Powder Based & Other RP Systems

Powder based RP Systems:

Selective laser sintering (SLS) is an industrial 3D printing process that produces accurate
prototypes and functional production parts in as fast as 1 day. Multiple nylon -based
materials and a thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) are available, which create hi ghly
durable final parts that require heat resistance, chemical resistance, flexibility, or
dimensional stability. With SLS 3D printing, no support structures are required making it
easy to nest multiple parts into a single build and an economical solution for when higher
volumes of 3D-printed parts are required.
Common uses for selective laser sintering are:

 jigs and fixtures

 housings
 snap fits and living hinges

Working Principle of SLS

In the SLS process, a thin layer of powder is applied on the build platform and heated to
just below the Melting Temperatures and Enthalpies The enthalpy of fusion of a substance,
also known as latent heat, is a measure of the energy input, typically heat, which is
necessary to convert a substance from solid to liquid state. The melting point of a substance
is the temperature at which it changes state from solid (crystalline) to liquid (isotropic
melt).melting temperature of the material, which is often referred to as the build
temperature (heaters not shown in the schematic). Next, a laser traces the cross-section of
the part geometry of the first layer, providing enough energy to locally melt the material.
Without any shear forces, the melt needs to have a low viscosity and surface tension to
coalesce and form a uniform melt pool. The surrounding powder stays solid and keeps the
shape of the molten geometry. Therefore, no support structures are needed. This can be
seen by the three N-shaped built parts in the powder bed. Now the build platform is lowered
by one-layer height making room for the next layer. A sweeper or recoater roller moves
across the surface, picks up excess material from the reservoir and deposits new and colder
powder on top of the build platform to create the next layer. Again, the powder is heated to
keep it at the build temperature. This is important to hinder Crystallization. The whole build
envelope is kept in a nitrogen atmosphere to reduce effects of aging. These process steps
of powder coating and laser melting are repeated over and over until the whole part is built.
Only then is the build envelope cooled down, which initiates the Crystallization and thus
solidification process of the part. After the part and surrounding powder is cooled
completely, the part is unpacked.
Materials used in the SLS process
The first material used in this process was Poly-Amide (PA12), because of its good
mechanical performance and the ability to generate powders by precipitation. This yields
powder with close to perfect spherical shape, which is necessary to create a uniform layer
during coating. It still makes up 90-95% of all materials used in SLS today. However, in
recent years, more and more materials have been qualified for the process including high-
performance materials such as PEEK, elastomeric materials such as TPUs and even
commodity materials such as PP. Most of them are produced by cryogenic grinding and
show more or less pronounced deviations from the circular shape. Most commonly used
materials are

Advantages of SLS:
High dimensional accuracy;
Capable of high detail and thin walls
Design changes and modifications can be easily.
Flexibility in selection of material.
Fabricate complex parts.
No need to create a structure to support the part.
Parts do not require any post curing.
Limitations:
The cost of materials and machine are expensive.
The surface is usually rougher than machined surfaces.
Some materials are brittle in nature.
Shrinking and warping in fabricated parts because of thermal distortion.
During Solidification, additional powder may be hardened at the border line.

Applications:

Selective Laser Sintering is used in a wide range of industries for a variety of products and
purposes. It is a popular choice in aerodynamic components, fans and smaller turbines. It
is used in the automotive industry for interior components. For hinges, electrical housings
and sports equipment. Due to its range of materials with numerous properties it is also a
popular choice in tubing for most industries; automotive, aerospace, medical, oil and gas .

DMLS or SLM

SLM is one of the powder bed fusion processes, which are the most widely used in the AM
industry. As the name suggests, SLM uses a laser beam that melts and fuses the metal
powders together. Similar to the Binder jetting (BJG) process, a thin layer of powder is
deposited over a substrate plate or on the previously deposited layer and the laser beam
melts and fuses the powder particles selectively, as dictated by the CAD data. Several
process parameters have to be tuned carefully in order to fabricate a defect-free part. Some
of the important process parameters are laser power, laser scan speed, hatch distance, hatch
overlaps, hatch style, etc., which also have a significant effect on the mechanical properties
of the parts. The entire process takes places inside a closed chamber, usually filled with an
inert gas like N2 or Ar, depending on the reactivity of the metal powder to be used. In
addition, the build chamber is subjected to over pressure conditions. The presence of an
inert gas and over pressure conditions in the chamber minimizes the oxygen contamination
during the process. There is always a possibility to use a substrate plate heating (200–500
°C) in order to minimize the cooling rate, if desired. Substrate plate heating is generally
employed during the processing of brittle and high temperature materials to reduce the
cooling rate, in order to prevent possible cracking during solidification.
Materials used in SLM /DMLS Process:
SLM is regarded as the most versatile AM process, because it can process a wide spectrum
of materials including Al-based alloys, Ti-based alloys, Fe-based alloys, Ni-based alloys,
Co-based alloys, Cu-based alloys, and their composites. Moreover, reports also show that
SLM is capable of producing amorphous materials, because of the high cooling rates
observed during the process. Recent reports show that the mechanical properties of the
alloy can also be tuned depending on the requirement, by varying the process parameters
during the process (such as hatch style variations, contour variation, base plate heating,
internal heat treatment, etc.), which in turn has an influence on the final microstructure of
the parts. The process is relatively slow, compared to the BJG process; however, multiple
laser sources can be introduced to improve the building rate of the SLM process. Studies
have shown that the powders can theoretically be reused repeatedly. This reduces the
wastage of raw materials and hence leads to a greener environment.
Some of the biggest advantages of using SLM as the AM process are: the use of a large
range of materials, the ability to tune properties during the processing of the parts, increased
functionality, relatively low cost, and the production of near-net-shaped components ready
to use (if the surface roughness levels are acceptable). On the other hand, SLM may have
the following draw backs: it has a relatively slow process (because of the process speed
limitations), acute size restrictions, high power usage, high initial costs, the optimization
of the process parameters is time consuming, the powder handling can be tricky, and the
produced parts may have rough surfaces (depending on the powder size and the process
parameters). In addition, brittle materials and high temperature materials that cannot
accommodate high internal stress during the fabrication process will lead to cracking of the
parts, which to a certain extent can be overcome by reducing the cooling rate (by employing
substrate plate heating). At the same time, it may also lead to anisotropic microstructu re in
the material along the building direction.
Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) is a 3D printing technology that forms metal parts
from a CAD file by selectively fusing stainless steel or aluminium powder into thin layers.
The layer-by-layer printing makes it so that multiple parts can be joined during the printing
process. Printing an all-in-one assembly strengthens the finished part while decreasing the
weight and cost of production. DMLS techniques can also create high-density parts, which
is ideal for parts under high pressure, such as those used in the oil and gas industries.
Direct metal laser sintering follows the primary process sequence for most 3D printing
technologies: model, slice, and print layer-by-layer. Once a 3D model is created and sliced
with the appropriate software, the printer’s code needed to make the part is supplied to the
printer, and the physical process can begin.
The DMLS printer hopper is first filled with the chosen metal powder. Printer heaters raise
the powder’s temperature near the sintering range of the alloy. The printer uses an inert
gas, which protects the heated powder and the in-process.
The printing process starts with the dispensation of a thin layer of metal powder onto the
build platform. The laser then starts its path for this layer, selectively sinter ing the powder
into a solid. The sequence of dispensing a layer and then sintering continues until the part
is completed.
The part is then left to cool, and the surrounding loose metal powder is removed from the
printer. The last steps are support removal as well as any post-processing needed.
DMLS parts can be treated like metal parts produced by conventional metal working for
further processing. This may include machining, heat treatment, or surface finishing. These
process steps are shared with SLM, just with the laser’s power turned up to “melt.”
Advantages and Disadvantages of Direct Metal Laser Sintering
Building an object layer-by-layer, as with DMLS, allows for the efficient and affordable
production of complex internal and external geometries. This is simply not possible with
subtractive (machining) or formative (molding) processes.
The advantages are many. DMLS can produce metal parts directly. It can be used with
metal alloys or pure metals without affecting the properties of the material. Even mixtures
of powders such as aluminium and nylon can be successfully printed. Similarly, a wide
range of metal and metal alloy powders are available, including steel, stainless steel,
aluminium, titanium, nickel alloys, cobalt chrome, and precious metals.
The properties of a finished printed object are similar to an object cast in the same material.
The DMLS process produces robust and functional metal parts. The final parts have good
mechanical properties in all directions. Some 3D printing methods tend to be weak in at
least one direction. Also, the metal powder that is not sintered or melted is reusable.
DLMS does have its disadvantages. It is one of the more expensive 3D printing
processes. The machines and materials are costly, and the process is slow.
Finished DMLS parts are porous compared to a melted metal part. The porosity can be
controlled but not eliminated in the process or during post-processing. Also, most DMLS
printers have relatively small build volumes
Applications of Direct Metal Laser Sintering
Few 3D printing processes can print objects using metal directly besides direct metal laser
sintering. This ability makes the technology prevalent in manufacturing complex parts
using high-performance metals and alloys.
The areas that benefit greatly from the use of DMLS are the medical, dental, and aerospace
industries. Their parts frequently require the use of high-performance or exotic materials.
DMLS can build components that cannot be manufactured with conventional metalworking
technologies.
In medicine, custom prosthetics can be modelled and printed in materials like titanium
alloys to replace portions of bones lost to accident or disease. They have high strength, are
resistant to attack by the body, and the porosity helps bone grow into the prosthetic
structure. Most importantly, each prosthesis can easily be made unique to the individual
patient.
In dentistry, prosthetics, bridges, crowns, and partial dentures are easily modelled for the
patient then printed in high-strength materials like cobalt chrome. Custom-fit, strength, and
long-term durability are quickly available through the DMLS printing process.
In aerospace, DMLS is a crucial part of reducing part count, creating complex geometries,
and weight reduction while maintaining or increasing part strength and durability. DMLS
parts are used in commercial aircraft and rockets, from simple brackets to complex turbine
parts and probes. Even complete rocket exhausts can be produced
LENS Process: (Working Principle)

LENS originally developed by Sandia National Laboratories. Manufactured by Optomec Inc.

from 1997. Laser engineered net shaping (LENS) is a type of AM processes that is mostly used
for metallic materials. This method is a close match to SLM with slight differences. In this
technique, a computer-controlled head moves above a surface and the powder materials are fed
into nozzles that are coaxial with the laser head. A pressure of air or inert gases propel the
feedstock to the tip of the laser and after reaching to the deposition surface, the materials are
melted by a focused laser spot with adjustable energy densities. Similar to SLM, the density of
the parts fabricated by LENS are over 99% and they have a reliable performance in mechanical
and chemical environments. This process is able to fabricate complex geometries and again
similar to other AM processes, for some designs, it needs supports and overhangs to reduce
part distortion during the process. The flowing feedstock on the other hand, can facilitate
cooling of the deposited materials and enhance density and integrity of the structure. Although
this process is a powder-based one, it has been reported in literature that rods, wires and larger
particles can be used for feedstock materials. LENS is able to fabricate tough and difficult-to-
cut materials such as Inconel, NiTi, stainless steel and some other soft metals such as
aluminium and copper. As it is known, Al and Cu have high reflectivity and make difficulties
during laser processing but in this method, this negative effect is minimized or in some cases,
it is removed. The parameters affecting process and component quality are feed rate of
materials, reflectivity of materials, melting point of feedstock, laser power and scanning speed
of laser. By adjusting these parameters, there is a wide range of flexibility in fabricating
different materials. The only deficiency of LENS compared to SLM is its lower geometric
accuracy that requires post-processing such as high-speed machining. Also, it has been
mentioned that in some complex parts, a finalizing heat treatment is essential. All being said,
the most significant benefit of this process is that it can deposit materials in spots that need to
be filled as an instance, in expensive forming dies and molds, if there is a hole, crack or any
other physical problem, it can be easily filled with a desired material using LENS. Figure 6
represents a schematic layout of LENS process.
Materials used:
Stainless Steel 316 (SS316)
Tooling steel (H13)
Titanium with 6% Al and 4% Vanadium (Ti-6-4)
Other metallic and ceramic materials.
Advantages:
 LENS, machines generate smaller melt-pools, allowing for higher
solidification/cooling rates as compared with conventional manufacturing processes
like casting.
 ability to fabricate with multiple materials and create functionally graded materials,
owing to the multiple powder feed lines.
 LENS can also be used to fabricate products using materials with high melting
temperatures, which have a greater tendency to oxidize using conventional
manufacturing methods.
 manufactured parts are found to be more robust, less brittle and less prone to cracking
at low stress.
 creation of complex porous structures.
 repair of worn or damaged components.
Disadvantages:
 Due to the large temperature gradients between the ambient environment, laser focal
point, part layers’/build plate and the melt-pool. This can result in difficult to predict
thermal control.
 residual stress is significantly higher with LENS, which could possibly affect part
precision or even lead to part collapse during deposition.
 non-uniformity in microstructure and macrostructure with respect to the height of build.
 complex thermal wave effects have been observed during deposition and when
combined with build height irregularities, have been found to significantly affect
mechanical properties of a manufactured part.
 more time is generally needed for post processing.
 increase the surface roughness for deposited parts. Low surface quality can negatively
affect the mechanical properties of the finished part.
Applications:
LENS technology can be used to fabricate parts for applications in key industries such as
medical and aerospace. Compared to many traditional metal AM build processes, LENS has
many unique characteristics, which allow for a range of interesting opportunities for part
production. The first such attribute stems from the ability of LENS to create functionally graded
porous structures, which has been exploited for orthopaedic implant applications. Interesting
possibilities with respect to using the build process to build additional components or to repair
complex, geometry parts. LENS is also highly suited to such applications owing to the high
level of environmental control, which eliminates issues relating to part oxidation during
manufacturing as parts are processed in an inert environment. gas turbine exhaust for Bell
helicopter made by LENS.
Electron Beam Melting Process: (Working Principle)
Electron Beam Melting (EBM) is part of the powder bed fusion family. Unlike Laser Powder
Bed Fusion (LPBF), it uses, as its name suggests, an electron beam to fuse metal particles and
create, layer by layer, the desired part. Marketed by the Swedish company Arcam in 2002, this
process enables the creation of complex and highly resistant structures. Note that Arcam was
acquired by GE Additive in 2016 and is the only one to market machines based on this process
as of today.
The main difference with LPBF technology is therefore the heat source used. Here, EBM
technology uses an electron beam produced by an electron gun. The latter extracts the electrons
from a tungsten filament under vacuum and projects them in an accelerated way on the layer
of metallic powder deposited on the building plate of the 3D printer. These electrons will then
be able to selectively fuse the powder and thus produce the part.
Everything starts with the 3D modelling of the part you wish to create. You can model it
using CAD software, obtain it by 3D scanning or download a model of your choice. The 3D
model is then sent to a slicing software, also called slicer, which will cut it according to the
successive physical layers of deposited material. The slicer will then send all this information
directly to the 3D printer, which can then start its manufacturing process. The metal powder
can be loaded into the tank within the machine. It will be deposited in thin layers that will be
preheated before being fused by the electron beam. In particular, this step provides more
support to the cantilever areas of the part being 3D printed. The machine then repeats these
steps as many times as necessary to obtain the entire part. Once the manufacturing process is
complete, the operator removes the part from the machine and ejects the unmelted powder with
a blowgun or brush. Following this, it’s possible to remove the printing supports (if any have
been used) and to detach the part from the build plate. The post-printing steps can include
machining of surfaces in contact with other parts, polishing, etc. In some cases, it may be
necessary to heat the part in an oven for several hours to release the stresses induced by the
manufacturing process. Note that all manufacturing must take place under vacuum to properly
operate the electron beam. This also prevents the powder from oxidizing when heated. At the
end of the production process, a large part of the un melted powder can be reused almost
directly. It is easy to understand the interest that this represents for manufacturers, particularly
in the aeronautics sector where it often happens that only 20% of the purchased material is
actually used to produce the final part, the rest being removed by machining and sent for
recycling.
Materials and Applications
As the process is based on the principle of electrical charges, the materials used must be
conductive. Without this, no interaction can occur between the electron beam and the powder.
The manufacture of polymer or ceramic parts is therefore technically impossible with an
electron beam and only metals can be used. Today, titanium and chromium-cobalt alloys are
mainly used – Arcam has restricted the range of compatible materials. In fact, to be allowed
to use or test another material, users must undertake paid training and obtain an authorization
to use the machine as they see fit.
EBM technology is mainly used in aeronautics and medical applications, particularly for
implant design. Titanium alloys are particularly interesting because of their biocompatible
properties and mechanical properties, they can offer lightness and strength. The technology is
widely used to design turbine blades, for example, or engine parts. Electron Beam Melting
technology will create parts faster than LPBF technology, but the process is less accurate and
the finish will be of lower quality because the powder is more granular.
Electron Beam Melting Advantages
 Strong metal parts: Parts 3D printed with EBM have very high density (over 99%).
 Scalable: Multiple parts can be produced simultaneously as the beam can separate
powder in several places at once.
 Prints faster and with less supports than DMLS: Requires less supports due to there
being less thermal stress on parts, with the electron beam’s ability to scan the whole
layer at once making it faster, too.
 Reusable powder: Unused powder can be recovered and reused, saving money and the
environment.
Electron Beam Melting Disadvantages / Limitations
 Not versatile: Limited availability of materials for use in EBM.
 Expensive: Requires an industrial level 3D printer and expensive materials. Printers
can cost upwards of $250,000, with materials costing over $300 per kg.
 Parts usually require a lot of post-processing.
 Surface finish: Parts have a less smooth surface finish than DMLS.
 Limited build size: the largest EBM 3D printer has a build volume of around 350 x
350 x 380 mm. Some DMLS 3D printers such as Concept Laser’s X Line 2000R have
a print volume of 800 x 400 x 500 mm
Other RP Systems:
3D Printing (3DP)
Ballistic Particle Manufacturing (working principle)
Ballistic Particle Manufacturing utilizes ink jet or droplet based manufacturing techniques,
where it builds the models by firing micro-droplets of molten wax material from a moving
nozzle or jet onto a stationary platform, the platform then lowers and the process is repeated
for each layer of the model.

BPM was invented by Bill Masters. BPM was patented in 1987, and in 1988, Masters founded
Perceptions Systems Inc.  In 1992 their name was changed to BPM Technology Inc.  The
company collapsed in 1997 but their patent still held
Another interesting category of AM processes is known as ballistic particle manufacturing
(BPM). In order to have a continuous stream of materials exiting nozzle, a set of piezoelectric
are designed and based on pressure excite the nozzle sensors and ensure that there is a flow of
materials. However, the materials can be applied as droplets . When the deposition material
faces the cold substrate, the semisolid form changes to solid quickly and to some extent the
material is welded to the previous layers. On the other side, an electrical field is utilized
to guide the droplets or flow of materials into the desired locations and form the needed design
and geometry. The process resamples ink-jetting but with the difference that it is a 3D process
and it is controlled by a computer processing unit. Similar to other processes, in complex
geometries there is need for support design. However, the supports can be made of a specific
material that can be dissolved in solvents. With this feature, there is no limitation in removing
support pillars from different parts of a complicated design. In addition, BPM can be conducted
in protected atmosphere that releases high geometrical accuracy and surface quality with no
further need to post-process the fabricated parts. also, it has been mentioned in literature that
the density of the parts are high enough to have a performance close to the conventionally-
fabricated parts. The BPM utilized ink jet or droplet based manufacturing techniques, where it
builds the models by firing micro-droplets of molten wax material from a moving nozzle or jet
onto a stationary platform, the platform then lowers and the process is repeated for each layer
of the model. The part is built as a hollow shell. The parts can be scaled, rotated, or translated
to a desired orientation. This is performed on a 5 axis workstation. BPM parts are not intended
to be finished, however they may be painted.
BPM employs a technology called digital Micro synthesis. 1.) In the first step of the process,
molten plastic is fed to a piezoelectric jetting mechanism, almost like those of inkjet printers.
2.) Next a multi-axis controlled NC (Numerical Control) system shoots tiny droplets of material
onto the target, using the jetting mechanism.3.) Last, small droplets freeze upon contact with
the surface, forming the surface particle by particle.
Advantages
 BPM parts are mainly used for concept visualization. Due to the weakness of the
material, the parts aren’t well equipped for use as functional components. BPM parts
are useful during the design process
 Requires minimal post-processing.
 Low toxicity.
 Minimal power consumption.
 Low cost of cost and materials.
 Ability to perform in microgravity and vacuum environments.
 BPM has no size constraints.
 The process allows use of virtually any thermoplastic. Because of this, there are no
health hazards involved.
 Major advantage of this product is the ability to produce large metal parts.
Limitations:
Parts produced lack strength and durability.
Materials used:
Polyethylene glycol, Melted wax,
Applications:
Preparing wax models for Investment castings.
Printed computer Tomography has a building speed of one layer per minute.
Preparation of various metal moulds.
Shape Deposition Manufacturing (SDM) Working Principle
Shape Deposition Manufacturing (SDM) is a hybrid layer by-layer process that sprays molten
material in near net shape onto the substrate, then uses subtractive processes to remove
unwanted material (Pham and Dimov 2001). This process was introduced by researchers at
Carnegie Mellon University for creating multi-material metal parts (e.g. copper and stainless
steel) (Weiss et al. 1997) and was subsequently extended at Stanford university for polymer
and ceramic parts (Cooper et al. 1999). The technology can fabricate multi-material parts by
stacking different material layers but there are no multiple materials in the same layer. In SDM,
parts or assemblies are built up through a cycle of alternating layers of structural and support
material. Unlike most other MMAM processes, SDM shapes each layer of material on a
computer-controlled milling machine. after it is deposited (Figure 14). This approach allows
for tolerances of 9 0.01 mm and avoids the stair-stepping effect of additive processes. The
intermittent addition of sacrificial support material allows for the construction of nearly
arbitrary geometries and facilitates the inclusion of embedded components (Cutkosky and Kim
2009). Interesting capabilities of SDM include the fabrication of parts with embedded
electronic and mechanical components and of complete mechanisms in a preassembled
configuration as shown in Figure 15. Some researchers use this technique to fabricate multiple
material structures that combine rigid materials, compliant materials and integrate sensors and
other discrete components (Dollar and Howe 2006, Cutkosky and Kim 2009) that allow
components to be embedded, decreasing the damage to sensor components by encasing them
within the part structure and removing the need for assembly (Weiss et al. 1996, Dollar et al.
2006). However, SDM has not been widely adopted as there are several major obstacles such
as the experimental nature of the process, and lack of knowledge about SDM in the design
community that must be overcome. The challenge of educating designers about these
techniques, however, is not being sufficiently addressed (Binnard and Cutkosky 2000.
DM is a solid freeform fabrication process which means it is built from start to
finish rather than by removing excess materials from a given object. It does this by
layering support material and the desired finished material.

These graphics show the blue support material and the yellow final products.

 Support material is laid down as a base for the final material.

 Final material is laid on top of the support material.
  CNC mills the part to the desired shape.
 Surface is washed clean and prepared for the next layer of support and final
material.
 This process is repeated until the final layer is reached
 Support material is removed.

Materials used:
SDM can be used with any castable material especially plastics, metals, resins, polymers and
ceramics. When using ceramics, a mold is made of the support material and then the desired
material is cast inside.
Advantages:
 An advantage of SDM is the ability to embed objects into the part as it is being
manufactured. This could include electronic equipment that needs precise placement
in the object. It is also possible to use different materials within the same part.
 SDM is also extremely precise; accurate within 5 microns. There is a lot of flexibility
with the shape being made and the materials being used.
 Ability to embed objects
 Possible to manufacture irregular shapes
 Multi-material structures
 Wide range of materials to choose from
 Accurate to within 5 microns
 Provides quality surface finishes (achieved with the CNC milling machines).
Disadvantages
 Relatively expensive compared to other rapid prototyping processes.
 Also, the process is relatively time consuming.
 The machine is not widely available.
 Prototype is weaker than the final product due to internal stresses from the
layering process
Applications:
Embedded Electronics
Advanced tools
Structural ceramic components
Used as a patterns for various castings.
Preparation of moulds.