Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 16(1973): 213--227

@Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam -- Printed in The Netherlands

PALYNO-STRATIGRAPHY OF THE KETEWAKA COALFIELD (LOWER

PERMIAN), TANZANIA

SVEIN B. MANUM and NGUYEN DUC TIEN

Institute of Geology, University of Oslo, Oslo (Norway)
Department of Geology, University of Saigon, Saigon (S. Vietnam)
(Accepted for publication November 5, 1973)

ABSTRACT

Manure, S. B. and Tien, N. D., 1973. Palyno-stratigraphy of the Ketewaka coalfield

(Lower Permian), Tanzania. Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol., 16: 213--227.

Palynological studies of outcrop and borehole samples from coal-bearing Karroo

(Lower Permian) deposits in the Ketewaka area of southwest Tanzania show a distinct
change in the composition of spore/pollen assemblages approximately in the middle of
the sequence, the most prominent feature being differences in the representation of
monosaccate and disaccate species. This is in line with results of earlier studies in the
adjacent Mchuchuma area.
The change in spore/pollen content is taken as evidence of a considerable floral change
affecting an extensive area and probably climatically controlled.
The floral change coincides with a distinct change in sedimentation, from sand with
coal to mud or clay with coal, except for a part of the Ketewaka area, where sandy
sediments continued to be deposited.

INTRODUCTION

A m o n g the coalfields o f Tanzania, the K e t e w a k a - - M c h u c h u m a coalfield

(location, F i g . l ) is the m o s t p r o m i s i n g f r o m an e c o n o m i c p o i n t o f view
(McKinlay, 1965). There are p o t e n t i a l l y w o r k a b l e ore deposits n e a r b y , and in
spite o f t h e far-inland s i t u a t i o n , t r a n s p o r t p r o b l e m s c o u l d possibly be solved
by the T a n z a m railway n o w u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n and to w h i c h the distance is
n o t t o o great. C o n s e q u e n t l y , m o r e investigations have been carried o u t o n this
coalfield t h a n on a n y o t h e r s in Tanzania. The p r e s e n t s t u d y f o r m s p a r t o f
r e c e n t efforts b y the T a n z a n i a a u t h o r i t i e s t o gain a fuller u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
the g e o l o g y o f the area a n d of the coals themselves.

HISTORY OF INVESTIGATION

The K e t e w a k a - - M c h u c h u m a coalfield is divided into t w o parts, t h e

N j o m b e - - L u i l o r o a d f o r m i n g the dividing line. The t w o parts are n a m e d after
the m a j o r rivers in the area, the M c h u c h u m a area t o the west o f the r o a d and
the K e t e w a k a area to t h e east o f t h e r o a d , respectively ( F i g . l ) . The M c h u c h u -
214

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 215

ma area has until 1970 received the most attention, whereas the Ketewaka
area has been in the focus of more recent studies, including the present one.
The general geology of the Ketewaka--Mchuchuma coalfield was described
by McKinlay (1954), who established the litho-stratigraphy of the area and
demonstrated a close correlation with the general lithological sequence of
the Karroo system as this is known in the larger area of the R u h u h u basin in
southwest Tanzania. The age of the Ketewaka--Mchuchuma coals, as well as
most of the other coals in Tanzania, is n o w generally accepted as being Lower
Permian (Hart, 1960; McKinlay, 1965).
The coal-bearing beds are exposed along the northern and western margins
of the Mchuchuma area and along a W--E line through the northern part of
the Ketewaka area. McKinlay (1954) distinguished two members within the
coal-bearing beds, namely the "Sandstone-coal Measures" and above it the
"Shale-coal Measures" (or K2e~ and K 2 e : , respectively). These two members
are easily mappable throughout the coalfield, except for part of the Ketewaka
area to the west of the N y a m o t o - - K e t e w a k a river junction, where the coal-
bearing beds are dominantly sandy throughout and the shale-coal member is
apparently missing (McKinlay, 1954, pp.7, 17).
In 1950--1953, 30 prospecting boreholes were drilled in the Mchuchuma
area by the then Colonial Development Department. Data from the drillings
were not available to McKinlay for his publication (1954) on the geology of
the coalfield. Moore (1960) gave an account of the geological history and
sedimentation of the coalfield based upon logs and reports from the drillings
and on his own field observations in the Mchuchuma area.
The palynology of the coal-bearing beds of the Mchuchuma area have been
studied by Hart (1960, 1963, 1965a) and subsequently by "The coalfield
investigation team of the People's Republic of China" (Anonymous, 1968).
All of these studies have been done on outcrop material from t w o river sec-
tions, namely of the Mchuchuma and Nyakapenda rivers. The present study
is the first to apply palynology to sediments of the Ketewaka area.
H a r t (1960, 1963, 1965a) showed that the sandstone-coal and the shale-coal
members (K2e~ and K2e2, respectively) have rather distinctly different
palynomorph assemblages. The Chinese team subsequently confirmed Hart's
palyno-stratigraphic differentiation. They also reported a number of plant
megafossils and made some efforts at using them stratigraphically. These
fossils, preserved in the Geological Survey Museum at Dodoma, have been
seen by one of the authors (S.B.M.). The preservation is rather poor and
would n o t appear to justify specific identifications, hence their stratigraphic
value appears questionable.
The Geological Survey of Tanzania started a drilling project in the Ketewaka
area in 1970. One of the authors (S.B.M.) was offered the o p p o r t u n i t y of
spending three weeks in the area in 1971. The cores available at that time
from t w o boreholes (Boreholes I and H Ketewaka, Fig.l) were sampled, and
collections were made of plant megafossils and outcrop samples from several
sections. In the following, the results of the palynological studies o f these
216

samples are reported. The megafossils collected in several localities are

generally of poor preservation. It is the intention to report on t h e m in a
subsequent paper.
The cores from the 1950--1953 drillings in the Mchuchuma area would
have provided a most valuable material for comparison, and considerable
efforts were therefore made to locate them. Unfortunately, they could not
be traced either in Tanzania or in Britain, and they must be considered in
all probability lost. Copies of the logs and reports, however, are available in
the Geological Survey Office at Dodoma.

QUALITY OF MATERIAL

In general, most samples are barren or yield poorly preserved palynomorphs.

This applies to samples from outcrops as well as from cores. Tracheid frag-
ments are usually very abundant and often make up the bulk of the macera-
tion residues.
Poor preservation or barren macerations from outcrop samples might be a
result of weathering. However, samples from fresh cores are often no better
than the outcrop samples, indicating that factors other than weathering of
the reexposed sediment are at play. We suggest that the explanation for poor
preservation or absence of palynomorphs are to be sought in the sedimentary
environment during and soon after deposition.

PALYNOLOGY

Although it is clear t h a t much is still to be done in the field of morphology

and t a x o n o m y of Karroo palynomorphs, we have not made efforts in this
direction nor have we described new forms, namely because the preservation
of the fossils is such that it did n o t seem justified.
We have based our identifications on Hart's papers (1960, 1963, 1965a, b),
and in principle we employ his nomenclature as presented in the last two of
his papers (1965a, b).
The authors are aware that this nomenclature differs in many ways from
that used in the Chinese report (Anonymous, 1968). The nomenclature of
the latter follows what one might term the "Indian school", and in our
opinion Hart's has a sounder f o u n d a t i o n in general and is easier to employ.
We have restricted our identifications to those species which appear to be
stratigraphically meaningful. The species used are listed below, with reference
to Hart's definitions of his usage of the names. However, some differences
should be mentioned: Hart distinguished two species of Cordaitina (C. balmei
and C. gondwanensis) in the Ketewaka--Mchuchuma coalfield. In our
material at least three species belonging to that genus have been recognized,
adding C. triangularis to the two named above. These monosaccate pollen
grains were described in the Chinese report under different generic names
such as Virlekipollenites, Plicatipollenites, and Parasaccites.
 217

Verrucosisporites sp. of this study is similar to V. pseudoreticulatus

Balme et Henneley {1956b) but the size is smaller, the equator more circular,
and the trilete suture is without lip. We mention this species because it was
observed only in the K2e2 assemblages and maybe it is a characteristic of
this horizon.
List of taxa with reference to publications, the definitions of which are
followed in this paper:

Triletes

Apiculatisporis levis Balme et Hennelly, 1956b. Plate I, 3.

A. cornutus Balme et Hennelly, 1956b. Plate I, 2.
Calamospora nigritella (Luber et Valts) Hart, 1965b. Plate I, 1.
Deltoidospora directa (Balme et Hennelly) Hart, 1965b. Plate I, 4.
Neoraistrickia ramosa (Balme et Hennelly) Hart, 1960. Plate I, 5.
Punctatisporites gretensis Balme et Hennelly, 1956b. Plate I, 10.
Zinjispora zonalis Hart, 1965b, Plate I, 9.
Acanthotriletes tereteangulatus Balme et Hennelly, 1956b. Plate I, 6, 7.
Granulatisporites trisinus Balme et Hennelly, 1956b.
G. papillosus Hart, 1963.
Verrucosisporites sp. Plate I, 8.

Monoletes

Laevigatosporites vulgaris Ibrahim, 1933. Plate I, 14.

Tuberculatosporites modicus Balme et Hennelly, 1956a. Plate I, 11, 12.
Thymospora leoparda (Balme et Hennelly) Hart, 1965b. Plate I, 13.

Monocolpates

Cycadopites nevesii Hart, 1965b. Plate I, 15.

Marsupipollenites triradiatus Balme et Hennelly, 1956a. Plate I, 16, 17.
Pakhapites fasciolatus (Balme et Hennelly) Hart, 1965b. Plate I, 18.

Monosaccates

Cordaitina gondwanensis Balme et Hennelly, 1956b. Plate II, 6.

C. triangularis (Mehta) Hart, 1965b. Plate II, 4, 5.
C. balmei (Balme et Hennelly) Hart, 1965b. Plate II, 7.
Florinites eremus Balme et Hennelly, 1955. Plate II, 8.

Disaccates

Hamiapollenites karrooensis Hart, 1965b. Plate I, 21.

Platysaccus leschikii Hart, 1960. Plate I, 25.
218

PLATE I (All figures x 500)

8
A
IO
15

.J 17
1B
 219

Protohaploxypinus amplus (Balme et Hennelly) Hart, 1965b. Plate II, 1.

P. sewardii (Virkki) Hart, 1965b. Plate I, 20.
Striatopodocarpites fusus (Balme et Hennelly) Potoni~, 1958. Plate I, 23.
S. cancellatus (Balme et Hennelly) Hart, 1965b. Plate I, 19.
S. octostriatus Hart, 1960. Plate I, 22.
Vittatina saccata (Hart) Jansonius, 1962.
Vestigisporites balmei Hart, 1960. Plate I, 24.
Vesicaspora ovata (Balme et Hennelly) Hart, 1960. Plate II, 3.
V. potoniei (Lakhanpal, Sak et Dube) Hart, 1965b. Plate II, 2.

DISCUSSION OF PALYNOMORPH ASSEMBLAGES

Borehole I Ketewaka

This borehole was drilled to a depth of 220 m in the eastern part of the
Ketewaka area, where the sandstone-coal and shale-coal members, K2e~
and K2e2 respectively, are mappable. The members are also very clear in
the core, the top of the sandstone-coal m e m b e r ( K 2 e l ) being at core depth
approximately 67 m (compare Fig.2).

PLATE I

1. Calamospora nigritella Luber et Valts. K1:38.7--108.7.

2. Apiculatisporis cornutus Balme et Hennelly. K2:40.9--116.5.
3. Apiculatisporis levis Balme et Hennelly. K3:39.1--107.2.
4. Deltoidospora directa Balme et Hennelly. K4:38.2--120.0.
5. Neoraistrickia ramosa Balme et Hennelly. K2:31.9--116.6.
6--7. Acanthotriletes tereteangulatus Balme et Hennelly. Fig.6, K5:36.9--115.2,
Fig.7, K5:37.1--118.4.
8. Verrucosisporites sp. K6:37.1--121.5.
9. Zinjispora zonalis Hart. K7:33.1--117.6.
10. Punctatisporites gretensis Balme et Hennelly. K5:36.8--121.2.
11--12. Tuberculatosporites modicus Balme et Hennelly. Fig.11, K9:49.1--116.8,
Fig. 12, K9:35.8--117.2.
13. Tuberculatosporites leopardus Balme et Hennelly. K1:40.4--120.0.
14. Lae riga tosporites vulga ris Ibrahim. K10: 43.9--114.3.
15. Cycadopites nevesii Hart. K11:41.5--123.6.
16--17. Marsupipollenites triradia tus Balme et Hennelly. Fig. 16, K 12 : 39.2--118.1,
Fig.17, K12:31.7--119.6.
18. Pakhapites fasciolatus Balme et Hennelly. K13:40.7--117.4.
19. Striatopodocarpites cancellatus Balme et Hennelly. K14: 34.7--117.9.
20. Pro tohaploxypinus se wardii Virkki. K15 : 35.8--122.2.
21. Hamiapollenites karrooensis Hart. K16:35.4--113.7.
22. Striatopodocarpites oc tostriatus Hart. K17 : 41.7--115.4.
23. Striatopodocarpites fusus Balme et Hennelly. K18:42.0--118.3.
24. Vestigisporites balmei Hart. K19:44.0--119.8.
25. Platysaccus leschikii Hart. K18:42.0---119.2.
The slides of Plates I and II are preserved at the Geological Survey Museum, Dodoma,
Tanzania, duplicates in the Palaeontological Museum, the University of Oslo, Norway.
22O

P L A T E II (All figures x 500)

6
 221

The K2el and K2e2 members are characterized b y palynomorph assem-

blages similar to those described b y Hart (1963, 1965a) for the Mchuchuma
area. The K2el assemblage is dominated b y monosaccate species (no.18, 19,
20 in Table I). Disaccate pollen occur only rarely, Punctatisporites gretensis
(no.6) and Neoraistrickia ramosa (no.5) are frequent. The K2e2 assem-
blage, on the other hand, is dominated b y disaccate species (no.24, 25,
26, 27), whereas monosaccate species are rare; furthermore, P. gretensis is
very scarce, and N. ramosa has n o t been seen. The K2e2 assemblage has a
much greater variety of spores, almost exclusively trilete species, and of
pollen, mostly disaccate. Vesicaspora ovata and V. potoniei (no.31 and 32)
together usually make up more than 50% of the total spore and pollen
content in K2e2, whereas in K2e~ Vesicaspora is absent or extremely rare.
Incidentally, this latter observation differs from Hart's (1965a) table I from
the K2e~ of the Mchuchuma River, where Vesicaspora occurs frequently in
some horizons.
The upper part of K2el is made up of approximately 60 m of massive
sandstone (between 67 m and 128 m core depths) with coal seams inter-
calated at core depths 87.5 m and 104 m. Unfortunately, sampling of these
coals was prevented since they had been removed from the cores for tech-
nical analysis prior to sampling. Only t w o samples near the t o p of the 60 m
sandstone yielded microfossils (at core depths 75 m and 80 m respectively,
samples 4 and 5) of a rather poor quality making specific identifications
somewhat difficult. The palynomorph assemblage in sample 5 is dominated
by monosaccate pollen (50% of total count) and has a relatively large number
of disaccate pollen (22%). Sample 4 is very rich in disaccate pollen (74%),
whereas monosaccate are relatively much fewer (14%), but still a great deal
more frequent than in the typical K2e: assemblages. Thus, samples 5 and 4
suggest a progressive transition towards K2e2 conditions.
The lowermost sample in the K2e2 member is no.99, taken from a
mudstone at core depth 65.3 m which contains a typical K2e2 palynomorph
assemblage. The uppermost 30 m of the core is composed of sandstone with
some shale and thin coal layers, particularly between 11 m and 17 m. All of
these may be referred to K3f in McKinlay's terminology. Palynomorph
assemblages obtained from samples of shale and coal in this part of the core
(samples 1--3 taken between 11 and 17 m) are still of the composition
characterizing K2e2.

P L A T E II

1o Protohaploxypinus amplus B a l m e e t H e n n e l l y . K 2 0 : 3 6 . 0 - - 1 1 7 . 9 .
2. Vesicaspora potoniei L a k h a n p a l , Sak e t D u b e . K 2 1 : 3 6 . 6 - - 1 2 1 . 1 .
3. Vesicaspora ovata B a l m e et H e n n e l l y . K 2 2 : 6 3 . 4 - - 1 1 8 . 8 .
4--5. Cordaitina triangu laris M e h t a . Fig.4, K9 : 2 9 . 1 - - 1 2 0 . 1 , Fig. 5, K 2 3 : 3 8 . 1 - - 1 2 9 . 2 .
6. Cordaitina gondwanensis B a l m e e t H e n n e l l y . K 2 4 : 3 8 . 5 - - 1 0 8 . 7 .
7. Cordaitina balmei B a l m e e t H e n n e l l y . K 2 5 : 4 1 . 0 - - 1 1 3 . 7 .
8. Florinites eremus B a l m e e t H e n n e l l y . K 2 6 : 3 8 . 9 - - 1 2 2 . 0 .
222

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proposed correlation is based on palynological data.
 223

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224

Borehole H Ketewaka

This borehole was stopped at a depth of 210 m without having penetrated

the entire coal-bearing unit. This is particularly unfortunate since the drilling
site is situated in the area where K2el and K2e2 are lithologically inseparable,
and thus one would have expected the core to throw some light on this
problem.
The uppermost coal was encountered at 137 m core depth. Down to this
depth the sediments are made up of massive sandstones with intermittent
shales and siltstones. The uppermost 35 m contain beds of distinctly red
colour, below this depth the colour turns to green. This indicates t h a t the
hole first penetrated K3h, g and f strata before reaching K2.
A series of 16 samples through the uppermost 117 m yielded no identifiable
palynomorphs, and the quality of the uppermost useful sample (no.17) at
117 m core depth is poor. It contains, however, a palynomorph assemblage
characteristic of the K2e2.
A number of fairly good samples between 136 m and 176 m core depths
contain typical K2e2 assemblages. The lowermost sample taken from this
core, at 207 m (no.28), also possesses the K2e2 characteristics. Lithologically,
the coal-bearing sequence as far as represented in this core is d o m i n a n t l y
arenaceous. This is entirely in line with the description of McKinlay (1954)
for this particular area where the typical shale-coal unit is missing. It is
interesting to note, then, that the arenaceous K2e section in Borehole H
palynologically compares with the shale-coal unit {K2e2 ) elsewhere.
Strata containing a K2e~ assemblage were not reached by this borehole.

N y a m o t o River section

The N y a m o t o River offers perhaps the best exposure of the coal-bearing

beds in the Ketewaka-area. (For a description of the section, see McKinlay,
1954, p.32.) Particular interest is attached to this section because the upper
"Shale-coal Measures" is apparently missing, the coal-bearing sequence being
dominantly sandy t h r o u g h o u t (McKinlay, 1954, p.7, 17).
Sampling of this section was done at 24 horizons, concentrating on the
coals and associated beds.
The sampling points were related to McKinlay's description by following
the section upstream and numbering the coals identified by him (bold print
in McKinlay, 1954, p.32) from 1 to 14. Unfortunately, only eight of the
samples yielded successful macerations. They are as follows: sample
no.26A -- through coal no.1 (7"); 26B -- basal part of coal n o . l ; 69 -- Coal
no.6; 71 -- carbonaceous siltstone below coal no. 7; 72 -- lower half of coal
no.7; 73 - - s h a l y mudstone above coal no.14; 74 -- coal no.14; 76 -- coal
no.12.
A simplified N y a m o t o River section based upon McKinlay's description is
presented in Fig.2 where the sampling horizons are also shown.
 225

TABLE II

Subdivision of the coal-bearing beds for the Ketewaka -- Mchuchuma coalfield

bithological Palynological Palynoiogical

,nits units characterization
?

Palynomorph assemblages rather rich;

"Vesicaspora-zone" disaccate (Vesicaspora) dominating;
monosaccate absent or rare;
K2% trilete frequent
K2e

K2% " C ordaitina- zone " Palynomorph assemblages relatively poor

monosaccate (Cordaitina) dominating;
disaccate absent or rare;
common: Punctatisporites gretensis,
Neoraistrickia ramosa

Palynomorph assemblages characteristic of K2e~ and K2e2 respectively

have been identified also in the N y a m o t o River section. Samples no.71 and
above contain typical K2e2 assemblages, whereas samples no.26A and 26B
contain typical K2e~ assemblages. Sample 69 contains an assemblage inter-
mediate between K2el and K2e2. In this sample, monosaccate pollen
(species nos.18, 19, 20 in Table I) a n d P. g r e t e n s i s (sp. no.6) are frequent,
these being K2e, characteristics, however, it contains also small numbers of
disaccate pollen and displays a variety of Sporites, Monoletes, and
Monocolpates, features which are more reminiscent of a K2e2 assemblage.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

It is shown that the subdivision of the coal-bearing beds in the Ketewaka--

Mchuchuma coalfield into two palynological zones as previously established
for the Mchuchuma area by Hart (1963), is valid also for the Ketewaka area.
Briefly, the zones may be characterized as given in Table II.
Throughout the coalfield, where the lithological units K2el and K2e2
can be distinguished, the change in sedimentation is associated with a change
in the vegetation as shown by the palynomorph assemblages. A similar change
in vegetation through the coal-bearing beds can be demonstrated also in
those parts of the Ketewaka area where the shale-coal (K2e2) is missing as a
lithologic unit.
The absence of the K2e2 unit in certain parts of the Ketewaka area was
discussed briefly by McKinlay (1954) and subsequently by Moore (1960).
They have proposed two alternatives for the depositional history of the area:
(1) The shales of K2e2 are replaced by a sandy facies in those parts of the
226

Ketewaka area where the entire coal-bearing sequence is developed mainly as

a sand-coal succession.
(2) Local non-deposition or erosion is the reason for the absence of the
K2e2 unit.
McKinlay (1954, p.17) favoured the latter of these hypotheses.
Two sections studied b y us throw some light on this problem, viz. the
N y a m o t o River section and Borehole H Ketewaka, both from the area where
the shale-coal unit is missing. In both sections a palynomorph assemblage
characteristic of the K2e2 is represented. In Borehole H, which was
abandoned some halfway through the coal-bearing sequence, all samples
contain this assemblage.
In the N y a m o t o River section, the upper part contains the K2e2
assemblage, and samples from the lower part contain assemblages character-
istic of the K 2 e l .
We therefore conclude, that throughout the Ketewaka--Mchuchuma
coalfield, two palyno-stratigraphic zones may be distinguished in the coal-
bearing sequence.
The transition between these zones reflects significant changes in the
composition of the flora at the time of deposition. Since this floral change
has taken place over a rather large area, we conclude that it was controlled
by significant changes in the physical environment that were n o t of a local
nature, b u t must have affected a larger region. The transition may therefore
be used as a time marker. It coincides with a distinct change in the sedimenta-
tion seen in the coal-bearing sequence over most of the area: from rapid
filling in of sand between intervals of peat formation, to slower accumulation
of clay, silt, and peat, except for a restricted part of the Ketewaka area,
where sand mainly continued to be deposited during the latter period.
This coincidence of floral and depositional changes suggests c o m m o n
controlling factors. Since the flora was so greatly affected, it seems probable
that they were climatic, b u t they could also be related to crustal movements,
or a combination of both.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

For logistic support from the Geological Survey Department at D o d o m a

in connection with the field work, and for the very helpful assistance
rendered by the Survey Commissioner and his staff, S. B. Manum extends
his most sincere thanks. The field work has been financed by a grant from
the Norwegian Agency for International Development (NORAD).
The palynological study has been carried o u t in t h e G e o l o g y Department
of the University of Oslo by N. D. Tien during the tenure of a N O R A D
Fellowship.
Coordinates are for slides preserved in Oslo and refer to LEITZ microscope
no.518886, belonging to the University of Oslo, Geology Department.
 227

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