, where both the bomb
the high potential for shrapnel damage from most case is very hard and the chamber walls are very
bomb designs. The design of bombs having reduced brittle during the start transient . Fracturing or
charge weights contained in thin-walled cases and dislodging the improved bomb would result in its
made of low impact strength materials now loss but in a non-damaging manner. In some
appears to offer minimized shrapnel damage engine applications, where electrical lead-in access
potential. A further reduction of shrapnel damage is not available, bomb detonation by thermal
may be gained by using the exploding bridge initiation has been counted upon ; one of the earlier
wire initiation method, thus eliminating the designs would then be appropriate .
extraneous components associated with com-
mercial detonators . A less severe shrapnel problem 10.7.2.6 Acoustic interaction.-Information was
associated with ejection of the pulse gun burst presented in Ref. 167 demonstrating that both
diaphragm has been virtually eliminated for all pulse gun ports and bomb lead-wire passages may
but the largest gun-powder charges, but remains form acoustic cavities which influence a com-
partially unsolved for high-explosive pulse gun bustor's stability , and thus invalidate the stability
charges. rating . Gas flow inlet ports may behave similarly.
The pulse gun and gas flow ports may be viewed
10.7.2.4 Multiple pulses . -A long-term advan- simply as quarter-wave resonators while bomb
tage of pulse guns has been the possibility of passages are more complicated.167 Care must be
scheduling more than one pulse per test . Typically taken in designing and matching the devices to a
three or four pulses are introduced at intervals of combustor so that they do not provide damping
100 milliseconds or more. Bombs, on the other for the instability. Because of gas temperature
hand, are subjected to the full force of any gradients which vary both in time and position
transient pressure disturbances or periods of within the devices, prediction of whether a cavity
instability which might precede their scheduled added to the system is active or passive is difficult
detonation. They have usually proven not to be and subject to inaccuracies. Bombs should be
structurally strong enough to survive the blast of designed so that no uncontrolled cavities are left
another bomb or pulse gun or more than a few after detonation.
cycles of high amplitude acoustic instability.
Normal practice, therefore , has been to provide 10.7.2.7 External engine access.-A
access.- A rating
only one bomb per test, or if multiple pulses are device's physical size is important in relation to
used, to make the first one a bomb and subsequent the external and internal engine access required .
ones pulse guns. Recently, multiple bombs have The bomb and pulse gun rating devices must be
been used successfully in development tests ; removed from the chamber and rebuilt after each
design for good structural integrity is essential . test . This requires that each entry port be readily
accessible from the outside of the engine, a re-
10.7.2.5 Thermal initiation of detonation.- quirement which may severely limit selection of
Whereas most previous bomb designs have application points and the number of pulse guns
contained a booster charge of thermally -sensitive which may be used . The access problem is con-
primary explosive (such as lead azide or tetryl ) to siderably reduced for installation of bombs if
there is good access to the inside of the chamber. Another hazard associated with bombs is the
The gas flow apparatus is certainly the largest of possibility that one may be dislodged and ejected
the techniques but it usually can be mounted in from the combustion chamber as a live bomb.
some unobtrusive location within a few feet of the This is even more hazardous than having a residual
combustor. Its only required connection to the bomb in the combustor ; personnel may be com-
engine is usually a simple flow line which , unless pletely unaware of its presence and so may un-
the flow entry point is varied from test to test, wittingly detonate it without benefit of protective
does not require continuous accessibility. equipment. Periodically, the test area should be
searched thoroughly, and a specific search should
10.7.2.8 Handling characteristics. Some dis- be conducted whenever there is not positive
cussion pertinent to the handling characteristics of evidence that a bomb actually detonated in the
each rating device has been given earlier . The combustor.
relative effort required to effect changes or
10.7.3 Criteria for Selection of a Rating
replacement between tests and the hazards
Technique
associated with each technique are discussed
briefly here . Several stability-rating techniques have been
Once the basic flow system has been installed described in the preceding sections for evaluating
for the gas pulse apparatus, very little additional both resonant and feed system coupled stability
handling is required . The only test hardware characteristics of rocket engines. Since each of
preparation consists of relocating the connecting these techniques evaluate the stability in some-
line between the control valve and the appropriate what different manners , it would be desirable to
chamber boss . The operation of the device, use all of them on an engine before it would be
however, requires additional preparation. This considered fully developed . This is not feasible
includes the manipulation of numerous valves and economically and has been found to be un-
the pressurization of the source tank to the necessary .
desired value. Other than personnel association For evaluating the stability characteristics of
with high-pressure gas systems, no particular engines using any propellant combination except
hazard is associated with gas pulsing equipment. hydrogen, the explosive bomb and/or pulse gun
The bomb and pulse gun devices both contain have been widely used with success. For engines
small amounts of high explosives . Safety with using hydrogen, the temperature ramp technique
explosives requires knowledge of the hazards has been most popular. The technique of varying
involved and rigid adherence to the proper both mixture ratio and chamber pressure for
methods of performing each function . The greatest stability rating is commonly used in conjunction
hazards to be guarded against are stray currents , with both the hydrogen ramp and explosive
static electricity, frictional heat , impact and techniques.
carelessness. Pulse guns are less hazardous than It has been found that both the hydrogen ramp
bombs because the cartridge-loaded charges and and explosive device techniques provide stability
the unidirectional blast make it easier to avoid information on feed system instabilities but for
direct personnel exposure. quantitative evaluation of feed system effects ,
Following a hot-firing test, any bombs that have the feed system pulsing devices have proved to be
not been detonated must be disposed of imme- valuable and should be considered in selecting
diately. Extra precautions are called for because rating techniques for these modes .
of the potentially higher sensitivity of explosives Aside from these general guidelines, the
that have been heated; this work should be selection of a rating technique for application to a
performed by personnel specifically trained in particular combustion system is dependent upon a
explosives-disposal techniques. Residual pulse gun number of interrelated factors, most of which are
charges, on the other hand, may simply be associated with the nature of the program and of
returned to storage and used in a subsequent test the engine system design and operating param-
(unless there is external evidence of excessive eters . Discussion of these factors and their
heating of the pulse gun assembly) . influences on the choice of a rating device is
approached in this subsection* from a parametric deletions from the approaches suggested in the
combustion chamber design viewpoint after following discussions . More stringent program
attempting to eliminate major program variables. requirements, in the form of definitive contractual
For simplicity , the discussion centers on the requirements for perturbation source, pressure
explosive devices. Included in this discussion are disturbance amplitude, rate of pressure rise ,
recommendations or guidelines regarding place- recovery time, etc. , may actually ease the selection
ment of the rating devices in the test hardware . task by restricting the range of choices.
A number of programs have contractual re-
10.7.3.1 Program considerations. -Whether or quirements for dynamic stability (several are
not stability rating is a major program goal will listed and discussed in Ref. 726 ) . Generally , these
influence the device selection. Questions which specify that recovery to stable operation must be
must be considered are concerned with whether or effected within a stated time period following
not there are contractual commitments to be introduction of a disturbance of a specified ampli-
fulfilled regarding stability demonstration , whether tude (or from a given charge weight) . Frequently,
a general "as is" evaluation of stability traits is to they also include a definition of what constitutes
be sought or whether some design changes are recovery. The demand for achieving dynamic
expected to be made for stability improvement , stability followed the development of effective
the number of tests projected for stability evalu- stabilization devices , particularly combustion
ation, how many engine design or operational chamber baffles . Initially, it was believed that
variations are planned for those same tests , and demonstration of adequate recovery from very
how much calendar time is available for prepara- large blast waves was all that was needed . This is
tion and performance of experiments. The answers reflected in the requirement for 220-grain bombs
to these and similar questions define the scope of and 400-grain tangential pulse guns for the Titan
the stability evaluation problem . An experimental Stage III engine in the Gemini Stability Improve-
program can then be structured to provide the ment Program.726 It has been found (Sect .
required characterization. A universal goal should 10.2.4 ) , however, that a combustor can be "over
be the accomplishment of the characterization in bombed," i.e. , a disturbance may be so large that
as few engine-firing tests as possible . If the pro- its disruption of propellant injection is very severe
gram is limited to fewer tests than the definition and, before combustion of freshly-injected pro-
of the scope of the problem appears to require , pellant is resumed , pressure wave motion in the
then it must be recognized that less than complete chamber has nearly subsided . The engine can ,
characterization may result and the program therefore , "come back on" stable. The current
structured accordingly to seek definitive knowl- trend is for more modest disturbance amplitude
edge of the most crucial portions of the problem requirements, e.g., the LM Ascent engine speci-
(see discussion in Sect . 1.2.4) . fication requires a pressure spike with a minimum
For the purposes of the ensuing discussion, the peak overpressure that is 175 percent of the mean
vicissitudes of program requirements can be steady-state chamber pressure ( 120 psia ) . The
averted, largely by assuming that disturbance is achieved with quite small (2 gr
1 . a new rocket engine system is to be de- PETN) bombs as discussed in Sect . 10.2.4 . For
veloped; general stability evaluations, it is recommended
2. a requirement exists to determine its that a wide range of disturbance amplitudes be
stability characteristics ; provided so that engine response to quite small
3. detrimental instabilities are defined and, if (~10 percent of p. ) and very large (several
they are experienced , system changes are to times p. ) pressure perturbations may be observed .
be made to eliminate them.
Less stringent actual program requirements 10.7.3.2 Engine design and operational con-
generally will be satisfied by simplifications or siderations. Shock waves from bombs and pulse
guns disturb the steady-state combustion processes
* This subsection parallels closely a similar discussion and evoke dynamic responses which may cause
in Ref. 167. growth or decay of the initial waves. The resultant
waves may be strong enough to excite acoustic these shapes. The shapes, per se , really have little
resonances of the combustion chamber which may, influence on the rating device selection but do
in turn, be driven as sustained combustion. enter into consideration of device placement .
instability. A proper coupling between the With cylindrical chambers, bombs located near
oscillatory wave motion and the combustion the chamber wall and tangentially (or chordally)
processes is required for driving the wave. Either oriented pulse guns are most often used . To avoid
longitudinal (axial) or transverse (radial or overlooking the possibility of initiating the first
tangential ) wave motion may be initiated and radial mode, bombs at the center of the chamber
sustained ; however, most frequently the latter are and/or radially disposed pulse guns should be kept
experienced . That observation can be attributed in mind. The radially-oriented pulse gun is also
to a number of factors, but probably the most recommended for potential initiation of the
important ones are the different sensitivities of modes other than the first tangential. With
the combustion processes to motion in the annular chambers, the shape accentuates the
different directions of wave propagation and likelihood of experiencing tangential instabilities
greater acoustic energy losses from the nozzle for so a reasonable practice is to orient pulse guns
longitudinal wave motion. tangentially. Unless the annulus is narrower than
Combustion chamber design parameters have about 2 - inches, some effort should be made to
direct influence upon the initiation and driving of initiate the radial mode . Either bombs or a radial
combustion instabilities and, therefore, upon the pulse gun could serve this purpose . Pressure
selection and placement of rating devices for instrumentation capable of discerning oscillations
artificial initiation. The items of most interest to about 20 kHz might be needed to observe such
are the size and shape, wall material construction a mode. In two-dimensional chambers, both
of the combustion chamber , the injector spray bombs and pulse guns are normally mounted so
pattern, and the presence of stabilization devices. that their blast waves propagate along the length
Sometimes an acoustic instability is augmented of the injector ( Ref. 403 ) .
(or complicated) by induced oscillations in the COMBUSTION CHAMBER SIZE : Large and
propellant injection rates . For example , the small combustion chambers have been stability
longitudinal acoustic mode is occasionally driven rated with bombs , while intermediate size cham-
by injection rate fluctuations. Another form of bers have been disturbed with both bombs and
instability, known as "repeated pressure surging," pulse guns . With small chambers , the volume of a
has characteristics of a transverse mode super- 6-inch-long (unfired ) to 9-inch-long (fired ) pulse
imposed on chugging.440 Also, intermediate fre- gun cavity would be large compared to the
quency "buzz" instabilities are sometimes ex- volume of the chamber and appreciable acoustic
cited272 which have characteristics of feed system interaction between the volumes should be
acoustic resonances . These and other examples expected to alter the combustor's stability. No
clearly demonstrate that engine design parameters lower limit on chamber size has been established .
other than those listed in the preceding paragraph Guide lines for estimating a gun's acoustic
also affect the chamber instabilities . influence on the stability of a small chamber
COMBUSTION CHAMBER SHAPE : Three could perhaps be developed by correspondence to
commonly used rocket combustion chamber the effectiveness of acoustic liners and cavities.
shapes are ( 1 ) circular cylinder with a flat or Another approach which might be taken with
"dished" injection-end closure and a deLaval small chambers is to reduce the size of the pulse
exhaust nozzle , ( 2 ) annular combustion spaces , gun. Correlations in Ref. 167 show that the
ranging from a cylindrical chamber with a amplitude of the shock discharged from a gun's
centerbody to the very large diameter, very muzzle is lower than predicted by the simplified
narrow combustion space of the aerospike engines, theory if the gun barrel's L/D is less than about
and (3 ) for research scale photographic and 16. Reducing the pulse gun size, particularly its
stability rating work, specialized rectangular two- length, may be considered as exchanging a meas-
dimensional configurations . Both bombs and ure of predictability for decreased acoustic
pulse guns have been used in tests with each of interaction.
COMBUSTION CHAMBER CONTRAC- effects may be thought of heuristically in terms of

TION RATIO : The chamber contraction ratio three resultant subjects : degree of propellant
has a direct influence on the predicted ablation atomization, transverse gradients in propellant
rate of bomb cases.167 Other influences on rating mixing, and mean axial propellant combustion
device selection are indirect , resulting from the rate. The degree of propellant atomization and
interrelated effects of chamber pressure , con- the transverse mixing , together with contraction-
traction ratio and propellant injection density on ratio-controlled axial combustion gas velocities,
the propellant combustion rate , discussed later. determine the axial propellant combustion rate.
COMBUSTION CHAMBER WALL DESIGN : In general, the finer the atomization and the
Chamber wall design and materials are sometimes better the interdispersion of the propellants, the
the largest controlling factors in the selection of a higher will be their burning rate. For some
rating technique. As discussed under advantages particular injectors , either the spray atomization
and limitations, pulse guns are not commonly or the propellant mixing may predominate in
used with regeneratively- cooled chambers . Subject controlling the combustion rate , but they are
to restrictions concerning ability to initiate usually both important , particularly in the region
desired modes of instability, bombs should be immediately downstream of the injector where the
positioned as far as practical away from the atomization and mixing are being accomplished .
regenerative chamber's walls. They normally That region of early combustion has frequently
should be oriented with their axes parallel to the been found to be the most sensitive portion of the
walls in order to minimize shrapnel damage combustion field in responding to a pressure
potential. If the chamber shape is such that perturbation and initiating combustion instability.
orientation places the end of the bomb close to a The rating device selection, and more specifically,
nozzle wall surface , reorientation closer to the its placement and orientation must take cog-
center of the chamber or to a skew or radial nizance of that sensitivity.
mounting might be preferred in order to avoid
. It is possible, by making a detailed examination
damage from bomb-end fragments. of the injector pattern, to estimate the relative
For reasons somewhat analogous to those for distributions of the propellant sprays225 and the
not using pulse guns with regeneratively- cooled axial combustion rate224 reasonably accurately.
chambers, they are infrequently used , as well, Consideration of the effects that pressure per-
with ablative-walled chambers . The design and turbations are likely to have on such predicted
machining difficulties of providing pulse gun ports distributions usually gives little basis for the
in ablative materials are not nearly so severe as preferential selection of either bombs or pulse
with regeneratively- cooled walls, but the added guns. Good bases for rating device placement and
possibilities of delamination of the ablative when orientation can be found in this way, however.
the gun is fired and of irregular erosion around a Examination of the transverse spray distributions
tangential pulse gun muzzle usually result in can suggest regions that are most likely to exhibit
selection of bombs . Ideally , bombs in ablative strong sensitivity through increased mixing and
chambers should be mounted from the injector whether there's a preferred radial or tangential
face or baffle assembly, but in several applications direction for eliciting that sensitivity. Examination
they have been inserted radially through the of the axial combustion rate profile can indicate ,
chamber wall. approximately, how important it is for the rating.
INJECTOR INFLUENCES : The details of device to be located near the injector in order to
the propellant injector design set the course which be effective . No quantitative guideline can be
the combustion processes will follow. Ultimately, stated for this latter point , except that if the
to reduce stability ratings to meaningful, practical propellants are more than about 40 to 50 percent
terms , they must be related to the injector design burned by the point of disturbance introduction ,
details. Basic injector type , element orientation , it is likely not to be very effective. Placing the
element spacing, thrust per element, injection. device further downstream than the point of
velocities are all variables which affect the maximum effectiveness, however, can be com-
stability of the combustor . Their combined pensated for by using increasing charge sizes.
Within limits, then, compromises can be made STABILIZATION DEVICES : The use of
between axial disturbance location and design baffles or acoustic liners to improve the stability
variables, such as access through the chamber of the combustor may influence the rating device
wall being impeded by propellant manifolds or selection by changing the modes of instability
injector attachment flanges , and such as moving a most likely to occur, altering preferred directions
bomb with a thin wall case downstream to achieve for greatest sensitivity, restricting access to the
more predictable and uniform ablation rates. chamber for installing pulse guns, changing the
PROPELLANT INFLUENCES : The effects range of positions available for bombs, and, if
of the propellant combination on rating device such devices are successful, increasing the proba-
selection are mainly felt through a heightening or bility that recovery to stable combustion will
reduction of the injector influences just described. occur following a given disturbance.
Other considerations might be ( 1 ) whether As with cooled chamber walls , the complexity of
there is a likelihood of potentially explosive or the acoustic liner makes installation of pulse guns
detonable propellants or propellant residues less attractive than bombs. A necessary caution,
becoming trapped in rating device cavities and however, is that bombs be positioned to minimize
producing unwanted and uncontrolled pressure the possibility of shrapnel damaging the liner.
disturbances, ( 2 ) chemical compatibility of bomb Otherwise, stability rating chambers with liners
case and diaphragm materials with the pro- appears to be subject to the same considerations as
pellants and their combustion products . Unusual for unlined chambers.
results may sometimes be encountered . An
Baffles introduce the possibility of baffle com-
example is the apparent distillation of UDMH
partment modes of instability being driven.
out of trapped 50 % N2H4-50% UDMH fuel
Pressure perturbations should be introduced to
mixture, leaving an explosive pocket of hydrazine.
evaluate the stability to both those baffle com-
Another example was the adsorption of prestage
liquid oxygen onto a Micarta bomb case , which partment resonances and the (perhaps altered )
had been machined using cutting oil, to form an full chamber resonances . This can be accomplished
explosive gel within the case, resulting in detona- by locating rating devices both upstream and
tion immediately upon propellant ignition. downstream of the end of the baffles.
GENERAL NOMENCLATURE
The following symbols are used throughout the q Heat transfer rate
book. Additional symbols are given in Sections in q Dynamic pressure, pV2
which they are used . Re Reynolds number
R Flow resistance
A Area
a Acoustic velocity Re( ) Real part of complex quantity
e in parentheses
Capacitance
R Gas constant
CF Thrust coefficient
r Radial coordinate (circular
CP Specific heat of gas at constant
cross-section)
pressure
IL Radius of liquid droplet
Cv Specific heat of gas at constant r Mixture ratio (OX/F )
volume
Sc Schmidt number
CL Specific heat of liquid
.
S Surface tension
C*
*
Characteristic velocity
S Laplacian variable, complex
D, d Diameter
D Diffusion coefficient amplification factor, λ + iw
T Thermodynamic (absolute ) tem-
e Specific internal energy ( gas)
perature
f Frequency
T Shear stress tensor
સ
h Specific enthalpy
t Time
hy Heat of vaporization
t1, t2, ... ta Time constants
hR Heat of reaction tw
Im ( ) part of complex Oscillation period , wave travel
Imaginary
time
quantity in parentheses
u Axial component of velocity
i Imaginary unit, V- 1
V Velocity vector
Isp Specific impulse V Velocity (magnitude)
Jv Bessel function of first kind ,
AV Relative velocity (gas-liquid)
order v
KL AV Magnitude of relative velocity
Bulk modulus of liquid
Kn V Volume
Knudsen number
V Radial or lateral (y-direction )
Ꭿ Thermal conductivity
L, l velocity component
Length
L* We Weber number
Characteristic length of com-
W Molecular weight
bustion chamber
L W Tangential or lateral (z-direction )
Flow inertia (inertance)
M velocity component
Mass burning rate per unit volume
M w Weight flow rate
Mach number
m X Longitudinal coordinate.
Mass or mass concentration
m Y Mass fraction
Mass flow rate, mass flux
Nu Y, Bessel function of second kind ,
Nusselt number
order v
0( ) Of the order of magnitude of the
Y Admittance
quantity in parentheses
Pr Prandtl number γ Ratio of specific heats (gas )
p Pressure ( static) Ec Nozzle contraction ( area) ratio
Pv Vapor pressure te Nozzle expansion (area ) ratio
597
८ 09 Vorticity (vector) f Flame ; final (complete com-

Azimuthal angle coordinate bustion)
(circular cross-section) I
MI
Imaginary part
λ Oscillation amplification factor i Injector, injection
Y
μ Viscosity j Jet
ૐ Ratio of inner to outer radius L Liquid, liquid drop
(annular chamber) M Minimum value
kabt 3
П 3.14159 ... m Mean value

ρ Density OX Oxidizer
σ Specific entropy R Real part
T Time delay or characteristic time. t Throat
Angular frequency of oscillation V Vaporization
W Wave
Subscripts (gas-phase quantities are not sub- Initial value
0
scripted) :
- Steady state
2000 G
a Atomization
b Burning, burned gas Superscripts :
C Chamber Steady state
e Exhaust Perturbation
F Fuel
*
Complex conjugate
REFERENCES
1. ANON : "Advanced Design Analysis on Annular Equipment. Greyrad Corporation Bulletin , GB- 1 ,
Nozzles. Rocketdyne Rept. R-2354-3p, 1961 . Jan. 1968.
2. ANON: Applications of the Heat Flux System in 20. ANON: History : Project First, F- 1 Combustion
Low Temperature Gases and Liquids. Technical Stability Program. Rocketdyne Rept. No.
Bulletin No. 4, Thermo-Systems Inc., Min- R-5615, 1964-1967.
neapolis, Minn . 21 . Ibid. , Column e, Book 4, Feb. 1967.
3. ANON: Combustion Instability Experience-Final 22. ANON : ICRPG Handbook for Estimating the Un-
Report. General Electric Company, July 1963 . certainties in Measurements Made with Liquid-
4. ANON : Combustion Stability Rating Devices. Propellant Rocket Engine Systems. CPIA Pub .
Rocketdyne Rept. R-6807-P , Nov. 1966 . No. 180, April 1969 .
4b. ANON: Design Guide, Acoustic Liner Feasibility 23. ANON : ICRPG Liquid-Propellant Thrust Chamber
Program. Aerojet-General Rept . 8852-DG, April Performance Evaluation Manual. Working Group
1970. on Performance Standardization ICRPG, CPIA
5. ANON : Development History of the 200,000-225,000- Pub. No. 178 , Sept. 1968.
lb-Thrust J-2 Rocket Engines-Final Report. 24. ANON : Injection and Combustion of Liquid Fuels .
Rocketdyne Rept. No. R-6700, Dec. 1966. WADC Technical Report 56-344 , ASTIA Docu-
6. ANON : An Experimental Investigation of Combus- ment No. AD 118142 Battelle Memorial Institute,
tion Stability Characteristics at High Chamber Wright Air Development Center, 1957.
Pressures . Aerojet-General Interim Rept. 25. ANON : IRIG Document 104-60 prepared by Tele-
11741-I, Sept. 1965 . Communications Working Group, Inter-Range
7. ANON : An Experimental Investigation of Combus- Instrumentation Group, Range Commanders
tion Stability Characteristics at High Chamber Council ; published by the Secretariat, Range
Pressure-Final Report, Phase II . Aerojet-General Commanders Council, White Sands Missile
Rept. 11741 /SA6-F , Vol . 1 , Aug. 1966 . Range, New Mexico 88002 ; April 1964 , reprinted
8. ANON : Fastax, High-Speed Motion Picture In- May 1966. (The above listed document covers
structions . Wollensak Optical Company, Roches- IRIG Format A, Format B, Format C, Format D,
ter, New York. and Format E. Other documents will cover refer-
9. ANON : Final Technical Report for WS- 107A- 1 ence time codes, as an example NASA 36-bit time
Contributory Engineering. Rocketdyne Rept . code is covered by IRIG Document 104-59 .)
R-2325-4P, Feb. 1961 . 26. ANON : Low-Flow, High- Response Flowmeter. Aero-
10. ANON : Format for the Collection of Liquid Pro- jet-General Technical Documentary Rept.
pellant Rocket Combustion Instability Test AFRPL-TR-65-85 , 1965.
Data. CPIA Publication No. 149, The Johns 27. ANON : Microscopy by Reconstructed Wave-
Hopkins University, Applied Physics Laboratory, Fronts. Proc. Roy. Soc. , Vol . A197 , 454-486,
Sept. 1967. July 1949.
11. ANON: Gemini Stability Improvement Program 28. ANON : Microscopy by Reconstructed Wave-Fronts
(GEMSIP)-Final Report. Aerojet-General Rept. II. Proc. Phy. Soc. ( London) B64, June 1951 , pp.
GEMSIP FR- 1 , SSD-TR-66-2 , Aug. 1965. 449-469.
12. Ibid. , Vol . 2, Development Test Program. 29 . ANON: Performance and Properties of Liquid
13. Ibid. , Vol . 3, Analytical Model . Propellants . Aerojet- General Rept. No. 8160-65,
14. Ibid. , Vol. 4, Baffle Design Studies . Apr. 1966 .
15. Ibid., Vol . 5, Development Tools. 30. ANON: Physical Measurements in Gas Dynamics
16. Ibid. , Vol. 6, Instrumentation . and Combustion . Princeton University Press,
17. ANON : Handbook of Recommended Practices for Princeton, New Jersey, 1954.
Measurement of Liquid-Propellant Rocket En- 31. ANON: Pulsed Laser Holography Techniques Ap-
gine Parameters . CPIA Pub . 179, Jan. 1969. plied to Chemical Rocket Propulsion . TRW
18. ANON : High Chamber Pressure Operation for Systems Rept. No. 4712.6.67-21 , June 1968 .
Launch Vehicle Engines Program-Final Report. 32. ANON : Research Summary No. 36-1 , Volume 1 for
Aerojet-General Rept . No. 4008-SA4-F, April the period 1 December 1959 to 1 February 1960 .
1964. JPL, Feb. 1960 .
19. ANON : High-Temperature Probes and Auxiliary 33. ANON : Results of the Jupiter Engine Stability
599
Limits Evaluation Test Program. Rocketdyne bustion Conference, CPIA Pub. No. 192, Vol . 1 ,
Rept. R-2406 , May 1960. Dec. 1969, pp. 135–140.
34. ANON : Review of Gas Sampling Techniques . Pro- ADDOMS, J. F.: See Refs . 408 and 476.
ceedings AFRPL, The Phase Flow Conference, 49. ADELBERG, M.: Breakup Rate and Penetration of
AFRPL-TR-67-223, Vol. 1 , March 1967. a Liquid Jet in a Gas Stream. AIAA Journal,
35. ANON : Selection of Instrumentation for Analyzing Vol. 5, No. 8, Aug. 1967 , p. 1408 .
Combustion Instability in Liquid Propellant 50. ADELBERG, M .: A Critical Velocity for Liquid Spray
Rocket Engines. CPIA Pub . No. 148, July 1967 . Fans . TN178-R- 1-4-68 . Published by Author,
36. ANON : Special Consideration for Combustion In- 4043 Cody Rd. , Sherman Oaks , Calif. , April 1968 .
stability Instrumentation and Data Representa- 51. ADELBERG, M.: Mean Drop Size Resulting from the
tion . CPIA Pub. No. 170, June 1968. Injection of a Liquid Jet into a High-Speed Gas
37. ANON : Stability Characterization of Advance In- Stream. AIAA J. , Vol. 6 , No. 6, June 1968 , p . 1143 .
jectors-Final Report. Aerojet-General Rept . No. 52. ADELBERG, M.: Three Advanced Micro-Orifice In-
20672-Fi, June 1968. jector Rocket Motors . J. Spacecraft and Rockets,
38. ANON : Stability Characterization of Advanced Vol. 5, No. 3, Mar. 1968 , pp . 353–355.
Injectors-Summary Final Report on Phase 1 of 53. ADLER, J.: A One-Dimensional Theory of Liquid
Contract NAS 8-20672 . Aerojet-General Rept. Fuel Rocket Combustion . Part II . The Influence
20672-PISF, Oct. 1968. of Chemical Reaction . A.R.C. Tech. Rept. No.
39. ANON : A Study of the Suppression of Combustion 20-189, Current Paper No. 446 , 1959 .
Oscillation with Mechanical Damping Devices . 54. AGOSTA, V. D.: Shock Wave Interaction With a
Pratt and Whitney Aircraft Quarterly Progress Burning Solid Propellant. AIAA J., Vol . 4, 1966,
Rept . PWA FR-2491 , June 1962. p. 934.
40. ANON : A Study of the Suppression of Combustion 55. AGOSTA, V.; HAMMER, S .; AND PESCHKE , W. T.:
Oscillations with Mechanical Damping Devices. High Frequency Combustion Instability and
Quarterly Progress Rept. No. 3, Pratt and Scaling of Liquid Propellant Rocket Motors .
Whitney Aircraft, PWA FR-960, April 1964 . First ICRPG Combustion Instability Conference ,
41. ANON : A Study of the Suppression of Combustion Vol. 1, CPIA Pub. No. 68 , Jan. 1965, pp. 153–164.
Oscillations with Mechanical Damping Devices. 56. AGOSTA, V. D .; AND MAZZITELLI , D. A.: A Theoreti-
Summary of Results for Tasks III through VI, cal Study of the Forcing Functions in Axial Flow
Pratt and Whitney Aircraft, PWA FR- 1330 , Turbojet Engines Due to Flow Pulsations. Wright
Nov. 1964. Air Development Center, Tech. Rept. 56-74,
42. ANON: A Study of the Suppression of Combustion 1956.
Oscillation with Mechanical Damping Devices- AGOSTA, V. D.: Also see Refs. 132, 306, 307 , 308,
Final Report. Pratt and Whitney Aircraft, PWA and 481 .
FR 2596, Nov. 1967 . 57. AGOSTON, G. A.; Wise, H.; and Rosser, W.: Dy-
43. ANON : Symposium on Water Hammer. American namic Factors Affecting the Combustion of
Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, Liquid Spheres . Sixth Symposium (International)
1933. on Combustion , Reinhold, New York, 1957 , pp.
44. ANON: Turbulent Boundary Layer Nozzle Analysis 708-717.
Computer Program. Working Group on Perfor- 58. AGOSTON, G. A.; WOOD, B. J.; AND WISE , H.:
mance Standardization , ICRPG. Available Influence of Pressure on the Combustion of
through CPIA, Aug. 1968 . Liquid Spheres . Jet Propulsion , Vol. 28, 1958,
45. ANON : Two-dimensional Kinetic Nozzle Analysis p. 181 .
Computer Program . Working Group on Per- AGOSTON, G. A.: Also see Ref. 752.
formance Standardization , ICRPG . Available 59. ALBRIGHT, L. F.; AND ALEXANDER, L. G.: Stable
through CPIA, Aug. 1968. Cyclonic Flames of Natural Gas and Air. Jet
46. ABBE , C. J.; MCLAUGHLIN , C. W.; AND WEISS, Propulsion , Vol. 26, No. 10 , Oct. 1956 , pp .
R. R.: Influence of Storable Propellant Liquid 867-873.
Rocket Design Parameters on Combustion In- 60. ALBER, I. E.: Comparison and Evaluation of Com-
stability. J. of Spacecraft and Rockets , Vol . 5 , puter Programs for Rocket Engine Performance
No. 5 , May 1968, pp . 584-590. Prediction . Contract NAS 7-443, SN-82, Dynamic
47. ACRIVOS , A.; AND TAYLOR, T. D .: Heat and Mass Science, Irvine, Calif. , April 1968.
Transfer from Single Spheres in Stokes Flow. ALEXANDER, L. G.: See Ref. 59.
Physics of Fluids, Vol. 5 , No. 4 , 1962 , p . 387 . 61. ALLEN, W. D.: Experimental Studies of Transverse
ABDOU, M. I.: See Ref. 247. Waves in a Cylindrical Chamber. Princeton
ADAMS , H. S.: See Ref. 315 . University Aeronautical Engineering Rept . No.
48. ADAMSON, T. C. , JR.; AND SHEN, P. I. W.: Analysis 607, June 1962.
of Transverse Combustion Instability in Liquid 62. ALPHER, R. A.; AND WHITE , D. R.: Flow in Shock
Propellant Rocket Motors Using a Two- Phase Tubes with Area Change at Diaphragm Section.
Detonation Wave Model. Sixth ICRPG Com- J. of Fluid Mech. , Vol . 3, Feb. 1968, p. 457.
REFERENCES 601
63. ALTMAN, D.; CARTER, J. M.; PENNER, S. S .; AND of Combustion Instability. A paper appended
SUMMERFIELD, M.: Liquid Propellant Rockets . to Rocketdyne Research Rept . No. 8, Feb. 1956 .
Princeton Aeronautical Paperbacks , Princeton BAMBANEK, R.: Also see Ref. 441 .
University Press, New Jersey, 1960 . 77. BARCHILON, M .; and CURTET, R.: Some Details of
64. ALTMAN, D.; AND PENNER, S. S .: Combustion of the Structure of an Axisymmetric Confined Jet
Liquid Propellants . Section L (pp . 470-513) , with Backflow. Trans. A.S.M.E, J. Basic Eng. ,
Vol. II, High Speed Aerodynamics and Jet Vol . 86, 1964, pp. 777-787.
Propulsion-Combustion Processes, (B. Lewis, 78. BARRERE, M. , et al.: Rocket Propulsion . Elsevier
R. Pease, H. S. Taylor , eds . ) , Princeton Univ. Publishing Co. , New York, 1960.
Press, Princeton, N. J., 1956. 79. BARRERE, M.; AND NADAUD , L .: Combustion of
65. ALTSEIMER, J. H .: Photographic Techniques Ap- Ammonium Perchlorate Spheres in a Flowing
plied to Combustion Studies . JARS, Vol. 22, Gaseous Fuel. Tenth Symposium (International)
No. 2, March-April 1952, pp . 86-91 . Combustion, The Combustion Institute, Pitts-
66. ANGELO, E. J.: Electronic Circuits . McGraw Hill, burgh, 1965, pp. 1381-1394.
New York, 1958. BARSIC, N.: See Ref. 224.
ANDERSON, G. Y.: See Ref. 696 . 80. BARTLETT, R. C .; AND NAGAI , C. K.: Design Criteria
ANDERSON, W. H.: See Ref. 755. for Space Storable Propellants. Ninth Liquid
ANTL, R. J.: See Ref. 679. Propulsion Symposium, CPIA Pub. No. 162,
67. ARBIT, H. A.: Design , Assembly, and Operation Vol. 1 , 1967.
of a High-Pressure Two-Dimensional Research 81. BARTZ, D. R.: A Simple Equation for Rapid Esti-
Motor. Rocketdyne Research Rept. No. 64-16 , mation of Rocket Nozzle Convective Heat
May 1964 . Transfer Coefficients . Jet Propulsion, Vol. 27,
ARBIT, H. A.: Also see Ref. 221 . No. 1 , Jan. 1957 , p. 49.
ARMITAGE , A. L.: See Ref. 408 . BARTZ, D. R.: Also see Ref. 241 .
ARNDT, F. E .: See Ref. 750. BASTIANON, R.: See Ref. 496.
ARUNACHALAM, S. A.: See Ref. 240. 82. BASTRESS, E. K.; HARRIS, G. H.; AND MILLER, I.:
68. ATHERTON, R. R.: Applications Study for a High Statistical Derivation of Design Criteria for
Performance Cryogenic Staged Combustion Liquid Rocket Combustion Instability. Arthur
Rocket Engine. Pratt & Whitney Tech. Rept . D. Little, NASA CR-72370, Dec. 1967.
AFRPL-RE-67-270, Nov. 1967 . BASTRESS , E. K.: Also see Ref. 247 .
69. ATHERTON, R. R.: Advanced Cryogenic Rocket 83. BAUER, J. M.; and REEVES , D. F .: Radial Flow In-
Engine Program Staged-Combustion Concept, jector Development for Metallized Gelled Fuels at
Final Report. Volumes I through III , Pratt & Temperature Extremes . NWC TP 4616, Nov.
Whitney Tech. Rept. AFRPL-TR-67-298, Dec. 1968 .
1967. 84. BECKER, H. A.; HOTTEL, H. C .; AND WILLIAMS ,
70. BAILEY, C. R.: Acoustic Liner for the C-1 Engine . G. C.: Mixing and Flow in Ducted Turbulent
Fifth ICRPG Combustion Conference, CPIA Jets. Ninth Symposium (International) on Com-
Publication No. 183 , Dec. 1968, pp. 335-341 . bustion, Academic Press, New York, 1963 , pp.
71. BAILEY, C. R.: An Investigation of the Use of 7-18 .
Acoustic Energy Absorbers to Damp LOX/RP-1 85. BELL, G. S.: Second Monthly Status Report-
Combustion Oscillations . NASA TN D-4210, Development and Demonstration of an N2O4/
Nov. 1967. N₂H, Injector . Document 10287-MSR-2, AFRPL,
72. BAILEY, T. E.: Research on a Hydrogen-Fluorine June 1968.
Propulsion System- Final Report. Pratt & 86. BELL, H. S. , ET AL .: C- 1 Engine Final Report,
Whitney Aircraft, NASA CR-70274, Oct. 1966 . C-1 Engine Instability Investigation. Reaction
Motors (Thiokol) Rept. RMD 6203-S 6, July
73. BAKER, D. I.: Mixture Ratio and Temperature
1967.
Surveys of Ammonia-Oxygen Rocket-Motor Com-
BELLMAN, D. R.: See Ref. 688.
bustion Chambers. JPL Rept . No. 25-2, Jan.
1954. 87. BELTRAN, M. R. , ET AL.: Analysis of Liquid Rocket
Engine Combustion Stability . Dynamic Science,
74. BAKER, P. D.; PEOPLES, R. G.; AND MILLS , T. R.: AFRPL-TR-65-254, 1965 .
Two-Dimensional Motor Program. Aerojet Gen- 88. BELTRAN, M. R.; BREEN, B. P.; AND GERSTEIN, M.:
eral Rept. No. 2185 , Jan. 1962. Liquid Rocket Engine Combustion Instability
BAKER, P. D.: Also see Refs . 172, 540, and 541 . Studies . Dynamic Science Semi-Annual Rept.
BALDWIN, C. D.: See Ref. 286.
No. SN-68-SL, June 1965.
75. BALLING, N. R.; and Conner, B. U.: An Electro- 89. BELTRAN, M. R.; BREEN , B. P.; HOFFMAN, R. J.;
magnetic Flow meter for Low Conductivity Fluids. Kosvic, T. C .; AND SANDERS, C. F.: Analysis of
JPL Rept . No. 32-329, Aug. 1962 . Liquid Rocket Engine Combustion Instability .
76. BAMBANEK, R. A.; AND LEVINE, R. S .: A Sustaining Special Report, Dynamic Science Rept. No.
Mechanism for the Transverse Acoustical Mode SN-68-52, Jan. 1966 , (AD ) 482 021 ) .
90. BELTRAN, M. R.; AND Kosvic, T. C.: Parametric BLACKMAN, A. W.: Also see Ref. 702.
Study of Combustion Instability in MMH-NTO BLANKENSHIP, V. D.: See Ref. 144.
Liquid Rocket Engine. AIAA Paper No. 66-603, 106. BLOOMER, H. E .; WANHAINEN , J. P.; AND Vincent,
June 1966. D. W.: Chamber Shape Effects on Combustion
91. BELTRAN, M. R.; WRIGHT, R. O.; BREEN, B. P.; Instability . Fourth ICRPG Combustion Con-
ET AL.: Combustion Stability Limits Calculated ference, CPIA Pub. No. 162, Vol. 1 , Dec. 1967,
Utilizing a Nonlinear Model. Final Report on pp . 39-55.
Contract NAS 7-366 , Dynamic Science Rept . No. 107. BLOOMER, H. E.; WANHAINEN , J. P.; ANd Vincent,
SN-70-F, Aug. 1966 . D. W.: Chamber Shape Effects on Combustion
BELTRAN , M. R.: Also see Refs. 118 and 358 . Instability . NASA TM X-52361, 1967 .
92. BENEDICT, A. G .: Reliability- Confidence Combina- BLOOMER, H. E.: Also see Refs . 309 , 711 , 714, and
tions for Small-Sample Tests of Aerospace Ord- 775.
nance Items. JPL Tech. Rept . 32-1165 , July 108. BOLT, R. H .; LABATE , S .; AND INGARD, U.: The
1968 . Acoustic Reactance of Small Circular Orifices .
93. BERANEK, L. L.: Acoustics . McGraw Hill, New Journal of the Acoustical Society of America,
York, 1954. Vol . 21 , No. 2 , 1949.
94. BERLS, G. O .; AND ENSMINGER, J. F.: Stability 109. BONNELL, J. M.: Combustion Stability in an
Correlation Between the Pulse Motor Combustion Annular Gas Combustor . AIAA J. , Vol. 6, Oct.
Tool and a Full-scale Engine . AFRPL Tech. 1968 , p. 1941 .
Rept. No. AFRPL-TR-69-184, Aug. 1969. 110. BONNELL, J. M.: An Investigation of Spherical
95. BERMAN , K.; AND CHENEY, S. H. , JR .: Rocket Blast Waves and Detonation Waves in a Rocket
Motor Instability Studies. Jet Propulsion , Vol. Combustion Chamber. JPL Tech. Rept . 32-1286,
25, No. 10, Oct. 1955 . Aug. 1968.
96. BERMAN , K.; AND LOGAN , S. E .: Combustion Studies BONNELL, J. M.: Also see Ref. 775.
with a Rocket Motor Having a Full-Length 111. BONNER, B. H.; AND JACKMAN, P.: Studies of
Observation Window. JARS, Vol. 22, No. 2, Propellant Injection Processes . Rocket Propulsion
March-April 1952 . Establishment, Westcott, Gr. Britain.
97. BEVANS, R. S.: Mathematical Expressions for Drop 112. BORMAN, G. L.; EL WAKIL, M. J.; UYEHARA, O. A.;
Size Distributions in Sprays . Conference on AND MYERS, P. S.: Graphs of Reduced Variables
Fuel Sprays, University of Michigan, March for Computing Histories of Vaporizing Fuel
1949. Drops and Drop Histories Under Pressure. NACA
98. BICKFORD, L. L.; AND MEISENHOLDER, S. G.: TN 4338 , Sept. 1958 .
"POGO" Analysis of the Saturn Propulsion BORMAN, G. L.: Also see Ref. 562.
System. Aerojet- General AMDR 9635-037, April 113. BOWMAN, C. T.; AND GLASSMAN, I .: Longitudinal
1967. Combustion Instability Studies Using a Gaseous
BIOT, M. A.: See Ref. 713. Propellant Rocket Motor. First ICRPG Com-
99. BIRD, R. B.; STEWART, W. E .; AND LIGHTFOOT, bustion Instability Conference, CPIA Pub . No.
E. N.: Transport Phenomena . J. Wiley and Sons, 68, Jan. 1965, pp . 125–138.
New York, 1960. 114a. BRACCO, F. V.: The “ Direct" Method as Applied
100. BITTKER, D. A.: An Analytical Study of Turbulent to Liquid Rocket Engine Combustion and Ex-
and Molecular Mixing in Rocket Combustion. plosion Problems . Ph. D. Thesis, Princeton
NACA TN 4321 , Sept. 1958. University Dept. of Aerospace and Mechanical
101. BITTKER, D. A.: Effect of Ambient Air Velocity on Sciences Rept . No. 902 , pp . 65-91 , June 1970.
Atomization of Two Impinging Water Jets .
114b . BRACCO, F. V.; AND HARRJE, D. T .: The Direct
NASA TN D-2087, 1964.
Method Applied to Steady Liquid Propellant
102. BLACK, G. R.; AND HARRJE, D. T.: Mixture Ratio
Combustion : Investigation of Several Droplet
Survey Technique Based on Propellant Tem-
Burning Models for a LOX /Ethanol Engine.
perature Differences . Fourth ICRPG Combus-
Sixth ICRPG Combustion Conference, CPIA
tion Conference, CPIA Publication No. 162,
Pub. No. 192 , Vol . 1 , Dec. 1969, pp. 85–91.
Vol. 1 , Dec. 1967 , pp. 281-285 .
103. BLACKBURN, J. R.; REETHOF, G.; AND SHEARER, 115. BRACCO, F. V.; HARRJE, D. T.; AND CROCCO, L.:
J. L.: Fluid Power Control. Technology Press of Use of Shock Waves to Study Combustion Param-
M.I.T. , 1960. eters . Fifth ICRPG Combustion Conference,
104. BLACKMAN, A. W.: Effect of Nonlinear Losses on CPIA Pub. No. 183, Dec. 1958 , pp. 313-320.
the Design of Absorbers for Combustion In- 116. BRAGG, S. L.; AND SMITH, I. E.: Heat Transfer to
stabilities . J. Amer. Rocket Soc ., Vol . 30, No. 11 , Rocket Engine Injectors. Paper presented at
Nov. 1960 , pp. 1022-1028. joint meeting A.S.M.E. and I. Mech. E. Inter-
105. BLACKMAN, A. W.: An Investigation of Afterburner national Developments in Heat Transfer, 1961 .
Screech on Small Scale Combustor . UAC Re- 117. BREEN, B. P. , ET AL.: Injection and Combustion
search Laboratory Report R-26597-2, March 1954. of Hypergolic Propellants, Part II, Extension
REFERENCES 603
of Steady-state Combustion Model. Dynamic 131. BURSTEIN, S. Z.; AND CHINITZ, W.: Nonlinear
Science Final Tech. Rept. AFRPL-TR-69-48, Combustion Instability in Liquid-Propellant
April 1969. Rocket Motors . First, Second, Third and Fourth
118. BREEN, B. P.; AND BELTRAN, M. R.: Steady State Quarterly Reports to JPL, Contract NAS7-100 ,
Droplet Combustion with Decomposition ; Hy- Mathematical Applications Group, White Plains,
drazine/Nitrogen Tetroxide . Paper presented New York, 1967-1968.
at the AIChE 61st National Meeting, Feb. 1967. 132. BURSTEIN, S. Z.; HAMMER, S. S.; AND AGOSTA,
119. BREEN, B. P.; and LawvER, B. R .: Effect of Ad- V. D.: Spray Combustion Model with Droplet
ditives on Hydrazine Droplet Combustion . Fourth Breakup : Analytical and Experimental Results,
ICRPG Combustion Conference, CPIA Pub . in Detonation and Two-Phase Flow, Vol. 6 of
No. 162. Vol. I, Dec. 1967, p . 287. Progress in Astronautics and Rocketry (eds .,
BREEN , B. P.: Also see Refs, 88, 89, 91 , 140, 353, S. S. Penner and F. A. Williams) . Academic
358, 359, 410, 430, and 484. Press, New York, 1962, pp. 243–267.
120. BRIDGE, J. F.; and AnGRIST, S. W.: An Extended BURSTEIN, S. Z .: Also see Ref. 697.
Table of Roots of J'n(x) Y'n(8x) — J'n (6x) Y'n(x) := 133. BUZUKOV, A. A.: The Breakup of Drops and a
0. Mathematics of Computation , Vol . 16 , No. Fluid Stream by an Air Shock Wave. J. App.
78, 1962 , pp. 198-204. Mech. and Tech. Phys ., FTD-TT- 63-839 (AD
BRIKOWSKI , H. J.: See Ref. 249. 435996) , Foreign Technology Division , Jan. 1964 .
BRIONES, R. A.: See Ref. 765. 134. BUZUKOV, A. A.: J. App. Mech. and Tech. Phys .
121. BRODE, H. L.: Blast Wave from a Spherical Charge. (Collection of Articles) , FTD-MT-64-87 , Ma-
Physics of Fluids, Vol . 2, Pt . 2, Mar.-Apr. 1959, chine Translation by Foreign Technical Division ,
p. 217. Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, 1966 .
122. BROKAW, R. S.: Analytical Solution to the Ignition 135. CAMPBELL, D. T.: Combustion Instability Analysis
Kinetics of the Hydrogen Oxygen Reaction . at High Chamber Pressures. Rocketdyne,
Tenth Symposium (International) on Combus- AFRPL-TR-67-222, Aug. 1967.
tion, The Combustion Institute, 1965 , pp . 269- 135b. CAMPBELL, D. T. , ET AL.: Reaction Stream Sep-
278. aration Photography-Interim Report. Rocket-
123. BROOKS , R. E .; HEFLINGER, L. O .; AND WUERKER , dyne Rept. R 81-10, Jan. 1970.
R. F.: Pulsed Laser Holograms . IEEE J. of 136. CAMPBELL , D. T.; AND CHADWICK, W. D .: Com-
Quantum Electronics, QE-2, No. 8, Aug. 1966, bustion Instability Analysis at High Chamber
pp. 275-279. Pressure-Final Report. Rocketdyne AFRPL-
124. BRZUSTOWSKI, T. A.: Chemical and Physical TR-68-179, 1968.
Limits on Vapor-Phase Diffusion Flames of 137. CANTRELL, R. H .; AND HART, R. W.: Interaction
Droplets . Can. J. Chem. Eng. , 43, 1965 , p . 30. Between Sound and Flow in Acoustic Cavities :
125. BRYAN, R.: The Sampling of Rocket Combustion Mass, Momentum, and Energy Considerations .
Gases . J. of the Aero . Soc ., Vol . 68, Nov. 1964, J. Acoustical Soc. Amer. , Vol. 36, No. 4, 1964,
pp. 759-763. p. 697.
BUDNIK, C.: See Ref. 361 . CARHART, R. R.: See Ref. 251 .
126. BUFFUM, F. G.; DEHORITY, G. L.; AND SLATES , CARTER, J. M.: See Ref. 63 .
R. O.: Acoustic Attenuation in Resonant Model- CAWOOD, G. W.: See Ref. 145.
Rocket Motors . AIAA/ICRPG Second Solid CHADWICK, W. D .: See Refs . 136 and 509.
Propulsion Conference, 1967 , pp. 173–180 . CHENEY, S. H., JR.: See Ref. 95 .
127. BUFFUM, F. G. , JR .; DEHORITY, G. L.; SLATES , CHENG, S. I.: See Ref. 179.
R. O.; AND PRICE, E. W.: Acoustic Attenuation 137b. CHERVINSKY, A.: Supercritical Burning of Liquid
Experiments on Subscale, Cold-Flow Rocket Droplets in Stagnant Environment. AIAA J.,
Motors . AIAA J., Vol. 5, No. 2, Feb. 1967, pp. Vol . 7, July 1969, pp . 1815-1817 .
272-280.
138. CHESTNUT, H.; AND MAYER, R. W.: Servomecha-
BUGLER, G. J.: See Ref. 268.
nisms and Regulating System Design. Wiley,
128. BURKE, S. P.; AND SCHUMANN , T. E. W.: Diffusion 1955, Chapter 8.
Flames . Ind. Eng. Chemistry, Vol . 20, No. 10 , CHEW, T. J. C.: See Ref. 728.
Oct. 1928, p. 998.
139. CHILDS , D. W.: Modal Simulation of Unidirectional
129. BURROWs , M. C.: Radiation Processes Related to
Oxygen/Hydrogen Combustion at High Pres- Fluid Dynamics (Water Hammer) . Simulation,
sures . Tenth Symposium (International) on Sept. 1965 .
Combustion, The Combustion Institute, 1965, CHINITZ, W.: See Ref. 131.
pp . 207-215 . 140. CHOUDHURY, P. R.; KoSVIC, T. C.; NICKERSON,
130. BURROWs, M. C.: Thermal Radiation as a Tool in G. R.; AND BREEN , B. P.: Monopropellant Drop-
Analyzing Unstable Combustion . First ICRPG let Burning. Final Report on Contract NAS
Combustion Instability Conference, CPIA Pub. 7-467, Dynamic Science, 1968 .
No. 68, Vol. 1 , 1964 , pp. 301-309 . 141. CHU, B. T.: Mechanism of Generation of Pressure
Waves at Flame Fronts. Johns Hopkins Univer- CLINE, G. L.: Also see Ref. 275.
sity, NACA TN 3683, 1956. 156. CLINGER, E. C .: A Report on the F-1 Combustion
142. CHU, B. T.: Stability of Systems Containing a Heat Stability Development. Third ICRPG Combus-
Source by the Rayleigh Criterion . NACA RM tion Conference , CPIA Pub . No. 138 , Vol. 1 ,
56D27, 1956. Feb. 1967 , p . 359.
143. CHU, B. T.; AND YING, S. J.: Thermally Driven COATS, D. C.: See Refs. 266 and 410.
Nonlinear Oscillations in a Pipe with Travelling 157. COLBERT, J. E .: Use of an Acoustic Liner to At-
Shock Waves . AFOSR-TN-686, (AD267069) , tenuate FLOX-Light Hydrocarbon Instability.
Apr. 1961 . Fourth ICRPG Combustion Conference, CPIA
144. CHUNG, P. M.; AND BLANKENSHIP, V. D.: Equilib- Pub. No. 162, Vol. I , Dec. 1967, p . 271 .
rium Structure of Thin Diffusion Flame Zone. COLBERT, J. E.: Also see Ref. 467.
Aerospace Corp. Rept. No. TR-669, (S6240- COLEMAN, B.: See Ref. 587.
10)-1, Dec. 1965. 158. COMBS , L. P.: Calculated Propellant Droplet
145. CLAPP, S. D .; AND CAWOOD, G. W.: Development of Heating under F-1 Combustion Chamber Con-
Injector Design Criteria Applicable to the ditions . Rocketdyne Research Rept. No. 64-25,
Booster and Sustainer Engines of the Lance June 1964.
Missile. Rocketdyne Research Rept. No. 63-40, 159. COMBS, L. P.: Mixing processes in Liquid Propellant
Dec. 1963. Rocket Combustion Chambers-A Review. Paper
CLAPP, S. D.: Also see Refs. 221 and 258 . presented at joint meeting of the American In-
146. CLARK, B. J.: Breakup of a Liquid Jet in a Trans- stitute of Chemical Engineers and the Institu-
verse Flow of Gas. NASA TN D-2424, 1964. tion of Chemical Engineers , London, 1965.
147. CLAYTON, R. M.: The Influence of Several Near- 160. COMBS, L. P.: Rating of the A7 and A6 Redstone
Wall Injection Conditions on the Combustion Engines by Gas Pulse Initiated Combustion
Performance of a Liquid Rocket Engine. JPL Instability, Summary Report . Rocketdyne Re-
Tech. Rept. No. 32-1283 , Sept. 1968. search Memorandum RM 528/91 , July 1959.
148. CLAYTON, R. M.: Resonant Combustion . JPL 161. COMBS, L. P.: A Summary of Experience with Com-
Space Programs Summary 37-49, Vol. III , Feb. bustion Stability Rating Techniques. Second
1968, pp. 223–236. ICRPG Combustion Conference, CPIA Pub.
149. CLAYTON, R. M.: Resonant Combustion . JPL No. 105 , Vol . 2, May 1966.
Space Programs Summary 37-56 , Vol . III , April 162. COMBS , L. P.; AND HOEHN, F. W.: Steady-State
1969 , pp . 204–212 . (Expanded form to be pub- Rocket Combustion of Gaseous Hydrogen and
lished as JPL Tech. Rpt. 32-1479, late 1970.) Liquid Oxygen, Part I : Experimental Investi-
150. CLAYTON, R. M.: Some Effects of Near-Wall In- gation. Rocketdyne, Research Rept. No. 64-24,
jection on Steady and Nonsteady Liquid Rocket June 1964.
Combustion Behavior. Fourth ICRPG Com- 163. COMBS , L. P.; HOEHN , F. W.; WEBB, S. R.; ET AL.:
bustion Conference, CPIA Pub. No. 162 , Vol. 1 , Combustion Stability Rating Techniques-Final
Dec. 1967. Report. Rocketdyne, AFRPL- TR-66-229 , Sept.
151. CLAYTON, R. M.; AND ROGERO, R. S .: Experimental 1966.
Measurements on a Rotating Detonation- Like
164. COMBS , L. P.; AND LAMBIRIS, S .: Stabilization of
Combustion . JPL Tech. Rept. No. 32-788, Aug.
Liquid Propellant Rocket Combustion by Com-
1965 .
bustion Chamber Baffles . Bulletin of the Second
152. CLAYTON R. M.; ROGERO , R. S .; and SOTTER,
Meeting of the JANAF Liquid Propellant Group,
J. G.: An Experimental Description of Destruc- LPIA. Applied Physics Lab . , Johns Hopkins
tive Liquid Rocket Resonant Combustion. AIAA University, Nov. 1960, pp . 565–568.
Journal, Vol. 6, No. 7., July 1968, p . 1252 .
153. CLAYTON, R. M.; RUPE , J. H .; AND GERBRACHT, 165-166 . COMBS, L. P.; AND SCHUMAN, M. D .: Steady-
State Rocket Combustion of Liquid Oxygen and
F. G .: An Experimental Correlation of the Non-
Gaseous Hydrogen, Part II : Analysis for Coaxial
reactive Properties of Injection Schemes and
Jet Injection . Rocketdyne Research Rept. RR
Combustion Effects in a Liquid-Propellant Rocket
64-29, 1965, and RR 64-25 , 1964.
Engine, Part II . JPL Tech . Rept. No. 32-255,
May 1967. 167. COMBS , L. P.; SCHUMACHER, P. E.; Kesselring,
154. CLAYTON, R. M .; SOTTER, J. G.; and WOODWARD, R. C.; AND KULUVA, N. M.: Improvement of
J. W.: Resonant Combustion . JPL Space Pro- Bombs and Pulse Guns as Stability Rating
grams Summary 37-41 , Vol. IV, Oct. 1966, pp . Devices-Final Report. Rocketdyne, AFRPL-
134-151 . TR-68-18, March 1968 .
CLAYTON, R. M.: Also see Refs . 618 and 655 . COMBS, L. P .: Also see Refs . 272 , 419, 420 , 421 ,
155. CLINE, G. L.; FORD, W. M.; HERGET, W. F.; AND 425, 426, and 427 .
SCHUMACHER, P. E .: Radiative and Structural 168. CONN, T. E.; HESTER, J. N.; AND VALENTINE , R. S.:
Characteristics of Rocket Exhaust Plumes . Experimental Effects Upon Rocket Injector/
Rocketdyne Rept . R-6742, Sept. 1966. Chamber Compatibility. Journal of Spacecraft
REFERENCES 605
and Rockets, Vol . 4, No. 12 , Dec. 1967, pp. Time Lag in a Monopropellant Rocket Motor.
1581-1585. Fifth Symposium (International) on Combustion,
CONNER, B. U.: See Ref. 75. Reinhold , 1965.
CONRAD, E. W.: See Refs. 310, 311 , 652 , 690, and 183. CROCCO, L.; AND HARRJE, D. T.: Combustion In-
719. stability in Liquid Propellant Rocket Motors .
169. CONVERSE, J. W.; AND HOFFMAN, J. D.: Acoustic Experimental Methods in Combustion Research,
Standing Waves in a Rocket Combustion Cham- J. Surugue, ed. , Pergamon Press, London, 1961 .
ber with Ring and Spoke Baffles . Purdue 184. CROCCO, L.; AND HARRJE, D. T.: Nonlinear As-
University, TM-67-5 , Aug. 1967 . pects of Combustion Instability in Liquid Pro-
170. COULTAS , T. A.; AND KESSELRING, R. C .: Extension pellant Rocket Motors . First ICRPG Com-
of the Priem Theory and Its Use in Simulation of bustion Instability Conference, CPIA Pub. No.
Instability on the Computer. Second ICRPG 68, Jan. 1965 , pp. 47–72.
Combustion Conference , CPIA Pub. No. 105 , 185. CROCCO, L.; HARRJE , D. T. , ET AL.: Nonlinear
May 1966 . Aspects of Combustion Instability in Liquid
COULTAS, T. A.: Also see Ref. 222 . Propellant Rocket Motors. Princeton University
COURTNEY, W.: See Ref. 361 . Aero . Eng. Rept . No. 553, June 1961 .
171. CRAMER, F. B .: The Onset of Detonation in a 186. CROCCO, L.; HARRJE , D. T. , ET AL .: Nonlinear
Droplet Combustion Field . Ninth Symposium Aspects of Combustion Instability in Liquid
(International) on Combustion, Academic Press, Propellant Rocket Motors-Third Yearly Progress
New York, 1963 , p. 482 . Report. Princeton University, Aero . Eng. Rept.
172. CRAMER, F. B .; AND BAKER, P. D .: Combustion 553c, June 1963.
Processes in a Bipropellant Liquid Rocket En- 187. CROCCO, L.; HARRJE , D. T.; AND REARDON , F. H.:
gine. JPL Rept. No. 900-2 , Jan. 1967 . Transverse Combustion Instability in Liquid
173. CROCCO, L.: Aspects of Combustion Instability in Propellant Rocket Motors . ARS J. , Vol . 32 , No.
Liquid Propellant Rockets . JARS Part I , Vol . 21 , 3, March 1962 , pp. 366–373 .
Nov. 1951 , Part II , Vol . 22 , Jan. 1952. 188. CROCCO, L.; HARRJE, D. T.; SIRIGNANO, W. A.;
174. CROCCO, L.: Comments on the Zucrow-Osborn ET AL.: Nonlinear Aspects of Combustion Insta-
Paper on Combustion Oscillations. Jet Propul- bility in Liquid Propellant Rocket Motors-
sion, Vol. 28 , No. 12 , Dec. 1958, p. 843 . Fourth Yearly Progress Report. Princeton
175. CROCCO, L.: Considerations on the Problem of University Dept. of Aerospace and Mechanical
Scaling Rocket Motors. AGARD Selected Com- Sciences Rept. 553d, June 1964.
bustion Problems, Vol. 2, Butterworths Scien- 189. CROCCO, L.; HARRJE , D. T.; AND SIRIGNANO, W. A.:
tific Publications, London , 1956 , pp. 457–468 . Nonlinear Aspects of Combustion Instability in
176. CROCCO, L.: The Relevance of a Characteristic Liquid Propellant Rocket Motors . Second ICRPG
Time in Combustion Instability . Second ICRPG Combustion Conference , CPIA Pub. No. 105,
Combustion Conference, CPIA Pub . No. 105 , May 1966, pp. 63-105.
Vol. 1 , May 1966, p. 115. 190. CROCCO , L.; HARRJE , D. T.; SIRIGNANO, W. A.;
177. CROCCO, L.: Research on Combustion Instability ET AL.: Nonlinear Aspects of Combustion In-
in Liquid Propellant Rockets . Twelfth Sym- stability in Liquid Propellant Rocket Motors-
posium (International) on Combustion, The Fifth Yearly Progress Report. Princeton Uni-
Combustion Institute, 1969. versity Dept. of Aerospace and Mechanical
178. CROCCO, L.: Theoretical Studies on Liquid Pro- Sciences Rept . 553c, June 1965 .
pellant Rocket Instability. Tenth Symposium 191. CROCCO, L .; HARRJE, D. T.; SIRIGNANO, W. A.;
(International) on Combustion , The Combustion ET AL.: Nonlinear Aspects of Combustion In-
Institute, 1965 , p . 1101 . stability in Liquid Propellant Rocket Motors-
179. CROCCO, L.; AND CHENG, S. I .: Theory of Com- Sixth Yearly Progress Report . Princeton Uni-
bustion Instability in Liquid Propellant Rocket versity Dept. of Aerospace and Mechanical
Motors . AGARDograph No. 8, Butterworths Sci . Sciences Rept. 553f, June 1966.
Pub. Ltd., London, 1956 .
192. CROCCO, L.; HARRJE, D. T.; SIRIGNANO, W. A.;
180. CROCCO, L.; GREY, J.; AND HARRJE, D. T.: Theory
ET AL.: Nonlinear Aspects of Combustion In-
of Liquid Propellant Rocket Combustion In-
stability in Liquid Propellant Rocket Motors .
stability and Its Experimental Verification. ARS
Princeton University, NASA CR 72270, June 1967.
J., Vol. 30 , No. 2, Feb. 1960 , pp. 159–168 .
181. CROCCO, L.; GREY, J.; And Hilliard, F.: Combus- 193. CROCCO, L.; HARRJE, D. T ; SIRIGNANO, W. A.;
tion Instability in Liquid Rocket Motors- ET AL.: Nonlinear Aspects of Combustion In-
Fourteenth Quarterly Progress Report. Princeton stability in Liquid Propellant Rocket Motors .
University Aero Eng. Rept. No. 216-n, Dec. Princeton University, NASA CR 72426 , June
1955. 1968.
182. CROCCO, L.; GREY, J.; AND MATTHEWS, G. B .: 194. CROCCO, L.; AND MITCHELL, C. E .: Nonlinear
Preliminary Measurement of the Combustion Periodic Oscillations in Rocket Motors with Dis-
tributed Combustion . Combustion Science and J. A.: A Study of Heterogeneous Detonations.

Technology, Vol. 1 , No. 2, 1969. Astronautica Acta , Vol . 12 , 1966 , p. 9.
195. CROCCO, L.; MONTI, R.; AND GREY, J.: Verification 209. DABORA, E. K.; RAGLAND, K. W.; AND RANGER,
of Nozzle Admittance Theory by Exact Measure- A. A.: Two Phase Detonation and Drop Shat-
ment of the Admittance Parameter. ARS J., tering Studies . University of Michigan , NASA
Vol. 31 , No. 6, June 1961 , pp. 771-775. CR-72225, April 1967.
196. CROCCO, L.; AND SIRIGNANO, W. A.: Behavior of 210. DABORA, E. K.; RAGLAND, K. W.; RANGER, A. A.;
Supercritical Nozzles under Three-Dimensional AND NICHOLLS , J. A.: Detonation in Two Phase
Oscillatory Conditions . AGARDograph No. 117, Media and Drop Shattering Studies . University
1967 . of Michigan, NASA CR-72421 , 1968.
197. CROCCO, L.; AND SIRIGNANO, W. A.: Effect of the 211. DABORA, E. K.; RAGLAND, K. W.; RANGER, A. A.;
Transverse Velocity Component on the Non- AND NICHOLLS , J. A.: Two-Phase Detonations
linear Behavior of Short Nozzles . AIAA J, Vol. and Drop Shattering Studies Second Annual
4, No. 8, Aug. 1966, pp. 1428–1430. Progress Report. University of Michigan, Rept .
198. CROCCO, L.; TANG, P.; AND VARMA, A. K.: Theo- No. 06324-2-T, 1966.
retical Analysis of Nonlinear Transverse Com- DABORA, E. K.: Also see Refs . 513 and 572.
bustion Instability in Liquid Propellant Rocket 212. DAHLBERG, D. E.: Combustion Instability for
Motors Using a Droplet Evaporation Model . Liquid Oxygen and Liquid and Cold Gas Hy-
Fifth ICRPG Combustion Conference, CPIA drogen Propellants -Phase II , Final Report.
Pub. No. 183, Dec. 1968. Pratt & Whitney Aircraft FR- 1374, May 1965 .
CROCCO, L.: Also see Refs . 115, 321 , 322 , 323 , 489, 213. DAMKÖHLER, G.: Einflüsse der Strömung, Diffusion
583, 646, 647, and 671. und des Wärmeuberganges auf die Leistung von
199. CROWE, C. T.; NICHOLLS , J. A.; AND MORRISON , Reaktionsofen. Z. Electrochem, Vol. 42, 1936,
R. B .: Drag Coefficients of Inert and Burning pp . 846-862 .
Particles Accelerating in a Gas. Ninth Symposium 214. DANKWERTS, P. V.: Effect of Incomplete Mixing
(International) on Combustion, Academic Press, on Homogeneous Reactions. Chem. Eng. Sci .,
1963. Vol. 7, 1958, pp . 93–102 .
200. CRUTTENDEN, A. J .: Estimation of Reaction Ratio DATNER, P. P.: See Refs . 539 and 603.
Fluctuations in Rocket Combustion Gases from 215. DATSKO, S. C.; AND TOMAZIC, W. A.: Stability and
Gas-sampling Measurements. R. P. E. Westcott, Performance Comparison of the M-1 Injector
Great Britain, Tech. Rpt. No. 68/9, Oct. 1968. With and Without Baffles . Fourth ICRPG Com-
201. CRUTTENDEN , A. J .; AND JACKMAN , P .: Unpublished bustion Conference, CPIA Pub . No. 162, Vol. 1 ,
work at R. P. E. , Westcott, Gr. Britain. Dec. 1967 , p . 1 .
202. CULICK, F.E.C .: Stability of High Frequency Pres- 216. DAVIS, L. R.: Effects of Injection Location on
sure Oscillations in Gas and Liquid Rocket Com- Combustion Instability in Premixed Gaseous
bustion Chambers . M.I.T. Aerophysics Labora- Bipropellant Rocket Motors . MSME Thesis,
tory Rept. 480, June 1961 . Purdue University, Jan. 1961 .
203. CULICK, F. E. C .: Stability of High-Frequency DAVIS , L. R.: Also see Ref. 527.
Pressure Oscillations in Rocket Combustion 217. D'Azzo, J. J.; AND HOUPIS, C. H.: Feedback Con-
Chambers . AIAA J, Vol. 1 , No. 5, 1963, pp . trol System Analysis and Synthesis. McGraw-
1097-1104 . Hill, 1960, p . 442 .
204. CULICK, F. E. C .; AND DEHORITY, G. L.: An Analy- DEAN, L. E.: See Refs . 554 and 703.
sis of Axial Acoustic Waves in a Cold-Flow
218. DECORSO, S. M.: Effect of Ambient and Fuel
Rocket. NWC TP 4544, Naval Weapons Center,
Pressure on Spray Drop Size. Trans . ASME,
China Lake, California, May 1968.
Vol. 82, Series A, 1962, p . 10 .
CULLEN, R. E.: See Ref. 512.
CURLEY, J. K.: See Ref. 714 . 219. DECORSO, S. M.: Spray Distribution and Drop
205. CURTET, R.: Confined Jets and Recirculation Size from a Swirl Atomizer . ASME Paper No.
Phenomena with Cold Air. Combustion and 61 -WA-300, 1962 .
DEHORITY, G. L.: See Refs . 126, 127 , and 204.
Flame, Vol. 2, 1958 , pp. 383-411 .
CURTET, R.: Also see Ref. 77. 220. DEL MONTE , J.: A Flush Mounted High Heat
Flux Resistant Semiconductor Combustion
206. DABORA, E. K.: Production of Monodisperse
Sprays . Rev. Sci . Instr. , Vol . 38, No. 4, Apr Transducer for Rocket Motor Stability Studies.
1967, p . 502 . ISA, Vol. No. 10, Oct. 1964.
207. DABORA, E. K.; RAGLAND, K. W.; AND NICHOLLS, DEL NOTARIO, P. P.: See Refs . 681 and 682 .
J. A.: Drop Size Effects in Spray Detonations. DELSASSO, L. P.: See Ref. 768.
Twelfth Symposium (International) on Com- DERKSEN , W.: See Ref. 384.
bustion, The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, DEWITT, R. L.: See Ref. 715 .
1969. 221. DICKERSON, R. A.; ARBIT, H. A.; CLAPP, S. D .;
208. DABORA, E. K.; RAGLAND, K. W.; AND NICHOLLS, AND NAGAI, C. K.: Lithium-Fluorine-Hydrogen
REFERENCES 607
Propellant Study. Rocketdyne, NASA CR- 235. DYKEMA, O. W.: An Engineering Approach to
72325, Feb. 1968. Combustion Instability. Aerospace Corp. Rept.
222. DICKERSON, R. A.; AND COULTAS, T. A.: Breakup No. TDR-669 (6126-22) -1 , 1965.
of Droplets in an Accelerating Gas Flow. AIAA 236. DYKEMA, O. W.: An Engineering Approach to
Paper No. 66-611 , Second Propulsion Joint Combustion Instability. Second ICRPG Com-
Specialist Conference, 1966 . bustion Conference, CPIA Pub. No. 105 , May
223. DICKERSON , R. A.; AND SCHUMAN , M. D.: Atomiza- 1966, p . 205 .
tion Rates of Droplets and Jets . Preprint No. 237. DYKEMA, O. W.: Liquid Mixing of an Impinging
63-498 , AIAA Heterogeneous Combustion Con- Jet Using Immiscible Liquids . Rocketdyne Re-
ference, 1963. search Rept . RR 60-28 , Nov. 1960.
224. DICKERSON, R. A.; TATE , K. W.; and Barsic , N.: 238. DYKEMA, O. W.: A Proposed Mechanism of High
Correlation of Spray Injector Parameters with Frequency Combustion Instability. Rocketdyne
Rocket Performance . Rocketdyne Final Tech . Research Rept . No. RR 60-25 , Jan. 1961 .
Rept . AFRPL- TR-68-147, June 1968. 239. DYKEMA, O. W.; AND GREEN, S. A.: An Experi-
225. DICKERSON , R.; TATE , K.; AND NURICK, W .: Cor- mental Study of RP-1 , UDMH and N2H, Single
relation of Spray Injector Parameters with Rocket Droplet Burning in Air and in Oxygen. Progress
Engine Performance. Rocketdyne Tech. Rept . in Astronautics and Rocketry : Liquid Rockets
AFRPL-TR-68-11 , Jan. 1968. and Propellants, Vol. 2, Academic Press, 1960,
DIEHL, L.: See Ref. 345. pp . 299-349.
226. DIPPREY, D. F .; Rupe , J. H.; PORTER, R. N.; and DYKEMA, O. W .: Also see Ref. 380.
EVANS , D. D.: On the Evolution of Advanced ECKEL, E. F.: See Refs . 289 and 748 .
Propulsion Systems for Spacecraft. JPL Tech . ECKERT, E. R.: See Ref. 317.
Rept. No. 32-735 , July 1965 . 240. EISENKLAM, P.; ARUNACHALAM, S. A.; AND Weston,
DIPPREY, D. F.: Also see Ref. 618 . J. A.: Evaporation Rates and Drag Resistance
227. DITORE, M. J.; HARTSELL, J. O .; AND THOMAS, of Burning Drops . Eleventh Symposium (Inter-
R. M.: Investigation of Heterogeneous Propellant national) on Combustion , The Combustion In-
Two-Phase Flow Criteria. Aerojet-General, stitute, 1967 , pp. 715–728.
AFRPL-TR-67-62 , April 1967 . 241. ELLIOTT, D. G.; BARTZ , D. R.; AND SILVER, S .: Calcu-
228. DOBBINS , R. A.; AND TEMKIN, S .: Propagation of lation of Turbulent Boundary Layer Growth and
Sound in a Gas-Particle Mixture and Acoustic Heat Transfer in Axi-Symmetric Nozzles , JPL
Combustion Instability . AIAA J, Vol. 5, No. 12, Tech. Rept . 32-87 , Feb. 1963.
Dec. 1967, pp . 2182–2186 . 242. ELLIS , H. B.; AND PICKFORD, R. S.: High Frequency
DOBBINS, R. A.: Also see Ref. 684 . Combustion Instability. Aerojet-General,
DODSON, D. S.: See Ref. 267. AFOSR-TN-56-547 , Sept. 1956.
229. DOMBROWSKI, N.; AND HOOPER, P. C.: The Effect 243. ELVERUM, G. W. , Jr .: Variable Thrust Bipropellant
of Ambient Density on Drop Formation in Sprays . Rocket Engine. Patent No. 3205656 dated August
Chem. Eng. Sci . , Vol . 17, 1962 , p . 291 . 1962, assigned to TRW Inc.
230. DOMBROWSKI , N .; AND JOHNS, W. R.: The Aerody- 244. ELVERUM, G. W.; AND MOREY, T. F.: Criteria for
namic Instability and Disintegration of Viscous Optimum Mixture-ratio Distributions Using
Liquid Sheets . Chem. Eng. Sci . , Vol . 18 , 1963, Several Types of Impinging-Stream Injector
pp . 203-214. Elements . JPL Memorandum No. 30-5 , Feb.
DOMICH, E. G.: See Refs. 314 and 315. 1959.
231. DOMINICIS , D. P.: An Experimental Investigation
of Near Critical and Supercritical Burning of 245. ELVERUM, G. W. , JR.; STAUDHammer, P .; Miller,
J.; HOFFMAN, A.; AND ROCKOw, R.: The Descent
Bipropellant Droplets. Mechanical Eng. Dept.
Engine for the Lunar Module. AIAA Paper No.
Pennsylvania State University, NASA CR-
67-521 , AIAA 3rd Propulsion Joint Specialist
72399, April 1967.
Conference, July 1967.
DOMINICIS, D. P.: Also see Refs. 255 and 256 .
232. DORSCH, R. G.; AND WOOD, D. J.: Effect of Pro- 246. ELVERUM, G. W.; AND STAUDHAMMER , P .: The
pellant-Feed System Coupling and Hydraulic Effect of Rapid Liquid Phase Reactions on In-
Parameters on Analysis of Chugging. NASA TN jector Design and Combustion in Rocket Motors.
D-3796, May 1967. JPL Rept. 30-4, Aug. 1959.
233. DRAIN, D. I .; SCHUM, H. J.; AND WASSERBAUER, 247. EL WAKIL, M. M.; AND ABDOU, M. I .: The Self-
C. A.: Relations of Combustion Dead Time to Ignition of Fuel Drops in Heated Air Streams.
Engine Variables for a 20,000 Pound Thrust Part I Experimental Data, Fuel, Vol. 45 , No. 3,
Gaseous Hydrogen- Liquid Oxygen Rocket En- 1966 , pp. 177-188 ; Part II Physical Ignition
gine . NASA TN D-851 , 1961 . Delay, ibid. , 1966, pp. 189-197 ; Part III Chemical
234. DUNCAN, W. J.; THOM, A. S .; AND YOUNG, A. D.: Ignition Delay, ibid . , 1966, pp. 199-205 .
Elementary Treatise on Mechanics of Fluids . 248. EL WAKIL, M. M.; UYEHARA, O. A.; AND MYERS,
Edward Arnold , Ltd. , Publishers , London, 1960. P. S .: A Theoretical Investigation of the
Heating-up Period of Injected Fuel Droplets 262. FENDELL, F. E.: Decompositional Burning of a
Vaporizing in Air. NACA TN 3179, 1954. Droplet in a Small Peclet Number Flow. AIAA
249. EL WAKIL, M. M.; PRIEM, R. J.; BRIKOWSKI , H. J.; J., Vol. 6, 1968, p. 1946.
MYERS , P. S.; AND UYEHARA, O. A.: Experimental 263. FENDELL, F. E.: Flame Structure in Initially Un-
and Calculated Temperature and Mass Histories mixed Reactants Under One-Step Kinetics . Chem.
of Vaporizing Fuel Drops . NACA TN 3490, Eng. Sci. , Vol. 22, 1967 , p. 1829.
1956. 264. FENDELL, F. E .: Near-Equilibrium Decomposi-
EL WAKIL, M. M.: See Refs . 112 and 562 . tional Burning of Monopropellant Droplets in a
250. ENGEL, O. G.: Fragmentation of Waterdrops in the Stagnant Atmosphere. Int. J. Heat Mass Trans-
Zone Behind an Air Shock. J. of Res . Nat'l . Bur. fer, Vol. 12, 1969, pp . 223–231 .
Stds ., Vol. 60, No. 3, March, 1958 . 265. FENDELL, F. E.: Quasi-Steady Sphericosymmetric
ENSMINGER, J. F.: See Ref. 94 . Monopropellant Decomposition in Inert and
251. EPSTEIN, P. S .; AND CARHART, R. R.: The Absorp- Reactive Environments. Paper P-16, 19th In-
tion of Sound in Suspensions and Emulsions . I. ternational Astronautical Congress, Oct. 1968,
Water fog in air. J. Acoust. Soc. Amer., Vol. 25, (DDC AD 680 306) .
1953 , p. 553. 266. FENDELL, F. E .; COATS, D. C.; and SMITH, E. B.:
EULNER, R. N.: See Ref. 608 . Compressible Slow Viscous Flow Past a Vapor-
252. EVANS, D. D .; STANFORD, H. B.; anD RIEBLING, izing Droplet. AIAA J, Vol. 6, 1968, p- 1953.
R. W.: The Effect of Injector-Element Scale on 267. FENDELL, F. E.; SPRANKLE, M. L.; AND Dodson,
the Mixing and Combustion of Nitrogen Tetrox- D. S .: Thin Flame Theory for a Fuel Droplet in
ide-Hydrazine Propellants. JPL Tech . Rept . Slow Viscous Flow. J. Fluid Mech., Vol. 26,
32-1178, Nov. 1967. 1966, p. 267.
EVANS, D. D.: Also see Ref. 226 and 519. 268. FENWICK, J. R.; AND Bugler, G. J.: Oscillatory
EVANS, H. D .: See Ref. 507. Flame Front Flow Rate Amplification Through
253. FAETH, G. M.: Flame Zone Development of Mono- Propellant Injection Ballistics (The Klystron
propellant Droplets . Combustion and Flame, Effect) . Third ICRPG Combustion Conference,
Vol. 12 , 1968, pp . 411-416 . CPIA Pub . No. 138, Vol . 1 , Feb. 1967, p . 417 .
254. FAETH, G. M .: Monopropellant Droplet Burning 269. FERRI, A.: A Critical Review of Heterogeneous
at Low Reynolds Numbers . Combustion and Mixing Problems. Aerospace Research Labora-
Flame, Vol. 11 , 1967, p . 167 . tories Report ARL 67-0187 , Sept. 1967.
255. FAETH, G. M .; DOMINICIS, D. P.; AND Olson , D. R.: FESHBACH, H.: See Ref. 504.
An Investigation of Near Critical and Super- 270. FIFER, S.: Analog Computation, Volume IV.
Critical Burning of Fuel Droplets . NASA CR- McGraw-Hill, New York, 1961 .
72314, Sept. 1967. 271. FISHER, R. A. , ET AL.: Study of Droplet Effects on
256. FAETH, G. M.; DOMINICIS, D. P.; TULPINSKY, Steady-State Combustion, Vol. I : Measured
J. F.; AND OLSON, D. R.: Supercritical Bipropel- Spray Parameter Analysis and Performance
lant Droplet Combustion . Twelfth Symposium Correlation . Rocketdyne Tech. Rept. AFRPL-
(International) on Combustion , The Combustion TR-66-152, Vol. I , Aug. 1966 .
Institute, 1969, pp . 9-18 (also see 13th Sym- FLORSHEIM, B. H.: See Ref. 725.
posium). 272. FONTAINE, R. J.; Levine , R. S.; and Combs, L. P.:
257. FAETH, G. M .; KARHAN , B. L.; AND YANGECIO, Secondary Non Destructive Instability in Medium
G. A.: Ignition and Combustion of Monopro- Size Liquid Fuel Rocket Engines. Advances in
pellant Droplets . AIAA J. , Vol. 6 , 1968, p. 684 . Tactical Rocket Propulsion , AGARD Conference
258. FALK, A. Y.; CLAPP, S. D.; and Nagai , C. K.: Proceedings No. 1 , S. S. Penner, ed., Techni-
Space Storable Propellant Study-Final Report . vision Services , Maidenhead , England , 1968,
Rocketdyne Rept. R-7677 , 1968 . pp . 383-402 .
259. FEILER, C. E .: Effect of Combustor Parameters FONTAINE , R. J.: See Ref. 381 .
on the Stability of Gaseous Hydrogen-Liquid 273. FORD, H. J.: A Study of the Suppression of Com-
Oxygen Engine . NASA TM X-52360, 1967. bustion Oscillations with Mechanical Damping
(Also Fourth ICRPG Combustion Conference, Devices, Summary Report of Tasks I and II.
CPIA Pub. No. 162 , Vol. 1 , Dec. 1967.) Pratt & Whitney Aircraft PWA FR- 1007 , Aug.
260. FEILER, C. E.; AND HEIDMANN , M. F.: Dynamic 1964.
Response of Gaseous Hydrogen Flow System 274. FORD, H. J.: A study of the suppression of Com-
and Its Application to High Frequency Com- bustion Oscillations with Mechanical Damping
bustion Instability. NASA TN D-4040, June Devices, Summary Report of Tasks III through
1967. VI. Pratt & Whitney Aircraft PWA FR- 1115,
FEILER, C. E.: Also see Refs . 338 , 653 , and 716. Nov. 1964.
261. FENDELL, F. E.: Combustion in Initially Unmixed FORD, H. J.: Also see Ref. 702.
Reactants for One Step Reversible Chemical 275. FORD, W. M.; SUTTON , R. D.; AND Cline , G. L.:
Kinetics . Astronautica Acta, Vol . 13 , 1967 , p . 183 . Flow Visualization in the Hydrogen-Oxygen J-2S
REFERENCES 609
Engine. Research Report RR 68-3 , Rocketdyne, PENNER, S. S .: Determination of Rocket-Motor

Mar. 1968 . Combustion Parameters by Means of a Diverging
FORD, W. M.: Also see Ref. 155. Reactor. Seventh Symposium (International) on
276. FORSYTHE, G. E.; AND WASOW, W. R.: Finite Dif- Combustion, Butterworths Scientific Pub.,
ference Methods for Partial Difference Equations. London, 1959, pp . 712-724.
John Wiley & Sons, New York, N. Y., 1960. GILL, G. S.: Also see Ref. 748 .
277. FOSTER, H. H.; AND HEIDMANN, M. F.: Spatial 289b. GINSBURG, B. R .: Flowrate Measurements for
Characteristics of Water Spray Formed by Two Spacecraft Thrusters. Presented at the ASME
Impinging Jets at Several Jet Velocities in Quies- Flow Measurement Conference, Pittsburgh, Pa.,
cent Air. NASA TN D-301 , 1960 . Sept. 26-28 , 1966 (reprints available from Ramapo
FOSTER, H. H.: Also see Refs . 339 and 379. Inst. Co. , Inc., Bloomingdale, N. J. 07403 ) .
278. Fox, J. C .: Preliminary Investigation of Helmholtz GLASSMAN, I.: See Refs. 113 and 634 .
Resonators for Damping Pressure Oscillations GLEASON, J. L.: See Ref. 509.
in a 3.6-inch Ramjet at Mach Number 1.90 . 290. GODSAVE, G. A. E .: Studies of the Combustion of
NACA RM E 51C95 , 1951 . Drops in a Fuel Spray-The Burning of Single
FREY, A. R.: See Ref. 407. Drops of Fuel . Fourth Symposium (International)
FRIANT, D. R.: See Ref. 300 . on Combustion, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore,
279. FRIEDLANDER, S. K.; AND KELLER, K. H.: The 1953, pp. 818-830.
Structure of the Zone of Diffusion-Controlled GODWIN, T. W.: See Ref. 690.
Reaction. Chem. Eng. Sci . , Vol. 18, 1963 , p. 365. 291. GOELZ, R. R .: Combustion Instability in Steel and
280. FRÖSSLING, N.: Uber die Verdungtung Fallenden Ablative Rocket Chambers . NASA TMX- 1511 ,
Tropfen. Gerlands Beitrage Zur Geophysik, Vol. 1968 .
52, 1938, p . 170. GOELZ, R. R.: Also see Ref. 309.
281. GABOR, D.: A New Microscope Principle. Nature, 292. GOLDSMITH, M.: Experiments on the Burning of
Vol. 161 , May 1948, p . 777 . Single Drops of Fuel . Jet Propulsion , Vol. 26,
GALLOWAY, A. J.: See Ref. 751 . March 1956, p . 172.
GARRETT, A. See Ref. 386. 293. GOLDSMITH, M.; AND AND PENNER, S. S .: On the
282. GARRISON, G. D .: Absorbing Liners for Rocket Burning of Single Drops of Fuel in an Oxidizer
Combustion Chambers- Theory and Design Atmosphere. Jet Propulsion , Vol . 24 , 1954 , p .
Techniques. Pratt & Whitney, AFRPL-TR-66- 245 .
234, Aug. 1966. 294. GORDEEV, V. E.; KOMOV, V. F.; AND TROSHIN,
283. GARRISON, G. D.: Acoustic Liners for Storable YA. K.: Concerning Detonation Combustion in
Propellant Rocket Chambers-Phase I Final Heterogeneous Systems. Proc of the Academy of
Report. Pratt & Whitney, AFRPL-TR-67-205 , Science, USSR (Physical Chemistry) , Vol . 160,
July 1967. No. 4, 1965.
284. GARRISON, G. D.: Acoustic Liners for Storable 295. GORDON, C.; AND SMITH, P. W. , JR.: Acoustic
Propellant Rocket Chambers-Phase II Final Losses of a Resonator with Steady Gas Flow. J.
Report. Pratt & Whitney Rept. PWA FR-2812, Acoust. Soc. Amer. , Vol . 37 , 1965, p . 257 .
(AFRPL-TR-68-118 ) , Aug. 1968 . 296. GRANT, R. P.; AND MIDDLEMAN, S.: Newtonian Jet
285. GARRISON, G. D.: A Study of the Suppression of Stability . A.I.Ch. E. J. , Vol. 12, No. 4, July 1966,
Combustion Oscillations with Mechanical Damp- p. 669.
ing Devices- Phase II Summary Report . Pratt GREEN, S. A.: See Ref. 239.
& Whitney Rept . FR- 1922 , July 1966 . 297. GREENFIELD, S. P.: An Experimental Evaluation
286. GARRISON , G. D.; SCHNELL, A. C .; BALDWIN , C. D.; of Rocket Propellant Data. The Chemistry of
AND RUSSELL, P.R.: Suppression of Combustion Propellants, S. S. Penner and J. Ducarme, eds .,
Oscillations with Mechanical Damping Devices, Pergamon Press, 1960.
Interim Report . Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Rept . 298. GREY, J.: Transient Response of the Turbine Flow-
FR-3299, Aug. 1969. meter . Jet Propulsion , Vol . 26, No. 2 , Feb. 1956,
287. GARY, D. A.: A Study of Injector Spray Charac- pp . 98-100 .
teristics in a Simulated Rocket Combustion GREY, J.: Also see Refs . 180, 181 , 182, 195 , and 687.
Chamber Including Longitudinal Mode Pressure 299. GROENEWEG, J. F.: The Statistical Description of
Oscillations . Princeton University Dept. of Aero- a Spray in Terms of Drop Velocity, Size and
space and Mechanical Sciences, Tech. Rept. No. Position . Ph.D. Thesis, University of Wisconsin,
730, 1966. 1967.
288. GERBRACHT, F .: Injector Hydraulics . JPL Space GROENEWEG, J. F.: Also see Ref. 340.
Program Summary 37-47, Vol. III , Oct. 1967, GROSH, R. J.: See Ref. 675.
p. 149. GUENTERT, D. C .: See Ref. 563.
GERSTEIN, M.: See Ref. 88. 300. GUNDER, D. F.; AND FRIANT, D. R.: Stability of
GERBRACHT, F. G.: See Ref. 153. Flow in a Rocket Motor . Journal of Applied
289. GILL, G. S .; ECKEL, E. F.; WILLIAMS, F. A.; and Mechanics, Vol . 17 , No. 3, 1960 , pp . 327–333 .
301. GURNEY, R. W.: Initial Velocities of Fragments Nos . 1 and 2, published by Philbrick Researchers,
from Bombs, Shells , and Grenades. U.S. Army Dedham, Mass . , Jan. -July 1965.
Ballistic Research Laboratories, Rept. No. 405 , 314. HANSON , A. R.; AND DOMICH, E. G.: The Effect of
Sept. 1943 . Liquid Viscosity on the Break-up of Droplets
302. HALL, A. R.: Experimental Temperature Gradients by Air Blasts-A Shock Tube Study, Univ . of
in Burning Droplet . Seventh Symposium (In- Minnesota Institute of Technology Rept. No. 130,
ternational) on Combustion , Butterworths Scien- Eng. Res. , 1956.
tific Pub. , London, 1959. 315. HANSON, A. R.; DOMICH, E. G .; AND ADAMS , H.
303. HALL, A. R .; AND DIEDERICHSEN , J .: An Experi- S., Shock Tube Investigation of the Breakup
mental Study of the Burning of Single Drops of of Drops by Air Blast . The Physics of Fluids ,
Fuel at Pressures up to Twenty Atmospheres. Vol. 6, No. 8, Aug. 1963 .
Fourth Symposium (International) on Combus- 316. HARDACRE , A.: Gas Sampling from Liquid Pro-
tion , Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, 1954 , pp . pellant Rocket Engines . Rocket Propulsion
837-846 . Establishment, Westcott, Great Britain , Tech.
304. HALL, G. W.: Analytical Determination of the Memo 451 , Sept. 1967 .
Discharge Characteristics of Cylindrical-Tube 317. HARNETT, J. P .; AND ECKERT, E. R .: Experimental
Orifices . J. Mech. Engr . Sci. , Vol. 5 , No. 1 , 1963, Study of the Velocity and Temperature Distri-
pp. 91-97. bution in a High Velocity Vortex Type Flow.
Transactions of the ASME, Vol . 79, May 1957 .
305. HAMMAC , H. M.: An Application of the Electro-
HARRIS, G. H.: See Ref. 82 .
magnetic Flowmeter for Analyzing Dynamic
Flow Oscillations . NASA TM- 53570 , Jan. 1967. HARRISON , D.: See Ref. 447 .
318. HARRJE , D. T.: Fundamental Problems of Injector
306. HAMMER, S. S.; AND AGOSTA, V. D.: Longitudinal
Design. Advances in Tactical Rocket Propulsion ,
Wave Propagation in Liquid Propellant Rocket AGARD Conference Proceedings No. 1 , S. S.
Motors . AIAA J, Vol. 2, No. 11 , Nov. 1964 , pp.
2042-2044. Penner, ed ., Technivision , Maidenhead, England,
Aug. 1968, pp . 267-289.
307. HAMMER , S. S .; and Agosta, V. D.: Wave Slope- 319. HARRJE , D. T.: Heat Transfer in Oscillating Flow-
Gas Dynamic Interactions in Liquid Rockets . Final Rept. Princeton University Aerospace and
AIAA J, Vol . 4, No. 4, April 1966, pp. 753-755 . Mech. Sci . Rept. No. 483g, Oct. 1967.
308. HAMMER, S. S .; AGOSTA, V. D .; AND PESHKE, W. T.: 320. HARRJE, D. T.; AND CONDOMINES, A.: Combustion
Combustion Instability in Liquid Propellant Instability in Liquid Propellant Rocket Motors-
Rocket Engines : Bipropellant Spray Combus- Twenty-Ninth Quarterly Progress Report. Prince-
tion . Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn , PIBAL ton University Aero. Eng . Rept . No. 216-cc,
Rept. No. 891 , AFOSR 66-0858 , 1966. Sept. 1959.
HAMMER, S.: Also see Refs . 55, 132 , and 544 . 321. HARRJE , D. T.; AND CROCCO, L.: Axial Energy
309. HANNUM, N. P.; BLOOMER, H. E .; AND GOELZ, Distribution Studies in a Liquid Propellant
R. R .: Stabilizing Effects of Several Injector Rocket Motor . Third ICRPG Combustion Con-
Face Baffle Configurations on Screech in a 20,000 ference, CPIA Pub. No. 138, Vol . 1 , Feb. 1967,
Pound-Thrust Hydrogen-Oxygen Rocket. NASA pp. 523-529.
TN D-4515 , April 1968. 322. HARRJE, D. T.; AND CROCCO, L.: Combustion In-
stability in Liquid Propellant Rocket Motors,
310. HANNUM, N. P.; and Conrad, E. W.: Performance
and Screech Characteristics of a Series of 2500- Twenty-Sixth Quarterly Progress Report. Prince-
Pound Thrust Per Element Injectors for a ton University Aero . Eng. Rept. No. 216-z ,
Feb. 1959 .
Liquid Oxygen-Hydrogen Engine. NASA TMX-
1253, 1966. 323. HARRJE, D. T.; REARDON, F. H .; AND CRocco, L.:
Combustion Instability in Liquid Propellant
311. HANNUM, N. P.; AND CONRAD, E. W.: Some Injec- Rocket Motors, Thirty-Fourth Quarterly Progress
tion Element Detail Effects on Screech in Hy-
Report. Princeton University Aero . Eng. Rept.
drogen Oxygen Engines. Fourth ICRPG Combus- No. 216-hh, Nov. 1960.
tion Conference, CPIA Pub. 162, Vol . 1 , Dec.
324. HARRJE , D. T.; Stinger, W. A.; and Sirignano,
1967 , p. 31 , (see NASA TMX-52363) . W. A.: Flow Behavior with Acoustic Liners .
312. HANNUM, N. P.; AND SCOTT, H. E.: The Effect of Fourth ICRPG Combustion Conference, CPIA
Several Injector Face Baffle Configurations on Pub. No. 162, Vol. 1 , Dec. 1967, pp. 103-109.
Screech in a 20,000-Pound Thrust Hydrogen- HARRJE, D. T .: Also see Refs . 102 , 114 , 115 , 180,
Oxygen Rocket. Third ICRPG Combustion 183, 184, 187 , 188 , 189, 190, 191 , 192 , 193 , 583,
Conference, CPIA Pub. No. 138 , Vol. 1 , Feb. 647, 694, and 766 .
1967 , pp. 587-595. HART, R. W.: See Ref. 137.
HANNUM, N. P.: Also see Refs . 552 , 624, and 717 . HARTNETT, P. P.: See Ref. 382.
313. HANSEN, P. D .: New Approaches to the Design of HARTSELL, J. O.: See Ref. 227.
Active Filters . The Lightning Empiricist, Vol. 13, 325. HARVEY, D. , ET AL.: TRW LEM Descent Engine
REFERENCES 611
Characteristics . TRW Rept. 01827-6119 -T000, and Spray Pattern of Two Impinging Water
Jan. 1969. Jets. NASA TN D-872 , July, 1961.
326. HASSON, D.; AND PECK, R. E .: Thickness Dis- 340. HEIDMANN, M. F.; AND GROENEWEG, J. F.: Analy-
tribution in a Sheet Formed by Impinging Jets . sis of the Dynamic Response of Liquid Jet Atomi-
A.I.Ch.E.J. , Vol . 10, No. 5 , Sept. 1964, p . 752. zation to Acoustic Oscillations . NASA TN
327. HAVEMANN , H. A.: A Theory of Cyclone Combus- D-5339, July 1969.
tion Chamber Design . National Gas Turbine 341. HEIDMANN, M. F.; AND HUMPHREY, J. C .: Fluctua-
Establishment, Great Britain, Rept . No. 53, tions in a Spray Formed by Two Impinging Jets .
May 1949. J.ARS, Vol. 22 , No. 3, 1952, pp. 127-131 .
HAWK, N. E.: See Ref. 751 . 342. HEIDMANN, M. F.; AND POVINELLI, L. A.: An
328. HEFLINGER, I. O. , ET AL .: Holographic Interfer- Experiment on Particulate Damping in a Two-
ometry. J. of Applied Physics, Vol. 37, Feb. 1966, Dimensional Hydrogen-Oxygen Combustor.
pp. 642-649 Fourth ICRPG Combustion Conference, CPIA
329. HEFNER, R. J.: Combustion Stability Development Pub . No. 162 , Vol . I, Dec. 1967, p . 311 (also
at Aerojet-General. First ICRPG Propulsion NASA TMX-52359, 1967) .
Conference, CPIA Pub. No. 68, Vol. 1 , Jan. 343. HEIDMANN, M. F.; AND PRIEM, R. J.: Propellant
1965 , p. 9-22. Vaporization as a Criterion for Rocket Engine
330. HEFNER, R. J .: Diagnosis of High Frequency Design : Relation Between Percentage of Pro-
Combustion Stability Characteristics from Pres- pellant Vaporized and Engine Performance.
sure Measurements. Third ICRPG Combustion NACA RM E57 E03 , 1957 .
Conference, CPIA Pub. No. 138 , Vol. 1 , Feb. 344. HEIDMANN, M. F.; PRIEM , R. J.; AND HUMPHREY,
1967 , pp. 375–381 . J. C.: A Study of Sprays Formed by Two Im-
331. HEFNER, R. J.: Review of Combustion Stability pinging Jets. NASA TN 3855 , 1957.
Development with Storable Propellants . J. of 345. HEIDMANN, M. F.; SOKOLOWSKI , D. E.; AND DIEHL ,
Spacecraft and Rockets, Vol. 3 , No. 7 , July 1966, L. A.: Study of Chugging Instability with Liquid-
pp . 1046-1050. Oxygen and Gaseous-Hydrogen Combustors .
332. HEFNER, R. J.: A Review of the Combustion Dy- NASA TN D-4005, June 1967 .
namics Aspects of the Gemini Stability Improve- 346. HEIDMANN, M. F .; AND WIEBER, P. R.: Analysis of
ment Program. Second ICRPG Combustion Frequency Response Characteristics of Pro-
Conference, CPIA Pub . 105 , Vol. 1 , May 1966, pellant Vaporization . NASA TN D-3749, Dec.
pp . 13-22. 1966.
333. HEFNER, R. J .; REARDON , F. H.; AND SMITH, 347. HEIDMANN, M. F.; AND WIEBER, P. R.: Analysis
A. J. , Jr.: An Experimental Investigation of of n-Heptane Vaporization in Unstable Com-
LO2/LH2 Combustion Stability Characteristics bustor with Traveling Transverse Oscillation.
at High Chamber Pressure. Third ICRPG Com- NASA TN D -3424 , 1966 .
bustion Conference, CPIA Pub. 138 , Vol . 1 , Feb. HEIDMANN, M. F.: Also see Refs. 260, 277, 564,
1967, p. 597. and 565.
HEFNER, R. J.: Also see Refs. 473 and 347. 348. HERGET, W. R.; PROFFIT, R. L .; AND WITHERSPOON,
334. HEIDMANN , M. F.: Oscillatory Combustion of a J. E .: Rocket Stability Monitoring by Temporal
Liquid Oxygen Jet with Gaseous Hydrogen. Radiometry. AIAA Paper 60-580, 5th Propulsion
NASA TM D-2753, Mar. 1965. Joint Specialist Conference, June 1969.
335. HEIDMANN, M. F.: Oxygen-Jet Behavior During HERGET, W. F.: Also see Ref. 155 .
Combustion Instability in a Two-Dimensional 349. HERSCH, M.: Effect of Interchaning Propellants
Combustor. NASA TM D-2725, Mar. 1965 . on Rocket Combustor Performance with Coaxial
Injection . NASA TN D-2169, Feb. 1964.
336. HEIDMANN, M. F.: Propellant Vaporization as a
Criterion for Rocket-Engine Design-Experi- 350. HERSCH, M.: Experimental Method of Measuring
mental Effects of Fuel Temperature on Liquid Intensity of Turbulence in a Rocket Chamber.
Oxygen-Heptane Performance. NACA RME57- ARS J. , Vol . 31 , 1961 , pp. 39-45.
EO3, 1957. 351. HERSCH, M.: A Mixing Model for Rocket Engine
337. HEIDMANN, M. F .: Visualization Studies of Com- Combustion. NASA TN D-2881 , June 1965 .
bustion Instability in a Hydrogen-Oxygen Model 352. HERSCH, M .; AND RICE , E. J .: Gaseous Hydrogen-
Combustor. NASA Lewis Research Center, Film Liquid Oxygen Rocket Combustion at Super-
C-226. critical Chamber Pressures . NASA TN D -4172,
338. HEIDMANN, M. F.; AND FEILER, C. E.: Evaluation 1967.
of Tangential Velocity Effects on Spinning Trans- 353. HERSH, S.; LAWVER, B. R.; HOFFMAN , R. J.; AND
verse Combustion Instability. NASA TN D-3406, BREEN, B. P.: Investigation of the Flame Struc-
May 1966. ture of a Thermally Unstable Fuel. Dynamic
339. HEIDMANN, M. F.; AND FOSTER, H. H.: Effect of Science, NASA CR-72261 , 1967 .
Impingement Angle on Drop Size Distribution 354. HERZFELD, K. F.; AND LITOVITZ, T. A.: Absorption
and Dispersion of Ultrasonic Waves . Academic 366. HUNT, F. V.: Notes on the Exact Equations Govern-
Press, New York, 1959. ing the Propagation of Sound in Fluids. J. Acoust.
HESTER, J. N.: See Ref. 168. Soc. of Amer. , Vol . 27, No. 6, Nov. 1955, pp.
HEWITT, R. A.: See Ref. 473. 1019-1039.
HILL, A. F .: See Ref. 517. 367. HYZER, W. G .: Introduction to High-Speed Photo-
HILLIARD, F.: See Ref. 181 . graphic Instrumentation . ISA Transactions, Vol.
355. HINDE, P. T.: Basic Aspects of Gas-Phase Mixing 5, No. 1 , Jan. 1966.
and Kinetics in Liquid Propellant Rocket Com- 368. IACABELLIS , S. F.: Liquid Rocket Engines : Their
bustion Chambers-A Review. R.P.E., Westcott, Status and Their Future . AIAA Paper No. 66-
Technical Report No. 69/1 , Feb. 1969 . 828, AIAA Third Annual Meeting, Nov.- Dec.
356. HINES, W., ET AL.: Development of Injector Cham- 1966.
ber Compatibility Analysis. Rocketdyne Final 369. IL'YASHENKO, S. M.: Evaporation and Combustion
Report, AFRPL-TR-70-12, March 1970 . of a Single-Component Fuel in a Chamber of a
357. HINZE, J. O .: Critical Speeds and Sizes of Liquid Liquid Rocket Engine. AIAA J. , Vol. 1 , 1963,
Globules. Appl. Sci . Res. , Vol . A1 , 1948 , p. 273 . pp . 267-271.
HOEHN, F. W.: See Refs. 162 and 163. 370. INGARD, U.: On the Theory and Design of Acoustic
HOFFMAN, A.: See Ref. 245. Resonators. J. Acoust . Soc . Amer. , Vol . 25, No.
HOFFMAN, J. D.: See Ref. 169 . 6, Nov. 1953, pp. 1037-1061 .
358. HOFFMAN, R. J.; BELTRAN, M. R.; BREEN, B. P.; 371. INGARD, U.; AND ISING, H.: Acoustic Nonlinearity
AND WRIGHT, R. O.: Extension of the Priem- of an Orifice. J. Acoust. Soc. of Amer., Vol. 42,
Guentert Annular Combustion Instability Model No. 1 , July 1967 , pp . 6-17.
to a Bipropellant System. Third ICRPG Com- 372. INGARD, U.; AND LABATE , S .: Acoustic Circulation
bustion Conference, CPIA Pub . No. 138, Vol. 1 , Effects and Nonlinear Impedance of Orifices . J.
Feb. 1967 , p . 399. Acoust. Soc. of Amer . , Vol. 22 , No. 2, March
359. HOFFMAN, R. J.; WRIGHT, R. O .; AND BREEN , 1950, pp. 211-218.
B. P.: Combustion Instability Prediction Using INGARD, U.: Also see Refs . 108 and 505.
a Non-linear Bipropellant Vaporization Model. 373. INGEBO, R. D .: Atomization of Ethanol Jets in a
Dynamic Science, NASA CR-920, Jan. 1968 . Combustor with Oscillatory Combustion-Gas
HOFFMAN, R. J.: Also see Refs. 89 and 353. Flow. NASA TN D-3513, 1966.
HOOPER, P. C.: See Ref. 229. 374. INGEBO, R. D.: Drag Coefficients for Droplets and
360. HERN, R. B.; SIDDALL, R. G.; AND THRING, M. W.: Solid Spheres in Clouds Accelerating in Air
Flow Patterns in a Phase Change Rocket Combus- Streams. NACA TN-3762, Sept. 1956.
tion Model. Ninth Symposium (International) 375. INGEBO, R. D.: Drop-Size Distribution for Im-
on Combustion, Academic Press , New York, 1963, pinging-Jet Breakup in Airstreams Simulating
pp . 965-972. the Velocity Conditions in Rocket Combustors,
361 . HORNSTEIN , B.; Budnik, C .; AND COURTNEY, W.: NACA TN-422, March 1958.
Research Study of Light Emission Caused by 376. INGEBO, R. D.: Maximum Drop Diameters for the
Pressure Fluctuations in Rocket Engines . Reac- Atomization of Liquid Jets Injected Concurrently
tion Motors (Thiokol ) RMD Rept. No. 5520-F, into Accelerating or Decelerating Gas Streams.
March 1966. NASA TN D-4640, 1968 .
362. HOTTEL, H. C .; AND PERSON , R. A.: Heterogeneous 377. INGEBO, R. D.: Photomicrographic Tracking of
Combustion of Gases in a Vortex System. Fourth Ethanol Drops in a Rocket Chamber Burning
Symposium (International) on Combustion, Ethanol and Liquid Oxygen . NASA TN D-290,
Williams and Wilkins Co. , Baltimore, 1954. 1960.
363. HOTTEL, H. C.; WILLIAMS, G. C .; AND SIMPSON, 378. INGEBO, R. D .: Vaporization Rates of Ethanol
H. C.: Combustion of Droplets of Heavy Liquid Sprays in a Combustor with Low-Frequency
Fuels . Fifth Symposium (International) on Com- Fluctuations of Combustion-Gas Pressure . NASA
bustion , Reinhold, 1955 , pp . 101–129 . TN D -1408 , 1962 .
HOTTEL, H. C.: Also see Ref. 84. 379. INGEBO, R. D.; AND FOSTER, H. H.: Drop-Size
HOUPIS, C. H.: See Ref. 217. Distribution for Cross-Current Breakup of
364. HOUSEMAN, J .: Jet Separation and Optimum Mix- Liquid Jets in Airstreams . NASA TN 4087 , Oct.
ing for an Unlike Droplet. Sixth ICRPG Com- 1957 .
bustion Conference, CPIA Pub. No. 192, Vol . 1, ISING, H.: See Ref. 371 .
Dec. 1969, pp . 13-20. ISODA, H.: See Ref. 413 .
HOUSEMAN, J.: Also see Refs . 415 and 416 . 380. IWANICKI, L. R.; AND DYKEMA, O. W.: Effect of a
365. HOWELL, G. W.; AND WEATHERS, T. M .: Aerospace Cavitating Venturi on Wave Propagation in a
Fluid Component Designer's Handbook, Vol. I. Duct. AIAA J. , Vol. 2 , No. 4, April 1964, pp .
Published by TRW Systems Group, Mar. 1967, 753-755.
(AD-809182) . 381. IWANICKI, L. R.; AND FONTAINE , R. J.: Sensitivity
HUMPHREY, J. C.: See Refs . 341 and 344. of Rocket Engine Stability to Propellant Feed
REFERENCES 613
System Dynamics . AIAA Paper No. 65-558, KAPPL, J. J.: See Ref. 431.
AIAA Propulsion Joint Specialist Conference, KARHAN, B. L.: See Ref. 257.
1965 . 397. KARLOVITZ, B .: Turbulent Flame Theory Derived
382. IRVINE, T. F. , Jr .; AND HARTNETT, P. P.: Advances from Experiments. AGARD Selected Combus-
in Heat Transfer, Vol . 2. Academic Press, New tion Problems: Fundamentals and Aeronautical
York, 1965 . Applications, Butterworths, London, 1954, pp.
383. ITO, J. I .: Derivation of Orifice Hydraulic Flow 248-262.
Model. Aerojet-General Monthly Progress Rept. 398. KASSOY, D. R.; AND WILLIAMS, F. A.: Liquid
6925-M4, Appendix A, Contract NAS 9-6925, Droplet Combustion in Finite Rate Chemistry.
Aug. 1967. Phys . Fluids, Vol. 11 , 1968 , pp. 1343-1351 .
384. JAARSMA, F.; AND DERKSEN, W.: Shock Tube 399 . KASSOY, D. R.; AND WILLIAMS, F. A.: Variable
Techniques for Fuel Droplet Combustion Studies. Property Effects on Liquid Droplet Combustion .
National Aerospace Laboratory NRL, The AIAA J. , Vol . 6, 1968, p. 1961 .
Netherlands, Rept . MP 251 , 1967. 400 . KATYS, G. P.: Continuous Measurement of Un-
JACKMAN, P.: See Refs. 111 and 201 . steady Flow. Pergamon Press , New York, 1965 .
385. JACKSON, E. G.: Studies of Pump Discharge Pres- KELLER, K. H.: See Ref. 279.
sure Oscillations . Rocketdyne Rept. No. KERSLAKE, W. R.: See Refs . 461 and 462.
R-6693-2, 1966. 401 . KESSELRING, R. C .: Steady-State Streak Film
386. JACKSON , E. G.; GARRETT, A.; AND TESTEN , J .: Analysis in a High-Pressure Two-Dimensional
Combustion Stability Quarterly Progress Report Research Motor . AIAA Paper No. 66-612 , Second
for period 1 October to 31 December 1960. Rocket- AIAA Propulsion Joint Specialist Conference,
dyne Rept . CER1122-3001 , Jan. 1961 . June 1966 .
387. JAIN, V. K.: The Theory of Burning of Mono- 402 . KESSELRING, R. C .: Steady-State Streak Film
propellant Droplets in an Atmosphere of Inerts. Analysis in the High-Pressure Two-Dimensional
Combustion and Flame, Vol. 7, 1963, pp . 17-27. Research Motor-Final Summary Report. Rocket-
388. JAIN, V. K.; AND RAMANI, N.: Extinction Criterion dyne Research Rept. No. 65-19, May 1965.
of a Monopropellant Droplet in an Atmosphere 403. KESSELRING, R. C.; AND OBERG, C. L.: Combustion
of Inerts . AIAA J. , Vol. 7, 1969, pp . 567–569 . Stability of Metallized Gelled Propellants-
JAIN, V. K.: Also see Ref. 663. Final Report . Rocketdyne, AFRPL-TR-67-164,
JAIVAN, G. I.: See Ref. 620. May 1967.
JOHNS, W. R.: See Ref. 230. 404. KESSELRING, R. C.; AND OBERG, C. L.: Combustion
389. JOHNSON, B. H.: An Experimental Investigation Stability of Metallized Gelled Propellants .
of the Effects of Combustion on the Mixing of Fourth ICRPG Combustion Conference, CPIA
Highly Reactive Liquid Propellants. JPL Tech. Pub. 162, Vol. I , 1967, p . 307 .
Rept. No. 32-689, July 1965. 405. KESSELRING, R. C.; AND OBERG, C. L.: Combustion
390. JOHNSON, N. L.: Systems of Frequency Curves Stability of Metallized Gelled Propellants. Ninth
Generated by Methods of Translation . Bio- Liquid Propulsion Symposium, CPIA Pub. No.
metrica, Vol. 36, 1949, p. 149. 155, Vol. II , Nov. 1967, p . 23.
391. JONES, B. A.; AND LAMBIRIS , S.: Summary Report KESSELRING, R. C.: Also see Refs . 167 and 170.
on an Investigation of Combustion Instability KIMURA, A.: See Ref. 414 .
for Liquid Oxygen and Liquid and Cold Gas 406 . KINNARD, I. F.: Applied Electrical Measurements .
Hydrogen Propellants. Pratt and Whitney Rept. John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1956.
PWA-FR- 1005 , June 1964. 407. KINSLER, L. E.; AND FREY, A. R.: Fundamentals
392. JONES, D. L .: The Energy Parameter B for Strong of Acoustics, Second Edition . Jonn Wiley and
Blast Waves . National Bureau of Standards Tech. Sons, New York, 1962.
Note 155, July 1952 . KISER, H. V.: See Ref. 631 .
393. JONES, H. B .: Transient Pressure Transducer 408. KLACKING, J. M.; ADDOMS, J. F.; ARMITAGE, A. L.;
Design and Evaluation. Princeton University AND BOYCE, R. L.: Unique Injector Concepts
Aero . Eng. Rept . No. 595b, Feb. 1962. Development. Aerojet- General Rept . No.0518-00
394. JONES, H. B.; KNAUER, R. C.; LAYTON, J. P.; AND (Final), AFRPL-RTD-TDR-63-1057 , 1963.
THOMAS, J. P.: Transient Pressure Measure- KLOPOTECK, R. D.: See Refs . 728 and 729.
ments in Liquid Propellant Rocket Thrust Cham- KNAUER, R. C.: See Ref. 394.
bers. ISA Transactions, Vol. 4, No. 2, April 1965 . KNOW, R. M.: See Ref. 487.
395. JONES, R. D.: Quarterly Progress Report , Ad- KOMOV, V. F.: See Ref. 294.
vanced Engine Design Study (Aerospike) . Rock- KOSTEN, C. W.: See Ref. 778.
etdyne, Sept. 1966. 409. KLEIGEL, J. R.; AND QUAN, V.: Convergent-Di-
396. JURAN, W.; AND SWICK, E. B.: The Effect of Dis- vergent Nozzle Flows. Contract NAS 9-4358 ,
solved Gas on the Stability of Pressure-Fed TRW Systems Rept . 02874-6002-R000, Dec. 1966 .
Rockets . Fourth ICRPG Combustion Con- 410 . Kosvic, T. C.; BREEN , B. P.; LEVINE, J.; AND
ference, CPIA Pub. 162, Vol . I , 1967, p . 93 . COATS, D. E.: Combustion Instability Response
with Asymmetric Pressure Disturbances . Dy- tion, Williams and Wilkins Co. , Baltimore, 1962,
namic Science, NASA CR-72494. Jan. 1969 . pp . 1140-1151 .
Kosvic, T. C.: Also see Refs . 89, 90, and 140. 425. LAWHEAD, R. B .; AND COMBS , L. P .: Modeling
KROMREY, E. V.: See Refs . 704 and 705 ...... Techniques For Liquid Propellant Rocket Com-
411. KUH, E. S .; AND PEDERSON, D. O.: Principles of bustion Processes . Ninth Symposium (Inter-
Circuit Synthesis . McGraw-Hill, New York, 1959 . national) on Combustion , Academic Press, New
KULUVA, N. M.: See Refs . 167 and 523. York, 1963, pp. 973-981 .
412. KUMAGAI, S.: Evaporation and Combustion of 426. LAWHEAD, R. B.; COMBS, L. P.; AND LEVINE , R. S .:
Droplet in Sprays . Sixth Symposium (Inter- Progress in the Development of Rating Methods
national) on Combustion , Reinhold , New York, for Rocket Combustion Stability . AFOSR Fourth
1957, pp. 668-674. Symposium on Combustion Instability in Liquid
413. KUMAGAI, S .; AND ISODA, H.: Combustion of Fuel Propellant Motors, Sunstrand-Turbo, Dec. 1957.
Droplets in a Vibrating Air Field . Fifth Sym- 427. LAWHEAD, R. B.; COMBS, L. P.; AND WEBBER,
posium (International) on Combustion, Rein- W. T.: Research Studies of Combustion Insta-
hold, New York, 1955, pp. 129–132 . bility in Large Thrust Liquid Propellant Rocket
414. KUMAGAI , S .; AND KIMURA, A .: (Discussed on p. Engines . First Meeting JANAF Liquid Propel-
289 of Ref. 536. ) Science of Machine, Vol. 3, lant Group, LPIA, Applied Physics Lab ., Johns
p. 431 , 1951 . Hopkins University, Vol . III , Rocket Engine
415. KUSHIDA, R.; AND HOUSEMAN, J.: Criteria for Research and Development, Nov. 1959 , pp.
Separation of Impinging Streams of Hypergolic 361-378 .
Propellants. JPL Tech. Memo . No. 33-395 , July 428. LAWHEAD, R. B.; AND LEVINE, R. S.: Rocket En-
1968. gine Vibration Studies . North American Aviation ,
416. KUSHIDA, R.; AND HOUSEMAN, J.: Criteria for RE- 134, 1954.
Separation of Impinging Streams of Hypergolic LAWHEAD, R. B.: Also see Refs . 442 and 569.
Propellants . Paper WSCI-67-38 , Presented at 429. LAWVER, B. R.: Some Observations on the Com-
Fall Meeting of Western States Section Com- bustion of N₂H, Droplets . AIAA J, Vol. 4, 1966,
bustion Institute, Oct. 1967. p. 659.
LABATE , S.: See Refs . 108 and 372 . 430. LAWVER, B. R.; AND BREEN, B. P.: Hypergollic
LABOTZ, R. J.: See Ref. 476 . Stream Impingement Phenomena-Nitrogen Te-
417. LAMB, H .: The Dynamical Theory of Sound . Dover troxide/Hydrazine . Dynamic Science, NASA
Publication , Second Edition, 1960, pp. 264-269. CR-7244, Oct. 1968 .
418. LAMBIRIS , S.: Experimental Verification of Nozzle 431. LAWVER, B. R.; AND KAPPL, J. J.: Effects of Ad-
Admittance Theory in a Simulated Rocket ditives on Altitude Hypergolic Ignition . AIAA
Chamber. Project SQUID Reprint PR-75 , Sept. Preprint 66-608, AIAA Second Propulsion Joint
1957. Specialist Conference, June 1966 .
419-420 . LAMBIRIS, S.; AND COMBS, L. P.: Steady-State LAWVER, B. R.: Also see Refs . 119 and 353.
Combustion Measurements in a LOX/RP-1 432. LAYTON, J. P.: Technical Note on a Small Passage
Rocket Chamber and Related Spray Burning Technique for Transient Pressure Measurements
Analysis. Detonation and Two- Phase Flow, Vol . in Large Rocket Motors. Princeton University,
6, Progress in Astronautics and Rocketry, Aca- Aero. Eng. Rept . No. 595e, Oct. 1962.
demic Press, New York, 1962, pp . 269-304 (also 433. LAYTON, J. P .; AND THOMAS , J. P.: Final Summary
Rocketdyne Research Rept . No. RR 61-13 Technical Report on Transient Pressure Measur-
May 1961 ) . ing Methods Research . Princeton University,
421. LAMBIRIS , S .; COMBS , L. P.; AND LEVINE , R. S .: Aero. Eng. Rept. No. 595t, March 1967.
Stable Combustion Processes in Liquid Propel- LAYTON, J. P.: Also see Ref. 394.
lant Rocket Engines. Combustion and Propul- 434. LEDWELL, T. A.: The Burning of Hydrocarbon
sion , Fifth AGARD Colloquium: High Tempera- Fuel Droplets at High Pressure. Ph.D. Thesis,
ture Phenomena, Macmillan, New York, 1963, Dept. of Mechanical Eng., University of Water-
pp. 596-634. loo, Ontario, July 1968 .
LAMBIRIS , S.: Also see Refs . 164 and 391 . LEE, D. H.: See Ref. 639.
422. LANDAU, H. G.: Heat Conduction in a Melting 435. LEE, K.; AND RYLEY, D. J .: The Evaporation of
Solid . Quart. of Appl. Math, Vol . 8, 1950, pp . Water Droplets in Superheated Stream. Trans .
81-94. ASME-J. Heat Transfer, Vol. 90, 1968 , pp.
423. LAWHEAD, R. B .: Liquid Propellant Combustion 445-451.
Instability Research at Rocketdyne. First ICRPG 436. LEEPER, C. K.: Excitation Chamber Combustion
Combustion Instability Conference, CPIA Pub. Response for Liquid Rocket Injectors , Part II-
No. 68, Jan. 1965, p . 39. Analysis and Theory. Fourth ICRPG Combus-
424. LAWHEAD, R. B .: Photographic Studies of Com- tion Conference, CPIA Pub . No. 162, Vol. 1 , Dec.
bustion Processes in Liquid Propellant Rockets . 1967 , pp. 63-71 .
Eighth Symposium (International) on Combus- 437. LEFEBVRE , A. H.; AND REID, R.: The Influence
REFERENCES 615
of Turbulence on the Structure and Propagation proximate Solutions to Physical Problems Uni-
of Enclosed Flames. Combustion and Flame, formly Valid. Phil . Mag. , Ser. 7, Vol. 40, No.
Vol . 10, 1966, pp. 355–366. 311 , 1949, p. 1179.
438. LEPAGE, W. R.; AND SEELY, S .: General Network 452. LINAN, A.: On the Structure of Laminar Diffusion
Analysis. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1952, pp . Flames. Inst. Nacional de Tecnica Aeronautics,
238-256. Spain, DDC AD 432 882 , June 1963.
439. LEVICH, V. G.: Physicochemical Hydrodynamics . 453. LINVILL, J. G.: The Approximation with Rational
Prentice-Hall, Inc. , Englewood Cliffs , N. J. , 1962. Functions of Prescribed Magnitude and Phase
LEVINE, J.: See Ref. 410 . Characteristics . Proc. IRE, Vol . 40, 1952 , p . 711 .
440. LEVINE, R. S .: Experimental Status of High Fre- LITOVITZ, T. A.: See Ref. 354.
quency Liquid Rocket Combustion Instability . LOGAN , S. E.: See Ref. 96.
Tenth Symposium (International) on Combus- 454. LOISON, R.: The Propagation of Deflagration in a
tion, The Combustion Institute, 1965, pp. 1083– Tube Covered with an Oil Film. Comptes Rendus,
1099 . Vol. 234, 1952, pp . 512–513.
441. LEVINE, R. S.; AND BAMBANEK, R.: A Sustaining 455. LORELL, J.; AND WISE, H .: Steady State Burning
Mechanism for a Transverse Mode of Combus- of a Liquid Droplet : I. Monopropellant Flame.
tion Instability . Rocketdyne Rept. R-326 , 1956 . J. Chem. Phys ., Vol . 23 , 1955 , p . 1928 .
442. LEVINE , R. S .; AND LAWHEAD, R. B.: Rocketdyne LORELL, J.: Also see Ref. 753 .
Engine Vibration Studies-Final Summary Re- 456. LUNDEN, K. C.: An Analytical Investigation of
port. Project MX913, Contract AF33 (038)- the Effects of Baffles in a Liquid Propellant
19430, July 1953. Rocket Combustion Chamber. Masters Thesis,
LEVINE, R. S.: Also see Refs. 76, 272, 410 , 421 , Sacramento State College, Sept. 1969.
426, and 428. 457. LUPERI, M. J.; AND TICK, S. J.: Vibration and
443. LEWIS, D. G.: Safer Pyrotechnics Through Laser Combustion Investigation of the LR99 Engine.
Actuation . Space/Aeronautics, Vol . 47 , No. 6, Detonation and Two-Phase Flow, ARS Progress
June 1967, p . 107. in Astronautics and Rocketry, Vol. 6, Academic
444. LEWIS, G. D.: Acoustic Liners for Eliminating Com- Press, New York, 1962.
bustion Instability. First ICRPG Combustion 458. MAGEEAN, J. V.: Space Storable Propellant Per-
Conference, CPIA No. 68, Vol. 1 , Jan. 1965 , pp . formance . TRW Rept . No. 09667-6001- RO-00
251-274. (NASA CR-72486 ) , May 1969.
445. LEWIS, J. D.: Some Basic Studies of Liquid Pro- 459. MAIMAN, T. H.: Stimulated Optical Emission in
pellant Injection Processes . J. Roy. Aero. Soc., Fluorescent Solids. Physical Review, Vol. 123,
Vol. 68, 1964, pp. 743-750. Aug. 1961 , pp. 1145–1157.
446. LEWIS, J. D .: Studies of Atomization and Injection 460. MAIMAN, T. H.: Stimulated Optical Radiation in
Processes in the Liquid Propellant Rocket En- Ruby. Nature, Vol . 187, Aug. 1960, pp . 493-494.
gine. Combustion and Propulsion , Fifth AGARD 461. MALE, T.; AND KERSLAKE, W. R.: A Method for
Colloquium: High Temperature Phenomena, Prevention of Screaming in Rocket Engines.
Macmillan, New York, 1963 , pp . 141–169. NACA RM E54F28A, Aug. 1954 .
447. LEWIS, J. D.; and HARRISON , D.: A Study of Com- 462. MALE , T.; KERSLAKE , W. R.; AND TISCHLER, A. O.:
bustion and Recombination Reactions During Photographic Study of Rotating Screaming and
the Nozzle Expansion Process of a Liquid Pro- Other Oscillations in a Rocket Engine . NACA
pellant Rocket Engine . Eighth Symposium (In- RM E54A29 , May 1954 .
ternational) on Combustion , Williams and 463. MARBLE, F. E.: Dynamics of a Gas Containing
Wilkins, Baltimore, 1962, pp. 366–374. Small Solid Particles. Proceedings of the Fifth
448. LEWIS, J. D.; AND MERRINGTON , A. C .: Combus- AGARD Combustion and Propulsion Collo-
tion of n-Heptane Spray in the Decomposition quium , Pergamon Press, New York, 1963.
Products of Concentrated Hydrogen Peroxide. 464. MARKS , L. S.: Mechanical Engineers Handbook,
Seventh Symposium (International) on Com- 3rd Edition . McGraw-Hill, New York, 1930,
bustion, Butterworths Sci. Pub. , London, 1959 , pp. 259 and 261 .
pp. 953-959. 465. MARSHALL, W. R.: Atomization and Spray Drying.
LEWIS , S. D.: See Ref. 588. Chem. Engr. Progr . , Monograph Series, Vol. 50,
449. LI, Y. T.: Dynamic Pressure Measuring System No. 2 , 1954.
for Jet Propulsion Research . ARS J., Vol. 23, MARSHALL, W. R.: Also see Ref. 577.
No. 3, May 1953. 466. MASLEN, S. H.; AND MOORE, F. K.: On Strong
450. LIENHARD, J. H.; AND MEYER, P. L.: A Physical Transverse Waves Without Shocks in a Circular
Basis for the Generalized Gamma Distributions . Cylinder. J. of Aero . Sci., Vol . 23, No. 6, 1956,
Quart. Appl. Math. Vol. 25, No. 3, Oct. 1967, pp . 583-593.
p. 330. MASLEN , S. H.; Also see Ref. 494 .
LIGHTFOOT, E. N .: See Ref. 99. 467. MASTERS , A. I .; AND COLBERT, J. E .: Rocket Testing
451. LIGHTHILL, M. J .: A Technique for Rendering Ap- of Four Flox-Light Hydrocarbon Propellant Com-
binations . AIAA Preprint No. 66-624 , AIAA MERRINGTON, A. C.: See Ref. 448 .
Second Propulsion Joint Specialists Conference, MEYER, P. L.: See Ref. 450 .
June 1966 . MICKELSON, W. R.: See Refs . 637 and 739.
468. MATTHEWS , B. J., ET AL.: Small Droplet Measuring MIDDLEMAN, S.: See Ref. 296 .
Technique. Phase I Technical Report, TRW 480. MIGDAL, D.: Continuum Gas-Particle Reacting
(Princeton) Rept. AFRPL-TR-67-295 , Feb. 1968 . Flow Systems. Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn ,
MATTHEWS , B. J.: Also see Refs . 764 and 765. Ph.D. Dissertation, 1968 .
469. MATTHEWS , G. B.: Combustion Instability in Liquid 481. MIGDAL, D.; AND AGOSTA, V. D.: A Source Flow
Propellant Rocket Motors . Technical Report : Model for Continuum Gas-Particle Flow. J.
Determination of Combustion Time Lag Param- Appl . Mech., Vol. 34 , Series E, No. 4, 1967, p.
eters in a Liquid Bipropellant Rocket Motor . 860.
Princeton University Aero. Eng. Rept. No. 372, 482. MILLAN, G.; AND TARIFA, C. S.: Combustion of
March 1957. Fuel Drops-Forced Convection and Interaction
MATTHEWS, G. B.: Also see Ref. 182. Effects. Inst. Nacional de Technica Aeronautica,
470. MAYER, E.: Theory of Liquid Atomization in High Madrid, Spain, Sept. 1956.
Velocity Gas Streams. ARS J. , Vol. 31 , No. 12, MILLER, I .: See Ref. 82.
Dec. 1961 , p . 1783. MILLER, J.: See Ref. 245.
MAYER, R. W .: See Ref. 138 . 483. MILLER, R. O .: A Review of Liquid Propellants.
MAZZITELLI , D. A.: See Ref. 56. NASA TM X - 1783 , Apr. 1969 .
471. MCADAMS, W. H.: Heat Transmission . McGraw- 484. MILLS , T. R.; AND BREEN , B. P.: A Mathematical
Hill, New York, 1954, pp. 444-490. Model of the Ignition Transient for Hypergolic
472. MCAULIFFE, C. E.: The Influence of High Speed Propellants . Fifth ICRPG Combustion Con-
Air Flow on the Behavior of Acoustical Elements. ference, CPIA Pub . 183 , Dec. 1968 , pp. 91–98 .
M.S. Thesis, M.I.T. , Sept. 1950. 485. MILLS, T. R.; AND SHERMAN, A.: Hydraulic Analy-
473. MCBRIDE , J. M.; HEWITT, R. A.; AND HEFNER, sis of the Apollo Injector . Aerojet- General TM
R. J.: Acoustic Techniques for Injector Baffle 183-63-29, Nov. 1963 .
Development. Bulletin of the 7th Annual Liquid MILLS, T. R.: Also see Refs . 74 and 541 .
Propellant Symposium, ICRPG Combustion 486. MINORSKY, N.: Nonlinear Oscillations. D. Van
Conference, CPIA Pub. No. 72, Nov. 1967. Nostrand, Princeton , 1962 .
474. MCBRIDE, J.M.; AND VEGLIA, S. A.: Excitation 487. MINTON, S. J.; AND KNOx , R. M.: Rocket Startup
Chamber-Combustion Response for Liquid Transients at Low Pressures . AIAA Preprint
Rocket Injectors , Part I : Experimental . Fourth 66-609, AIAA Second Propulsion Joint Specialist
ICRPG Combustion Conference, CPIA Pub. Conference, June 1966.
162, Vol. I, Dec. 1967 , p. 57. 488. MITCHELL, C. E .: Axial Mode Shock Wave Com-
MCBRIDE , J. M.: Also see Refs. 584 and 720. bustion Instability in Liquid Propellant Rocket
MCCALLISTER, D. A.: See Ref. 720 . Engines. Princeton University, NASA CR-72259,
475. MCCORMACK, P. D.: A Driving Mechanism for 1967.
High Frequency Combustion Instability in 489. MITCHELL, C. E.; CROCCO , L.; AND SIRIGNANO,
Liquid Fuel Rocket Engines . J. Royal Aero . Soc. , W. A.: Nonlinear Longitudinal Instability in
Sept. 1964 . Rocket Motors with Concentrated Combustion.
476. MCGOUGH, C. B.; LABOTZ, R. J.; AND ADDOMS , J. Combustion Sci. & Tech. , Vol. 1 , No. 1 , 1969.
F.: Development of HIPERTHIN Injectors for MITCHELL, C. E.: Also see Ref. 194 .
Reaction Control Thrustor Applications. Pro- 490. MITCHELL, J. P.: Advanced Throttling Concept
ceedings of ASME Aviation and Space Confer- Study. Pratt & Whitney, AFRPL-TR-65-98,
ence, June 1968. March 1965 .
477. MCGOUGH, C. B.; ROUSAR, D. C.; AND VAN HUff,
491. MITCHELL, R. C.: The Effect of Nozzle Combustion
N. E.: An Experimental Investigation of Heat
on Engine Performance. Rocketdyne Rept. No.
Transfer of Cooled Injector Baffles. Bulletin of
R-7103, Jan. 1968.
the Sixth Liquid Propulsion Symposium, CPIA
Pub. 56, Vol . 1 , Sept. 1964 . 492. MOBERG, D. A.: Attenuation of Tangential Com-
MCLAUGHLIN, C. W.: See Ref. 46 . bustion Instability in an Ablative, Hypergolic
MCMULLEN, E. T.: See Ref. 674. Bipropellant 1750-lb-Thrust Rocket Engine.
478. MECHEL, F.; AND SCHILZ , W.: Research on Sound Fourth ICRPG Combustion Conference, CPIA
Propagation in Sound-Absorbent Ducts with Pub. 162, Vol. 1 , Dec. 1967 , p . 15.
Superimposed Air Streams . Vols . II & III , TDR 493. MOLINARI, L. F.: MA-5 Baffled Injector and Up-
No. AMRL-TDR-62-140 , Dec. 1962 . rated Test Program, Final Report , August-
479. MEISENHOLDER, S. G .; AND BICKFORD, L. L.: November 1962. Rocketdyne Rept. No. R-3322,
"POGO" Analysis of the Saturn Propulsion March 1962.
System. Aerojet-General Rept . AMDR 9635- MONTI, R.: See Ref. 195 .
037, 1967. 494. MOORE , F. K.; AND MASLEN , S. H .: Transverse
REFERENCES 617
Oscillations in a Cylindrical Combustion Cham- of Rocket Feed System Oscillations . Third

ber. NACA TN 3152 , Oct. 1954. ICRPG Combustion Conference, CPIA Pub .
MOORE, F. K.: Also see Ref. 466. No. 138, Vol. 1 , Feb. 1967, p. 341 .
495. MOORE, R. K.: Traveling-Wave Engineering. 510. NESTLERODE , J. A.; AND OBERG, C. L.: Com-
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1960, Chs . 5 and 9. bustion Instability in a Annular Engine. Sixth
MORENO, F. G.: See Ref. 682. ICRPG Liquid Propellant Combustion Insta-
496. MORETTI, G.; AND BASTIANON, R.: Three- Dimen- bility Conference, CPIA Pub . No. 192, Vol. 1 ,
sional Effects in Intakes and Nozzles . AIAA Dec. 1969, pp. 329–342.
Paper No. 67-224, AIAA 5th Aerospace Sciences 511. NEWMAN, J. A.: A Preliminary Study of the Ef-
Meeting, 1967. fects of Vaporization and Transverse Oscillations
MOREY, T. F.: See Ref. 244. on Liquid Jet Breakup . Princeton University,
497. MORGAN, C. J.: Longitudinal Instability Limits NASA CR-72258, 1967.
with a Variable Length Hydrogen-Oxygen Com- 512. NICHOLLS , J. A.; CULLEN , R. E.; AND RAGLAND,
bustor. Sixth ICRPG Liquid Propellant Combus- K. W.: Feasibility Studies of a Rotating Detona-
tion Instability Conference, CPIA. Pub . No. 192, tion Wave Rocket Motor . J. Spacecraft and
Vol. 1 , Dec. 1969, pp. 111-120. Rockets, Vol. 3, June 1966 , p. 893.
MORGAN, C. J.: Also see Refs . 553 , 716 , and 718 . 513. NICHOLLS, J. A.; DABORA, E. K.; AND RAGLAND,
498. MORGAN , J.: Introduction to Geometrical and K. W.: A Study of Two-Phase Detonation as it
Physical Optics . McGraw-Hill, New York, 1953. Relates to Rocket Motor Combustion Insta-
MORGANTE , P. J.: See Ref. 639. bility. University of Michigan , NASA CR-272,
499. MORRELL, G.: Critical Conditions for Drop 1965.
and Jet Shattering . NASA TN D-677 , Feb. 1961 . 514. NICHOLLS , J. A.; RAGLAND, K. W.; AND RANGER,
500. MORRELL, G.: Rate of Liquid Jet Breakup by a A. A.: Two Phase Detonations and Drop Shat-
Transverse Shock Wave . NASA TN D- 1728, tering Studies. University of Michigan, NASA
1963 . CR-72225 , April 1967.
501. MORRELL, G.; AND POVINELLI, F. P.: Breakup of 515. NICHOLLS , J. A.; AND RANGER, A. A.: Droplet
Various Liquid Jets by Shock Waves and Appli- Shattering. Fifth ICRPG Combustion Con-
cations to Resonant Combustion . NASA TN ference, CPIA Pub . No. 183, Dec. 1968, pp.
D-2423 , 1964. 85-90.
MORRELL, G.: Also see Ref. 566 . 516. NICHOLLS, J. A.; RANGER, A. A .; AND SIVIER,
502. MORRISON, R.: Modern Filter Theory. Dynamics K. R.: Dynamics of Liquid and Solid Particles.
Instrumentation Co., Monterey Park, Cali- Fourth ICRPG Combustion Conference, CPIA
fornia. Pub. No. 162 , Vol. I , Dec. 1967 , p . 295 .
MORRISON, R. B .: Also see Ref. 199. NICHOLLS, J. A.: Also see Refs . 199, 207 , 208 , 210,
503. MORSE, P. M.: Vibration & Sound . McGraw-Hill, 211 , 572, and 576.
New York, 1948. 517. NICHOLSON, J. E .; AND HILL, A. F.: Rain Erosion
504. MORSE, P. M.; AND FESHBACH, H.: Methods of on Spike Protected Supersonic Radomes. Mithas,
Theoretical Physics . McGraw-Hill, New York, Inc., Cambridge, Mass . , MC-61-6-R3, 1963 .
1953. NICKERSON, G. R.: See Ref. 140.
505. MORSE , P. M.; AND INGARD, K. U.: Theoretical 518. NISHIWAKI, N.: Kinetics of Liquid Combustion
Acoustics. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1968 . Processes : Evaporation and Ignition Lag of Fuel
506. MUGELE, R. A.: Maximum Stable Droplets in Droplets. Fifth Symposium (International) on
Dispersoids . A.I.Ch.E.J. , Vol . 6, No. 1 , March Combustion, Reinhold , New York, 1965, pp.
148-158.
1960, p . 3.
519a. NORTHRUP, R. P.: Flow Stability in Small Orifices.
507. MUGELE , R. A.; AND EVANS, H. D.: Droplet Size Paper presented at 1951 ARS Annual Conven-
Distributions in Sprays. Ind. Engr. Chem . ,
tion, Atlantic City, N. J., Nov. 1951.
Vol. 43, No. 6, June 1951 , p. 1317.
NURICK, W.: See Ref. 225 .
508. MULREADY, R. C .: The RL10 Oxygen- Hydrogen 519b . NORTON, D. J.: Generalized One-Dimensional,
Rocket Engine Development Through Prelim- Compound Compressible Nozzle Flow. Journal
inary Flight Rating Test . 4th JANAF Liquid of Spacecraft and Rockets , Vol. 7, No. 3, Mar.
Propulsion Symposium, Published by APL, 1970, pp. 338-341 .
Johns Hopkins Univ., Doc. No. LPS 62-1 , Nov. 520. OBERG, C. L.: Final Rept.-Lunar Module Ascent
1962, p . 367. Engine Acoustic Cavity Study. Rocketdyne
MYERS, P. S .: See Refs . 112 , 248, and 249. Rept . No. R-7935, Aug. 1969.
MYNCKE, H .: See Ref. 707. 521. OBERG, C. L.: Improved Design Techniques for
NADAUD, L.: See Ref. 79. Acoustic Liners . Rocketdyne Research Rept.
NAGAI, C. K.: See Refs. 80 , 221 , and 258. 68-5, 1968.
509. NESTLERODE , J. A.; CHADWICK, W. D.; AND 522. OBERG, C. L.: LM Ascent Engine Acoustic Cavity
GLEASON, J. L.: Investigation and Suppression Study . Sixth ICRPG Combustion Conference,
CPIA Pub. No. 192, Vol . 1, Dec. 1969, pp. 303- Engines . Jet Propulsion, Vol . 27 , Feb. 1957 , pp.
316. 156-161 .
523. OBERG, C. L.; AND KULUVA, N. M.: Acoustic Liners 538. PENNER, S. S .: Similarity Analysis for Chemical
for Large Engines . Rocketdyne Rept. R-7792, Reactors and the Scaling of Liquid-Fuel Rocket
March 1969. Engines. Combustion Researches and Reviews
OBERG, C. L .: Also see Refs . 403, 404, 405 , 510, 1955, AGARD, Chap. 12, Butterworths Sci.
and 599. Pub. , London, 1955.
524. ODGERS , I. L.; VAN DE VERG, N .; AND WICK, R. S.: 539. PENNER, S. S .; AND DATNER, P. P.: Combustion
Combustion Stability Research. JPL Progress Problems in Liquid Fuel Rocket Engines . Fifth
Rept. 20-203 , Jan. 1954. Symposium (International) on Combustion , Rein-
525. O'DONNELL, J. D .: Operation and Service of Aero- hold, New York, 1955, pp. 11-28 .
jet Periscope Model VI 4. Tech. Documentary PENNER, S. S.: Also see Refs . 63, 64, 289, 293, and
Rept . No. AFPRL-TR-65-45, May 1964 . 748 .
OLSON, D. R.: See Refs . 255 and 256. 540. PEOPLES, R. G.; AND BAKER, P. D .: Stability Rating
OPPENHEIM, A. K.: See Ref. 701 . Techniques . Western States Section/Combustion
526. ORTON, J. W.: An Experimental Study of the In- Institute Paper 64-11 , April 1964 .
fluence of Operating Conditions on Liquid Pro- 541. PEOPLES , R. G.; BAKER, P. D.; and MILLS , T. R.:
pellant Rocket Thrust Chamber Performance . Some Observations on Combustion Noise and
R.P.E. , Westcott, Gr. Britain , Technical Rept. Unstable Combustion . Aerojet- General Rept .
(to be published) . No. 2444, Dec. 1962 .
527. OSBORN , J. R.; AND DAVIS , L. R.: Effects of In- 542. PEOPLES , R. G.; AND PICKFORD, R. S .: Analytical
jection Location on Combustion Instability in and Experimental Scaling of Thrust Chambers .
Premixed Gaseous Bipropellant Rocket Motors . Aerojet-General Rept. TN-40 (AFOSR 677),
Purdue Univ . Rept . I-61-1 , Jan. 1961 . 1960.
OSBORN, J. R.: Also see Refs . 773, 774, 775, and 776. PEOPLES , R. G.: Also see Ref. 74 .
528. OSBORN, R. H.: Liquid Rockets . Space/Aero- 543. PERRY, J. H. (Ed . ) : Chemical Engineer's Hand-
nautics, R & D Issue 46 , Vol . 2 , July 1966, p . 94 . book, 4th Edition . McGraw-Hill, New York,
529. PADLEY, P. J.: The Origin of the Blue Continuum 1963 .
in the Hydrogen Flame. Faraday Society, Vol . PERSON, R. A.: See Ref. 362 .
56, 1960. 544. PESCHE, W. T.; AND HAMMER, S. S .: Pressure Gradi-
530. PANOSIAN, J. O .: Development of a Fluorine/ ents in a Liquid Propellant Rocket Motor. AIAA
Hydrogen Injector. AIAA Paper No. 66-625, J., Vol . 2, No. 8, Aug. 1964 , p. 1467.
AIAA Second Propulsion Joint Specialists Con- PESHKE, W. T.: See Refs . 55 and 308.
ference, June 1966. 545. PESKIN, R. L.; POLYMEROPOULOS , C. E .; AND
PARISH, H. C.: See Ref. 719. YEH, P. S.: Results from a Theoretical Study of
531. PARKINSON, R. C .: Convective Heat Transfer in Fuel Drop Ignition and Extinction . AIAA J.,
Rocket Engines . Heat Transfer in the Com- Vol. 5, 1967, p. 2173 , (also see Comb . Flame,
bustion Chamber . R.P.E. , Westcott, Great Britain , Vol. 13, 1969, p . 166) .
Tech. Rpt. No. 69/5, April 1969. 546. PESKIN, R. L.; AND WISE , H.: A Theory for Ig-
532. PARKS , E. G. , ET AL.: Thrust Chamber Materials nition and Deflagration of Fuel Drops . AIAA J.,
and Design Concepts Evaluation . AFRPL TR- Vol. 4 , 1966 , p . 1646.
67-175 , Oct. 1967. 547. PESKIN, R. L.; AND YEH, P. S.: A Theoretical
533. PARZEN , E .: Notes on Fourier Analysis and Spectral Study of the Effect of Convection on the Ig-
Windows . Stanford University Applied Math nition of Single Aerosol Droplets . Edgewood
Statistics Lab . Rept. No. 48 , May 1963 . Arsenal Rept. 67-10, June 1967 .
PESKIN, R. L.: Also see Ref. 604 .
534. PASS , I .; AND TISCHLER, A. O .: Effect of Fuels on
548. PHILLIPS , B.: Acoustic Liner Studies at the Lewis
Screaming in a 200-Pound-Thrust Liquid Oxy-
Research Center. Fourth ICRPG Combustion
gen-Fuel Rocket Engine. NACA RM E56C10,
1956. Conference, Pub . No. 162, Vol. 1 , Dec. 1967 ,
PATEL, B. R.: See Ref. 698. pp . 111-122.
PECK, R. E.: See Ref. 326. 549. PHILLIPS, B.: Effects of High Wave Amplitude and
Mean Flow on a Helmholtz Resonator . NASA
PEDERSON, D. O .: See Ref. 411 .
TM X- 1582, May 1968
535. PENNER, S. S.: Chemical Rocket Propulsion and 550. PHILLIPS, B.: Experimental Investigation of an
Combustion Research. Gordon & Breach Science
Acoustic Liner with Variable Cavity Depth.
Pub ., 1962.
NASA TN D -4492, April 1968 .
536. PENNER, S. S.: Chemistry Problems in Jet Propul- 551. PHILLIPS, B.: Recent Advances in Acoustic Liner
sion. Macmillan, New York, 1957. Technology at the Lewis Research Center . Fifth
537. PENNER, S. S.: On the Development of Rational ICRPG Combustion Conference, CPIA Pub . No.
Scaling Procedures for Liquid-Fuel Rocket 183 , Dec. 1968, pp. 343-350.
REFERENCES 619
552. PHILLIPS , B.; HANNUM , N. P.; AND RUSSELL, 564. PRIEM, R. J .; AND HEIDMANN , M. F.: Propellant
L. M.: On the Design of Acoustic Liners for Vaporization as a Design Criterion for Rocket-
Rocket Engines : Helmholtz Resonators Evalu- Engine Combustion Chambers . NASA TR R-67,
ated with a Rocket Combustor. NASA TN 1960.
D-5171 , April 1969 . 565. PRIEM, R. J.; AND HEIDMANN , M. F .: Vaporization
553. PHILLIPS, B.; AND MORGAN, C. J.: Mechanical of Propellants in Rocket Engines . ARS J., Vol.
Absorption of Acoustic Oscillations in Simulated 29, 1959, p . 836.
Rocket Combustion Chambers . NASA TN 566. PRIEM, R. J.; AND MORRELL, G.: Application of
D-3792, Jan. 1967. Similarity Parameters for Correlating High Fre-
PHILLIPS, B.: Also see Ref. 710. quency Instability Behavior of Liquid Propel-
PICKFORD, R. S.: See Refs . 242 and 542 . lant Combustors . Progress in Astronautics and
554. PIEPER, J. L.; DEAN, L. E.; AND VALENTINE , R. S.: Rocketry, Vol. 6 , Academic Press , New York,
Mixture Ratio Distribution- Its Impact on Rocket 1962, pp. 305-320.
Thrust Chamber Performance. J. Spacecraft & 567. PRIEM, R. J.; AND RICE, E. J.: Combustion In-
Rockets, Vol. 4, No. 6, June 1967 , pp . 786–789 . stability with Finite Mach Number Flow and
PIEPER, J. L.: Also see Ref. 703 . Acoustic Liners . NASA TM X-52412, 1968 .
PINCHAK, A. C .: See Ref. 776. PRIEM, R. J.: Also see Refs . 249 , 343 , 344 , and 348.
POLYMEROPOULOS , C. E .: See Ref. 545 . PROFFIT, R. L.: See Ref. 348.
PORTER, R. N.: See Ref. 226 . 568. PROBERT, R. P.: The Influence of Spray Particle
555. POVINELLI, F. P.: Displacement of Disintegrating Size and Distribution in the Combustion of Oil
Liquid Jets in Crossflow. NASA TN D-4334, Droplets . Philosophical Magazine and Journal
1968. of Science, Vol. 37 , p . 94, 1946 .
POVINELLI, F. P.: Also see Ref. 501 . QUAN, V.: See Ref. 409.
POVINELLI, L. A.: See Ref. 342 . 569. RABIN, E.; SCHALLENMULLER , A. R.; AND LAWHEAD,
555b. POWELL, W. B.: ICRPG Liquid Propellant Thrust R. B .: Displacement and Shattering of Propel-
Chamber Performance Evaluation Methodology. lant Droplets. Rocketdyne, AFOSR TR 60-75,
Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets , Vol . 7, No. 1 , 1960.
Jan. 1970, pp . 105-108 . 570. RAGLAND, K. W.: The Propagation and Structure
PRICE, E. W.: See Ref. 127. of Two Phase Detonations. Ph.D. Thesis, Uni-
556. PRIEM, R. J.: Combustion Process Influence on versity of Michigan , 1967.
Stability . Chemical Engineering Progress Sym- 571. RAGLAND, K. W.: Solution of the Blasius Boundary
posium Series, Vol . 62, No. 61 , 1966 , pp. 103–112 . Layer Equation Behind a Shock with Vaporiza-
557. PRIEM, R. J.: Propellant Vaporization as a Cri- tion and Combustion at the Wall. University of
terion for Rocket Engine Design : Calculations Michigan, NASA CR-72235, 1967.
of Chamber Length to Vaporize a Single Hep- 572. RAGLAND, K. W.; DABORA, E. K.; AND NICHOLLS ,
tane Drop . NACA TN 3985 , 1957 . J. A.: Observed Structure of Spray Detonations.
558. PRIEM, R. J.: Propellant Vaporization as a Cri- Physics of Fluids, Vol. 11 , No. 11 , Nov. 1968,
terion for Rocket Engine Design : Calculation p. 2377.
of Chamber Length to Vaporize Various Propel- RAGLAND, K. W.: Also see Refs . 207 , 208 , 209, 210,
lants . NACA TN 3883, 1958. 211 , 512, 513, and 514.
559. PRIEM, R. J.: Propellant Vaporization as a Cri- 573. RAHON, J. R.: Effects of Radial Energy Release
terion for Rocket-Engine Design : Calculations Variations on Transverse Combustion Pressure
Using Various Log-Probability Distributions of Oscillations . MSME Thesis, Purdue University,
Heptane Drops . NACA TN 4098, Oct. 1957 . June 1962 .
560. PRIEM, R. J .: Theoretical and Experimental Models RAMANI, N.: See Ref. 388.
of Unstable Rocket Combustion . Ninth Sympo-
574. RANDALL, L. N.: Rocket Applications of the Cavi-
sium (International) on Combustion, Academic tating Venturi. J. ARS ., Vol. 22, No. 1 , Jan.-
Press, New York, 1963 , p . 982.
Feb. 1952, pp. 28–31 .
561. PRIEM, R. J.: Tutorial Seminar Paper on "L" and
"J" Combustion Model. Second ICRPG Com- 575. RANGER, A. A.: Aerodynamic Shattering of Liquid
bustion Conference, CPIA Pub. No. 105 , May Drops . Ph.D. Thesis, University of Michigan,
1966, p . 139. 1968.
RANGER, A. A.: Also see Refs. 209, 211 , 515, and
562. PRIEM, R. J.; BORMAN, G. L.; EL WAKIL, M. M.;
516.
UYEHARA, O. A.; AND MYERS , P. S.: Experimen-
tal and Calculated Histories of Vaporizing Fuel 576. RANGER, A. A.; AND NICHOLLS, J. A.: Aerody-
Drop . NACA TN 3988 , Aug. 1957. namic Shattering of Liquid Drops . AIAA J., Vol .
563. PRIEM, R. J.; AND GUENTERT, D. C .: Combustion 7, No. 2, Feb. 1969.
Instability Limits Determined by a Nonlinear 577. RANZ, W. E.; AND MARSHALL, W. R. , JR.: Evapora-
Theory and a One-Dimensional Model. NASA tion From Drops . Chemical Engineering Prog-
TN D- 1409 , Oct. 1962. ress, Vol. 48, 1952 , pp. 141-146 , 173–180 .
578. RAYLEIGH, LORD : On the Instability of Jets. Proc. gine Injectors . JPL Tech. Rept . 32-1112 , June
London Math. Soc ., Vol . 10, Nov. 1878. 1967.
579. RAYLEIGH, LORD : The Theory of Sound, Vol. II, RIEBLING, R. W.: Also see Ref. 252.
Second Edition . Dover Publication, 1945 . 593. RING, E.: Rocket Propellant and Pressurization
580. REARDON, F. H.: Application of Crocco Theory . Systems. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N. J. ,
Second ICRPG Combustion Conference, CPIA 1964 .
Pub. No. 105 , May 1966, pp . 155–162 . 594. RINGLEB, F. O.: Discussion of Problems Associated
581. REARDON, F. H .: Correlation of Sensitive-Time- with Standing Vortices and Their Applications.
Lag-Theory Combustion Parameters with Thrust ASME Symposium In Fully Separated Flows,
Chamber Design and Operating Variables . Fifth 1964 .
ICRPG Combustion Conference, CPIA Pub . 595. RIVERS, W. J., ET AL.: Effect of Rocket Chamber
No. 183, Dec. 1968, pp . 237-244 . Combustion on Chamber Materials, Part I:
582. REARDON, F. H.: An Investigation of Transverse One-Dimensional Computer Program-Final Re-
Mode Combustion Instability in Liquid Propel- port. Rocketdyne, AFRPL-TR-65-13, Jan. 1965 .
lant Rocket Motors . Ph. D. Thesis, Princeton ROCKOW, R.: See Ref. 245.
University Aero. Eng. Rept. No. 550, June 1961 . 596. ROGERO, S .: Measurement of the High Frequency
583. REARDON, F. H .; Crocco, L.; AND HARRJE, D. T.: Pressure Phenomena Associated with Oscillatory
Velocity Effects in Transverse Mode Liquid Combustion in Rocket Engines. Third ICRPG
Propellant Rocket Combustion Instability. AIAA Combustion Conference, CPIA Pub. No. 138 ,
J., Vol. 2, No. 9, Sept. 1964, pp. 1631-1641 . Vol. 1 , Feb. 1967 , pp . 361-374.
584. REARDON, F. H.; MCBRIDE, J. M.; AND SMITH, 597. ROGERO, S .: Measurement of the High Frequency
A. J. , JR.: Effect of Injection Distribution on Pressure Phenomena Associated with Rocket
Combustion Instability. AIAA J. , Vol . 4 , No. 3, Motors . JPL Tech. Rept . 32-624, May 1964.
March 1966, pp. 506–512. ROGERO, R. S.: Also see Refs . 151 and 152.
585. REARDON, F. H.; AND SMITH, A. J., JR.: An Ex- 598. ROJEC, E. A.: Photographic Presentation of Shear-
perimental Investigation of Combustion Stability Type Droplet Breakup. Rocketdyne Research
Characteristics at High Chamber Pressures. Rept. No. 63-39, Nov. 1963.
Aerojet-General Interim Rept. 11741-1 , 1965. Roos , F. W.: See Ref. 751 .
586. REARDON, F. H.; AND WAUGH, R. E .: Feed System 599. ROSEN, B.; AND OBERG, C. L.: Acoustic Model
Effects on Combustion Instability. Aerojet- Studies of Baffle Configurations for the Ex-
General Rept. TCR 9645-002, 1963. tended Range Lance (XRL) Booster Engine.
REARDON , F. H.: Also see Refs. 187 , 323 , 333, 649, Rocketdyne Research Rept. 67-21 , Dec. 1967.
650, and 721. 600. ROSNER, D. E.: Diffusional Theory of Reactive
587. REBA, I.; AND COLEMAN, B.: Combustion Insta- Chemical Releases, AeroChem TP- 128, Feb. 1966.
bility: Liquid Stream and Droplet Behavior . 601. ROSNER, D. E.: On Liquid Droplet Combustion at
Aeronautical Research Lab ., Wright- Patterson High Pressures . AIAA J. , Vol. 5 , 1967 , p . 163 .
AFB, WADC 59-720, 1960. 602. Ross, C. C.: Scaling of Liquid Fuel Rocket Com-
REDDING, R. A.: See Ref. 732. bustion Chambers . AGARD Selected Combus-
REETHOF, G .: See Ref. 103. tion Problems , Vol. 2, Butterworths Sci.
REEVES, D. F .: See Ref. 83. Pub., London, 1956, pp . 444-456.
REID, R.: See Ref. 437. 603. Ross, C. C.; AND DATNER, P. P.: Combustion In-
588. REUTENIK, J. R.; AND LEWIS, S. D.: Pressure probe stability in Liquid Propellant Rocket Motors-
and System for Measuring Large Blast Waves. a Survey. Selected Combustion Problems, But-
Massachussetts Institute of Technology, AFFDL- terworths Sci . Pub. , London, 1954, pp. 352-401 .
TDR-65-35, June 1965. Ross , P. S.: See Ref. 715.
589. RICE, E. J.: The Effect of Selected Fluid Parameters
604. ROSSER, W. A. , JR.; AND PESKIN, R. L.: A Study of
on Spatial Drop Size Distribution . Ph . D. Thesis,
Decomposition Burning. Combustion and Flame,
University of Wisconsin, 1966.
Vol. 10, 1966, p. 152 .
RICE, E. J.: Also see Refs. 352 and 567.
ROSSER, W. A.: Also see Refs . 57, 756, and 757.
590. RIEBLING, R. W.: Controlling the Dimensions and
Rossi, F. S.: See Refs. 704 and 705 .
Orientations of Impinging Propellant Sheets in
Liquid Rocket Engine Injectors . J. Spacecraft 605. ROSSMAN, T. G.: Experiments on Instability in
Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines. AFOSR
and Rockets, Vol. 3, No. 11 , Nov. 1966, pp .
1692-1694 . Fourth Symposium on Rocket Combustion In-
591. RIEBLING, R. W.: Criteria for Optimum Propellant stability, Sunstrand-Turbo, Pacoima, Calif., 1957 .
Mixing in Impinging-Jet Injection Elements . J. 606. ROSSMANN, T. G.: A High-Speed and High-Resolu-
Spacecraft Rockets, Vol . 4, No. 6, June 1967 , pp . tion Photographic Technique for the Observation
817-819 . of Propellants Injected into a Firing Combustion
592. RIEBLING, R. W.: The Formation and Properties Chamber. Technical Note, Bell Aerosystems Rept .
of Liquid Sheets Suitable for Use in Rocket En- No. 8007-981-008, Parts I and II, May 1959,
REFERENCES 621
(AFOSR Doc. No. TN59-8 ; ASTIA Doc. No. 619. RUPE, J. H.; AND EVANS , D. D .: Designing for
208-304) . Compatibility in High Performance LP Engines.
607. ROSSMANN, T. G .: Observation of Propellants In- Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol . 3, 1965, pp.
jected into a Firing Rocket Chamber. Bell Aero- 68-74.
systems Tech. Rept. No. 8007-981-011 , (AFOSR 620. RUPE, J. H.; AND JAIVIN, G. I .: The Effects of In-
TR No. 60-98 ) , July 1960 . jection Mass Flux Distributions and Resonant
608. ROSSMAN, T. G.; EULNER, R. N.; AND WOOD, Combustion on Local Heat Transfer in a Liquid-
L. M.: Photographic Investigation of Propellant Propellant Rocket Engine . JPL Tech. Rept. No.
Stream Behavior in a Firing Rocket Engine . Bell 32-648, Oct. 1964.
Aerosystems Tech. Summary Rept . No. 9136- RUPE, J. H.: Also see Refs . 153 and 226.
950001 , June 1966 . 621. RUSSELL, G. E.: Hydraulics. Henry Holt & Co.,
ROUSAR, D. C.: See Ref. 477. 1937 , p . 225 .
609. ROWLEY, R. W.; AND TYLER, W. H.: The Effect of RUSSELL, L. M.: See Refs . 552 and 717.
Injector Design on Thrust-Chamber Erosion . RUSSELL, P. R.: See Ref. 286.
AIAA Paper No. 65-586, 1965. RYLEY, D. J.: See Ref. 435.
ROYCE , R. L.: See Ref. 408 . 622. SABERSKY, R. H.: Effect of Wave Propagation in
610. RUPE , J. H.: Bridging the Gap Between Injector Feed Lines on Low Frequency Rocket Insta-
Hydraulics and Combustion Phenomena in bility. Jet Propulsion , Vol . 24, 1954, p. 172 .
Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines . Bulletin of 623. SAKURAI, A.: Blast Wave Theory. Basic Develop-
the First JANAF Meeting of the Liquid Propel- ments in Fluid Dynamics, Vol . 1 , M. Holt, ed.,
lant Group , Vol. III , Rocket Engine Research Academic Press, New York, 1965.
and Development, LPIA, Johns Hopkins Uni- SALANT, R. F.: See Ref. 696.
versity, Silver Spring, Md ., pp. 335-360 , Nov. 624. SALMI , R. J.; WANHAINEN, J. P.; AND HANNUM ,
1959. N. P.: Effect of Thrust-Per-Element on Com-
611. RUPE, J. H.: Bridging the Gap Between Injector bustion Stability Characteristics of a 20,000-
Hydraulics and Combustion Phenomena in Pound Rocket Engine, NASA TN D-4851 , 1968 .
Propellant Rocket Engines . JPL Pub. No. 167, 625. SANCHEZ, J. C .: Semiconductor Strain Gage Pres-
Sept. 1959. sure Sensors . Instruments and Control Systems,
612. RUPE, J. H .: A Correlation Between the Dynamic Vol . 36, No. 11 , Nov. 1963 , pp . 117–120.
Properties of a Pair of Impinging Streams and SANDERS, C. F.: See Ref. 89 .
the Uniformity of Mixture-Ratio Distribution 626. SATCHE, M.: Discussion on "Stability of Linear
in the Resulting Spray. JPL Progress Rept. No. Oscillation Systems with Constant Time Lag."
20-209, 1956. Journ . Appl. Mech. , Vol. 16, 1949, p . 418 .
613. RUPE, J. H.: An Experimental Correlation of the SAVELL, C. T.: See Ref. 772 .
Nonreactive Properties of Injection Schemes and 627. SAWYER, R. F.: C- 1 Program Special Report-
Combustion Effects in a Liquid Propellant Rocket Combustion Irregularity. RMD Rept. 6203-53,
Engine, Part I. The Application of Nonreactive Aug. 1966 .
Spray Properties to Rocket Motor Injector De-
628. SAWYER, R. F.: Mass Spectrometric Observation
sign . JPL Tech. Rept . 32-255 , July 1965 . of Ignition Phenomena in a Small Rocket Com-
614. RUPE , J. H.: An Experimental Correlation of the bustion Chamber. Paper No. WSCI-67-39,
Nonreactive Properties of Injection Schemes and Western States Section of the Combustion In-
Combustion Effects in a Liquid-Propellant
stitute Fall Meeting, 1967 .
Rocket Motor, Part V. The Influence of Vanes
629. SAWYER, R. F .: The Hydrazine-Nitrogen Tetrox-
on Combustion and Combustion Stability. JPL
Tech. Rept. 32-255, Sept. 1967 . ide Reaction, A Comparison of Experimental
Observations . Third ICRPG Combustion Con-
615. RUPE , J. H.: Experimental Studies of the Hydro-
ference, CPIA Pub. No. 138, Vol . 1 , Feb. 1967,
dynamics of Liquid Propellant Injection . JPL
External Pub. No. 388, June 1957. p. 481 .
616. RUPE, J. H.: On the Dynamic Characteristics of 630. SCALA, S. M.: Transverse Wave and Entropy Wave
Free-Liquid Jets and a Partial Correlation with Combustion Instability in Liquid Propellant
Orifice Geometry. JPL Tech. Rept. No. 32-207, Rockets. Ph.D. Thesis, Princeton University
Jan. 1962. Aero Eng. Rept . No. 380 , April 1957.
617. RUPE , J. H.: The Liquid Phase Mixing of a Pair SCHALLENMULLER, A. R.: See Ref. 569.
of Impinging Streams. JPL Progress Rept. No. SCHILZ, W.: See Ref. 478 .
20-195, Aug. 1953. 631. SCHINDLER, R. C .; AND KISER H. V.: Develop-
618. RUPE, J. H.; DIPPREY, D.; KUSHIDA, R.; AND ment and Demonstration of Ablative Thrust
CLAYTON, R.: A Stability Criterion for Impinging Chamber Assemblies Using LF2/N2H, Blend
Jets and Its Impact on Combustion. Sixth Propellants. Aerojet- General Rept. No. AGC-
ICRPG Combustion Conference, CPIA Pub. 9400-14 (AFRPL-TR-69-2 and AD 395844),
No. 192, Vol. 1 , Dec. 1969, pp . 1–12 . Jan. 1969 .
632. SCHLICHTING, H.: Boundary Layer Theory, 4th linear Combustion Instability : Longitudinal
Edition. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1955, p . 370. Mode. Ph.D. Thesis , Princeton University Aero-
633. SCHMIDT, E. H. W.; AND SCHOPPE, F.: Mixing and space and Mech . Sci . Tech . Rept. No. 677,
Combustion at High Turbulence in Combustion March 1964.
Chambers . Fifth Symposium (International) on 646. SIRIGNANO, W. A.; AND CROCCO, L.: A Shock Wave
Combustion, Reinhold, New York, 1955 , pp. Model of Unstable Rocket Combustion . AIAA
343-347. J., Vol. 2, No. 7, July 1964 , p . 1285 .
SCHNELL, A. C.: See Ref. 286. 647. SIRIGNANO, W. A.; CROCCO, L .; AND HARRJE , D. T.:
634. SCHOB, W. J .; GLASSMAN , I.; AND WEBB, M. J.: Acoustic Liner Studies. Third ICRPG Com-
An Experimental Investigation of Heat Transfer bustion Conference, CPIA Pub. No. 138, Vol. 1 ,
and Pressure Effects on Longitudinal Combustion Feb. 1967, pp . 581-586.
Instability in a Rocket Motor Using Premixed SIRIGNANO, W. A.: Also see Refs . 188 , 189, 190 ,
Gaseous Propellants . Princeton University Aero . 191 , 192, 193, 196, 197 , 324, 489, 691 , 693, and
Eng. Rept. 649, June 1963. 694.
635. SCHOENMAN, L.: Personal Communication . Aerojet- SIVIER, K. R.: See Ref. 516.
General Corp. , Sacramento, Calif. , 1968. 648. SKILLING, H. H.: Electric Transmission Lines .
SCHOPPE, F.: See Ref. 633. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1951 .
636. SCHOTT, G. L.: Observations of the Structure of SLATES, R. O.: See Refs . 126 and 127.
Spinning Detonations . Physics of Fluids, Vol . 8, 649. SMITH, A. J. , JR.; AND REARDON, F. H.: Develop-
No. 5 , 1965 . ment of a Variable-Length Chamber for Liquid
SCHUM, H. J .: See Ref. 233 . Rocket Combustion Research. Aerojet- General
SCHUMACHER, P. E.: See Refs . 155 and 167. Rept. 212 /SA3-F, Vol. 3 (BSD-TDR-64-137) ,
SCHUMAN, M. D.: See Refs . 165 , 166, and 223 . Oct. 1964.
SCHUMAN, T. E. W.: See Ref. 128 . 650. SMITH, A. J. , JR .; REARDON , F. H. , ET AL .: The
SCOTT, H. E.: See Ref. 312 . Sensitive Time Lag Theory and Its Application
637. SCULL, W. E.; AND MICKELSON, W. R.: Flow and to Liquid Rocket Combustion Instability Prob-
Mixing Processes in Combustion Chambers. lems. Aerojet-General, AFRPL-TR-67-314,
NACA Rept. R-1300 , 1957 , pp. 32-82. March, 1968.
SEADER, J. D .: See Ref. 677. SMITH, A. J. , Jr .: Also see Refs. 333, 584, and 585.
638. SEEBAUGH, W. R.; AND LEE, D. H.: An Optical SMITH, E. B.: See Ref. 266.
Method for Observing Breakup and Vaporiza- SMITH, I. E.: See Ref. 116.
tion of Liquid Jets . Princeton University Aero. SMITH, P. W., JR.: See Ref. 295.
Eng. Rept. No. 647 , June 1963. 651. SODHA, M. S.: On Internal Ballistics of Liquid Fuel
SEELY, S .: See Ref. 438 . Rockets . Appl . Sci. Res ., Vol. 7 , 1958, p. 421 .
639. SENNEFF, J. M.; AND MORGANTE, P. J .: Combus- 652. SOKOLOWSKI , D. E.; VINCENT, D. W.; AND CONRAD,
tion Stability Investigation of the LEM Ascent E. W.: Characterization of Pressure Perturba-
Engine. Second ICRPG Propulsion Conference, tions Induced in a Rocket Combustor by a
CPIA Pub. No. 105 , Vol. 1 , May 1966 , pp . 23-46. Machine Gun. NASA TN D-5214 , May 1969.
640. SHAFER, M. R.: Performance Characteristics of SOKOLOWSKI, D. E .: Also see Refs . 345 and 711 .
Turbine Flowmeters. Paper No. 6-WH-25, 653. SOMOGYI, D.; AND FEILER, C. E .: Mixture Ratio
ASME, June 1961 . Distribution in the Drops of Spray Produced
641. SHAPIRO, A. H.: The Dynamics and Thermody- by Impinging Liquid Streams. ARS J., Vol. 30,
namics of Compressible Fluid Flow, Vol . I. 1960, p . 185 .
Ronald Press , New York, 1953. 654. SOTTER, J. G.: Nonsteady Evaporation of Liquid
642. SHAPIRO, A. H.: The Dynamics and Thermody- Propellant Drops : The Grossman Model . JPL
namics of Compressible Fluid Flow, Vol . II . Tech. Rept. 32-1061 , 1968 .
Ronald Press , New York, 1954, Sect. 23.3. 655. SOTTER, J. G.; AND CLAYTON, R. M .: Monitoring
SHEARER, J. L.: See Ref. 103 . the Combustion Process in Large Engines . J. of
SHEN, P. I. W.: See Ref. 48 . Spacecraft and Rockets, Vol . 4, No. 5, May 1967,
SHERMAN, A.: See Ref. 485 . p. 702.
643. SHERWOOD, C. M.: Steady-State Streak Film SOTTER, J. G.: Also see Refs . 152, 154 and 759.
Analysis in the High-Pressure Two-Dimensional 656. SPALDING, D. B .: Combustion in Liquid-Fuel
Research Motor . Rocketdyne Res . Rept. No. Rocket Motors . Aero. Quarterly, Vol. 10, 1959 .
64-34, Oct. 1964 . 657. SPALDING, D. B.: Combustion of a Single Droplet
SIDDALL, R. G.: See Ref. 360 . and of a Fuel Spray. Selected Combustion Prob-
SILVER, S.: See Ref. 241. lems, AGARD, Butterworths, London , 1954, p.
SIMPSON, H. C.: See Ref. 363. 340-351.
644. SIRIGNANO, W. A.: The Nonlinearity in Acoustic 658. SPALDING, D. B.: Combustion of Liquid Fuel in a
Liners . To be published. Gas Stream . Fuel, Vol . 29 , 1950, p. 25 ; see also
645. SIRIGNANO, W. A.: A Theoretical Study of Non- Fuel, Vol. 30, 1951 , p . 121 .
REFERENCES 623
659. SPALDING, D. B .: The Combustion of Liquid Fuels . sion in Liquid Propellant Rocket Systems . J.
Fourth Symposium (International) on Combus- ARS . , Vol. 21 , No. 5, Sept. 1951 , pp . 108-114.
tion, Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, 1953, pp . 674. SUMMERS, W. H.; AND MCMULLEN, E. T.: Com-
847-864. bustion of the N2H /N₂O, Propellant System.
660. SPALDING, D. B .: A One-Dimensional Theory of AIAA Paper 66-662 , June 1966.
Liquid Fuel Rocket Combustion . ARC Tech. 675. SUNDERLAND , J. E.; and Grosh, R. J.: Transient
Rept. No. 20-175 , Current Paper No. 445, 1959. Temperature in a Melting Solid. J. of Heat
661. SPALDING, D. B.: Some Fundamentals of Com- Transf., Vol . 83, Series C. , No. 4, Nov. 1961 ,
bustion . Gas Turbine Series, Vol . 2 , Academic pp . 409-414.
Press, New York, 1955 . 676. SUTTON, G. P .: Rocket Propulsion Elements . John
662. SPALDING, D. B .: Theory of Particle Combustion Wiley and Sons, New York, 1949 .
at High Pressures. ARS J., Vol. 29 , 1959 , pp. 677. SUTTON, G. P .; WAGNER, W. R.; AND SEADER,
828-835 . J. D .: Advanced Cooling Techniques for Rocket
663. SPALDING, D. B .; AND JAIN, V. K.: Theory of the Engines. Astronautics and Aeronautics, Jan.
Burning of Monopropellant Droplets . Combus- 1966, pp. 60-71 .
tion and Fuels Subcommittee, Great Britain, SUTTON, R. D.: See Ref. 275.
ARC-CP 447 , May 1958. SWICK, E. B.: See Ref. 396.
SPRANKLE , M. L.: See Ref. 267. 678. SzUCH, J. R.; and WenzEL, L. M .: Experimental
664. SQUIRE , H. B.: The Investigation of the Instability Verification of a Double-Dead-Time Model
of a Moving Liquid Film. Brit . J. Appl . Physics , Describing Chugging in Liquid-Bipropellant
Vol. 4, June 1953, p . 167 . Rocket Engines . Fourth ICRPG Combustion
STANFORD, H. B .: See Ref. 252. Conference, CPIA Pub . No. 162 , Vol . 1 , Dec.
STAUDHAMMER, P.: See Refs . 245 and 246 . 1967 , pp. 175-184.
STEWART, W. E.: See Ref. 99. SZUCH, J. R .: Also see Ref. 731 .
STINGER, W. A.: See Ref. 324 . 679. TABATA, W. K.; ANTL, R. J.; AND VINCENT, D. W.:
STOPFORD, J. M .: See Ref. 696 . Storable Propellant Combustion Instability Pro-
665. STRAHLE, W. C .: A Theoretical Study of Unsteady gram at Lewis Research Center. AIAA Paper
Droplet Burning : Transients and Periodic Solu- No. 66-602, AIAA Propulsion Joint Specialist
tions. Ph.D. Thesis , Princeton University Aero . Conference, June 1966.
Eng. Rept. No. 671 , 1963 . TANG, P.: See Ref. 198.
666. STRAHLE, W. C .: High Frequency Behavior of the 680. TARIFA, C. S .: On the Influence of Chemical Kinet-
Laminar Jet Flame Subjected to Transverse ics on the Combustion on Fuel Droplets . Paper
Sound Waves . Eleventh Symposium (Inter- B9, Congres International des Machines a Com-
national) on Combustion, The Combustion In- bustion (CIMAC) , Copenhagen, 1962 ; see also
stitute, Pittsburgh, 1967 , p . 747 . AFOSR TN-5 , DDC AD 277 299, March 1962 .
667. STRAHLE , W. C.: Periodic Solutions to a Convective 681. TARIFA, C. S .; AND DEL NOTARIO, P. P .: Some
Droplet Burning Problem: The Stagnation Point. Fundamental Problems on the Combustion of
Tenth Symposium (International) on Combus- Liquid Oxidizers in Hydrogen . XVIIth Inter-
tion, The Combustion Institute , Pittsburgh, national Astronautical Federation Congress, Ma-
1965, pp . 1315–1325. drid, 1966.
668. STRAHLE, W. C.: The Temporal Development of a
682. TARIFA, C. S .; DEL NOTARIO, P. P.; AND MORENO,
Reacting Boundary Layer Near the Stagnation
F. G.: Combustion of Liquid Monopropellants
Point of a Vaporizing Drop in an Oxidizing
and Bipropellants in Droplets . Eighth Sympo-
Stream. AIAA Paper No. 69-174, AIAA 7th
sium (International) on Combustion , Williams
Aerospace Sciences Meeting, New York, Jan.
1969. and Wilkins, Baltimore, 1962 , pp . 1035–1056 .
TARIFA, C. S.: Also see Ref. 482 .
669. STRAHLE, W. C .: Unsteady Laminar Jet Flame at TATE, K. W.: See Refs. 224 and 225 .
Large Frequencies of Oscillation . AIAA J. , Vol. 683. TAYLOR, G.: The Dynamics of Thin Sheets of
3, No. 5 , May 1965 , p. 957 .
Fluid , I. Water Bells . Proc . Roy. Soc., Vol . 253A,
670. STRAHLE , W. C.: Unsteady Reacting Boundary Dec. 1959, p . 289.
Layer on a Vaporizing Flat Plate. AIAA J., Vol . TAYLOR, T. D .: See Ref. 47.
3, No. 6, June 1965 , p . 1195 . 684. TEMKIN, S.; AND DOBBINS , R. A.: Attenuation and
671. STRAHLE, W. C .; AND CROCCO, L.: Analytical In- Dispersion of Sound by Particulate-Relaxation
vestigation of Several Mechanisms of Combustion Processes. J. Acoust. Soc. Amer. , Vol . 4, 1966,
Instability. Bulletin of the Fifth Liquid Propul- p. 317 .
sion Symposium, CPIA Pub . No. 37, Vol. II , 685. TEMKIN, S.; AND DOBBINS , R. A.: Measurements
Dec. 1963 , pp . 823-842. of Attenuation and Dispersion of Sound by an
672. See Ref. 579. Aerosol. J. Acoust. Soc. Amer. , Vol. 40, 1966,
673. SUMMERFIELD, M .: A Theory of Unstable Propul- p. 1016.
TEMKIN, S.: Also see Ref. 228. Experimental Investigations of Oscillations in

TESTEN, J.: See Ref. 386. Rocket Motor Baffle Cavities . Illinois Institute
THOM, A. S .: See Ref. 234. of Technology, Rept. AFOSR-68-1369, 1968.
686. THOMAS, L. H.: Theory of the Explosion of Cased TROSHIN, YA, K.: See Ref. 294.
Charges of Simple Shape. U. S. Army Ballistic 699. TRUXALL, J. G.: Automatic Feedback Control
Res . Labs. Rept . No. 475 , July 1944 . System Synthesis . McGraw-Hill, New York,
THOMAS , J. P.: See Refs . 394 and 433. 1955 .
THOMAS, R. M.: See Ref. 227. 700. TSUJI, H.; AND YAMAOKA, I .: The Counterflow Dif-
687. THOMPSON, R. E.; AND GREY, J.: Turbine Flow- fusion Flame in the Forward Stagnation Region
meter Performance Model. Greyrad Corp., Rept. of a Porous Cylinder. Eleventh Symposium (In-
AMC-3 , Oct. 1967 . ternational) on Combustion, The Combustion
THRING, M. W.: See Ref. 360. Institute, 1967, pp . 979-984 .
TICK, S. J.: See Ref. 457. TULPINSKY, J. F .: See Ref. 256.
688. TISCHLER, A. O .; AND BELLMAN , D. R.: Combustion TYLER, W. H.: See Ref. 609.
Instability in an Acid-Heptane Rocket with a 701. URTIEW, P. A.; AND OPPENHEIM, A. K.: Experi-
Pressurized-Gas Propellant Pumping System. mental Observation of the Transition to Detona-
NACA TN 2936 , May 1953 . tion in an Explosive Gas. Proc. Roy. Soc. , Vol .
TISCHLER, A. O.: Also see Refs . 462 and 534. A295, 1966 , pp. 13-128.
689. TOBEY, A. C.; AND BASTRESS , E. K.: Flame Piloting 702. UTIK, D. H.; BLACKMAN, A. W.; AND FORD, H. J.:
Mechanisms in Liquid Propellant Rocket En- Evaluation of Absorption Liners for Suppression
gines . A. D. Little, Scientific Rept. AFOSR of Combustion Instability in Rocket Engines .
67-0938, Oct. 1966 . AIAA Paper No. 65-585 , AIAA Propulsion Joint
690. TOMAZIC, W. A.; CONRAD, E. W.; AND GODWIN, Specialists Conference, 1965 .
T. W.: M- 1 Injector Development-Philosophy UYEHARA, O. A.: See Refs . 112, 248, and 249.
and Implementation . AIAA Paper No. 67-461 , 703. VALENTINE, R. S .; DEAN, L. E.; AND PIEPER, J. L.:
July 1967, (also NASA TMX-52289) . An Improved Method for Rocket Performance
TOMAZIC, W. A.: Also see Ref. 215. Prediction . J. Spacecraft and Rockets, Vol. 3,
691. TONON, T. S.; AND SIRIGNANO, W. A.: Nonlinear No. 9, Sept. 1966 , pp. 1409-1414 .
Theories on Acoustic Liner Operation with Flow 704. VALENTINE , R. S.; ROSSI , F. S .; AND KROMREY,
Effects . Princeton University, Dept. of Aero- R. V.: Effect of Fluid Dynamic Phenomena on
space and Mechanical Sciences, Rept. No. 885, Spontaneous Pressure Spikes in the Apollo SPS
1970. Thrust Chamber. AIAA Paper No. 67-513, AIAA
692. TONON, T. S .; AND SIRIGNANO, W. A.: Near-Res- Third Propulsion Joint Specialist Conference,
onant, Off-Resonant, and Quasi-Steady Theories July 1967.
of Acoustic Liner Operation . Sixth ICRPG Com- 705. VALENTINE , R. S.; Rossi, F. S.; AND KROMREY,
bustion Conference, CPIA Pub . No. 192 , Vol . 1 , R. V.: Fluid Dynamic Effects on Apollo Engine
Dec. 1969, pp. 249-256. Pressure Spikes . J. of Spacecraft and Rockets ,
693. TONON, T. S .; AND SIRIGNANO, W. A.: The Non- Vol. 5 , No. 1 , Jan. 1968, pp . 31-35.
linearity of Acoustic Liners with Flow Effects . VALENTINE, R. S .: Also see Refs . 168 and 554.
AIAA Paper No. 70-128 , AIAA Eighth Aero- VAN DE VERG, N.: See Ref. 524.
space Sciences Meeting, Jan. 1970. 706. VAN DYKE, M.: Perturbation Methods in Fluid
694. TONON, T. S.; ZAIC, G. E.; HARRJE, D. T .; AND Mechanics . Academic Press , 1964 .
SIRIGNANO, W. A.: Acoustic Liner Studies at VAN ENGELEN, H .: See Ref. 707.
Princeton University. Fifth ICRPG Combustion VAN HUFF, N. E.: See Ref. 477.
Conference, CPIA Pub. No. 183, Dec. 1968 , pp . 707. VAN ITTERBEEK, A.; VAN ENGELEN , H .; AND
351-357 . MYNCKE, H .: Influence of the Shape of the Neck
695. TOONG, T. Y.: Combustion Instability in Laminar of the Helmholtz Resonator on its Absorbing
Boundary Layers . AIAA Preprint 63-225, June Properties . Acoustica, Vol. 14, No. 4, 1964, pp.
1963 . 212-215 .
696. TOONG, T. Y.; SALANT, R. F.; STOPFORD, J. M.; VARMA, A. K.: See Ref. 198.
AND ANDERSON, G. Y.: Mechanism of Combus- 708. VEGLIA, S. A.: Excitation Chamber-Combustion
tion Instability . Tenth Symposium (Inter- Response for Liquid Rocket Injectors, Part I
national) on Combustion, The Combustion In- Experimental Results . Fourth ICRPG Combus-
stitute, 1965, pp . 1301-13 . tion Conference, CPIA Pub. No. 162, Vol. 1 ,
697. TORDA, T. P.; AND BURSTEIN , S. Z.: Non-linear Dec. 1967 , pp . 57–62.
Theory of Combustion Instability, Liquid Pro- VEGLIA, S. A.: Also see Ref. 474.
pellant Rocket Motors . Brooklyn Polytechnic 709. VENNARD, J. K.: Elementary Fluid Mechanics, 4th
Institute , PRL TN-58-1 (AFOSR TN 59-60) , Edition. Wiley & Sons, 1962, p . 325.
(AD-209 493 ) , Dec. 1958 . 710. VINCENT, D. W.; Phillips, B.; and WANHAINEN,
698. TORDA, T. P.; AND PATEL, B. R.: Analytical and J. P.: Experimental Investigation of Acoustic
REFERENCES 625
Liners to Suppress Screech in Storable Propel- WEBB, S. R.: See Ref. 163.
lant Rocket Motors . NASA TN D-4442, March 722. WEBBER, W. T.: Spray Combustion in the Presence
1968. of a Traveling Wave. Eighth Symposium (In-
711. VINCENT, D. W.; SOKOLOWSKI, D. E .; and Bloomer, ternational) on Combustion, Williams and
H. E.: Screech Suppression Techniques for Wilkins, Baltimore, 1961 , p . 1129.
Rocket Combustors Using Earth-Storable Pro- WEBBER, W. T.: Also see Ref. 427 .
pellants. NASA TM X- 1595, June 1968 . 723. WEBER, C .: Z. Angew . Math . Mech. , Vol. 11 , 1931 ,
VINCENT, D. W.: Also see Refs. 106 , 107 , 652 , p. 138 (English Translation : On the Breakdown
679 and 714. of a Fluid Jet . Ninth Progress Report , Project
712. VINCENT, J.: Feed System Stability Rating Pro- MX-833, Sect. II, Univ. of Colorado, Boulder,
gram-Final Report, Phase I. Rocketdyne Rept . Colo .)
R-3653, June 1962. 724. WEISS , M. A.; AND WORSHAM, C. H.: Atomization
713. VON KARMAN, T.; AND BIOT, M. A.: Mathematical in High Velocity Air Streams. ARS J., Vol. 29,
Methods in Engineering . McGraw-Hill, New No. 4, April 1959, p . 252.
York, 1940, Chapter V, Sect. 9. 725. WEISS, R. F.; AND FLORSHEIM, B. H.: Flow in a
WAGNER, W. R.: See Ref. 677. Cavity at Low Reynolds Number. Physics of
714. WANHAINEN, J. P.; BLOOMER, H. E.; VINCENT, Fluids, Vol . 8 , 1965 , p. 1631 .
D. W.; AND CURLEY, J. K.: Experimental In- 726. WEISS , R. R .: An Introduction to Combustion In-
vestigation of Acoustic Liners to Suppress stability in Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines.
Screech in Hydrogen-Oxygen Rockets. NASA AFRPL-TR-66-150 , July 1966.
TN D-3822, 1967 . 727. WEISS , R. R.: Investigation of Hyballine A14 as
715. WANHAInen, J. P.; DeWitt, R. L.; AND Ross , a Combustion Instability Suppressant in a LO2/
P. S.: Performance of a Low-Thrust Storable- RP-1 Combustion System. AFRPL-TR-66-130,
Bipropellant Rocket at Very Low Chamber 1966 .
Pressure. NASA TN D-678, March 1961 . 728. WEISS , R. R.; CHEW, T. J. C .; AND Klopotek,
716. WANHAINEN , J. P.; FEILER, C. E .; AND MORGAN , R. D.: A Combustion Stability Evaluation of
C. J.: Effect of Chamber Pressure, Flow-per- Various Hydrazine and Hydrazine-Blend Fuels .
Element and Contraction Ratio on Acoustic Bulletin of the Seventh Liquid Propulsion Sym-
Mode Instability in Hydrogen - Oxygen Rockets . posium, CPIA Pub. 72, Vol . I , Aug. 1965 , pp.
NASA TN D-4733, Aug. 1968. 343-384.
717. WANHAINEN, J. P.; HANNUM, N. P.; AND RUSSELL, 729. WEISS , R. R.; AND KLOPOTEK, R. D.: Experimental
L. M.: Evaluation of Screech Suppression Con- Evaluation of the Titan III Transtage Engine
cepts in a 20,000- Pound Thrust Hydrogen -Oxy- Combustion Stability Characteristics . AFRPL-
gen Rocket. NASA TM X- 1435 , 1967 . TR-66-51 , March 1966.
718. WANHAINEN, J. P.; AND MORGAN, C. J.: Effect of WEISS, R. R.: Also see Ref. 46.
Injection Element Radial Distribution and 730. WELLER, A. E .: Similarities in Combustion, a
Chamber Geometry on Acoustic Mode Insta- Review. AGARD Selected Combustion Problems ,
bility in a Hydrogen Oxygen Rocket. NASA TN Vol. 2, Butterworths Sci . Pub. , London , 1956,
D-5375, Aug. 1969. pp . 371-383 .
719. WANHAINEN , J. P.; PARISH, H. C .; AND CONRAD, 731. WENZEL , L. M.; AND SZUCH, J. R.: Analysis of
E. W.: Effect of Propellant Injection Velocity Chugging in Liquid Bipropellant Rocket En-
on Screech in 20,000-Pound Hydrogen-Oxygen gines Using Propellants with Different Vapori-
Rocket Engine. NASA TN D-3373 , April 1966. zation Rates . NASA TN D-3080 , 1965 .
WANHAINEN, J. P.: Also see Refs . 106, 107 , 624 and WENZEL, L. M.: Also see Ref. 678.
710. 732. WESLEY, R. D .; REDDING , R. A.; AND HEFNER ,
WASOW, W. R.: See Ref. 276. R. J.: Comparison of Instrumentation Tech-
WASSERBAUER, C. A.: See Ref. 233. niques for High Frequency Combustion Chamber
720. WAUGH, R. C.; MCCALLISTER , D. A.; AND MCBRIDE , Pressure Measurements . AIAA Paper 65-360,
J. M.: A Mathematical Model for Transverse 1965.
Mode Instability with Feed System Coupling 733. WESTERVELT, P. J.: Acoustic Impedance in Terms
for Titan III. Fifth ICRPG Combustion Con- of Energy Functions. J. Acoust. Soc. Amer.,
ference, CPIA Pub . No. 183, Dec. 1968, pp. 59- Vol. 23, No. 3, May 1951 , pp. 347-348.
64. WESTON, J. A.: See Ref. 240.
721. WAUGH, R. E.; AND REARDON, F. H.: Feed System WHITE, D. R.: See Ref. 62 .
Effects on Combustion Instability. Bulletin of 734. WHITEHEAD, K. D.: The Generation and Develop-
the Fifth Liquid Propulsion Symposium, CPIA ment of a Viscous Vortex Ring . Ph.D. Thesis,
Pub. No. 37, Vol. II , Dec. 1963 , pp . 843-862. Georgia Tech. , School of Aerospace Eng . Rept.
WAUGH, R. E.: Also see Ref. 586 . 68-4, Sept. 1968.
WEATHERS, T. M.: See Ref. 365. 735. WICK, R. S.: An Analysis of Oscillatory Flow in
WEBB, M. J.: See Ref. 634. Liquid- Propellant Rocket Systems and the Ap-
plication of the Analysis to Combustion Stability: J. of Fluid Mechanics , Vol . 27 , Part 1 , 1967,
Appendix A- Characteristics of the Cavitating p. 177.
Venturi, JPL Rept . 20-231 , Aug. 1954. 752. WISE, H.; AND AGOSTON, G. A.: Burning of a
736. WICK, R. S .: The Effect of Vehicle Structure on Liquid Droplet. Advances in Chemistry, No. 20,
Propulsion System Dynamics and Stability. Jet American Chemical Society, 1958, pp . 116–135.
Propulsion, Vol . 26, Oct. 1956, p. 878. 753. WISE, H.; LORELL, J.; AND WOOD, B. J .: The Ef-
WICK, R. S .: Also see Ref. 524. fects of Chemical and Physical Parameters on
737. WIEBER, P. R .: Acoustic Decay Coefficients of the Burning Rate of a Liquid Droplet. Fifth
Simulated Rocket Combustors . NASA TN Symposium (International) on Combustion , Rein-
D-3425 , May 1966. hold, New York, 1955 , pp . 132–141 .
738. WIEBER, P. R.: Calculated Temperature Histories WISE, H.: Also see Refs . 57 , 58, 455, 546, 756 and
of Vaporizing Droplets to the Critical Point. 757.
AIAA J. , Vol. 12, No. 12, Dec. 1963 , pp . 2764– 754. WITHAM, G. B.: On the Propagation of Shock Waves
2770. Through Regions of Non-uniform Area or Flow.
739. WIEBER, P. R.; AND MICKELSEN, W. R.: Effect of J. of Fluid Mech ., Vol . 4 , 1958 , pp . 337-360 .
Transverse Acoustic Oscillations on the Vapori- WITHERSPOON , J. E.: See Ref. 348 .
zation of a Liquid Fuel Droplet. NASA TN 755. WOLFE, H. E.; AND ANDERSON, W. H.: Kinetics,
D-287, May 1960 . Mechanism, and Resulting Droplet Sizes of the
WIEBER, P. R.: Also see Refs . 346 znd 347. Aerodynamic Breakup of Liquid Drops . Aerojet-
740. WILLIAMS, F. A.: Combustion Theory . Addison- General Rept. No. 0395-04 ( 18 ) SP, April 1964,
Wesley, Reading , Mass. , 1965 . (AD437340) .
741. WILLIAMS, F. A.: The Mechanism of Combustion of 756. WOOD , B. J.; ROSSER, W. A. , JR.; And Wise, H.:
Droplets and Sprays of Liquid Fuels . Oxidation Combustion of Fuel Drops . AIAA J., Vol . 1,1963 ,
and Combustion Reviews, C. F. H. Tipper , ed . , p. 1076.
Vol. 3 , 1968 . 757. WOOD, B. J.; WISE, H.; AND ROSSER, W. A.: Burn-
742. WILLIAMS , F. A.: On the Assumptions Underlying ing of a Liquid Droplet: IV. Combustion In-
Droplet Vaporization and Combustion Theories. hibition in a Fuel-Oxidizer System. J. Chem.
J. Chem. Phys . , Vol . 33, 1960, p. 133 . Phys ., Vol. 27 , 1957 , pp. 807–808.
743. WILLIAMS , F. A .: Progress in Spray Combustion WOOD, B. J.: Also see Refs . 58 and 753.
Analysis. Eighth Symposium (International) on WOOD, D. J.: See Ref. 232.
Combustion, Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, WOOD, L. M.: See Ref. 608.
1962, pp . 50-69. 758. WOODWARD, J. W.: Combustion Effects in Sprays.
744. WILLIAMS, F. A.: Response of a Burning Fuel JPL Space Programs Summary No. 37-36, Vol.
Plate to Sound Vibration . AIAA J., Vol . 3, 1965, IV, Dec. 1965, pp . 181-183.
p . 2112 . 759. WOODWARD, J. W.; AND SOTTER, J. G.: Response
745. WILLIAMS , F. A.: A Simplified Model of Liquid of Injectors to High Amplitude Oscillations .
Rocket Combustion . California Institute of JPL Space Programs Summary 37-41 , Vol. IV,
Technology, Tech. Rept. No. 32, (Contract No. Oct. 1966, pp. 145–151 .
DA-04-495-ORD- 1634) , 1960 . WOODWARD, J. W.: Also see Ref. 154.
746. WILLIAMS, F. A.: Structure of Detonations in 760. WORLUND, A. L.; ET AL : The Reduction of Pogo
Dilute Sprays. Physics of Fluids, Vol. 4, No. 11 , Effects by Gas Injection . AIAA Paper 66-560,
1961. AIAA Second Propulsion Joint Specialist Con-
747. WILLIAMS , F. A .: Theory of the Burning of Mono- ference, 1966 .
propellant Droplets . Combustion and Flame, WORSHAM, C. H.: See Ref. 724.
Vol . 3, 1959, p . 529. 761. WRIGHT, B .: Liquid Flow Characteristics of Small
748. WILLIAMS , F. A.; PENNer, S. S .; Gill, G. S.; and Diameter Unsubmerged Short Tube Orifices
ECKEL, E. F.: Combustion and Flame, Vol. 3, Discharging to Atmospheric Pressure. Rept.
1959, p . 355. 610-810, Aug. 1962, Bendix Aircraft Corp.,
WILLIAMS, F. A.: Also see Refs . 289, 398 and 399 . Eclipse-Pioneer Div. , Teterboro, N. J.
WILLIAMS, G. C .: See Refs . 84 and 363 . WRIGHT, R. O .: See Refs . 91 , 358 and 359.
749. WILLIAMS , R. M. , JR.: Experimental Investigations WROBEL, J. R.: Some Effects of Gas Stratification
762.
of Liquid Propellant Combustion Processes Using
on Choked Nozzle Flows . AIAA Paper 64-266,
Streak Photography . Princeton University. NASA
1964 .
CR 72371 , 1968 .
750. WILLIAMS , R. M.; AND ARNDT, F. E.: Space Storable 763. WUERKER, R. F.: Q-Switched Ruby Laser Holo-
Thrustor Investigation-Final Report . TRW, graphy. Paper THF13, Spring Meeting of the
NASA CR-72495, Aug. 1969. Optical Society of America, 1967 .
751. WILLMARTH, W. W.; HAWK, N. E.; GALLOWAY, 764. WUERKER, R. F.; AND MATTHEWS, B. J.: Producing
A. J.; AND Roos, F. W.: Aerodynamics of Os- Holograms of Reacting Sprays in Liquid Pro-
cillating Disks and a Right Circular Cylinder. pellant Rocket Engines, Phase I Interim Rept.
REFERENCES 627
TRW Systems Rept. No. 68-4712.2-017 , Feb. 771. ZINN, B. T.: A Theoretical Study of Nonlinear
1968. Transverse Combustion Instability in Liquid
765. WUERKER, R. F.; MATTHEWS , B. J .; AND BRIONES, Propellant Rocket Motors . Ph. D. Thesis, Prince-
R. A.: Producing Holograms of Reacting Sprays ton University, Department of Aerospace and
in Liquid Rocket Engines-Final Report. TRW Mechanical Sciences Rept. No. 732, May 1966.
Systems Rept. No. 68.2712.2-024 , July 1968 . 772. ZINN, B. T.; AND SAVELL, C. T.: A Theoretical
YAMAOKA, I .: See Ref. 700 . Study of Three-Dimensional Combustion In-
YANGECIO, G. A.: See Ref. 257. stability in Liquid Rocket Motors . Twelfth
YEH, P. S.: See Refs . 545 and 547. Symposium (International) on Combustion , The
YING, S. J.: See Ref. 143. Combustion Institute, 1969 , pp . 139–147 .
YOUNG, A. D.: See Ref. 234. 773. ZUCROW, M. J.; AND OSBORN, J. R.: An Experi-
766. ZAIC, G. F.; AND HARRJE , D. T.: Damping of Shock- mental Study of High-Frequency Combustion
Type Waves with a Helmholtz Resonator. Sixth Pressure Oscillations . Jet Propulsion , Vol. 28 ,
ICRPG Combustion Conference , CPIA Pub . 1958, pp. 654–659 .
No. 192 , Vol. 1 , Dec. 1969 , pp . 271–276. 774. ZUCROW, M. J.; AND OSBORN, J. R.: Reply to
ZAIC, G. F.: Also see Ref. 694. Crocco's Criticism of the Zucrow-Osborn Paper.
767. ZELDOVICH, Y. B.: On the Theory of Combustion ARS J. , Vol . 29, No. 3, March 1959, p . 221 .
of Initially Unmixed Gases . NACA TM 1296, 775. ZUCROW, M. J.; OSBORN , J. R.; AND BONNELL,
J. M.: High Frequency Combustion Pressure
June 1951 , Trans. from Zhurnal Tekhnicheskoi
Fiziki, Vol. 19, No. 10, Oct. 1949, pp. 1199–1210 . Oscillations in Motors Burning Gaseous Propel-
lants . Purdue University, Jet Propulsion Center,
768. ZINK, J. W.; AND DELSASSO, L. P.: Attenuation Rept. No. TM-65-5, 1965.
and Dispersion of Sound by Solid Particles 776. ZUCROW, M. J.; OSBORN, J. R.; AND PINCHAK,
Suspended in a Gas . J. Acoust . Soc. Amer. , Vol . A. C.: Luminosity and Pressure Oscillations Ob-
39, 1958, p. 765. served with Longitudinal and Transverse Modes
769. ZINN, B. T.: A Theoretical Study of Nonlinear of Combustion Instability . ARS J. , Vol. 30 , No. 8,
Combustion Instability in Liquid Propellant Aug. 1960, pp . 758-761 .
Rocket Engines . Third ICRPG Combustion 777. ZUNG, L. B.: Hypergolic Impingement Mechanisms
Conference, CPIA Pub. No. 138, Vol. I, Feb. and Criteria for Mixing or Separation. Sixth
1967, pp. 441-452. ICRPG Combustion Conference, CPIA Pub .
770. ZINN, B. T.: A Theoretical Study of Nonlinear No. 192, Vol . 1 , Dec. 1969, pp . 21-32.
Damping by Helmholtz Resonators . AIAA Paper 778. ZWIKKER, C.; AND KOSTEN, C. W.: Sound Ab-
No. 69-481 , AIAA Fifth Propulsion Specialists sorbing Materials . Elsevier Pub., New York,
Meeting, June 1969. 1949 .
INDEX
[The numbers refer to sections ]
Ablative liners (aperture liners, aperture shape , aperture Admittance ratio

erosion) [8.3.5 ] constant area feed system [5.4.1.1 ]
Ablative loss , see case erosion line with area change [5.4.1.2]
Ablative materials, chambers [8.5.1] manifold [5.4.1.5 ]
Absorptive line [6.2.3.4 ] orifice or valve [ 5.4.1.3 ]
Accelerometers and acceleration data [9.5] pump [5.4.1.4]
Accelerometer types [9.5.1 ] Aerospike engine [ 1.1.2.1 ]
applications [ 9.5.4] also see annular combustion chamber
data acquisition [9.5.3] Aluminum oxide , acoustic damping by [8.5.2.1 ]
mountings [9.5.2] Ambient temperature, effect on
Acoustic damping droplet burning rates [2.4.2.1 ] [2.4.3.1]
coefficient [9.6.6.2] droplet evaporation rates [2.4.1 ]
condensed phases [8.5.2] Amplification factor [3.5.1.2 ] [ 3.5.3.1] [4.2.2] [5.2.2]
interaction of rating device [ 10.7.2.6] Analog data, reduction techniques [9.7.1.1 ]
Acoustic driving techniques [9.6.6.3] Analog methods [5.6]
Acoustic liners [8.3] [3.5.3.2] amplitude scaling [5.6.3]
ablative [8.3.5] mechanization of the engine model [5.6.1 ]
background [ 1.3 ] obtaining the solution [5.6.3]
cooling techniques [8.3.5] representation of a time lag [5.6.2]
comparison terminology [8.3.1.3] time scaling [5.6.3]
damping theory [8.3.1 ] Analytical models
eliminating instability [ 1.2.2.2] scope of current [4.1.1 ]
environmental effects [ 8.3.2] Analytical models of combustion instability, Chapter 4
flow effects [8.3.1.2] [8.3.2] Analytical models , comparison [4.5 ]
jet model for orifice flow [8.3.1.1] concluding remarks [4.5.3 ]
nonrigid walls [3.5.3.2] linear [4.5.1]
sizing of resonators [8.3.3] nonlinear [4.5.2]
Acoustic modeling [9.6.6] Angular position , phase diagrams [9.7.1.1]
Acoustic resonators , see acoustic liners Annular combustion chamber [ 1.1.2.1 ] [3.5.1.2] [4.2.2.4]
AC radiometry [ 9.4.3.2] [8.4.5 ] [9.2.2.2]
Activation energy Aperture effective length [ 8.3.2]
bipropellant droplet combustion theory [ 2.4.2.1 ] Apollo Service Propulsion System (SPS) [ 1.1.1.1]
monopropellant droplet combustion theory [ 2.4.3.1 ] Arhenius rate law in
Adiabatic flame temperature bipropellant droplet combustion theory [2.4.2.1 ]
bipropellant droplet combustion [2.4.2.1 ] monopropellant droplet combustion theory [2.4.3.1 ]
monopropellant droplet combustion [ 2.4.3.1 ] Artificial disturbances to rate stability [ 10.1.2.2 ]
Admittance, injection [5.2.2 ] [5.4.1 ] [5.4.2] Atomization, mechanisms [2.2.3]
centrifugal pump feed system [5.4.2.3] Atomization-limited burning rate [4.3.1.3]
constant-rate feed system [ 5.4.2.2] Auto extinction of droplet combustion [2.4.2.1 ]
pressurized-tank feed system [5.4.2.1 ] Auto ignition of droplet combustion [2.4.2.1 ]
simple feed systems [5.4.2]
Admittance, nozzle Axial energy release [7.2.4]
boundary conditions [3.5.1.2] [4.2.2.3] [4.2.2.4] [4.2.3.2] Baffle blade
[5.3.2] arrangement [8.2.2]
coefficients, calculation of [3.6.2] cooling [8.2.3.3]
experimental verification [ 3.6.3] design [8.2.3]
linear equation [3.6.1 ] length [ 8.2.3.1]
nonlinear effects [3.6.4] number [8.2.2.1]
other effects [ 3.6.5] shape [8.2.3.2]
Admittance, wall and liner [3.5.3.2] Baffle symmetry [8.2.2.2 ]
629
Baffle theory [8.2.1] Coalescence, wave [3.5.2.2] [3.5.2.3]

Baffles, injector-face [ 1.2.2.2] [3.5.3.3] Coaxial injectors [ 6.3.3]
Bag mode [3.3.3] Coaxial jets [7.4.4]
Bandwidth or quality factor Q [ 9.6.6.2] Coefficient of determination [4.4.2.3]
Barrel thrust chamber [9.2.2.1 ] Combined mode [ 9.7.1.2]
Bipropellant droplet combustion [2.4.2] stability of [4.2.2.4]
Blowing effect on transfer coefficients [ 2.4.1 ] Combustion chamber, see chamber
Blow-off of droplet wake flame [2.4.2.1 ] Combustion distribution , effect on stability [6.3.2] [7.2.4]
Bode diagram method [3.3.1.1 ] [5.5.3] [7.2.5]
Boiling point and droplet surface temperature [2.4.1 ] Combustion disturbances [9.7.3]
Bombs , see explosive bombs, case design, etc. Combustion efficiency [ 2.1.4]
Boundary effects [7.2.6] Combustion-experimental observations in rocket [2.1.7]
Boundary flow [ 2.5.2] Combustion and flow processes -general description [2.1 ]
Boundary layer friction and heat transfer [ 1.1.3.2] Combustion gas sampling [ 9.6.4]
Bouyancy effects on droplet combustion [2.4.2] Combustion
Breakup of droplets by shock waves [3.3.3] controlling processes [3.4.1]
Breakup time of jet [4.3.1.3] droplets [ 2.4.2] [2.4.3]
Burke-Schumann flame sheet theory [ 2.4.2.1 ] process apparatus (basic) [9.2.3]
Burning rate constant [ 2.4.2.1 ] processes [3.4]
Burning rate models response , nonlinear [4.2.3.1 ]
bipropellant droplet [2.4.2] time delay [ 1.2.2.1 ] [5.2.1 ] also see time lag
monopropellant droplet [ 2.4.3] time lag modification [ 6.2.2]
numerical integration [4.3.1.3] zone photography [ 9.4.1 ]
atomization-limited Combustion instability
chemical-reaction-limited aerospike engine [ 1.1.2.1 ]
gas-phase-limited current status [ 1.4]
polydisperse sprays pressure-fed systems [ 1.1.1.1 ]
vaporization-limited pump-fed systems [ 1.1.1.2]
Burning rate parameter [ 6.4.2.2] staged combustion engine [ 1.1.2.2]
Candle energy sources [ 9.2.3] Combustors, specialized research [ 9.2]
Capacitance, fluid (3.2.2.1 ] Component dynamics [3.2.2]
Capillary waves [3.3.3] continuous parameter approach [3.2.2.2]
Captive droplet experimental technique [2.4.2] lumped-parameter approach [3.2.2.1 ]
Case design-explosive bombs [ 10.2.2.2] modal techniques [ 3.2.2.3]
Case erosion and explosive heating-explosive bombs Computer programs, performance calculations [1 1.3.3]
[10.2.2.5] Condensed-phase and gasification processes [2.1 5]
Catalysis of droplet burning rates [ 2.4.2.1 ] [ 2.4.3.1 ] Condensed phases in nozzles [3.6.5]
Cavitating venturi [7.5.2.1 ] Conical chamber [3.5.1.2]
Central injection [ 7.4.5] Conservation equations [4.1.2]
Centrifugal effects in waves [3.5.2.3] Conservation of mass, low frequency [5.2.1 ]
Centroid method for determining laminar flame speed Constant combustion time lag models [5.2]
[2.4.3.1 ] Continuous-parameter approach [3.2.2.2]
Chamber Contraction ratio [7.2.2]
annular [3.5.1.2] [8.4.5] Convection
compatibility [2.5] effect on droplet vaporization rates [ 2.4.1 ]
effective length [3.5.2.2] [6.2.2] effect on droplet combustion rates [ 2.4.2.1 ] [2.4.3.1 ]
gas residence time [5.2.1 ] [6.2.4] Conversion time and residence time [2.1.2]
pressure effects [ 7.2.1 ] Core flow [2.5.1]
shape [3.5.1.2 ] [8.4.2] effects of injector design [2.5.1.1]
wall materials [ 8.4.5 ] [8.5.1] mechanical turbulence generation [2.5.1.2]
Characteristic impedance [5.4.1.1 ] [6.2.3.4] Coupled resonances [7.5.2 ]
Characteristic length (L*) [2.1.3] [2.5.3.2] Crank-Nicholson method [4.3.2.2]
Characteristic times , droplet burning [3.4.2.1 ] Critical conditions chart [2.4.2.1 ]
Characteristic velocity ( c *) [ 1.1.3.1 ] [2.1.3] Critical point, effect on droplet combustion [ 2.4.2.2]
Chemical kinetics and droplet combustion [2.4.2.1 ] Critical velocity gradient-droplet extinction [2.4.2.1 ]
[2.4.3.1 ] Crocco model, see sensitive time lag
Chemical release model of bipropellant droplet combustion Cryogenic propellants [7.3.1 ]
at supercritical pressures [2.4.2.2] Cryogenic-storable propellants [7.3.3]
Choke rings and screens [ 1.1.1.2] Current status [1.4]
Cinematography [ 9.4.1 ] d2-law of droplet gasification [2.4]
INDEX 631
Damkohler number, droplet combustion theory [2.4.2.1 ] study apparatus [ 9.2.3]

[2.4.3] transport [2.3.3.2] [2.4.1 ]
Damping devices, see absorptive lines, acoustic liners, unsteady burning, frequency spectrum [3.4.2.1 ]
baffles, quarter wave tube, Quincke tube, etc. vaporization [ 2.4.1 ]
Damping effects, combustion vaporization, Heidmann-Feiler analysis [4.4.1.2]
acoustic liners & nonrigid walls [3.5.3.2] Dual flame combustion of monopropellant droplets [2.4.3.2]
chamber wave propagation [3.5.3] Duct blockage [3.2.2.1 ]
injector-face baffles [3.5.3.3] Dykema analysis [ 4.4.1.3 ]
liquid and solid particle drag [3.5.3.1 ] . [3.6.5] application [ 6.5.2]
Damping via particles, experimental investigation [ 8.5.2.4] Dynamic response characteristics [5.2.1 ]
Data collection [4.4.2.3] Dynamic stability [ 1.2.4 ]
Data display [9.3.5] demonstration [ 1.2.4.3]
analog playback [ 9.3.5.1 ] engine development [ 1.2.4.2]
digital analysis [ 9.3.5.4] versus statistical stability [ 1.2.4.1 ]
filtering considerations [ 9.3.5.1] Early theory of combustion instability [ 1.3 ]
hybrid spectrum analysis [ 9.3.5.3] Efficiency, correlation with stability [6.6.3]
Dead time, see combustion time lag Eigen values and eigen functions [ 3.5.1.1 ] [4.2.2.2]
Describing function [4.2.3.1 ] Eigen function expansions [4.2.2.4 ] [3.5.1.2] [ 3.6.4 ]
Detonation, two phase [3.4.3.2] [ 3.4.4.3] Elbow [3.2.2.1]
Detonation -like waves [2.5.2.3] Electromagnetic flowmeter [ 9.6.1 ]
Diameter, droplet mean [2.2.4] Electro-optical techniques [ 9.4.3]
Diaphragm cooling [ 9.3.1.3] Emperical similitudes [ 4.4.2.3]
Diffusion flame-surrounding droplets [ 2.4.2] Energy release
Diffusion time, gas-phase [3.4.2.1 ] distribution [2.5.3]
Direct method [7.2.4] incomplete [ 1.1.3.2]
Dispersion of sound by condensed phases [8.5.2.1 ] Engine development, dynamic stability [ 1.2.4.2]
Displacement effects [3.3.2.2] Entropy perturbation [5.3.2]
Displacement index [4.2.1.1 ] Envelope flame model, droplet combustion at subcritical
Displacement of gas by nonlinear transverse waves [ 3.5.2.4] pressure [2.4.2.1 ]
Distributed parameters [ 7.5.2.2] Evaporation constant (droplet) [2.4.1 ]
Distributed sonic theory of droplet combustion at super- Excitation chamber [ 9.2.3]
critical pressures [2.4.2.2] Exhaust plume photography [ 9.4.1.2]
Distribution Exothermic reaction near droplet surface [ 2.4.2.1 ]
drop size [2.2.4] [6.4.2] [7.4] Explosive bombs [ 10.2]
energy release [ 2.5.3] case design effects [ 10.2.2.2]
mass flux [ 2.3.1 ] case erosion [ 10.2.2.5]
mixture ratio [2.3.2] combustion augmentation [ 1.2.4.3]
Double time lag model [5.2.3] flow stoppage [ 1.2.4.3] [ 10.2.4.1 ]
Drag body flowmeters [ 9.6.1 ] explosive heating [ 10.2.2.5]
Drag coefficients [3.3.3] [3.5.3.1 ] handling hazards [ 10.7.2]
vaporizing droplets [2.4.1] location [ 1.2.4.3 ]
burning droplets [2.4.2.1] overbombing possibility [ 10.2.4.1 ]
Driving force, mass transfer to/from droplets [2.4.1 ] shrapnel damage [ 10.2.3]
Droplet size [ 1.2.4.3]
acoustic damping by [8.5.2.1 ] stability criterion [ 1.2.4.3]
breakup [ 2.2.3.7] [3.3.3] [3.4.3.2] stability demonstration [ 1.2.4.3]
burning times , [ 2.4.2] [ 2.4.3 ] [ 3.4.2.1 ] Table 3.4.2a typical designs [ 10.2.1 ]
burning, unsteady [3.4.1 ] [3.4.2] [4.4.1.3] External performance parameters [ 1.1.3.1 ]
combustion [2.4.2] [2.4.3] Extinction of droplet combustion [2.4.2.1 ]
drag [3.5.3.1 ] F- 1 engine
drag parameter [6.4.2.1 ] feed system [3.2.4]
heat-up and vaporization [2.4.1 ] simulator [9.2.1 ]
ignition [2.4.1 ] [2.4.2.1] Face coverage, injector [ 7.2.5 ] [7.4.4] [7.4.5]
lifetime [3.4.2.1 ] [2.4.1 ] [ 2.4.2] [2.4.3] Feed line losses [ 6.2.3.4]
momentum exchange coefficient [ 6.3.2 ] [3.5.3.1] Feed system
Reynolds number [ 4.3.1.3] [2.4.1 ] acoustics [3.2.1]
Reynolds number, modified [6.4.2.1 ] centrifugal pump [5.4.2.3]
shattering rate [4.3.1.3] constant rate [5.4.2.2]
size [2.2.4] [7.4] [2.2.3.2] [ 2.2.3.5] coupling [7.5 ]
size distribution [3.3.2.1 ] flow [3.2]
perturbation [ 10.5] oxygen-hydrogen combustors [6.5.1.2]

response [5.4] process selection [6.5.1.1 ]
stabilizing effect of [5.4.3] Helium pressure vessels [ 1.1.1.1]
Fiber optics [ 9.4.3.1 ] Helmholtz resonator [3.2.1 ] [6.2.3.3] [7.5.2.2]
Film coolant and boundary flow [ 2.5.2.1 ] High frequency instability [ 1.2.2.2]
Flame sheet [2.4.2] see more detailed breakdown such as numerical integra-
Flame zone thickness [2.4.2.1] tion methods, sensitive time lag model, similarity
Flame speed monopropellant droplet burning theory rules, etc.
[2.4.3.1 ] Historical survey of combustion instability
analysis vs. experiment [3.2.4] problem [ 1.3]
multi-phase [ 1.1.3.2] Holocamera [9.4.5.2]
oscillations [3.3.1.1 ] Holography of liquid rocket engine combustion [9.4.5]
propellant feed systems [3.2] Hot-wire anemometer liquid flow measurements [ 9.6.1 ]
sampling, nonreactive propellants [9.6.2] Hydraulic flip [ 2.2.2] [3.3.1.2]
Flow-field model for popping [7.6] Hydrogen response function [6.5.1.2]
Fourier series [3.2.2.3] Ignition delay of a droplet [ 2.4.1 ]
Fractional open area [ 3.5.3.2] Imposed oscillations [7.5.3]
Frequency domain analysis [3.2.2 ] Index of instability [6.6.1 ]
Frequency response method [5.5.3] Inertance, fluid [3.2.2.1 ]
Forced convection ; effects on droplet vaporization and Initiation of combustion
combustion [ 2.4] instability [ 1.2.3]
Frequency range of unsteady interaction linear [ 1.2.3.1]
(droplet) [3.4.2.1 ] Table 3.4.2b nonlinear [ 1.2.3.2]
Frequency variations as rating technique [ 10.6.2] pops , spikes [ 1.2.3.2 ]
Frössling correlation formula - droplet vaporization [2.4.1 ] spontaneous [ 1.2.3.1 ]
Frozen-flow asymptote ; droplet combustion [2.4.2.1 ] triggered [ 1.2.3.2]
Full-scale simulators [ 9.2.1 ] Injection [3.3]
Gain [5.5.3] density [7.2.3 ]
crossover [5.5.1 ] effect of nonuniform [4.2.2.4]
factors [6.2.4] upstream conditions [3.3.1]
stabilization [7.5.2.1 ] velocity perturbation [5.3.2]
Gas Injector [7.4]
dissolved in propellant [6.2.3.2] face coverage [7.2.5 ] [ 7.4.4] [7.4.5 ]
bubbles in fuel lines [ 6.2.3.4] impedance [6.2.3.1 ] [7.5.1]
Gaseous injection pattern, stability effects [ 7.4] [7.4.6]
coaxial [7.4.4] shape [ 8.4.4]
feed line dynamics [6.2.3.4] type and combustion response [6.2.2 ] [6.3.3 ]
Heidmann-Feiler analysis [4.4.1.2] vibration [3.3.1.3]
Gas flow (stability rating method) Instability models
applications [ 10.4.3] comparison of approaches [4.1.1 ] [4.5]
design variable effects [ 10.4.2] use of combinations [ 6.7]
induced instability [ 10.4] Instability zones [ 6.3.1 ] [6.3.4]
system design [ 10.4.1 ] Interaction index [4.2.1 ] also see sensitive
Gas generator [ 1.1.1.2 ] time lag model
Gasification of a droplet [2.4] Intermediate frequency instability, analytical model
Gas-phase-mixing-limited burning rate [4.3.1.3] [5.3.2]
Gas-phase processes [ 2.1.4] buzz [ 1.2.2.3]
Gas sampling [9.6.4] entropy wave [ 1.2.2.3]
Gauss-Seidell method [4.3.2.2] Internal processes in rocket thrust chambers [ 1.1.3.2]
Grashof number-droplet combustion [ 2.4.2.1 ] Interpretation of test data [9.7]
Hardware resonance [ 9.4.5.2] Intrinsic instability [5.3.1]
Heat-sink chamber [ 9.2.1] Jet
Heat transfer-baffle [ 8.2.2.3] atomization, Heidmann-Feiler analysis [4.4.1.2]
Heat transfer coefficient for a droplet [2.4.1] breakup see liquid jet breakup
Heat transfer controlled droplet vaporization [ 2.4.1 ] flow, types [ 2.2.2]
Heidmann-Feiler analysis [4.4.1.2] model for acoustic liner orifices [8.3.11 ]
droplet vaporization [ 4.4.1.2] properties [2.2.2]
gaseous injection [4.4.1.2] Jets
jet atomization [4.4.1.2] central [7.4.5]
Heidmann-Feiler approach application [6.5.1] coaxial [7.4.4]
INDEX 633
like-impinging [ 7.4.3 ] approach [3.2.2.1 ] (duct blockage, orifices pumps)

unlike-impinging [7.4.2] resonances [7.5.2.1 ]
vortex [7.4.5 ] Manifold
Kinetic effects on droplet combustion [ 2.4.2] [2.4.3] admittance ratio [ 5.4.1.5]
Klystron effect [3.3.1 ] [5.3.1 ] capacitance [ 6.2.3.2]
Lewis number in theory of droplet combustion [ 2.4.2.1 ] flow [2.2.1 ]
[2.4.3.1] Mass
Limit cycle [3.2.3] accumulation parameter [ 6.4.2.1 ] [7.2.3]
Linear theory of flux distribution [2.3.1]
bipropellant droplet combustion [ 2.4.2.1 ] transfer coefficient for a droplet [2.4.1 ]
monopropellant droplet combustion [2.4.3.1 ] Matched asymptotic expansions in theory of
Linear theory of combustion instability, sensitive time bipropellant droplet combustion [2.4.2.1 ]
lag [4.2.2] monopropellant droplet combustion [ 2.4.3.1 ]
governing equations [4.2.2.1 ] Matrix techniques [5.5.3]
longitudinal mode solution [4.2.2.3 ] Mean flow, effect on wave motion [3.5.1.1]
method of solution [4.2.2.2] Mean particle sizes, acoustic damping [ 8.5.2.2]
transverse mode solution [4.2.2.4] Mechanical capacitance [ 7.5.2.1 ]
Linear, unsteady drop and spray burning [3.4.2] Mixing processes [ 2.3.3] [ 3.3.2.2]
Linear wave motion [ 3.5.1 ] Mixture ratio
application to specific combustor geometries [3.5.1.2] distribution [2.3.2]
general consideration [3.5.1.1 ] effect on low frequency stability [6.2.4]
Liner, acoustic-see acoustic liners nonuniform distribution [ 1.1.3.2]
Lines rating technique [ 10.6.3]
area changing [5.4.1.2] Modal
constant-area [ 5.4.1.1 ] energy analysis [4.4.1.4 ]
feedline damping [5.6.1 ] [6.2.3.4] energy analysis, applications [6.5.3]
lossless [5.6.1 ] techniques [3.2.2.3]
Liquid Modes
droplet vaporization and combustion [2.4] [3.4.2] [3.4.3] acoustic [3.5.1]
films on surfaces [ 3.4.4.3] calculation of high-frequency, Table 3.5.1
phase mixing ( 2.3.3.1 ] interaction with baffles [3.5.3.3]
rocket engine systems [ 1.1 ] two-dimension motor [ 9.2.2.5 ]
sheet breakup [2.2.3.6] Monopropellant
surface instability [2.2.3.1] combustion [2.4.3]
Liquid jet breakup droplet fuel decomposition (inert gases or decomposition
low velocity [ 2.2.3.2] products) [2.4.3.1]
high velocity [2.2.3.3] [3.3.2.1 ] droplet in oxidizing atmosphere [2.4.3.2]
summary [2.2.3.4] fuel burning [3.4.4.1 ]
Longitudinal mode (axial mode) [3.5.2.2] Multiple correlation coefficient [4.4.2.3]
damping by baffles [ 8.1 ] Multiple steady states - droplet combustion theory
damping by nozzles [3.5.1.2 ] [2.4.2.1 ]
definition [ 3.5.1] Natural convection- droplet combustion experiments
Low frequency instability (Chug) [2.4.2.1 ]
analog methods of solution [ 5.6 ] Net positive suction head (NPSH) [1.1.1 ] [1.1.1.2]
analytical methods of solution [5.5] N2O4/A-50 (NTO/50-50) Nitrogen tetroxide oxidizer
definition [ 1.2.2.1 ] also [ 5.3.1 ] and Aerozine-50 (50 % hydrazine and 50 % UDMH_by
effects of [ 9.7.2] weight) fuel [ 1.1.1] [6.3.3]
identification [9.7.2] Nodes and antinodes in feed line [3.2.1 ]
Nyquist and Satche methods [ 5.5.1 ] Non-coaxial injectors [6.3.3]
other analysis methods [5.5.3] Non-hypergolic propellants and combustion response
pressure effects [ 7.2.1.2] [6.3.3]
stability limits approach [5.5.2] Nonlinear acoustic liner theory [8.3.1.1 ]
Low and intermediate frequency theory applications [6.2] Nonlinear drop and spray burning [3.4.3]
approach [ 6.2.1 ] vaporization [3.4.3.1 ]
combustion chamber response [6.2.4] shock wave effects [ 3.4.3.2]
combustion time lag modification [6.2.2] Nonlinear theory of combustion instability [4.2.3] [ 7.2.3]
feed system changes [6.2.3] combustion response [4.2.3.1]
LOX/LH2, or LO2/LH2, liquid oxygen (oxidizer) and comparison [4.5.2] [7.2.3]
liquid hydrogen (fuel) wave motion [4.2.3.2]
Lumped parameter also see numerical integration methods
Nonlinear wave motion [3.5.2] parameters [ 1.1.3] , Table 1.1.3a

gas displacement [ 3.5.2.4] parameter measurements [9.6.3]
introduction [3.5.2.1] Periodic disturbances-effects on droplet combustion rate
longitudinal modes [3.5.2.2] [2.4.2.1]
sprays, effects on [3.3.2.2] Perturbations
transverse modes [ 3.5.2.3] atomization and jet breakup [3.3.2.1 ]
Nonreactive propellant flow sampling [9.6.2] chamber conditions, effect of [3.3.2]
Nonrigid chamber walls [ 3.5.3.2] feed system [ 10.5]
Nozzles, unsteady flow [ 3.6] mixing [3.3.2.2]
admittance coefficient [ 3.6.2] siren (continuous oscillations) [ 10.5.1 ]
admittance equation [3.6.1] Phase-annular position diagrams [9.7.1.1 ]
condensed phases and combustion [3.6.5] Phase margin [5.5.1 ] [5.5.3]
destabilizing effect [3.6.2] Photography
effect on acoustic frequency [3.5.1.2] exhaust plume [9.4.1.2]
experimental verification of theory [3.6.3 ] unsteady combustion [ 9.4.2.3]
nonlinear effects [3.6.4] Pogo instability [ 1.2.2.1 ]
shape (convergent section) [3.6.2] [8.4.3] Point-source theory of bipropellant "droplet" combustion
two-dimensional flow [ 1.1.3.2] at supercritical pressures [ 2.4.2.2]
Numerical integration methods, theory [4.3] Polydisperse sprays [4.3.1.3]
approach and assumptions [4.3.1.1] Popping and spiking [7.6]
basic concepts [4.3.1 ] Porous sphere simulation of droplet [2.4.2.1 ]
burning rate models [4.3.1.3] Ports
comparison [4.5.2] transducer [9.3.3.2]
computer storage [4.3.1.1] rating devices [ 10.2.2.2] [ 10.4.2]
governing equations [4.3.1.2] Predictor-corrector method [4.3.2.2]
one-dimensional analysis [4.2.2] Pressure
results from one-dimension [4.3.2.3] effect on stability [ 7.2.1]
time to compute [4.3.1.7] fed engines [ 1.1.1.1]
two-dimensional analysis [4.3.3] interaction index [5.3.1 ]
Numerical integration methods , application [ 6.4] level changes as rating technique [ 10.6.4]
calculations required [6.4.2] ratio-mass flow cycle [ 1.1.1.2 ] [ 1.1.2]
correlation with test data [6.4.3] Pressure-sensitive time lag (see sensitive time lag)
general approach [ 6.4.1 ] Pressure transducer
stability analysis [4.2.1.1 ] acceleration effects [9.3.3.2]
steady-state calculations [ 6.4.2.1 ] available [9.3.2]
Nyquist method [ 5.5.1 ] cable considerations [ 9.3.4.1 ]
application to general engine systems [5.5.1.2] combustion zone measurements (ablative, heat-sink,
single time lag model [5.5.1.1 ] regeneratively-cooled chambers ) [9.3.2.1 ]
Off-design operation [ 2.5.2.3] development history [ 1.3]
Oil can mode [ 1.2.2.1 ] environmental exposure [9.3.1.3]
One-dimensional numerical integration method [4.3.1 ] heat transfer effects [ 9.3.3.2]
also see numerical integration method location and mounting [9.3.3]
method of solution [4.3.2.2] probes and special mounting [ 9.3.3.3]
simplification of equations [ 4.3.2.1 ] propellant systems (ambient and cryogenic tempera-
typical results [3.3.2.3 ] ture regions) [ 9.3.2.2]
Optical measurements [9.4 ] range selection [9.3.1.4]
Optimum particle size for acoustic damping [8.5.2.1 ] recording of dynamic data [9.3.4.2]
Orifices [3.2.2.1] requirements [ 9.3.1 ]
Orifice admittance ratio [5.4.1.3] response characteristics [ 9.3.1.2]
Oxygen balance of monopropellants [2.4.3] signal conditioning [9.3.4.1 ]
Pade expansion [ 5.6.2] Prevalves [ 1.1.1.1]
Pancake motor [ 10.4.3 ] Priem model, see numerical integration methods
Process
Particle path [3.5.2.4]
accumulation condition [4.2.1]
Particulate damping in rocket stability analyses [ 8.5.2.3] interaction [ 1.1.3.2]
[3.5.3.1 ] Propagation function [6.2.3.4]
Peclet number in droplet mass transfer [ 2.4.1 ] Propellant
Performance classification [ 1.1.1]
calculations -real rocket [ 1.1.3.3] combinations , effect on stability [7.3]
effect of baffles [ 8.2.3.3] combustion response [ 6.3.3] [6.2.2]
INDEX 635
flow rate measurement [9.6.1 ] Heidmann-Feiler analysis [4.4.1.2]

monopropellant fuel effects [ 3.4.4.1 ] modal energy analysis [4.4.1.4]
Property values-effects on droplet combustion predic- Response functions
tions [2.4.2.1 ] unsteady droplet burning [3.4.2.2]
Pulse guns [ 10.3] Response peak [3.4.2.2]
amplitude effects [ 10.3.2] Resurging [3.3.1.1 ]
application to combustors [ 10.3.4] Reynolds number
effect of combustor operating conditions [ 10.3.3 ] critical [3.3.3]
gun powder charges [ 10.3.1.1] droplet vaporization /combustion theory [2.4]
high explosive charges [ 10.3.1.2] Reversibility effect on droplet flame zone [ 2.4.2.1 ]
shock propagation [ 10.3.2.2 ] [ 10.3.2.3 ] Rocket engine systems
Pulse advanced [ 1.1.2]
explosive bomb [ 10.2] conventional [ 1.1.1 ]
feed system pulser [ 10.5.2] Rocket thrust chamber components [ 1.1.1]
gun [ 10.3] Sampling of combustion gases [9.6.4]
motor [9.2.2.1] Satche method [5.5.1]
single pulse generator [ 10.5.2] Scaling rules [ 3.4.2.1 ] [4.4.2.2]
Pumps [3.2.2.1] Schvab-Zeldovich approximation-droplet combustion
active circuit representation [7.5.2.1 ] theory [2.4.2] [2.4.3]
admittance ratio [5.4.1.4 ] Schlieren applications [ 9.4.4.1 ]
blade wakes [ 7.5.3.2] Sector motor
Pump-fed engines [ 1.1.1 ] description [9.2.3]
Pyrolysis [3.4.4.2] stability limits [4.2.2.4]
Q-factor [9.6.6.2] Sensitive time lag, theory [4.2 ]
Quarter-wave tube [3.2.4] basic concepts [4.2.1 ] [5.3.1 ]
Quasi-steady droplet vaporization/combustion theory [2.4] linear theory [4.2.2]
Quasi-steady process [3.1 ] longitudinal mode solution [4.2.2.3]
Quincke resonator [6.2.3.3] nonlinear [4.2.3]
Radial distribution of propellant [7.2.5] stability analysis [4.2.12]
Ramping-liquid hydrogen temperature [ 10.6.1 ] steady state [4.2.1.2]
Random disturbances-effect on droplet combustion transverse mode solution [ 4.2.2.4]
[2.4.2.1 ] Sensitive time lag model applications [6.3]
Ranz-Marshall expression [4.3.1.3] calculations required [6.3.2]
Rating technique comparisons [ 10.7] emperical correlations of combustion response [6.3.3]
correlations [ 10.7.1] general approach [ 6.3.1 ]
engine design and operational consideration [ 10.7.3.2] stability prediction [ 6.3.4]
limitations [ 10.7.2] Series expansion method [3.6.4] [5.3.2] [4.2.2.2] [4.2.3.2]
selection criteria [ 10.7.3] Shadow and Schlieren methods [9.4.4]
Rayleigh criterion [4.4.1.3] Shadowgraph techniques [ 9.4.4.2]
Reaction order-effects in nonequilibrium droplet com- Shear-type droplet breakup [9.4.4.3]
bustion theory [2.4.2.1 ] Shock cone radiation [ 9.4.3.3]
Reaction rates, combustion [ 1.1.3.2] [2.4.2.1 ] [ 2.4.3.1 ] Shock-droplet study apparatus [ 9.2.3]
Reactive stream separation [2.3.2] [7.6] Shock wave
Recirculation [2.3.4] [6.3.3] drop and spray burning [ 3.4.3.2]
Rectangular geometry [3.5.1.2] stream and droplet breakup [3.3.3]
Reduced velocity difference [6.4.2.1 ] Shrapnel damage from rating devices [ 10.7.2.3]
Relative velocity criterion [ 1.2.2.2] Silhouette photography [9.4.4.3]
Relaxation time [3.3.2.2] [ 3.5.2.1 ] Similarity approach [4.4.2]
Resistance, fluid ( 3.2.2.1 ] analytical similitudes [4.4.2.2]
Residence time and conversion time [2.1.2] [7.2.3] empirical similitudes [4.4.2.3 ]
Resonance in feed system [5.4.2] [3.2.2.2] similarity techniques [4.4.2.1 ]
Resonant combustion Similarity rules applications [6.6]
definition [ 1.2.2.2] role of pulsing [6.6.2]
mode identification [9.7.1.2] stability and efficiency [6.6.3]
Resonant frequency for acoustic liners [8.3.1 ] stability prediction equations in decision making [6.6.1
Resonators [ 6.2.3.3] also see acoustic liners Similitudes and other instability models [4.4]
Response, combustion chamber [6.2.4] [6.3.3] Simulated droplet (porous sphere) technique [2.4.2.1 ]
Response factor approach [4.4.1 ] Single time lag model [5.2.2]
basic principles [4.4.1.1 ] Size effects -droplet vaporization/combustion [ 2.4]
Dykema analysis [4.4.1.3] Solid particle drag [3.5.3.1 ]
Sound velocity, effective [5.4.1 ] Streak photography [9.4.2]

nominal [6.2.3.4] history [1.3]
Spark photography [ 9.4.4] Stream and droplet breakup by shock waves [3.3.3]
Specific impulse (Ip) [ 1.1.3.1 ] Streaming [3.5.2.4]
Spectral characteristics of components [ 9.4.1.3] Stream separation [2.3.2 ] [7.6]
Spontaneous instability Stripping mode [3.3.3]
method of rating stability [ 10.1.2.1 ] [ 1.2.4.1 ] Structural vibrations [ 7.5.3.1]
Spray pogo [ 1.2.2.1 ]
combustion [2.1.6] Structure of diffusion flames [2.4.2.1 ]
combustion models [2.1.8 ] Sub-scale simulators [ 9.2.2]
description [ 2.2.4] Supercritical chamber pressure burning [3.4.4.2] . [2.4.2.2]
effect of oscillations [3.3.2.2] Supercritical pressure droplet combustion-
Square motor [ 9.2.2.4] [7.2.4] Spalding-Rosner analysis [2.4.2.2]
Stability of quasi-steady droplet [2.4.2.1 ] Surface breakup [2.2.3.5]
Stability limits Surface tension-near critical point [2.4.2.2]
longitudinal modes [ 4.2.2.3 ] Sustaining mechanisms
low frequency [5.5.2] [6.2.3.1 ] instability [ 1.2.2.2]
nonlinear oscillation [4.2.3] System response [3.2.3]
sensitive time lag model [6.3.2] Tape recorders [ 9.3.4.2]
transverse modes [4.2.2.4] T-burner type chamber [9.2.3]
Stability map, three-dimensional [6.7] Temperature ramping with liquid hydrogen [ 10.6.1 ]
Stability prediction [6.3.4 ] Test data interpretation [ 9.7]
combination of theories [6.7] Thermal
Dykema approach [6.5.2] effects of combustion instability [9.6.5]
Heidmann-Feiler approach [6.5.1 ] inertia of droplet [ 3.4.2.1 ]
injection density [ 7.2.3] initiation, rating devices [ 10.7.2.5] [ 10.2.1 ]
modal energy analysis [ 6.5.3] measurements [9.6.5]
numerical integration [ 6.4.2.2] penetration, see case erosion
sensitive time lag [6.3.4] Thin flame theory-droplet combustion [2.4.2] [2.4.3]
similarity rules [ 6.6] Thrust chamber shape [8.4]
Stability rating techniques, see explosive bombs , gas flow, Time constants , feed system [5.4.1 ]
pulse guns, rating technique comparisons Time-delay detonators [ 10.2.1 ]
Stability rating tests Time domain analysis [3.2.3]
artificial initiation methods [ 10.1.2.2] Time lag, combustion, see combustion time lag
effect of chamber design parameters [ 10.7.3.1] Time to gasify a droplet [2.4]
experimental approaches [ 10.1.2 ] Transducer, see pressure transducer and accelerometer
purpose [ 10.1.1 ] [ 1.2.4] Transfer function [6.2.1 ] [3.2.3]
spontaneous instability methods [ 10.1.2.1 ] Transfer number [ 2.4.1 ]
Stabilizing effect of the feed system [5.4.3] Transverse amplitude distribution [4.2.2.4]
Standard drag curve for droplet [2.4.1 ] Transverse energy release (7.2.5]
Standard error of estimate [4.4.2.3 ] waves in chamber [3.5.2.3]
Standing wave Traveling wave in pipe [ 9.7.1.2]
chamber [3.5.2.4] Triethylaluminum (TEA) [ 1.1.1]
feed line [3.2.1 ] Triggers for instability
Stand-off distance of droplet flame [ 2.4.2.1 ] artificial [ 1.2.3.2]
Statistical analysis [4.4.2.3] natural [ 1.2.3.2]
Statistical stability [ 1.2.4.1 ] [ 10.1.2.1] Turbine flowmeters [9.6.1 ]
Steady-state combustion- Chapter 2 [ 1.3] Turbulence-effect on droplet combustion [2.4.2.1]
axial [7.2.4] Turbulence generation-see core flow
distribution [ 9.4.2.2] Two-dimensional numerical integration method [4.3.3]
radial [7.2.5] circumferential surface model [4.3.3.1 ]
Stoichiometry-effect on bipropellant droplet combustion comparison to one-dimensional model [4.3.3.3]
[2.4.2] transverse plane model [4.3.3.2]
Stokes drag law [2.4.1 ] [2.4.2] Two-dimensional (2-D) motor [9.2.2.5]
Ullage [ 1.1.1.1]
Storable hypergolic propellants and combustion response
Unlike-impinging jets [7.4.2]
[6.3.3]
Unstable droplet combustion states [ 2.4.21 ]
Storable propellants [7.3.2] Unsteady droplet burning-see droplet
Stored energy Unsteady flow in exhaust nozzles, see nozzles, unsteady
growth or decay [4.4.1.4] flow
INDEX 637
Upstream conditions, effects of [3.3.1 ] Variable properties-effect on bipropellant droplet com-

flow rate oscillation [3.3.1.1 ] bustion and drag (2.4.2.1]
hydraulic flip [3.3.1.2] Velocity/displacement mechanism [ 3.3.2.2]
injector vibration [3.3.1.3] Velocity interaction index [3.3.2.2] [4.2.2.4] [6.3.1 ]
Valve admittance ratio [5.4.1.3] Vibration levels, combustion instability [ 1.2 ]
Vapor displacement [3.3.2.2] Viscous flow about small droplets [2.4.1 ] [2.4.2.1 ]
Vapor mixing [2.3.3.3] Vortex motion in baffle compartments [3.5.3]
Vapor-phase diffusion flame [2.4.2] [2.4.3] Vortex-type injector [7.4.5]
Vaporization-limited burning rate [4.3.1.3 ] Wake combustion [3.4.2.2]
Vaporization process Wake flame-droplet combustion [ 2.4.2.1 ]
equations, Table 4.4.1a Wall effects due to boundary flow [2.5.2.2]
drop temperature, Table 4.4.1b [2.4.1 ] Walls, transparent [ 9.2.2.5] [ 9.4.1 ]
unsteady [3.4.2.2] [3.4.3.1 ] Wave equation [3.5.1.1 ]
Vaporization time Wave front, spinning tangential mode [3.5.2.3 ]
delay [6.2.2] Wave-initiated evaporation, coalescence [3.5.2.2] [3.5.2.3]
Heidmann-Feiler analysis [4.4.1.2] Wave propagation, combustion chambers [3.5]
of an isolated droplet [2.4.1 ] damping effects [3.5.3]
Variable feed line [3.2]
dependent [4.4.2.3] linear wave motion [3.5.1]
independent [4.4.2.3] nonlinear wave motion [3.5.2] [4.2.3.2]
Variable combustion time lag models [5.3 ] , also see time lag Weber number, critical [3.3.3]
and sensitive time lag Wedge motor [ 9.2.2.3]
intermediate-frequency instability [5.3.2] Wet bulb temperature of vaporizing droplet [2.4.1 ]
low-frequency instability [5.2.1 ] Windows, observation [ 9.4.1 ]
Variable delay units [5.6.2] Windows, periscope [ 9.4.1 ]
U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1972 O - 428-978

POSTAGE AND FEES PAID
WASHINGTON, D. C. 20546 NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND
FIRST CLASS MAIL SPACE ADMINISTRATION
OFFICIAL BUSINESS NASA 451
U.S.MAIL
If Undeliverable ( Section 158

POSTMASTER: Postal Manual ) Do Not Return
"The aeronautical and space activities of the United States shall be

conducted so as to contribute ... to the expansion of human knowl-
edge of phenomena in the atmosphere and space. The Administration
shall provide for the widest practicable and appropriate dissemination
of information concerning its activities and the results thereof."
- NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ACT OF 1958
NASA SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS
TECHNICAL REPORTS : Scientific and TECHNICAL TRANSLATIONS : Information
technical information considered important, published in a foreign language considered
complete, and a lasting contribution to existing to merit NASA distribution in Englishr
knowledge. SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS : Information
TECHNICAL NOTES: Information less broad derived from or of value to NASA activities .
in scope but nevertheless of importance as a Publications include conference proceedings ,

contribution to existing knowledge. monographs, data compilations, handbooks ,
sourcebooks , and special bibliographies .
TECHNICAL MEMORANDUMS :
TECHNOLOGY UTILIZATION
Information receiving limited distribution
PUBLICATIONS : Information on technology
because of preliminary data, security classifica-
tion, or other reasons. used by NASA that may be of particular
interest in commercial and other non-aerospace
CONTRACTOR REPORTS : Scientific and applications. Publications include Tech Briefs,
technical information generated under a NASA Technology Utilization Reports and
contract or grant and considered an important
Technology Surveys .
contribution to existing knowledge.
Details on the availability of these publications may be obtained from:
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL INFORMATION OFFICE
Washington, D.C. 20546

Liquid Propellant Rocket Combustion Inst

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Liquid Propellant Rocket Combustion Inst

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

This is a reproduction of a library book that was digitized

by Google as part of an ongoing effort to preserve the

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET

Scientific and Technical Information Office 1972

This reference book originated in the concern of a number of engineers engaged

LIST OF EDITORS, AUTHORS, AND REVIEWERS. xvii

2.2.3.5 Surface breakup .. 52

3 DYNAMICS OF COMBUSTION AND FLOW PROCESSES . 105

3.4.3 Nonlinear Drop and Spray Burning .. 136

4 ANALYTICAL MODELS OF HIGH FREQUENCY

4.4 SIMILITUDES AND OTHER MODELS . 208

5 ANALYTICAL MODELS OF LOW AND INTERMEDIATE

6 USE OF ANALYTICAL MODELS IN DESIGN AND

6.2.3.1 Injector impedance .. 270

7 DESIGN FACTORS AFFECTING EXCITATION... 309

8 DESIGN FACTORS AFFECTING DAMPING. 385

9 EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF STABILITY BEHAVIOR.. 451

9.2.2.5 Two-dimensional motor ... 454

9.6.3.3 Post shutdown observations ... 520

10 STABILITY RATING... 539

10.7.2.2 Access ports through chamber walls .. 589

GENERAL NOMENCLATURE . 597

Abbe, Charles J. Contributor, Sects. 6.4.3, 7.4.2,

Agosta , Vito D. Author, Sects. 3.5.2.1 to 3.5.2.3

Bastress, E. Karl Author, Sects. 4.4.2 and 6.6

Bickford , Landis L. Author, Sects . 5.5.3, 6.2.3.4 , 7.5.2,

Bloomer, Harry E. Author, Sect. 10.3

Bracco , Frediano V. Author, Sect. 7.2.4

Breen, Ben P. Contributor, Sect . 6.4.3

Burge, Harland L. Contributor, Sect . 7.4.5

Campbell, David T. Contributor, Sects . 4.3.1 and 6.4.1

Campbell, John , Jr. Contributor, Sect . 7.4.4

Carpenter, Thomas W. Reviewer, Chapter 2

Chew, Thomas J. C. Reviewer, Chapter 10

Clayton, Richard M. Author, Sect. 7.2.6

Clinger, Eugene C. Contributor, Sect. 7.4.3

Combs, L. Paul Editor, Chapter 10

Coultas, Thomas A. Author, Sects. 1.2.1 to 1.2.3 , 7.2.3,

Crocco, Luigi Author, Sects. 4.2 and 5.3.2

Culick, Fred E. C. Author, Sect. 4.5

Dobbins, Richard A. Author, Sect. 8.5.2

Dykema , Owen W. Editor, Section 7.4

Erbs, Joseph E. Reviewer, Chapter 7

Faeth, Gerard M. Reviewer, Chapter 2

Fairchild, David A. Author, Sect. 10.5

Feiler, Charles E. Author, Sects . 4.4.1.2 and 6.5.1

Fenwick, James R. Author, Sects . 3.2, 5.4.3, and 7.5.1

Ford, Wayne M. Author, Sects . 9.4.1 and 9.6.4

Garrison, Gary D. Author, Sects . 8.3.4 and 8.3.5

Goelz, Ralph R. Contributor, Sect . 8.5.1

Groeneweg, John F. Author, Sect . 2.2.4

Hammer, Sandford S. Reviewer, Chapter 4

Harris , George H. Author, Sects. 4.4.2 and 6.6

Harrje, David T. Editor, Reference Book

Hefner, Robert J. Editor, Chapter 9

Heidmann, Marcus F. Author, Sects. 4.4.1.2, 6.5.1 , and

Hewitt, Ross A. Reviewer, Chapter 3

Howells , Edgar Author, Sect . 9.5

Kesselring, Robert C. Author, Sects. 9.2.2, 9.4.2, 9.4.4.1 ,

Kosvic , Thomas C. Contributor, Sect . 4.3.2

Lazar, Robert S. Reviewer, Chapter 1

Leeper, Charles K. Author, Sects . 4.4.1.4 and 6.5.3