Characteristics of two natural gas

seepages in the North Sea

Martin Hovland
Statoil, P.O. Box 300, N-4001 Stavanger, Norway
and James H. Sommerville
Geoteam U.K., Regent House, Regent Quay, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK
Received 23 April 1985; Revised 30 June 1985

Two occurrences of active gas seepages are described from the North Sea. The southernmost
one, situated above a salt diapir in Norwegian block 1/9, has been studied and sampled by use
of a remotely operated vehicle (ROV). This seepage consists of about 120 single seeps located
within a diameter of '~ 1O0 m. It is estimated to produce ~ 24 m 3 of methane gas per day (at
ambient pressure, 75 m water depth). Isotope values of the methane gas and higher
hydrocarbon gases in the surrounding seafloor sediments, show that their origin is from a
deep seated, thermogenic source. No typical gas-induced erosion features are found on the
seafloor at this location, probably due to the lack of very fine grained material.
The second occurrence is located in U.K. block 1 5 / 2 5 (Geoteam, 1984), where the
seepage is associated with a very large pockmark depression, measuring 1 7 m in depth and
700 x 450 m in width. This depression represents an eroded fine grained sediment volume of
7.105 cubic metres. No detailed inspection or sampling of the gas has been performed here.
However seismic reflection anomalies are seen on airgun seismic records at various levels
down to a depth of at least 11 O0 m below seafloor. The seeping gas, possibly mixed with
liquids, at this location is therefore also expected to be of a thermogenic origin.

Keywords: Gas seepages; North Sea; Pockmarks

Introduction
The occurrence of shallow gas has long been known in
the North Sea. Detection of pockets of shallow gas is of
major concern to exploration and production drilling
due to the danger of gas blowouts (Sieck, 1973; Fannil~
1979). Various seafloor bedforms have since 1970 (King
and MacLean, 1970; Newton et aL, 1980) been linked to
the occurrence of shallow gas and gas seeps.
Seafloor pockmarks, which are local depressions
found in soft, fine grained sediments are the most
common of such bedforms in the North Sea
(McQuillin and Fannin, 1979, van Weering et al., 1973;
King and MacLean, 1970; Maisey et aL, 1980; Judd,
1981; Hovland, 1984). Currently the most plausible
theory for the formation of pockmarks is that they are
caused by effiux of liquids or gas through the seafloor
(Josenhans et aL, 1978; Newton et aL, 1980, Hovland,
1982; Hovland and Gudmestad, 1984; Nelson et aL,
1979). Although the evidence of gas and liquid effiux
causing these so called gas-induced erosion features
has been mounting over the past years, active
pockmarks in the North Sea have not been properly
documented to date. The origin of the observed shallow
gas has also long been an item of controversy
(Kvenvolden et aL, 1979). There are two possible
sources of the gas: (i) biochemically produced,
autochthonous gas and (ii) originally thermogenically
produced, allochthonous gas, which has migrated up
through thick sedimentary layers. A third possibility is
a mixture of both gases (Faber and Stahk 1984).
The objectives of this paper are to describe the
findings at two natural gas seepage locations recently
mapped in the North Sea, and thus to provide more
information pertaining to the seepage process, the
formation of gas-induced bedforms and to the origin of
0264-8172/85/040319-08 $03.00
©1985 Butterworthf:t Co. (Publishers) Ltd Marine and Petroleum Geology, 1 985, Vol 2, November
the gas. The two gas seepage locations are shown on
Figure 1.
L o c a t i o n N o r w e g i a n B l o c k 1/9
The gas seepage at this location became evident after a
routine site survey in 1978. Side scan sonar records
indicated that gas emanated from various seabed
points over a salt diapir structure in Norwegian Block
1/9 (Figure 2). Plumes of gas bubbles in the water
column were also evident on shallow seismic (3.5 kHz)
records, while acoustic scattering indicated the
presence of gas in the sub seabed clayey sediments.
A chimney effect on deep seismic records over the
diapir structure indicates that the gas is distributed
throughout the upper sediment column and that the
seeping gas must originate from a thermogenic source
(Figure 2). The general geology of this area is described
by Brewster and Dangerfield (1984) and by D'Heur
(1984).
A detailed survey over the seep area was conducted
in 1983 to study the extent of seeping gas (Figure3) and
the geochemical composition of free gas and gas
contained in the upper sediments. A general study of
the effect of the gas seepage upon sediments and the
benthic fauna was also included.
The detailed survey was run with a remotely operated
vehicle (ROV) fitted with cameras, lighting and gas
sampling bottles. The ROV support vessel was fitted
with seafloor sampling equipment, a towed side scan
sonar and a shallow seismic system.
An area of '~ 2.4.105 m 2 was surveyed with the ROV
and side scan sonar. Gas was found to escape from
small circular vents in the sand covered seafloor. These
vents are '~ 10 mm in diameter, the same size as the
average bubble diameter. A total of 22 single seeps were
319
Two North Sea gas seepages: M. Hovland and J.H. Sommerville

. ~ / ~ .,--

o
o

,\ Block 1/9

/ : 0 o .,j"

c:~o ." 0

I¢'
~ 4" 6"
2" 1" O* l* 2= 3*
Figure 1 Location map showing the location of the two occurrences of continually active gas seeps in Norwegian block 1/9 and U.K. block
15/25. Shaded regions indicates general occurrence of pockmarks

observed (Figure 4). The ROV-surveyed area was The yield in parts per billion (ppb) of gas per weight
estimated to contain about 120 seeps, clustered within a of wet sample, and the 8 13Cl values of the gas
local seepage area of about 100 m in diameter. contained in the sediments, are given in Table 1. When
With an estimated average production rate from plotted onto a source plot after Faber and Stahl (1984)
each vent of one bubble every 6 s the total gas the results show that the gas is most probably of a
production from the main seepage area is estimated to thermogenic origin.
24 m 3 per day (at ambient pressure, 75 m water
depth). Since no gas bubbles were ever observed at the
sea surface, most of the gas is assumed to dissolve in the
water column.
The seeping gas was sampled at two vents with
partially evacuated pressure flasks. The seep gas was
found to consist of pure methane with a 8 13C, value of
-45.6 (per mille PDB).
A total of 11 sediment samples were taken with the
free fall piston corer. Subsamples were taken from the
lower end (0.5 - 1 m below seafloor), placed in plastic
bags and remained stored in liquid nitrogen until
onshore geochemical analysis was performed. The
occluded and adsorbed gas in the upper sediments
consisted not only of methane, but also of heavier
hydrocarbons ranging from ethane to hexane. These
results suggest that the thick clayey and sandy
sedimentary sequences let the lightest hydrocarbon
(methane) pass through, while the heavier
hydrocarbons are retained in the sediment pores or are
adsorbed on mineral grains. This result means that Figure 2 A deep seismic section across the seep location,
clays may act as an effective natural hydrocarbon Norwegian block 1/9. It shows a salt diapir and associated chimney
fractionator. effect, where gas-charged sediments cause chaotic reflections

320 Marine and Petroleum Geology, 1985, Vol 2, November

 Two North Sea gas seepages: M. Hovland and J.H. Sommerville

......................................
i t

Figure 3 The block 1/9 seepage as recorded on (a) the echosounder and (b) the shallow seismic (3.5 kHz) record

Various seafloor features were visually observed with
the ROV. At the seepage location the seafloor consists
of a 20 c m to 1 m thick sand cover overlying stiff,
layered clay. Small funnel s h a p e d craters h a d f o r m e d
in the s a n d a r o u n d each gas vent. T h e small craters are
about 20 c m in d i a m e t e r a n d a b o u t 10 c m deep (Figure
9b). An e x p e r i m e n t was c a r d e d out b y filling one of
these small craters with sand. After a b o u t 1.5 m i n the
b u b b l e stream was re-established from the same vent
eroding a similar small crater by the burst of a few large
initial bubbles. This shows that certain avenues for gas
transport are m a i n t a i n e d through the stiff clay
sequence a n d that new ones are not easily formed.
A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t observation m a d e within the
ROV surveyed area was the identification of some
features noted on side scan s o n a r records. Within the
seemingly b a r r e n s a n d y area patches of a c c u m u l a t e d
biological material were found (Figure 4). Individual

Marine and Petroleum Geology, 1 9 8 5 , Vol 2, November 321

Two North Sea gas seepages: M. Hovland and J.H. Sommerville

499800 499800 500000 500200

l I I I ~ . I I I

AREA OF 6262000
• GAS CHARGED
810 UPPER SEDIMENTS

s; ~7

S'-6 ~7 MAIN SEEPAGE

~7 A / AREA ~7
V
~7
v~ 5261800
~7

~7

~7

0 100m
~7 I I
~7
6261600
I I I I I I I

LEGEND :

• SEDIMENTSAMPLE

V INDIVIDUAL SEEP

ACCUMULATION OF BIOLOGICAL MATERIAL

Figure 4 The block 1 / 9 location mapped by use of side scan sonar, shallow seismics and visually by use of ROV

Table 1 Geochemical results from sediment- and gas samples echosounder, deep tow sparker records and side scan
collected in block 1 / 9 . For sample locations see Figure 4
sonar records (Figures 5 and 6a; b). Although the
acoustic character of the seeping material may be
Core ppb interpreted as either gas bubbles, low density liquids,
sample
no. C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 8 13C(0/00) C1/C N suspended sediments or a mixture of all these, the seep
S6 9 1 1 1 1 0 -36.3 0.866
is referred to as a gas seepage in the following
$8 1396 38 22 16 19 26 --42.0 0.971 (Mereweather et aL 1985; Tinkle et al., 1973; Anderson,
$10 27 3 2 1 11 1 -26.7 0.846
$11 12 1 1 2 4 0 -31.3 0.839 1950). The gas is seen to emanate from a large
$12 1702 23 13 9 13 23 -47.7 0.985 pockmark eroded in the soft layered clay. Inside the
Gsg--
Flask (1) 141 -45.6
pockmark there is a patch of highly reflective material
GaP seen on side scan sonar records. The dark patch
Flask (2) 1580 -45.1
probably consists of exposed stiff clay. On deep tow
sparker records it is evident that the complete sequence
patches range from a few metres across to thirty metres
of layered, glaciomarine soft silty clays has been eroded
wide by over 100 m long. The patches are sharply
away by the seepage process. The pockmark is unique
bounded and have a rich faunal variety living on
in that it is the first well documented active pockmark
mounds littered with spent shells and skeletal debris. in the North Sea.
The shallow sediments beneath some of the patches
The active pockmark in U.K. Block 15/25 is large. Its
are seen to be saturated with gas (on shallow seismic
maximum depth is 17 m. It is ovoid with a maximum
records). However where the gas is seeping through the
diameter of 700 m and a minimum diameter of 450 m.
seabed there is little life. While too much gas in the water
The volume of fine-grained soft sediments transported
may be derogatory to marine life, it is therefore suspected
away from the pockmarks (or possibly never deposited)
that hydrocarbon bearing sediments may represent a
is 7.105 m 3. The angle of the pockmark walls is
localized physiochemical environment which
estimated to range between 1° and 10°. There are at
stimulates marine life. This assumption, however, needs
least two centres of activity, corresponding with the two
further documentation and quantification.
deepest areas within the pockmark (Figure 7).
L o c a t i o n U . K . B l o c k 15/25 The occurrence of reflection anomalies which are
interpreted as accumulations of shallow gas is seen on
This seepage was discovered and mapped on a routine the airgun section (Figure 8), and also on the deep tow
site survey in 1983. The seepage is evident on sparker section (Figure 6a) (McQuillin et aL, 1979). The

322 Marine and Petroleum Geology, 1985, Vol 2, November

 Two North Sea gas seepages: M. Hovland and J.H. Sommerville
i '
- v .
I
t,~,m
lore ,
I -
100 m
Figure 5 The U.K. block 1 5 / 2 5 gas seepage from a large pockmark as recorded with a hull mounted echosounder
shallow gas reservoirs lie at three distinct depths below
the seafloov. 60 - 70 rn, 230 - 250 m and 960 - 1100 m.
These depths correlate with Tertiary and Quaternary
sands in a nearby well.
Discussion
Active seafloor pockmarks have so far only been
documented in the Bering Sea (Kvenvoldenetal., 1979);
the Adriatic Sea (Stefanon, 1980) and the Mexican Gulf
(Sieclc 1973). Pockmarks of the North Sea have
previously been treated more or less as relict or
dormant seabed features.
Recently, however, strong indications of ongoing
activity inside pockmarks have been provided by
Hovland et aL (1984 b). This indication came in the
form of a carbonate cemented slab recovered from the
inside of a pockmark. The carbonate was suspected to
be under formation at the time of recovery.
Furthermore the carbon isotope ratios also proved that
the carbon source was of mixed thermogenic origin,
consisting mainly of oxidized methane seeping
through the seafloor inside the pockmark.
The acoustic character of the seeping gas at the two
locations in the North Sea described herein are very
similar. It is therefore assumed that the magnitude and
seepage mechanism at the U.K. Block 15/25 seepage is
similar to the one studied at Norwegian Block 1/9.
There are however, significant differences between the
two sites:
no pockmark has developed at the 1/9 seepage,
probably due to the coarse nature of the seafloor
sediments
Marine and Petroleum Geology, 1985, Vol 2, November
GAS PLUME
-I ..........................
-~:. "2 ,, •
4
- the 1/9-seepage lies immediately above a diapir,
providing obvious migration routes for the
hydrocarbons, while no such routes can be
determined at the 15/25 seep.
On the basis of the acoustic similarity on
echosounder and side scan sonar it is assumed that the
gas production from the 15/25 pockmark location is at
least in the order of 1 m 3 gas per day. The shape of the
assumed gas cloud observed on the geophysical
records also suggests that the seep occurs not only from
a single ven.~ but through a number of small vents in
the seafloor spread over an area inside the
pockmark-
Both seep locations thus seem to be centred on a
dense population of small single vents. According to
the ROV-observations made at the 1/9 location the
distance between each individual vent seems to
increase exponentially with increasing distance away
from the centre. This model is illustrated inFigure 9a. A
similar model of multiple individual vents has
previously been discussed by Hovland et al. (1984 a) in
order to explain the observed existence o f a multitude
of small (unit) pockmarks grouped around a normal
pockmark in the Norwegian Trench.
Although both seepages in the North Sea are
assumed to be continuous, their, output probably
varies over time. Hay (1984) has described a method of
acoustically studying the variation of output from
submarine springs over time. This could be an
interesting topic for future research, since output is
expected to vary with atmospheric pressure and long
period surface waves.
Cyclic loading and unloading of soft marine seabed
323
Two North Sea gas seepages: M. Hovland and J.H. Sommerville

:"~! .... " ! .-~:"/-, ~I. ...... :.:, i !>~,~::. ~ SEDIME~S

"~ ........ ........ : • ' I ....... ' ~ "*~" " ~ " " ". . . . . . . . . . . . "'" ' ]''' :" ' ~,. . . . . .

Figure 6 The U.K. block 1 5 / 2 5 seepage recorded with (a) deep towed sparker system (arrows indicate gas in water column and gas in
sediments). (b) Towed side scan sonar. Note high reflective area inside the pockmark which is probably exposed till. (Arrow indicates gas in
water column)

324 Marine and Petroleum Geology, 1985, Vol 2, November

 Two North Sea gas seepages." M. Hovland and J.H. Sommerville

Q ~ POSSIBLE~
GAS SEEPAGE
© \ i i~i :? ' •.......
-li, . " " ;: . f:' .. . _ --i CLAY

- -- -- -- -- l/g - LOCATION

GAS SEEPAGE
- 16m- ~lOOm . . . . .

--\ _

Figure 9 (a) Typical distribution of gas vents in the seafloor near the
seepage centre at location block 1/9. (b) Interpreted cross section of
a single seep vent based on visual observation and sand-fill
experiment mentioned in the text. (Scale given in cm). (c)
Interpretation based on Figure 6a, showing suspected distribution
of single seeps within the pockmark crater, U.K. block 1 5 / 2 5

Figure 7 A topographic and seafloor features map of the U.K. block

1 5 / 2 5 seepage area

Figure 8 An airgun seismic section across the active pockmark in U.K. block 15/25 showing reflection anomalies, probably representing gas
accumulations, at various depths

sediments may also trigger bursts of gas and low
density liquid expulsion through weaknesses in the
seafloor and thereby reactivate apparently dormant
pockmarks.
Conclusions
The observations put forward herein document that
gas of thermogenic and mixed biogenic origin migrates
through thick sequences of stiff glacimarine clay and
till. The results also suggest that seepage of gas or
mixture of gas/liquids causes the development of
seabed morphological bedforms known as
pockmarks.
At one site the seepage is found to occur through a
multitude of individual vents in the stiff clay. These
vents are clustered around the centre of the seepage
areas.
Geochemical data from Norwegian Block 1/9 show
that the seep gas (in the bubbles) is pure methane, while
heavier hydrocarbons tend to be accumulated in the
clay sediment pores as occluded and adsorbed gas.

M a r i n e a n d P e t r o l e u m G e o l o g y , 1 9 8 5 , V o l 2, N o v e m b e r 325
Two North Sea gas seepages: M. Hovland and J.H. Sommerville
Acknowledgements
This paper is published with the permission of Conoco
(U.I~) Limited and Statoil.
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