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Application of a feedforward neural network in the

search for Kuroko deposits in the Hokuroku District,
Japan

Article in Journal of the International Association for Mathematical Geology · November 1996
DOI: 10.1007/BF02068587

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Donald A. Singer Ryoichi Kouda

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Mathematical Geology. Vol. 28, Nt~. 8. 1996

Application of a Feedforward Neural Network in the

Search for Kuroko Deposits in the H o k u r o k u
District, Japan ~

Donald A. Singer" and Ryoichi Kouda 3

A fee~l[brward neural network n'ith ~me hidden layer and.tire neurons w~*s trained m recognize the
distance to kuroko mineral deposits. Average amounts per hole ~!/'pyrite, ,~eri~'ite, and .¢vpsum plus
anlo,drite as nwasured hy X-rays in 69 dril[hoh,s were used to train the net. Drillholes ttear and
between tile Fltkazaw¢t, Fttrutohe. altd Shakanai milles were used. Tht' traitlittg thtla wert' selected
car~fitlly t~ represent welt-explored areus where stone cot!fidettce ~ f the distance to ore was assttr~'d,
A logarithmic tra/i.~form was applied to remove the skewness ~!/'distance a/id each t'ariabh, was
scaled and centered 33' subtracting the median and dividing by tile imerquartile range. The learning
a/gorithnl ~!['atltl~'alitlg plus cotljagale gradients was used to minittlize the nit'all squared error *!]"
the scaled distance to ~Jre. ~u" trained nem'¢~rk then was applied re, all H/" flw 152 drilflloh,.~ flint
had measltrcd .ffypsltm. sericite, and pyrite. A contour plot ~[" tilt' neural net predicted distance to
ore shott~" fitirly wide areas o f I km ~r less to ore; eadl ,~]the known deposit groups ix withio the
I km cotttour. The high ¢tttd hnt' distattces on the mar i,,itls ~fthe ctmtottred distatlce plot are in part
the result o f boltndary t:[~ects ~ f the cotltottritlg olg~rithm. Eta" example, the short distances to ore
predicted west ~[" the Shakanai (Hatlaoka) deposits are in l~asement. Ift~wever. the shor! distances
to ore predicted northeast o f Furotohe. just off the figure, coincide with the location Hi'the Nurukawu
karoko deposit and tile Onmki aleph,sit, m~uth o f tile Shakanai-Hanaoka deposits, seems to be on an
extension o f short distance to ore contour, but is beyond the 3 km limit from drillhah,s. ALso o f
interest are some areas only a f e w kihmwters front the Fukazawa and Shakanai groups ~{ deposits
that are estimated to be many kilometers from ore, apparently reflecting tile network's recognition
o f ttle extreme local variability ~f tile geology near some deposits.

KEY WORDS: neural network, kuroko massive sulfide, exploration.

INTRODUCTION

Exploration and resource assessment are notoriously difficult because o f errors

in data, subtle or hidden patterns, and nonlinearities and interactions in the data.
These are all conditions where neural networks are likely to be superior to other
analytical methods. Although there have been a few papers on use o f neural

~Received 27 November 1995: accepted 26 March 1996.

"~U.S. Geological Survey, 345 Middleficld Road, Menlo Park, California 94025:
email:singer@mojave.wr.usgs.gov
~Geological Survey of Japan, I-1-3 Higashi, Tsukuba, lbaraki-ken, 305 Japan: email:roy@gsi.go.jp

1017

I}882-812119611100-I017S(~ 5U;I I~6 Inle~i~II~nal Assi~latum h~r Malhcmati~al Geolog}

1018 Singer and Kouda

networks in the mineral industry (Poulton, Sternberg, and Glass, 1992; Wu and
Zhou, 1993; Dowd, 1994), none are known by the authors to have been applied
to exploration. Here, we report on a test of one type of neural network in the
search for kuroko deposits in a well-explored district of northern Japan.
Kuroko deposits are massive sulfides containing copper and zinc, and lo-
cally, silver, lead, and gold. They are associated with felsic to intermediate
w~lcanic rocks and are believed to have formed on the seafloor: the upper mas-
sive parts containing sphalerite and galena mainly are syngenetic and the lower
stringer or stockwork parts containing chalcopyrite and pyrite are epigenetic.
There are several excellent summaries of kuroko deposits (Ishihara, 1974:
Ohmoto and Skinner, 1983),
The most thoroughly studied kuroko area in the world, the Hokuroku Dis-
trict in northern Japan, is the focus of this study. The Miocene kuroko deposits
in the district are underlain by up to a kilometer of submarine volcanic units
which accumulated during Oligocene to Miocene time. The volcanic units are
composed mainly of andesitic and basaltic rocks overlain by the kuroko host
rocks composed of dacitic to rhyolitic lavas, lithic tuff breccias, and tufts in-
terbedded with minor amounts of basalt lavas and mudstones. The basement
consists of Paleozoic and Mesozoic chert, phyllite, and slate.

2O
J '+14' ~ I"u'~k~"a\

o= ,o //
-,>.... \~ Ko~.~ %.
........
+..I
V +

s /sha a n ~ ........... !. . . . -k- + ..... I + 4"

I
( + -~I~B~--MF "I" "+4" ~_
+'~':+++++ ~k +! ~-++

-~ -10 0 10 20
DISTANCE TO FUKAZAWA (KM) "4" TRAININGHOLE
.~L DRILLHOLE
EXCLUDED BECAUSE
< 1 KM CONTOUR ~ > 3 KM FROM ANY HOLE
OR OUTSIDEBASIN
DEPOSIT
F i g u r e l , Localinn~ o f known dcl~)sils and drillholes used in Iraining and validaling neural
network.
Kuroko Deposits in the Hokuroku District 1019

We decided to test a neural network's ability to locate kuroko deposits

using the data from 20 years of drilling in the Hokuroku District (Fig. 1); this
drilling was sponsored by the Japanese national and local governments (Ministry
of International Trade and Industry, 1983). The data used here are from X-ray
analyses for 152 drillholes in the approximately 40 x 40 km 2 Hokuroku District.
Stratigraphy was available for all drillholes. In an earlier study, Singer and
Kouda (1988) used both chemical and X-ray data from these and other drillhotes
in this district with area of influence and Bayesian statistics to aid in the selection
of target areas. The methods used relied on assumptions of independence of the
variables and a linear model. Neural networks do not require these assumptions
and allow for nonlinear and interactive effects.

THE NEURAL NETWORK

A neural network is an interconnected group of processing elements. The

processing ability of the network is stored in the interunit connecting strengths
or weights. The weights are obtained by a process of adaptation to, or learning
from, a set of training data (Masters, 1993). Thus, the network learns by ex-
ample, just as people do, Key to the success of the neural network is the nature
of inlormation (i.e., training data) from which the network learns. Neural net-
works are capable of solving problems of classification, autoassociation, or
function fitting. Classification problems solvable by neural networks include
both simple binary decisions and multiple-class identification. In the autoasso-
elation mode, a network can be trained to reproduce its input at its output. This
ability can be used fi~r image enhancement and filtering noise from signals, In
this study, the function approximation ability of neural networks is used.
The processing ability of the network is stored in the weights of the con-
nections between neurons which are learned from the training data. A three-
layer feedtbrward neural network with one hidden layer is used in this study.
The input layer consists of the three input variables discussed in the next section.
The hidden layer in this situation contains five neurons: this was the fewest
number of neurons that produced a large decrease in the error. The output is
the distance to the nearest kuroko mineral deposit. The hyperbolic tangent is
the activation function used in this analysis, The learning algorithm of annealing
plus conjugate gradients (Masters, 1993) was used to minimize the mean squared
error of the scaled distance to ore. Simulated annealing is used in the first
initialization mode to determine a good starting point liar the conjugate gradients
minimization. When the conjugate gradient method converges to a local mini-
mum, simulated annealing is used again to attempt an escape from what may
be a local minimum. This process continues until some limit such as a specified
minimum error is reached. These algorithms were selected because of their
relatively rapid training time compared to other algorithms.
1020 Singer and Kouda

TRAINING DATA

The power of neural networks to learn from the information they are trained
with leads to the need for considerable care in selecting the training data. Where
mineral exploration data are used, additional care is required because of the
difficulty of identifying where exploration has been so thorough that no undis-
covered deposits could exist. Deposit discoveries in the 1980s (Oshima, 1992),
incompletely explored favorable areas (Singer and Kouda, 1988), and estimates
of undiscovered deposits (Kouda and Singer, 1992, 1993) all suggest the pres-
ence of undiscovered deposits in this district. The apparent discrepancy between
these statements about possible undiscovered deposits and earlier statements
about this being the most thoroughly studied kuroko-bearing district reflect the
distribution of drillholes having a strong spatial clustering, and not the detailed
chemistry, stratigraphy, and X-ray data available from the holes.
The published X-ray data (Ministry of International Trade and Industry.
1983) are recorded as a set of lines representing the intensity observed in a
semiquantitative form, more lines suggesting more of the specified mineral. In
order to make a rough estimate of the relative amount of sericite, pyrite, and
gypsum plus anhydrite per hole, the total number of lines per drillhole tk~r each
particular mineral was divided by the number of X-ray analyses per hole.
Sericite was selected because it is a widely recognized alteration mineral
associated with kuroko deposits and it and gypsum plus anhydrite are useful in
discriminating mineralized from background populations (Singer and Kouda,
1988). Pyrite was added to this test because of" its occurrence in and near kuroko
deposits. In addition, Oshima (t992) stated that magnetic surveys are useful in
locating kuroko deposits in this district. Magnetite was not recorded in the
X-ray analyses, but we thought that pyrite, which was recorded, might comple-
ment the magnetite and therefore might be useful in locating kuroko deposits.
Average amounts per hole of pyrite, sericite, and gypsum plus anhydrite
as measured by X-rays in 69 drillholes were used to train the net (Fig. 1).
Mainly drillholes near and between the Fukazawa, Furutobe, and Shakanai
mines were used. The training data were selected carefully to represent well-
explored areas where confidence of the distance to ore was assured. The only
guarantee that drillholes really are some specified distance from deposits is where
the density of drillholes is so great that there can be no question of whether
there are other as-yet undiscovered deposits. Few such places exist anywhere.
The alternative of selecting drillholes where we "'think" there are no deposits
closer than those discovered deposits leads to a situation where the neural net-
work will be taught only what we believe and will reintbrce our belietLs. This
situation thus is no different for the neural network than it is for humans.
A logarithmic transform was applied to remove the skewness of distance
from ore. Each variable was scaled and centered by subtracting its median and
Kuroko Deposits in the Hokuroku District 1021

dividing by its interquartile range. Although multiple-layer feedforward net-

works of the type used here have no limitation imposed on their inputs, training
the network is greatly simplified if the input data are scaled and centered (Mas-
ters, 1993).

VALIDATION
The competence of the trained network needs to be evaluated. The vali-
dation process is necessary to avoid problems of overfitting the data. If the
trained model has too many neurons relative to the number of examples in the
training set, the net can overfit the data. Thus, it can learn irrelevant details of
the individual training cases. Here the validation consists of testing the trained
network on the total available dataset, including the 69 drillhotes used tbr train-
ing.
The trained network then was applied to all of the 152 drillholes that had
measured gypsum, sericite, and pyrite. A contour plot of the neural net predicted
distance to ore shows fairly wide areas of 1 km or less to ore (Fig. 2). The
training data contained some of the holes from near the three groups of deposits
at Fukazawa, Shakanai, and Furotobe, so it is not surprising that each of these

20

15

10

-5
-20 -10 0 10 20

DISTANCE TO FUKAZAWA (KM)

EXCLUDED BECAUSE
CONTOURED DISTANCE TO I ~ < 1 KM CONTOUR r----t
ORE(KM) I I 3 KM FROM ANY HOLE
OR OUTSIDE BASIN

Figure 2. Neural network output in Hokuroku District, Japan. Based on X-ray data of
gypsum, sericite, and pyrite in drillholes: one hidden layer, five neurons,
1022 Singer and Kouda

known deposit groups is within the l-km contours, but the same l-km contours
also contain the deposits at Ezuri and Kosaka.
The long and short distances on the margins of the contoured distance plot
are the result in part to boundary effects of the contouring algorithm. For ex-
ample, the short distances to ore predicted west of the Shakanai (Hanaoka)
deposits are in basement rock. However, the short distances to ore predicted
northeast of Furotobe, just off the figure, coincide with the location of the
Nurukawa kuroko deposit and the Omaki deposit, south of the Shakanai-Han-
aoka deposits, seems to be on an extension of short distance to ore contour, but
is beyond the 3-km limit from drillholes. Also of interest are some areas only
a few kilometers from the Fukazawa and Shakanai group of deposits that are
estimated to be many kilometers from ore, apparently reflecting the network's
recognition of the extreme local variability of the geology near some deposits.
The pattern of local variability in the contours just east of Shakanai and
east of Fukazawa is repeated about 4 km south of the deposits near Kosaka
(Fig. 2). Singer and Kouda (1988) also identified this area as a possible site for
kuroko deposits. The problem with this site is that all known kuroko deposits
in the Hokuroku District have a cap of what is locally termed the M2 mud and
according to the reported stratigraphy in drillholes here, the M2 mud is absent.
It is possible that the M2 mud was eroded along with the bedded part of a
kuroko deposit--this would leave the signs of a deposit with the main part of
the deposit now removed.

CONCLUSIONS

Both this test of a neural network's ability to locate kuroko massive sulfide
deposits and an earlier test of an area of influence and Bayesian statistics method
(Singer and Kouda, 1988) succeeded in identifying all of the known deposits
expected to be identified. The major difference between the two studies is the
smaller extent of desirable target areas in this study. Direct comparisons are not
possible because only two variables are common to the two tests and because
the Bayesian method in Singer and Kouda (1988) allowed the use of missing
variables which increased the number of drillholes available for analysis. In
many simple systems, as few as two neurons are required for predictions. In
this test, the neural network needed five hidden neurons to produce the results
in Figure 2, suggesting the presence nonlinearities or interactions in the data.
The results reported here are encouraging. The conditions for this test with
detailed data from many drillholes are not typical of exploration in general.
Neural networks are likely to prove most useful in exploration in situations
where there are large quantities of data such as remote sensing and geophysics
available.
Kuroko Deposits in the Hokuroku District 1023

REFERENCES

Dowd, P. D., 1994, The use of neural networks for spatial simulation, in Dimitrakopoulos, R,.
ed., Geoslatistics lor the next century: Kluwer Academic Pub.. Dordrecht, The Netherlands,
p. 173-184.
lshihara, S., ed., 1974, Geology of the kuroko deposits; Soc. Mining Geologists Japan, Spec. Issue
6. 437 p.
Kouda, R,, and Singer, D. A., 1992, A resource assessment of kuroko deposits in the Akita region
of Japan (ahst,): 29th Intern. Geologic C~mgress, Abstracts. v. I (Kyoto. Japanh p, 83.
Kouda, R., anti Singer, D, A., 1993, Evaluation of potentiality of kurnko dep~sils based on the
probability distribution model: Geol. Survey Japan Bull. v. 44. no. 2/314, p. 91-103 (in
Japanese with English abst.).
Masters. T., 1993, Practical neural network recipes in C+ +: Academic Press, Inc., San Diego,
California, 493 p.
Ministry of International Trade and Industry, 1983, Report of regional investigations for 1982 (FY):
General investigation for statistical analysis: Ministry of International Trade and Industry and
Agency of Resources and Energy (Tokyo), 621 p. (in Japanesel.
Ohmoto, H., and Skinner, B, J., eds.. 1983. The kuroko and related volcanogcnic massive sulfide
def.~sils: Econ, Geology. Monograph 5, 604 p.
Oshima, T., 1992, Geology, exphmttion and deveh~pment of kumko deposits (with emphasis on
the Ht~kuroku District; Kuroko-type mincralizati~m in Asia and the Pacific, v. 7, ESCAP,
United Nations (New YorkL p. 10-27.
Pt~ulton. M, M., Steinberg, B. K.. and Glass, C. E., 1992. Neural network pattern recognition of
subsurface EM images: Jour. Applied Geophysics, v. 29, no. I. p. 21-36
Singer, D, A.. and Kouda. R.. 1988, Integrating spatial and frequency infomaation in the search
for kuroko deposits of the Hokuroku District, Japan: Econ. Geology, v. 83, no. I. p. 18 29
Singer, D, A., and Kouda, R., 1992, Regi~mal view in the search t'~*r kuroko dcpL~sits of the
Hokuroku District, Japan. in Urabe. T, and Aoki, M,, eds., 29th IGC field trip Gukleb~ok,
Vol. 6: Mineral deposits of Japan and the Philippincs: The Soc. Resource Geology, p. 83-91,
Wu, X., and Zhou, Y , 1993. Reserve estimation using neund network techniques: Computers &
Geosciences, v, 19, no,, 4, p. 507-576.

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