Engineering Geology, 35 (1993) 1-17 1

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

Activity of the Yakatabari mudslide complex, Porgera, Papua

New Guinea

R. J. Blong ~ and R. C. M. Goldsmith b

aSchool of Earth Sciences, Macquarie University, N.S. IV. 2109, Australia
bPlacer ( PNG ) Pty Ltd, P.O. Box 484, Mr. Hagen, Western Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea
(Received December 28, 1992; revised version accepted May 6, 1993)

ABSTRACT

The Yakatabari mudslide complex, formed on overconsolidated mudrocks in Enga Province, Papua New Guinea, has a
volume of about 16 x 106 m 3. Detailed examination during 17 years as part of a mining development indicates a variety of
colluvium types with variable properties, but average peak shear strength values of ~b~= 24.5 ° and cv' = 11 kPa. Simple models
using the infinite slope stability assumptions suggest a probability of failure of ~22%.
Several historic failures have occurred within the mudslide complex since 1974 and rates of movement of 40-240 mm/month
have been documented on a number of survey lines. Prehistoric failures are indicated by arcuate scarps across the complex.
Twenty 14C dates from the mudslide indicate a failure history spanning more than 40,000 years. The Yakatabari mudslide
complex appears to be a very long-lived landslide. Landslides of similar longevity appear to have not been described in the
literature but it is unlikely that the Yakatabari example is unique.

Introduction movement of the Indo-Australian plate and the

The Yakatabari mudslide complex near Porgera
in Enga Province, Papua New Guinea, has been
under investigation for a number of years. The
present paper aims to describe the activity of the
mudslide complex using the first 17 years of historic
data derived from observations and measurements
of movement, and the significant body of prehis-
toric information derived from geotechnical bore-
holes and radiocarbon dates. The paper also places
the Yakatabari mudslide complex in the context
of other landslides with long histories of activity.
The Porgera area
The Porgera area and much of the rest of the
highlands of Papua New Guinea lie within the
New Guinea Mobile Belt (Fig. 1). Emergence of
the present land mass began in the early Miocene.
The dominant northwest to southeast structural
trend is a consequence of the compressional
stresses imposed by the collision of the northwards
westwards course of the Pacific plate. Rapid oro-
genesis is evident in the limestone peaks
Kumbipota and Kaijende which reach 3852 m and
3798 m, respectively on the margins of the Porgera
Valley (Fig. 2). Kumbipota was glaciated at least
once during the Pleistocene (L6ffler, 1972). The
geology of the area is complicated by both high-
angle intersecting faults and (probably) thrust
faulting. Present-day seismic activity for the
Porgera area is moderate--Kawatt (1990) suggests
a 50-100 year return period for a Modified
Mercalli intensity of VIII.
Four major formations dominate the area. The
Chim Formation (late Cretaceous-early
Paleocene) occupies much of the Porgera valley
(Fig. 2). This formation is composed of grey to
black micaceous to carbonaceous mudstone, with
interbedded siltstone, calcarenite-sandstone and
grey calcareous, fine-grained, laminated shale
(Bain et al., 1975). The mudstones have a basic
clay mineralogy of kaolinite, chlorite and illite
(Goldsmith, 1991) and break down rapidly on
exposure, especially when alternately wetted and

0013-7952/93/$06.00 © 1993 - - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved.

2 R.J. BLONG AND R.C.M. GOLDSMITH

l 1~.4OE I 1/8OE %1 1~2< E

2~]:~=> o 2~S-

: OCEANIC ~
l i ,~. \'~Bismarck :"Y~"~
I ! .~ -,us//~ -,\ ~o RabauF'~ o
I ; ~ \ .'~\\ )Volcanic ~ ,-3 _) ":J
I i Porg~ra" "'~"" ~ - ~ . ~ '~-b~' ' ' ~ ' ~ ~ i"~/

I i PLATFORM . i] ~,. ~" ..... --- ~--3:

I ~~L_\k~, [~;P~'ua° ,S~AND
L i ~~ ~ \ @.~ x " k Ophiolite 8os_
~2kk'~x ~ Provinc~ c-.= ARCS
I ~ M° reSbye ~"~k~.~"~(b U~ .
:
[ 0 300 km o
t I i i l L I • "

Fig. l. Location of Porgera in the New Guinea Mobile Belt (after Dow, 1977).

MT~

- " "~ =u',~WOTA

m WARUWARIINTRUSlVES ~ IERUFORMATION
DARAILIMESTONE ~ CHIMFORMATION
LAI SILTSTONE
FAULT 0 1 2 km
MENDIGROUP ~ ESCARPMENT L ,

Fig. 2. Simplified geology of the Porgera area (modified after Davies, 1983).

dried. Measurements of rates of sediment loss from of the Chim Formation (Fig. 3). The benchlands
road batters elsewhere in the highlands indicate range in elevation from 2000 to 3000 m.
that the Chim mudstones are among the most The Ieru Formation, crops out to the south and
erodible materials in the world (Blong and southwest of Porgera, and is composed of fine
Humphreys, 1982). In Chim Formation terrain in polymict sandstone which is argillaceous and silty,
the Porgera area numerous mudslides have formed and typically glauconitic, with interbedded silt-
on the 10-12 ° slopes of the colluvial benchlands stone and mudstone. This unit is transgressive to
ACTIVITY OF THE YAKATABARIMUDSLIDECOMPLEX, PORGERA, PAPUA NEW GUINEA
"\,N
[~ IGNEOUS TERRAIN
I ~ ' ~ COLLUVlUM BENCHLAND TERRAIN
[~ LIMESTONE KARST TERRAIN
---7 RIDGE AND V-VALLEY TERRAIN
Fig. 3. Simplified geomorphic m a p of the Porgera valley (after Goldsmith, 1990).
Chim Formation and also, generally, forms reces-
sive terrain.
Mendi Group rocks in the study area are domi-
nated by mid-late Eocene pale micritic limestones
which form the Payam massif east of Porgera. The
group also contains fine calcarenite, minor siltstone
and calcareous quartz sandstone (Davies, 1983).
The Darai Limestone of early Oligocene to mid-
Miocene age is a cream, buff and grey bioclastic,
algal limestone, bedded and massive with sizes
ranging from micritic to rudaceous. This cliff-
forming unit dominates the Porgera valley with
near-vertical cliffs towering hundreds of metres
and culminating in the peaks of Kaijende and
Kumbipota. Spectacular karst landforms have
developed on some outcrops (Williams, 1971).
The middle Miocene Lai siltstone which
outcrops south of Kumbipota is a grey calcareous
siltstone and mudstone with minor beds of argilla-
ceous micritic limestones and fine calcareous sand-
stone (Davies, 1983). The area of outcrop within
the present study area is very limited.
Intermediate and basic intrusive rocks of the
Waruwari Intrusive complex were emplaced within
folded and contorted Chim Formation sediments
3
X
,× / / / / 2"/
/
GLACIATED TERRAIN / ESCARPMENT
~ TOP OF STEEP SLOPE
ACTIVE SLIDE ZONE
t ~ M M = MUDSLIDE 0 1 2 km
(..~..~-- CREEPZONE, I ~ I
ACTIVE EROSION
7-10 million years ago. The small stock and dyke-
like bodies are substantially disrupted by faults.
Gold and silver mineralisation at Porgera occurs
around and within the margins of the intrusive
bodies and in the associated breccias. The Chim
Formation around the intrusive complex has been
divided into four lithological units, three of which
have been altered by intrusion and associated
hydrothermal processes (Handley, 1987).
Although a tephra mantle, five to six metres
thick, from upper Pleistocene stratovolcanoes
(such as Mts. Hagen and Giluwe) should cover
the Porgera area (Pain, 1982), only small patches
of reworked and in situ tephra have so far been
identified on narrow ridge crests in the south of
the valley. The removal of the tephra, the rapid
breakdown and erodibility of the mudstones, the
extensive mudslides, and the steep high limestone
slopes all testify to an active geomorphic
environment.
Rainfall at Porgera is high throughout the year.
At Alipis (about 2350 m), near the toe of the
Yakatabari mudslide (Fig. 2) mean annual rainfall
(18 years of record) is 3663 mm. At Waruwari
camp (about 2600 m), at the head of the mudslide,
4 R.J. BLONG AND R.C.M. GOLDSMITH
mean annual rainfall (five years) is 4230 mm.
Monthly rainfalls appear to be higher in
February-April and October. Rainfall probably
increases further toward the high limestone peaks
to the south. The combination of high rainfall,
diurnal temperatures ranging 10-20°C throughout
the year, the moderate to high elevations, and low
wind levels result in an excess of moisture at the
ground surface and in the subsoil.
Until recently, land use in the Porgera Valley
was dominated by subsistence agriculture. Gold
mining by sluicing began in the 1960s both by
expatriate companies and endeavours by the local
Ipili people. Being adjacent to the intrusive com-
plex, the Yakatabari valley has undergone pro-
gressive development as feasibility studies and
construction began, culminating in the opening of
the US$ 1 billion Porgera Joint Venture mine
in 1990.
Although numerous mudslides occur on the
colluvial benchlands of the Porgera Valley, the
proximity of the Yakatabari mudslide complex to
the mine (Figs. 2 and 3) and its subdued topogra-
phy (evidently suitable for the construction of mine
facilities in an environment where flat land is at a
premium), have meant that the Yakatabari area
has been more intensively studied than other mud-
slide complexes in the valley. Nonetheless, the
Yakatabari mudslide is believed to be typical of
those in the area except in that some of its charac-
teristics are derived from its proximity to the
intrusive complex.
The Yakatabari Mudslide Complex
The term mudslide is used here in the sense
proposed by Hutchinson and Bhandari (1971) and
Brunsden (1984) and in the same way that the
term earth flow is used by Keefer and Johnson
(1983). Characteristics of mudslides include move-
ment by both side slip and internal deformation
(with the former dominant), with rates of move-
ment varying through time. Surging of portions of
a mudslide may occur, sometimes as a result of
undrained loading. A mudslide may exhibit
marked downslope variations in width, depth and
velocity. Mudslides occur most commonly in soft-
ened clayey, silty or fine sandy soil derived from
weathering of weak sedimentary rocks or consoli-
dated sediments. Multiple shear planes may exist
with failure occurring through softened but intact
materials as well as along previously sheared
surfaces.
Figure 4 illustrates the setting of the Yakatabari
mudslide complex. The Waruwari intrusive com-
plex forms a prominent barrier to the north with
four peaks--Peruk (2608 m), Roamane (2687 m),
Rambari (2795 m) and Waruwari (2781 m)--and
side slopes ranging up to 60 ° along the Roamane
Fault Scarp. Many of the slopes expose bedrock;
scars of shallow debris slides and rockfalls are
common. The southern side of the Yakatabari
Valley is marked by the diorite intrusion at
Tawisakale and the low, poorly defined Alipis
ridge, forming the drainage between the
Yakatabari and the Kogai to the south east.
The headwaters of Yakatabari Creek rise as
small tributaries near Waruwari camp. Between
Waruwari and Tawisakale the steep, cascading
stream enters a broad colluvium-filled valley which
descends 275 m to an elevation of 2125 m at the
Yakatabari-Kogai junction at an average slope of
9 °. A number of drill holes to bedrock indicate
that the sub-colluvial floor of the valley is irregular,
with an earlier stream channel filled in places by
more than 30 m of colluvium. The thickness of
the colluvium is indicated on Fig. 5. Although
contours have not been drawn in the lower part
of the valley, thicknesses are known to be at least
10 m, and probably much more, throughout most
of this area. It is noteworthy that the colluvium
does not thin between Alipis Camp and the Kogai
River. The total volume of colluvium in the valley
is probably about 16 million m 3 (Goldsmith, 1990).
Figure 6 provides a broad classification of collu-
vial types and a map of distributions. At the head
of the valley, and along the northern margin,
colluvium is derived from debris slides and rock-
falls from the steep slopes of the intrusive complex.
This colluvium includes fragments of altered sedi-
ments, calcareous sediments, black sediments and
igneous rocks. Around Tawisakale the colluvium
is dominated by diorite cobbles and gravels from
this intrusive stock. In general, the debris slide
colluvium is a sandy-clayey gravel or silty-gravelly
clay with zones of gravelly-clayey silt. Colours
ACTIVITY OF THE YAKATABARI MUDSL1DE COMPLEX, PORGERA, PAPUA NEW GUINEA

I i
, OE / / / /
/ / / ,'~.
wANGIMA RIDGE

|X X X X
t x x x / I
|X X X X

/)
oJ
N X xX :

WARUWARI/2795m~ x
INTRUSIVE / ~ . - i

~l YOKOLAMA 1
~ CAMP

.~" 0,,//w_\,~,
- YOKOLAMA 2
~'~'",'-.. c~P

EEl INTRUSIVES,
SEDIMENTS
ALTERED

•~ LL CALACAREOUS SEDIMENTS
MUDSTONE, BLACK SHALES
DYKE
COLLUVlUM, ALLUVIUM
r--7 SLOPE WASH
FAULT
0 200 400
[ I I LINEAR ARCUATE
METRES A LOCATIONS IN TEXT CHANGES IN SLOPE

Fig. 4. Yakatabari valley--simplified geology and colluvium.

range from grey to brown and orange-brown.
Clasts form more than 50% of the volume and the
matrix is firm to stiff. Boulders range up to 5 to
10 m in size.
Towards the centre of the valley "bouldery clay"
colluvium predominates with various proportions
of boulders and gravels of mudstone, sandstone
and "erratics" of limestone. This colluvium is a
gravelly-clayey silt or silty clay, with clasts forming
less than 20% of the volume. Clasts are subangular
to subrounded and randomly oriented, with few
boulders exceeding 2 m in diameter. Shale clasts
tend to be smaller than intrusive clasts. Wood
fragments up to 1 m in length are common. The
matrix ranges from stiff to soft, depending on the
moisture content.
Alluvial deposits are concentrated down the
main Yakatabari channel (Fig. 6). These deposits
consist of irregular beds of silty to sandy gravel,
with some clasts up to large boulder size. The
alluvial deposits result from reworking and win-
nowing of the other colluvial deposits.
Figure 6 also indicates a small area of mudstone
outwash fan on Roamane Creek where angular
gravel-sized mudstone fragments have concen-
trated in lenticular units less than one metre thick.
These deposits, derived from debris flows from
areas underlain by mudstones, are more common
than the map suggests. The grey, firm, fragments
of mudstone break down readily to a silty clay.
Areas where a weathered soil profile has formed
on the colluvium are also shown on Fig. 6. Large
 R.J. B L O N G A N D R.C.M. G O L D S M I T H

I
I 720100E -- \\ I

J
~ PERU

ROAMANE

~YOKOLAMA 1
RAMBARI ~ RAMP

WARUWARI J//
r
'\~-r YOKOLAMA 2
"\\_ CAMP

CAMP MARGIN OF COLLUVIUM

APPROXIMATE DEPTH
CONTOURS TO BASE OF
14 COLLUVIUMIN10m
INTERVALS
o8 DEPTH TO BASE OF INFERRED DEPTH
0 20O 400 COLLUVlUMIN CONTOURS
I i I BOREHOLE
METRES

Fig. 5. Yakatabari valley--colluvium thickness.

areas of the colluvial deposit are covered by slope-
wash deposits of organic clayey silts with some
sand and fine gravel. These deposits are soft to
very soft and wet, particularly in extensive drainage
depressions (Goldsmith, 1990).
Given the variety of types of colluvium it is not
surprising that the geotechnical properties are vari-
able. Liquid limits average 40% but range from
23 to 77% (24 samples) and plastic limits average
19% with a range of 4 to 49%. Organic contents
range from 4 to 53% (four samples). Field shear
strength tests using the Iowa down borehole device
(Handy and Ferguson, 1976; Wineland, 1976) indi-
cated ~bp'= 24.5 +6.8 ° and Cp'= 11.0_ 5 kPa on 27
tests on the Yakatabari landslide. Nearly all the
tests were undertaken on bouldery clay colluvium.
These results were erroneously reported as residual
values by Blong (1985). Triaxial tests on bouldery
clay colluvium from elsewhere in the Porgera valley
confirm the Iowa test results. Limited evidence
from back analyses suggests ~br' values range from
18 to 21 °
Using the mean strength values from the Iowa
tests on Yakatabari landslide materials, a failure
plane slope of 10°+5 °, a vertical depth to the
failure plane of 15-20 m, ~= 18 kN/m 3, ~w=9.8
kN/m 3, and the ratio of water table height above
the slide plane to the depth of the slide plane as
1.0 in an infinite slope stability model (Skempton
and DeLory, 1957), suggests a factor of safety in
the range F = 1.35 to F = 1.5. However, when these
data are used in a simple probabilistic model
ACTIVITYOF THE YAKATABARIMUDSLIDECOMPLEX, PORGERA,PAPUANEW GUINEA

I I I I
72000E 73000E

PERUK
2608m

46000N
ROAMANE
RAMBARI

2795m

~,!~YOKOLAMA 1
:~r CAMP

WARUWARI
-~-- ojx

[ ~ ] DEBRIS SLIDE COLLUVIUM

SOURCE AREAS
~ BOULDERY CLAY
CAMP & COLLUVIUM
/TAWISAKALE ~
[ ~ MUDSTONE OUTWASH
COLLUVIUM, INTERBEDDE[
UNITS NOT MAPPED
ALLUVIUM
[~ WEATHEREDSOIL
0 20O 400 PROFILE ON COLLUVIUM
I I I
METRES [---1 BEDROCK, RESIDUAL SOIL

Fig. 6. Yakatabari valley--colluvium types.

(McMahon, 1982) the probability of failure is
about 22%. Similarly, if residual strength values
of q~/=18+5 ° and c / = 5 + 5 k P a are used, the
probability of failure is estimated as 37%.
Sensitivity analyses (cf., Selby, 1982, Chapter 6)
on a stochastic basis using peak strength conditions
indicate the most sensitive conditions include:
(1) The probability of failure increases markedly
from about 20% at a water level ratio of m = 1, to
75% at m = 1.5 (i.e., under artesian conditions
although there is no evidence that such conditions
have occurred for any substantial portion of the
landslide at a given time);
(2) The probability of failure varies considerably
for shear plane slopes of 10-18 °, but the change
is much less outside this range; and
(3) The probability of failure falls considerably as
the angle of friction, ~b', increases from 10° to 18°,
but outside these values the change is reduced.
The stability analyses and the sensitivity analyses
emphasise the importance of taking into account
the variability of both the strength of the colluvium
and other conditions at failure.
Historic Failures
Given the strength parameters of the colluvium
and the stability conditions suggested by probabi-
listic infinite slope stability analyses, it is not
surprising that there is substantial historical evi-
dence of movement within the Yakatabari mud-
slide complex.
8 RJ. BLONG AND R.C.M. GOLDSMITH

Figure 7 outlines areas of historic failures and
ground displacements. The 1974 landslide occurred
in late December and involved an area of about
22 ha. The landslide was preceded by heavy rain-
falls during several days and a swampy area to the
west of the toe filled with water, but the main
initiating event is likely to have been sluicing of
gold from the toe area of, perhaps, 100,000 m 3 of
colluvium. In the toe area the slide moved as much
as 100 m; seven survey stations west of the sluice
area showed movements of about 52 m at 54°T
up to 1 March, 1975. Near the head of the slide,
movement was probably only a few metres, but
ground cracking occurred well beyond the area
mapped on Fig. 7 (Anonymous, 1975). The depth
of the failure plane was probably 20-30 m and the
failure volume was at least 4.4 × 10 6 m 3. Movement
continued until April 1975. The failure appears to
have been essentially a planar translational slide,
with the ground surface broken into small blocks
separated by tension cracks.
Another failure occurred in December 1983 in
the same area. Movement occurred in the sluice
box area over a period of at least six days.
Compensation was paid to local landholders on
an area of 5.05 ha, indicating a minimum volume
of about 1 × l 0 6 m a, but the actual failure volume
must have been several times larger. Again the
failure appears to have been of a translational
nature but with the major component of movement
toward Yakatabari Creek at approximately 90°T.
Apart from these major movements evidence

I I I I
72000E 73000E
_ .,)

PERUK
2608m

• 46000N
R OAMAN E
RAMBARI 2687m
2795m

,,# ~?tY O K O L A M A 1
~t CAMP
RAMBARI

WARUWARI

"~"
/ ill • "" \- YOKOLAMA 2
v .¢. ~ -p .,r .r ,,( ",,~ ~ . ~ C A M P
"%.

wN6WA~','X,
CAMP \\
"~ ~(
CROSS SECTIONS IN
4"5000N ~x FIGS 8 & 9
SURVEY LINES

MOVEMENT DIRECTIONS
d¢ BOREHOLE LOCATION FROM SURVEY PEGS

0 ~0 4OO • TEST PiT LOCATION ==¢, HISTORICAL LANDSLIDE

I I I SHOWING YEAR OF EVENT
METRES A LOCATIONS IN TEXT

Fig. 7. Areas of historic failure and displacement.

ACTIVITY OF THE YAKATABARI MUDSLIDE COMPLEX, PORGERA, PAPUA NEW GUINEA
from one survey marker suggests continued creep
of the mudslide complex, at least in the lower third
of the Yakatabari mudslide complex. Survey Peg
C1 (see Fig. 7) moved 8.06 m at 24-28°T with a
vertical fall of 2.26 m between 1976 and May 1981.
This average creep rate of about 30 mm/week
occurred outside the areas of known failures and
between the 1974 and 1983 landslides.
In November 1984 a debris slide occurred on
the eastern slopes of Waruwari (Fig. 7). This failure
covered a lower slope area of about 0.5 ha to a
depth of about 1.5 m, but involved a total volume
of about 19,000 m 3. This landslide is probably
typical of the feeder slides which load the landslide
source area.
In 1986 local failures were reported in Pundi's
garden (Mules, 1986). Several tension cracks were
mapped in the middle of the valley upslope of the
present explosives plant. The ground movements
cannot be related to any particular event.
More recent movements have occurred in both
upvalley and downvalley areas of the Yakatabari
mudslide complex. As a result of the placement of
waste rock from the 28 level Adit in 1987-1989,
the area covered by the 1974 and 1983 failures has
become active again. Although the total monitored
movements have been only 250-500 mm the foun-
dations for the Underground Mine Change House
have been affected.
In June 1989 a mudslide with a volume of about
700,000 m 3 occurred in the upper part of the valley
(Fig. 7). The track of this !andslide was at least
500 m in length and 80-100 rn irl width, Borehole
monitoring indicated shear failure at 21.6 m depth,
the bedrock contact, but failure may have been on
multiple shears with weathered, sheared mudstone
extending more than 5 m beneath the base of the
colluvium in some boreholes. Compressional and
tensional features developed at the surface as the
mudslide moved over bedrock at depths varying
from 7.5 to 21.6 m. Upslope of the Pangia work-
shop, numerous curved to planar tension cracks
indicated a high bedrock surface. Back-tilted water
and fuel tanks beside the workshop and the raked
supports to the workshop roof indicated compres-
sional forces on the adjacent upslope side. Survey
data indicated movements of about 2 m between
9
late 1988 and May 1989, but peak movements
reached 100 mm in three hours on 1 June, 1989.
Five monitoring lines were established across
the Yakatabari mudslide complex and periodically
resurveyed between May 1989 and January 1990
(Fig. 7). The survey markers are steel pickets 2 m
in length driven 1.5 m into the ground and
cemented in place. Figure 7 indicates the locations
of the survey lines and the total movement vectors
during the survey period.
Line 1 data indicate a general ENE movement
in accord with the orientation of the valley. Line
2 produced little reliable data. Line 3 data indicate
a convergent movement toward the Change House
and divergent movement at the toe of the larger
mudslide to the south. Line 4 data also show
divergent and convergent movements with move-
ment directions influenced by local topography.
Line 5 shows consistent movement NNE to north
west. Rates of movement are difficult to assess due
to survey errors but the most reliable data indicate:
Line 1: 40--240 mm/month
Line 3: 40-- 150 mm/month
Line 4 : 4 5 - - 1 3 5 mm/month
Line 5: 50--150mm/month
Elevation changes for Lines 3 and 4 reach maxima
of - 12 and - 60 mm/month, respectively.
Borehole collars surveyed in August-September
1988 and in June 1989 produced elevation differ-
ences of 0.4-0.6 m.
Undoubtedly some of the survey data are in
error, ~htat the summary presented on Fig. 7 indi-
cates that large are0~, if not 0[! 0~ea~ 0,f thee
mudslide complex are moving, or hove moved
during the historic period (1974-1991) at rates of
0.5 to 2.0 m/year, with several areas surging at
rates up to several orders of magnitude greater for
limited periods.
Given the estimated volume of colluvium of
16 x 106 m 3, the cross-sectional area of the mud-
slide toe of 4000 m 2, and a mean creep rate of
50 mm/month the entire body of colluvium could
be removed from the valley in less than 7000 years
assuming that no re-supply occurred from the
surrounding slopes or from basal erosion.
l0
Prehistoric failures
Although the historic period, in terms of data
on ground failures, only began at Porgera in 1974,
considerable geomorphic information is available
relating to the history of the Yakatabari mudslide
complex.
The drainage pattern of the Yakatabari valley
is markedly asymmetrical with long tributary
streams flowing obliquely across the strike of
the main valley. It seems likely that Yakatabari
Creek has been displaced progressively eastward
as the valley has been infilled by colluvium derived
mainly from the intrusive ridge to the north. At
several locations (e.g., F, G, and H on Fig. 7),
channels have been deformed by past landslide
activity.
It also seems likely that large-scale failures of
the colluvium have occurred at unspecified dates
in the relatively recent past. Aerial photograph
interpretation and ground inspection have revealed
four linear to arcuate changes in slope which cross
the entire mudslide complex (B, C, D and E on
Fig. 7). Each of these features is believed to repre-
sent the headward part of a failed block, involving
millions of cubic metres of colluvium.
SOUTH
RL (m)
--.,.-.__ 88-1154
2360 -
2350
_ . - .
._-.
-_°
=
2330 -
Legend
[~ Top soil
Silty clay colluviurn /
slope wash
Gravelly clay colluvium
Fig. 8. Cross-section A--Yakatabari valley (see Fig. 7 for cross-section location).
R.J. BLONG AND R.C.M. GOLDSMITH
Boreholes located in the colluvium also provide
considerable data on the colluvial history of the
valley. A total of five exploration holes, 19 geotech-
nical holes and 38 test pits have penetrated the
colluvial fill (Fig. 7). These data not only allowed
the construction of an isopach map of colluvium
thickness (Fig. 5) but also assisted in the identifica-
tion of numerous phases of valley infilling as a
result of landsliding.
Two cross-sections of the valley based on bore-
hole data are presented in Figs. 8 and 9. Locations
of the cross sections between the 40 level Adit and
the Pangia workshop, are given on Fig. 7.
Figure 8 is drawn almost normal to the length
of the valley. A former buried channel of
Yakatabari Creek reaches a depth of 21.6 m in
Borehole 88-1160. The fall in the bedrock surface
at 88-1162 probably represents the flank of a
deeper channel to the north. This channel is shown
at borehole 88-1164 on Fig. 9. Both cross-sections
emphasise the variety of colluvial materials filling
the valley and the difficulties in correlating layers
from borehole to borehole.
Wood remains from boreholes and near-surface
exposures have been radiocarbon dated to provide
age estimates at 20 locations (Table l; Fig. 10).
NORTH
/
Yakatabari Ck
.1160 J 88-1161 88-1162
_ -\
- - _
0 25 50 metres
Silty sandy clay colluvium ~ Clay colluvium
Bouldery clay colluvium, ~ Mudstone bedrock
M = mudstone
S = sandstone ~ Core loss
D = diorite
L = limestone T e x t u r a l descriptions from Unified Soil Classification
ACTIVITY OF THE YAKATABARI MUDSLIDE COMPLEX, PORGERA, PAPUA NEW GUINEA 11

WEST EAST

RE (m)
2380 - ~

2370
"\
-__,~
-\
• 8-1164

-\
- A
-- \ 14C 13.7ka ~
2360 - - \ 14C 18ka --
MD
- -~ 14C 14.8ka
88-1162
-

2350 - -

-- \ 14C27.7ka_

-- 14 C 24.7ka f ~D Matrix predominantly"grey~"-- - - ~ M

_ _\ ~D green / grey 14C33.3ka- .
2340 - _ --~
-- % ':.~D M ~-- 1~.44C.>42.5ka-
- - 1 4 0 38k-~a ~

2330 - VE = 2"5
25
J
metres

Fig. 9. Cross-section B--Yakatabari valley (see Fig. 7 for cross-section location and Fig. 8 for symbols).

TABLE 1

Radiocarbon age estimates, Yakatabari mudslide complex

Sample No. Radiocarbon Age Pretreatment and comments

yr b.p.

SUA-696 41,000 + 5100 cellulose preparation; no dilution

- 3100
SUA-829 23,850_+315 acid/alkali/acid pretreatment
SUA-830 1335__.60 acid/alkali/acid pretreatment
SUA-831 1210+85 acid/alkali/acid pretreatment
SUA-832 28,130-+510 acid/alkali/acid pretreatment
SUA-833 40,700 + 3100 cellulose preparation;
- 2200 acid/alkali/acid
SUA-2306 40,800+ 1000 acid/alkali/acid
-900
SUA-2307 32,350 + 340 acid/alkali/acid
SUA-2308 2270 -I-60 acid/alkali/acid
Beta-29581 4660_+ 70* acid/alkali/acid
Beta-29582 9750 + 250* bulk soil sample; multiple combustion; low organic content; extended
counting time; acid only
Beta-29583 33,250_+ 1790* acid/alkali/acid
Beta-29584 > 42,390* acid/alkali/acid
Beta-29585 13,630_+ 100" acid/alkali/acid
Beta-29586 17,980 + 220* acid/alkali/acid
Beta-29587 14,740 + 80* acid/alkali/acid
Beta-29588 27,700 -I-500 acid/alkali/acid
Beta-29589 24,640 + 450* acid/alkali/acid
Beta-29590 37,940 + 3010* low organic content; extended counting time; acid/alkali/acid
Beta-34933 > 33,780 acid/alkali/acid

"13C adjusted age.

12 R J . BLONG A N D R.C.M. G O L D S M I T H

I I I I ~ \
72000E 73000E ~

41.0 ~

PERUK 40"0 /¢~--

• ---~\ 32.3x - , ~ , , /

46000N \ 28 LEVEL A ~I

279sin ..() X
~ -- ~ - ~ " ,\ ; )7/
/,'/ / .~ Lh )t
tY II

RAMBARI JL 22.5m- 27-H ,-,--::::=-~ ,~:, ( -, ~7(" ,,

- c,z~'~ J136,5m- 38-0t----.-'~&~ _ _~ ~ . " -.'- ,~,.J~,;:-=~
WARUWARI ":,¢[/z "1 -I ~ . X28:1 ~" ~ - ~ <- .-v,<./ / , . - - -
X23"9.~. \ -~40LEVEL •l]!m - 33'3 ~ .) x .~,~xJt
e/ol m ~ 2"3 X ~ADIT J14m - >42'5 l . . . . .x r,OT/x'O\~ `
~'~, ~ _~,5.__~ ~21m -" 9'81. . . . ~ ~ ..... ",~.
"\, ~ II°m- 4.7 •~;" /, ~ ~ // ,
1.9 J( ~ ~ ~'=-,',/ /( l,/

CAMP \~\ >~,J ~ ~- x O.. \ ~~ (

4-5000N ~xx I ITAWlSAKALE ~l'~x Ix /~- ~ \ \

"= ~ ~ )~ - FROM BOREHOLE SHOWING

DEPTH AND DATE IN 1000's
121 m 9"81• YEARS BP (ka)

0 200 400
I I I FROM NEAR SURFACE SHOWING
METRES 33 X DATE IN 1000's YEARS BP (ka)

Fig. 10. Radiocarbon age estimates from the Yakatabari valley--sample location, depth and ages (ka).

Radiocarbon assays were performed by the N W G
Macintosh Centre for Quaternary Dating at the
University of Sydney, Australia, or at Beta
Analytic Inc., Coral Gables, Florida. Sample pre-
treatments are indicated in the table. Samples were
counted for a minimum 1000 min. Where 13C/12C
ratios were determined laC adjusted ages are
reported.
Figures 8-10 indicate that at least some of the
colluvium in the Yakatabari Valley dates back to
more than 40,000 years. Any errors in the older
age estimates are only likely to result in even older
true ages. However, as Fig. 11 indicates, the 20
radiocarbon age estimates span virtually all of the
last 40,000 years. As pieces of wood are most likely
to be incorporated into the colluvium during active
landsliding (as occurs at the present day), with
surface timber decaying within a few years, the
available dates imply (but do not prove) that the
Yakatabari mudslide complex has been active for
virtually all of the period; it is not possible to
identify periods of more than a few thousand years
when the mudslide was stable. Nonetheless, the
presence of a number of buried soils within the
colluvium indicates periods of relative stability of
the groundsurface for at least parts of the mudslide
complex.
The older ages generally relate to the deepest
parts of the colluvium or from the toe area of the
mudslide. Although inversions of ages occur in
some boreholes (e.g., Borehole 88-1164 on Fig. 9)
these can be readily explained by the shearing of
ACTIVITY OF THE YAKATABARI MUDSLIDE COMPLEX, PORGERA, PAPUA NEW GUINEA
g-
0~
¢_
!H
0 j
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48
ka BP
Fig. 1 I. H i s t o g r a m o f r a d i o c a r b o n a g e e s t i m a t e s .
older landslide debris over younger--a not uncom-
mon phenomena at the present day.
Consideration of the dated sequences, the known
slope processes and the distribution of colluvial
materials suggests the following history of the
Yakatabari valley:
* Initial erosion of the fluvial valley;
* Debris slides, concentrated around the perimeter
of the main valley, extending down the drainage
lines and incorporating underlying softened
mudrocks;
* Remobilisation of debris slides, contributions
from slopewash, fluvial reworking;
* Development of mudslides within debris slide
colluvium and slopewash;
* Internal deformation of mudslide colluvium due
to creep and/or plastic deformation;
* Break up of the mudslides into back-tilted slump
blocks and the formation of surface depressions
with swamp deposits;
* Weathering of ground surfaces which have
remained relatively stable for sufficiently long
periods to produce oxidised orange-brown soil
horizons.
The sequence outlined above, or parts of it, may
have recurred many times in the history of the
Yakatabari valley with occasional flushing from
the valley of colluvial sediments. Nonetheless, the
present Yakatabari mudslide complex began to
form at least 40,000 years ago and has been active
frequently, or continuously, ever since. Clearly,
movement of the whole colluvial mass at rates of
about 50 mm/month cannot continue for much of
13
this period without evacuation of the colluvium
from the valley. However, large portions of the
mudslide complex appear to creep for many years,
punctuated by shorter periods of more rapid move-
ment. Although most measurements postdate
mining activity, other nearby and little disturbed
mudslide complexes (e.g., the Maiapam, Fig. 3)
appear to have behaved in a similar fashion.
The apparent longevity of the Yakatabari mud-
slide complex is of considerable interest given the
significant climatic changes that have occurred
during the last 40,000 years and the present day
creep rates. Although Porgera is only 5o30' south
of the Equator it is likely that the climate of the
region was significantly different during the glacial
maximum. Kumbipota, rising to 3852 m, 5 km
southwest of the Yakatabari sustained a 3.5 km
long glacier (Fig. 3) which produced terminal
moraines extending down to 3300-3400 m eleva-
tion (Lfffler, 1972). No investigations of the glacial
sequence have been undertaken but it is assumed
that the glaciation history is similar to that on
other high mountains in Papua New Guinea and
indicates maximum cooling at 23-16 ka years BP
(Hope, 1980). Pollen analytical studies have not
been undertaken in the Porgera Valley but detailed
studies at Sirunki, 50 km to the east, and at other
sites in the Papua New Guinea Highlands suggest
the following variations in climate (Swadling and
Hope, 1991; Hope, 1980):
32-28 ka: Forest advance to higher altitudes within
the framework of a fluctuating cold, possibly
drier climate;
14
28-14 ka: Cooler, with the treeline descending to
~ 2200 m in intermontane valleys of the highlands,
though the treeline may have been higher on the
outer flanks (e.g., Porgera) and in wetter areas;
15-9 ka: Retreat of the snowline began before 15
ka, with the treeline reaching 2900 m by 13 ka and
reaching present elevations by 9 ka. By 10.5 ka
the climate was similar to the present with the
implication that the preceding period was wetter.
At Sirunki, 50km east of Porgera and at a
similar altitude to the Yakatabari valley, three
alternations from forest to grassland occurred
between 35-20 ka. However, in the Wahgi valley,
50 km further to the east, at elevations of 1600 to
2000 m, no signs of climatic change are evident
over the same period (Hope, 1980). These data,
particularly the glaciation of Kumbipota at the
head of the Porgera Valley, suggest significant
upper Pleistocene temperature changes in the
Yakatabari area but little evidence is available
concerning the moisture regime.
Although both the climatic record and the
record of mudslide activity are far from complete,
there is, to date, little evidence on Fig. 11 to
suggest or to deny that the rate or frequency of
mudslide movement has been influenced by cli-
matic variations.
In an earlier paper based on much less complete
evidence than is now available Blong (1985) sug-
gested that the colluvium became progressively
younger upvalley and that the data could be
interpreted to indicate that the mudslides have
moved downvalley about 2500 m in about 40,000
years, at an average maximum rate of about
60mm/yr. In Fig. 12 the age ranges on wood
samples are plotted against distance from the toe
of the mudslide complex. It is clear that there is
little relationship between distance and age, with
the entire span of age estimates being found at
1600 to 1800 m from the toe. As these age estimates
occur generally in stratigraphic order (Figs. 8 and
9) it seems that age does increase with depth at
least for the central part of the mudslide complex.
However, this appears to be not true for the infilled
valley as a whole; Figure 13 indicates that when
all 20 radiocarbon age estimates are considered
there is little relationship between age and depth
R,J. BLONG AND R,CM. GOLDSMI'Itl
of burial. At depths of 8 to 14 m, age estimates
range from 4000 t o > 40,000 years.
These data indicate that neither a simple creep
model with colluvial inputs at the end of the basin
and (un)steady transport to the mudslide toe, nor
a basin infill model satisfactorily explain the distri-
bution of dated wood samples. While components
of both models probably contribute to the known
distribution of ages, 20 radiocarbon assays are
insufficient to unravel either the complex behaviour
of the mudslide or the influence of climatic
variations.
Implications
Observations of the Yakatabari mudslide com-
plex since 1974 indicate that at least portions of
the surface have crept for substantial periods at
rates of 40-50 mm/month. Some areas have experi-
enced failure with downslope movements of 100
m or more in short periods. Surface features
produced before mining activity began suggest that
relatively large-scale movements had also occurred
in the recent past.
In areas where overconsolidated mudrocks
abound, sediment supply is rapid, water tables are
high, and shear strength parameters of the colluvial
mass indicate significant probabilities of failure,
episodic mudslide movement would appear to be
the norm. While short-term creep rates indicate
that the entire Yakatabari valley could be evacu-
ated of its colluvium in less than 10,000 years, the
20 radiocarbon assays and the variety of colluvial
types indicate a >40,000 year history of valley
filling. On the basis that fallen timber can only be
preserved in the Porgera environment by burial in
a landslide, the spread of radiocarbon ages and
their distribution through the mudslide complex
imply at least 40,000 years of episodic landslide
movement, probably interspersed with lengthy
periods of creep.
The Yakatabari mudslide complex appears to
be a very long-lived landslide. The nearby
Maiapam landslide (Fig. 3) has been at least epi-
sodically active for the last 50-60 years. Timber
buried in the upslope end of the Porgera airstrip
(destroyed by landslide movement in 1991) pro-
vided a radiocarbon age of 4590 ___50 yr b.p.
ACTIVITY OF THE YAKATABARI MUDSLIDE COMPLEX, PORGERA, PAPUA NEW GUINEA 15

2,oo
2400

• .~ ~----~
2000
E
o
1600
E

1200 +
£3
800-

400"

0-
4 8 12 16 20 24 26 32 36 40 44 48
ka

Fig. 12. Scatter diagram-radiocarbon age versus distance from toe. Error bars on the vertical axis indicate uncertainties in location;
those on the horizontal axis indicate ___one standard deviation of the radiocarbon age estimate.

8
r ~

12

1
16
g

~ 2o
a

24

28

32

36

~, 8 ~'2 1'6 2'0 2'4 2'8 3~ 3~ 4'0 ~,

ka

Fig. 13. Scatter diagram-radiocarbon age versus depth of burial. Error bars on the vertical axis indicate uncertainties in depth of
the samples; those on the horizontal axis indicate + one standard deviation of the radiocarbon age estimate.

( S U A -2305). T h e r e is little r e a s o n to d o u b t t h a t unusual. F e w landslides have been so extensively

o t h e r m u d s l i d e c o m p l e x e s in the P o r g e r a Valley
have similar o r even g r e a t e r longevity. Similarly,
long-lived landslides have n o t been d e s c r i b e d in
the l i t e r a t u r e so far as the a u t h o r s are aware, b u t
it m a y be incorrect to r e g a r d the Y a k a t a b a r i as
d a t e d , t h o u g h m a n y are k n o w n to have m o v e d at
least episodically for the few decades o f o b s e r v a -
tion. Certainly, landslides with r e c o r d e d m o v e -
m e n t s s p a n n i n g several d e c a d e s are n o t u n c o m m o n
(see for e x a m p l e , K e r r a n d D r e w , 1969; Brunsden,
16
1974; Wasson and Hall, 1982; Nieuwenhuis, 1991)
and Chandler (1971) has suggested a landslide in
Northamptonshire (United Kingdom) experienced
phases of movement in the Late Glacial period,
in the Iron Age, and since the 17th century.
Hutchinson (1973) reported more than 40 move-
ment episodes in less than 200 years on a 3 km
long stretch of Norfolk coast.
In many areas of the northern hemisphere from
which large, episodically active mudslides have
been reported (e.g., British Columbia-Bovis, 1986),
mudslide formation must post-date deglaciation.
In areas such as the highlands of Papua New
Guinea where late Pleistocene climatic fluctuations
probably had relatively little geomorphic impact,
mudslide longevity might be the norm rather than
the exception. In Papua New Guinea mudslide
initiation presumably dates from tectonic move-
ment and/or fluvial downcutting to expose Chim
mudrocks. The extensive colluvial benchlands of
the Porgera Valley (Fig. 3) are the product of
mudslide activity. In this context, the apparent
longevity of mudslides is limited by episodic move-
ments and creep which transport the wood on
which longevity estimates are based from the sites
of incorporation to distant river channels where
the wood is eroded from the mudslide complex. It
is unlikely that the longevity of the Yakatabari
mudslide complex is unique.
Acknowledgments
Our work in the Porgera area began in 1976.
Without the early assistance of Rudy Jezernik and
M o u n t Isa Mines Ltd and the subsequent support
of Vic Botts, G a r t h Wilson and D o u g Fraser of
Placer Pacific Pty Ltd for travel, accommodation,
funds for radiocarbon dating, helicopter and other
logistical assistance we would not have been able
to study landslides in this remote area. R.J. Blong
also received financial support from the Macquarie
University Research Grants scheme and the
Australian Research Council. Paul Hesse of
Macquarie University performed the Iowa down
borehole shear tests. Barry Voight of Pennsylvania
State University provided stimulating comments
in the field and Mike Barbetti and Gillian Taylor
of the N W G Macintosh Centre for Quaternary
R.J. B L O N G A N D R.C.M. G O L D S M I T H
Dating, University of Sydney, gave valuable advice
on the interpretation of radiocarbon results. This
paper is published with the permission of Placer
(PNG) Pty Ltd, managers of the Porgera Joint
Venture.
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