Unit-05

Errors in 3D Printing and Applications

Pre-processing, processing and post-processing errors
Pre-processing: Where we setup the equipment; 3D CAD; Material pre-processing if required;
Generating of layer slicing etc.
Processing: All Processing techniques (SLA; SLS; FDM; LOM etc.
post-processing: Applicability of part
 Remove the support material;
 Enhance Surface finish.
 Machining
 Heat treatment (Accuracy & Desired surface finish)
Need of Post-processing:
 Additive Manufacturing (AM) technique helps to develop a product from the basic
design of the component and to optimize the iterative product development time.
 Although AM provides many advantages over other manufacturing techniques, it still
has some major drawbacks such as the staircase effect, surface quality and dimensional
accuracy.
 To improve the surface quality several attempts had been made by controlling various
process parameters of AM and also applying different post-processing techniques on
components manufactured by AM.
 Most of the researchers worked on various post-processing techniques to overcome the
drawbacks.
Defects in RM Parts:
Balling:
 Balling was first reported for AM in 1992 and is infact a phenomenon that causes
several physical defects such as porosity, micro cracks or poor surface finish.
 It occurs when the liquid material fails to wet the underlying substrate (due to the
surface tension), spheroidizing the liquid
 Low wettability; high feed; low extrusion; ejection is lower; Faster speed are the causes
for balling.
 Since contaminants can reduce the wetting degree. It is very important to prevent/
minimize oxidation films and contamination.
 So this balling results in a rough and a bead shapes can track that is more prominent in
laser fusion process, laser bed fusion process increases the surface roughness and also
increases porosity.
Porosity:
 Porosity is a common defect in AM process, since most of the binding mechanisms are
driven by temperature changes, gravity and capillary forces without applying external
pressure.
 Porosity can be found as irregular pores (Eg: due to shrinkage, lack of binding or lack
of fusion or lack of melting of material, feed shortage, often occurring at the border of
molten tracks).
  Spherical pores (commonly due to trapped gas, Marangoni turbulences in the melt
region, material evaporation etc., often occurring within the molten tracks)
Cracks:
 Cracking is a serious problem in AM, Materials forming due to several reasons, For
example, laser based AM processes (Laser cladding, SLM etc.) are known to introduce
large amount of thermal stresses, originating from the rapid shrinkage of the melt pool
or high temperature gradients in the solid material.
 Compositional segregation and drying and shrinking of binder material are other
factors that may give rise to cracking.
 Low resistance to thermal shock implies more cracking.
Distortion or Delamination or Warpage:
 Stresses caused by change in material volume eg; Shrinkage of polymerization in
stereo lithography or contraction of heated plastic filament or extruded in FDM) large
thermal gradients with in parts.
Poor Surface finish:
 Staircase, layer thickness & building orientation, low tool precision, semi melted
powders, Balling etc.
 Poor surface finish can even be caused by aging of the used material eg: extensively
used polyamide powders in SLS may lead to poor surface quality.
 Poor surface finish of complex AM components may necessitate post AM treatments
such as grit blasting, mechanical grinding, laser polishing, chemical etching etc. leads
to increase the production cost.
Chemical degradation & oxidation
 In many AM processes atmospheric conditions (such as oxygen content, humidity etc.)
must be strictly controlled.
 In addition to atmospheric conditions, processing parameters such as higher energy
input or working temperature can also increase element degradation and oxidation.
 For example, high laser energies in SLS of some polymers may lead to un-
wanted smoking from degradation & de-polymerization of products, reduces
the mechanical properties.
Issues in Metal RM Parts:
1. Attraction for atmosphere constituents: Al2O3 layer for aluminium parts.
Magnesium exothermic reaction with oxygen
increases hazardous or dangerous.
2. High Reflectivity & thermal conductivity. High reflectivity materials such as Al, Ag, Au
can be adopted.
High thermal conductivity material such as Cu,
high power laser of 1KW is used they hampers
the laser absorption.
3.Residual Stress: Increases cracks
High Tensile stresses occurred normally at the outer surfaces.
High compressive stresses occurred normally at the center.
Stress gradients have also developed along with build direction.
Residual stresses can also lead to micro cracks, may be grain boundaries,
then embrittlement, crack ignitions and sites can be occurred.
Support Material Removal: (Post Processing creation):
Natural Supports
 Generally, that surrounds the parts (Naturally build eg: Powder based process (Remove
powder); Sheet based process (Remove encapsulated sheet).
 Synthetic support: Specifically designed, especially overhanging features.
 Taken out to the break out station where parts are removed manually.
 Brushes, compressed air, light bead blasting are used to remove loosely adhered
powder.
 Wood working tools and dental cleaning tools are commonly used to remove powders
which have sintered to the surface or powder entrapped in small channels or features.
 Automated powder removal using vibratory and vacuum assist based processes have
been developed.
 If complex geometries with overhanging features, internal cavities or fine features are
used, support removal may be tedious & time consuming.
 If cavities or channels are created, it is often necessary to delaminate the model at a
specific Z- height in order to gain access to de-cube the internal feature and then re glue
it. After removing excess support material.
Synthetic Supports:
 Processes which do not naturally support parts require synthetic supports for
overhanging features.
 Synthetic support removal can be made from the build material or from a secondary
material.
 Synthetic support can be easy to remove than natural support removal.
 Witness marks also effects surface finish.
Surface texture Improvements
 AM parts have common surface-texture features that nay need to be modified for
aesthetic or performance reasons.
 Common surface textures are:
 Stair steps;
 Powder adhesion;
 Fill patterns from extrusion or beam based systems.
 Witness marks from support material removal.
Surface roughness of AM technique

As per 2002 standards

SI. No. Name of process Minimum layer thickness, Surface roughness (Ra), (µm)
mm
1 SLA 0.10 2-40
2 SLS 0.125 5-35
3 FDM 0.254 9-40
4 3D Printing (3DP) 0.175 12-27
5 LOM 0.114 6-27
6 Poly jetting process 0.10 3-30

Now for SLA as per the latest research survey Minimum layer thickness will be 0.01 mm and
Surface roughness (Ra) of 0.2 (µm)
  The amount of Powder adhesion can be controlled, to some degree, by changing part
orientation, powder morphology and thermal control technique.
 The type of post-processing utilized for surface texture improvements is dependent
upon the desired surface finish outcome.
 In many cases, it is desirable to paint the surface (eg: with cyanoacrylate or a sealant)
prior to sanding or polishing.
 Painting the surface has the dual benefit of sealing porosity and by viscous forces,
smoothing the stair-step effect: thus making sanding and polishing easier and more
effective.
 Several automated techniques have been explored for surface texture improvements
 Two of the most commonly utilized Include
 Tumbling for external features using Tumbler.
 Abrasive flow machining for primary internal features.
Accuracy Improvements:
1) Error Sources
2) Model Pre-processing
3) Machining strategy
 There is a wide range of accuracy capabilities in AM. Some processes are capable of
sub-micron tolerances, whereas others have accuracies around 1 mm.
 Typically, the larger the build volume and the faster the build speed the worse the
accuracy for a particular process.
 This is particularly noticeable, for instance, in beam deposition processes where the
slowest and most accurate beam deposition processes have accuracies approaching a
few microns; whereas, the larger bulk deposition machines have accuracies of several
millimetres.
Error Sources:
 Process dependent errors affect the accuracy of the X-Y Plane differently from the Z-
axis accuracy.
 Future accuracy improvements in AM will require fully automatic real time control
strategies to monitor and control the process, rather than the need to rely on expert
operators as a feedback mechanism.
 Material dependent phenomenon also plays a role in accuracy including shrinkage and
residual stress induced distortion.
 Repeatable Shrinkage and distortion can be compensated for by scaling the CAD
model; however, predictive capabilities at present are not accurate enough to fully
understand and compensate for variations in shrinkage and residual stresses.
 Quantitative understanding of the effects of process parameters, build style, part
orientation, support structures, and other factors on the magnitude of shrinkage, residual
stress and distortion is necessary to enhance these predictive capabilities.
Model Pre-processing:
 For many AM processes, the position of the part with in the build chamber and the
orientation will influence part accuracy, surface finish and build time.
 Thus, translation and rotation operations are applied to the original model to optimize
the part position and orientation.
 Shrinkage often occurs during AM.
 Shrinkage also occurs during the post-process furnace operations needed for
indirect processing of metal or ceramic green parts.
 Pre-process manipulation of the STL model will allow a scale factor to be used to
compensate for the average shrinkage of the process chain.
 In order to compensate for shrinkage variation, if the highest shrinkage value is used
then ribs and similar features will always be at least as big as the desired geometry.
 However, channels and holes will be too large, thus simply using the largest shrinkage
value is not an acceptable solution.
 In order to make sure that there is enough material left on the surface to be machined,
adding “skin” to the original model is necessary.
Machining Strategy:
i) Adaptive Raster milling: When raster machining is used for milling operations, step over
distance between adjacent toolpaths is a very important parameter that controls the machining
accuracy and surface quality.
ii) Sharp edge contour machining: Sharp edges are often the intersection curves between
features and surfaces. Normally, these edges define the critical dimensions. When using raster
milling, the edges parallel to the milling direction can be missed, causing large errors.
iii) Hole drilling: Circular features are common features in parts and tools. Using milling tools
to create holes is in-efficient and the circularity of the holes is poor. Therefore, a machining
strategy of identifying and drilling holes is preferable.
The most challenging aspect is to recognize holes in an STL file, as the 3D geometry is
represented by a collection of un-ordered triangular planar facets (and thus all feature
information is lost).
The intersection curve between a hole and a surface is typically closed loop.
By using this information, a hole recognition algorithm begins by identifying all closed loops
made up of sharp edges from the model.
Aesthetic Improvements:
In some of the cases where the colour of the AM part is not of sufficient quality, several
methods can be used to improve the part aesthetics.
Some types of AM parts can be effectively coloured by simply dipping the part into a dye of
the appropriate colour.
If painting is required, the part may need to be sealed prior to painting. common automotive
paints are quite effective in these instances.
Another aesthetic enhancement (which also strengthens the part and improve wear resistance)
is chrome plating.
Preparation for use as a pattern:
The use of an AM pattern for metal part creation using a secondary moulding or casting process
is often the least expensive way to use AM to produce a metal part, as many of the metal based
AM processes are still expensive to own and operate.
The accuracy and surface finish of an AM pattern will directly influence the final part accuracy
and surface finish.
Investment Casting Patterns:
In the case of Investment Casting, the AM pattern will be consumed during processing.
In this Instance, residue left in the mould as the pattern is melted or burned out is un desirable.
Sand Casting Patterns
 Both Binder printing and Powder based fusion processes can be used to directly create
sand mould cores and cavities by using a thermosetting binder to bind sand in the
desired shape.
 One benefit of these direct approaches is that complex-geometry cores can be made that
would be very difficult to fabricate using any other process.
 In order to prepare AM sand casting patterns for casting, loose powder is removed and
the pattern is heated to complete cross linking of the thermoset binder and to remove
moisture and gaseous by products.
Property Enhancements:
Non-thermal techniques
 Powder based and extrusion based process often create porous structures.
 In many cases, that porosity can be infiltrated by a high-strength material, such as
cyanoacrylate.
 Newer, proprietary methods and materials have also been developed to strengthen
various AM parts.
 RP tempering is a non-thermal technique leads to increase of strength, ductility, heat
deflection, resistance to flammability.
 A common post-processing operation for photopolymer materials is curing.
 During processing, many photo polymerization processes do not achieve complete
polymerization.
 As a result, these parts are put into a post-cure apparatus, a device that floods the part
with UV and visible radiation in order to completely cure the surface and subsurface
regions of the part.
 Additionally, the part can undergo a thermal cure in a low-temperature oven, which can
completely cure the photo polymer & in some cases greatly enhance the parts
mechanical properties.
Thermal techniques
 After AM processing, many parts are thermally processed to enhance their properties.
 In the case of beam deposition and powder based fusion technique for metals, this
thermal processing is primarily heat treatment to form the desired microstructures
and/or to relieve residual stresses.
 In these instances, traditional recipes for heat treatment developed for the specific metal
alloy being employed are commonly used.
 Before the advent of beam deposition and powder based fusion techniques capable of
directly processing metals and ceramics. Many techniques were developed for creating
metal and ceramic green parts using AM.
 These were then furnace post-processed to achieve dense, usable metal and ceramics
parts.
Factors Influencing Accuracy
 The accuracy of a RP process is difficult to predict as it is a function of many different
factors, some of which can be interdependent. The factors that most influence RP
process accuracy can be considered in three groups.
 The first group includes factors causing errors during the data preparation stage such as
STL file generation, model slicing and part build direction.
 The second group includes factors influencing the part accuracy during the build stage
such as process specific parameters.
 The third group of factors is directly related to the part finishing techniques employed.
Data Preparation (Errors due to Tessellation)
 Most RP systems employ standard STL input files. A STL file approximates the surface
of the 3D CAD model by triangles.
 Errors caused by tessellation are usually ignored because of the belief that tessellation
errors can be minimised by increasing the number of triangles.
 However, in practice the number of triangles cannot be increased indefinitely. The
resolution of STL files can be controlled during their generation in a 3D CAD system
through tessellation parameters.
 For example, in Pro/Engineer, the STL generation process can be controlled by
specifying the chord height or the angle control factor
chord Height. This parameter specifies the maximum distance between a chord and surface
If less deviation from the actual part surface is required, a smaller chord height should be
specified. The lower bound for this parameter is a function of the CAD model accuracy. The
upper bound depends on the model size.

To achieve a better part accuracy, tessellation errors have to be taken in to account. For
example, if the part is large, a feature with a small radius will be tessellated poorly suppose a
model with over all dimensions of 250 X 250 X 250 mm has a round corner with a radius of 1
mm. we need to trade-off between accuracy and file size. The results of tessellating the model
by applying chord heights of 0.5 and 0.05 mm respectively. Increase of chord height not only
smoother surfaces but also to larger data files.
Errors due to slicing
RP processes have a stair-stepping problem when we have a curved surfaces we should replace
with arcs tangent lines (Curves can be replaced with arcs) tangent lines should be horizontal/
nearly horizontally.
Stair-steps particularly affect slight slopes. This problem influences mainly the roughness of
the part and can be alleviated by reducing the thickness of the layers. Compromise has to be
found between the thickness and build speed.
Two types of errors: - Mismatching in height between position and boundaries
Replacement of polygons with stair steps.
Maximum errors happen with chords that have the smallest values of Angle control (α)
Part building: Material shrinkage and control errors are the most significant factors influencing
part accuracy eg: SLS, MJM, FDM, LENS
Material shrinkage (Curing): - Over curing & scanned line shape.
Control errors (In SL and SGC): - layer thickness & scan positional control.
Due to over curing: - dimensional and positional errors to features (shape is going to get
deformed).
Scanned line shape: - When laser beam scans the resins surface the cross section of scanned
line is referred as the scanned line shape. actual shape is determined by properties of the resin
& laser. Corners are going to get deformed do not fall on a straight line (jogged shape).
Control errors: Layer thickness is variable and the border position is not precise. It is directly
affect the chord height and angle.
Part building errors in the SLS process: Many materials can be processed by SLS. All of
them have different properties and characterization that can affect part accuracy.
Due to shrinkage during sintering eg: - thick walls or sections can increase the shrinkage
(shrinkage coefficient is calculated & scaling factor in each direction).
Build a trial part measure its shrinkage and distortion. & rebuild to new design this process is
un-realistic.
Laser beam positioning with mirror galvanometers & errors will be related to the time required
to accelerate and decelerate them.
Part-Finishing:
Usually surface finishing is going to improve by sanding and polishing RP models.
Model accuracy after finishing operations influenced by two factors, varying amount of
material that has to be removed & finishing technique adopted.
Varying amount of material: Each RP process reproduces the corners & the stair steps with
a different resolution.
Finishing technique: A no. of processes can be employed to finish RP models eg: wet & dry
sanding, sand blasting, coating, spraying, machining, Milling is better having less influence on
accuracy than those wet sanding or sand blasting.
Selection of Part-Build Orientation:
 Decision is very important factor in minimising build time and costs and achieving
optimal accuracy.
 We need to select the RP process which makes build time and costs and achieving
optimal accuracy.
 Choosing the best orientation is a Multi-criterion that makes trade-off between
maximising the surface smoothness and accuracy, minimizing the cost and build time.
Orientation Constrains in SLA Process:
 If a critical surface is chosen to be horizontal & upward facing, this may cause several
holes to be constructed with horizontal axes, resulting in internal support structures and
poor surface finish.
 User feature constrains should be considered
 Specified critical surfaces: If these surfaces are planes, they have to be placed such that
their normal points in the build direction. In other words, they are horizontal & upward
facing, cylinders, cones & surfaces of revolution are oriented so that their axes are
vertical.
 Coordinate systems: Co-ordinate system is usually created by the designer and
employed whist modelling; orientation of the coordinate axis may represent the most
logical build direction. It is placed so that Z- axis points in the build direction.
  Holes: In order to avoid hard to remove supports and stair stepping inside holes these
are placed orthogonally to horizontal planes.
 Cuts: Cuts can be Incorporated through horizontal planes, otherwise ignored.
 Shafts: - Shaft planes are horizontal to provide external surface finish.
 Shells: - Concave part of the shell faces upwards in order to minimize internal supports.
 Axes: All axes are placed so that they are vertical.
Orientation Constrains in SLS Process:
 Mainly by two factors the process accuracy in the X-Y plane & Z-direction and the
materials used, since the shrinkage & anisotropic properties of the sintered powders are
different.
 Commercially available SLS material fall in to five categories
 Poly carbonates; polyamides; Elastomers; metals and sands.
 To maximize strength, snaps and pegs are built in the X-Y plane so that they will have
improved flexibility. This is because the finished prototypes have anisotropic properties
with polycarbonates, elastomers & polyamides).
 Critical features should be built on upwards facing model surfaces this should be done
when building with sand, elastomers & polyamides.
 With polycarbonates, it is important that the rate of change of cross sectional area is not
too rapid to ensure consistent shrinkage parts are normally angled by 10-15 degrees
around the X- axis. After orientation, the user is advised to slice the part to check that
this rate of change is acceptable.
 When creating parts with sand, it is necessary to build the prototype in the same
orientation as that in which it will be cured to reduce warping.
 Thin walls should be built perpendicular to the rollers direction of travel to avoid their
distortion when building with polycarbonates and elastomers.
 Shells should be built so that concave side points upwards to reduce trapped heat and
minimize growth (Polycarbonates)
 Overhangs should be minimized (Polycarbonates, sand & elastomers)
 Making metal tooling inserts, the build direction should be chosen such that the parting
line of mould is built facing upwards.
Software
Need for software
 CAD software to create a 3D model (you can also use an existing 3D model, if you do
not wish or need to design one)
 Slicing software eg: Ultimaker Cura
 Software to operate your printer remotely (this is optional, but can be convenient)
 STL (Stereolithographic) is a file format native to the stereolithographic CAD software
created by 3D Systems. STL has several after-the-fact backronyms such as "Standard
Triangle Language" and "Standard Tessellation Language".
 STL was invented by the Albert Consulting Group for 3D Systems in 1987. The format
was developed for 3D Systems' first commercial 3D printers
 The STL format specifies both ASCII and binary representations. Binary files are more
common, since they are more compact
 Binary - Uses binary encoding for the STL file. Binary files are generally smaller and
better for 3d printing than ASCII files.
 ASCII - Uses ASCII encoding for the STL files. ASCII files are generally larger than
binary files, but easier to manually inspect and debug
MIMICS
 Materialise Mimics is image processing software for 3D design and modeling,
developed by Materialise NV, a Belgian company specialized in additive
manufacturing software and technology for medical, dental and additive manufacturing
industries.
 Materialise Mimics calculates surface 3D models from stacked image data such as
Computed Tomography (CT), Micro CT, Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI),
Confocal Microscopy, X-ray and Ultrasound, through image segmentation.
 Use Mimics to:
• Easily and quickly create accurate 3D models from imaging data
• Accurately measure in 2D and 3D
• Export 3D models in STL format for additive manufacturing
• Export 3D models to 3-matic to optimize the mesh for FEA or CFD
 Most common input format is DICOM, but other image formats such as: TIFF, JPEG,
BMP and Raw are also supported.
 Mimics has been adopted by biomedical engineers and device manufacturers for R&D
purposes in various medical industries: • Cardiovascular • Cranio maxillofacial •
Orthopedic • Pulmonology.
 These industries use patient-specific 3D data to improve their implants and devices or
to get a better understanding of biomechanical processes. Also non-medical industries
like materials science use Mimics in image-based R&D.
Applications
 Materialise Mimics is a platform to bridge stacked image data to a variety of different
medical engineering applications:
 3D measurements and analyses
 Computer Aided Design: 3-matic, SolidWorks, Pro/E...etc.
 Computational Fluid Dynamics: FLUENT, CFX,...etc.
 Customized implant design
 Finite Element Analysis: ABAQUS, ANSYS,etc.
 Rapid Prototyping: EOS, Stratasys, 3D Systems, Z-Corp, Dimension, Objet, etc.
 Surgical simulation
Magics
 Materialise Magics is a versatile, industry-leading data preparation and STL editor
software for Additive Manufacturing that allows you to convert files to STL,
 Materialise Magics, the top choice of data preparation software for any 3D Rapid
Prototyping team saved about 80 hours by utilizing Materialise Magics STL.
 Magics rapid prototyping software enables you to import a wide variety of CAD
formats and to export STL files ready for rapid prototyping, tooling.
 Magics is the leading 3D Printing and additive manufacturing software to edit and
prepare CAD models for rapid prototyping. This software is for Medical Image
Segmentation and 3D model creation.
Surgical Guide
 The accurate placement of the implant is critical for achieving the results and as well
as the exact alignment. SURGICAL GUIDE plays an important role in pre-surgical
planning which then becomes simpler.
 The computed tomography (CT) imaging and CT-derived surgical templates are
clinically significant improvements in accuracy, time efficiency, and reduction in
surgical error, benefiting the patient, surgeon, restorative dentist, and the laboratory.
  Continued advances in software applications that enable enhanced planning give
clinicians the vision necessary to deliver the desired results, while serving as an
excellent communication tool between all members of the implant team.
Advantages of using surgical guides in surgery
1. Accurate placement of dental implants with 3D surgical guide.
2. Reducing the time of surgery because surgical plan was made on the computer before
the surgery. You just have to use surgical guide and to place dental implants in
appropriate position.
3. To do dental implantation without additional cutting and suturing.
4. Shortened rehabilitation period: without additional cutting and sutures, the pain,
swelling and inflammation.
5. With digital 3D modeling of surgical guide, you can make surgery plan before
implantation and to show the final result to the patient.
6. With surgical guide you have the possibility to make dental restorations and to place
them during surgical stage of dental implantation.
7. You can use surgical guide as a temporary rehabilitation during prosthodontics process.
8. Surgical guide for dental implantation makes the work of dental technician easier and
orthopedist easier.
Materialise 3-matic
Materialise 3-matic is a 3D modeling software program that enables design optimization and
modification on mesh level, using CAD designs, scanned data and topology optimized models
as a starting point
Benefits
Freedom of design
With 3-matic, you can fully personalize your products and create models that are impossible to
produce with traditional manufacturing methods.
Save time and costs
Leverage 3-matic’s tools and the Lattice Module to create designs that outperform solid parts
and require less material, reducing costs and printing time.
Features
Post-topology optimization tools
Redesign rough surfaces to prevent complicated freeform modeling work and possible stress
concentrations for FEA when transitioning from mesh to CAD.
Textures, patterns, and perforations
With the Texturing Module, you can apply textures, patterns, and perforations to complex 3D
shapes within an STL file to add functionality or an aesthetic dimension.
Lattice, conformal, and porous structures
With the Lattice Module, you can create printable internal and external structures that add extra
strength, cushioning, and porosity or simply reduce the weight of your design.
Convert mesh to CAD
Easily convert a mesh file to a CAD file format with the CAD Link Module. This tool
recognizes analytical shapes in your part and generates a fully parametric model without
designing from scratch.
Automate your design workflow
Use the Scripting Modules to automate tasks and process files with more speed and control. It
comes with Python API, access to 3-matic objects and features, and a comprehensive toolkit.
3D-Doctor
 3D-DOCTOR is an advanced 3D modeling, image processing and measurement
software for MRI, CT, microscopy, scientific, and industrial imaging applications.
 3D-DOCTOR supports both grayscale and color images stored in DICOM, TIFF,
Interfile, GIF, JPEG, PNG, BMP, PGM, MRC, RAW or other image file formats.
 We can export the polygonal mesh models to STL (ASCII and Binary), DXF, IGES,
3DS, OBJ, VRML, PLY, XYZ and other formats for surgical planning, simulation,
quantitative analysis, finite element analysis (FEA) and rapid prototyping applications.
 Misaligned slices can be automatically or semi-automatically aligned using 3D-
DOCTOR's image alignment functions.
 Other image processing functions include template-based film cropping, image
reslicing to correct slices of uneven thickness, volume resizing, and image rotation.
 3D-DOCTOR is approved by FDA (US Food and Drug Administration 510K
clearance) for medical imaging and 3D visualization applications.
 It has been named the Top 3D Imaging Software by Scientific Computing &
Instrumentation Magazine in the Year 2002
 3D-DOCTOR is currently being used by leading hospitals, medical schools and
research organizations around the world.
Simplant
Simplant Guide provides for highly accurate drilling and implant placement. Forms the link
between prosthetic driven planning and surgery. Ensures safe and predictable implant surgery.
Allows for minimally invasive techniques, reducing post-operative pain, swelling and healing
time. Reduces unpleasant surprises during or after surgery thus avoiding stress for the clinician
and the patient. Reduces surgery time
Velocity2
 Velocity 2.0, the most powerful Engineering Intelligence platform ever built. The all-
new platform empowers any development team to eliminate bottlenecks and make
lasting improvements to their team’s productivity.
 Velocity is a useful planning tool for estimating how fast work can be completed and
how long it will take to complete a project.
VoXim
Trajectories planned with the Voxim software on fused preoperative CT and MR
Solid View, 3DView, etc.
Solid View/Pro RP offers all Solid View/Pro features as well as advanced rapid prototyping
tools; compound cutting, file repair, z-correction, shelling, offset, and automatic or manual
object layout
• By giving everyone involved in the product development and support process a 3D
view they can move, scale, rotate and measure, you increase their understanding of the
data and improve their productivity.
• The advantages of Solid View over 2D drawings include:
• Users can view and measure the 3D data
• Valuable engineering time is not wasted on creating 2D drawings
• Users can directly view up-to-date CAD data instead of outdated 2D drawings
• Complex designs and assemblies can be viewed on a low-cost PC, saving plotting paper
and supplies and reducing the security risk of drawing disposal
Preparation of CAD models
• Fusion360 – great for designing and creating efficient mechanical parts
• 3ds Max – used in all types of 3D model creation, including video game design,
architecture, and 3D printing
• Tinker CAD – A free, browser-based CAD tool that allows users to build 3D models
out of various shapes. Popular with CAD novices and for STEAM education
• Blender – free, open-source 3D model creation software
• Siemens NX – for designing and creating advanced 3D models
• Solid works – for designing and creating professional parts for industrial use
• Catia – Advanced design software used for creating surfaces and engineering systems
Slicing software, such as Ultimaker Cura, digitally cuts a model into flat layers, which your
printer can then print one by one
File Formats for AM
 IGES
 STEP
 STL
 SLC
 CLI
 RPI
 LEAF
 HP/GL
 CT
IGES
 IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification) is standard used to exchange graphics
information between commercial CAD systems. IGES interface was conceptualized in
1979 by the Boing, GE, NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology), and it
was set up as an American National Standard in 1981. The current version, IGES 5.2
provides the entities of points, lines, arcs, splines, NURBS surfaces and solid elements.
 Standard used to exchange graphics information between commercial CAD systems.
 Using IGES, a CAD user can exchange product data models in the form of circuit
diagrams, wireframe, freedom surface or solid modeling representations
Advantages
 precise geometry
 representations,
 few data conversions,
 smaller data files and simpler control strategies.
Disadvantages
 Includes much redundant information that is not needed for rapid prototyping systems.
 Algorithms for slicing an IGES file are more complex than algorithms slicing a STL
file.
 Support Structures needed in RP Systems cannot be created according to the IGES
format.
STEP
 STEP stands for Standard for the Exchange of Product Data and is also known as ISO
10303. As a common file format used for 3D modelling and printing, these files are an
ISO standard exchange format.
 This means that STEP files can read and save the complete body of a 3D model — not
just the basic geometries — which is necessary for high levels of accuracy.
 All their 3D model data saves as text that various CAD systems can interpret. STEP
files make it easy to create, share and edit 3D models across many different programmes
and software in a standardized format.
 STEP files go by several different names, including:
 ISO 10303
 STP File
 P21-File
 STEP Physical File
 STEP files are standard in the world of 3D design — including architecture,
manufacturing and printing — for a few specific reasons, including
Sharing 3D models.
The purpose of STEP files is to make sharing files containing 3D data a lot easier. These file
formats are commonly used to review or print 3D models. STEP’s ability to contain the
complete 3D model rather than just the geometries, plus its ability to work with different CAD
systems, makes sharing simple.
Editing 3D models.
A STEP file saves all 3D components as one and can be used to make design edits. Most CAD
programmes read and edit STEP files, enhancing cross-platform design and collaboration. This
is a big advantage that STEP files have over STL files which are also common in 3D printing.
Advantages
 STEPS are compatible with CAD tools and software, which makes them easy to share
and edit.
 STEPS are precise, using a mathematical representation of curves known as NURBS to
store data accurately. They can also read and save complete 3D models.
 You can customise a STEP file. It’s easy to share with others to edit or save to another
computer as a backup option
Disadvantages
 For architectural design purposes, STEP files don’t contain the material or texture data
required to make them identifiable by CAD software.
 There is no lighting or camera information stored in a STEP.
 The STEP format is complex — similar to a software programming language. This
means it may take a lot of time and work to create a STEP file.
STL File
 STL (Stereo Lithography) format was conceptualized in 1987 by the 3D Systems, USA.
This file format has become the Rapid Prototyping industry's de facto standard data
transmission.
 The. STL file format is widely used for CAD design and 3D printing. STL stands for
stereo lithography, which is a 3D printing technology. Also, it is otherwise known as
Standard Tessellation Language or Standard Triangle Language.
  Every file comprises a series of connected triangles that explains the 3D model’s
surface geometry. Also, more complicated design comprises more triangles. It is easy
to identify an STL image by the. STL file extension. Also, the lack of texture and color
is another way to identify this file.
 There haven’t been much changes to this technology. Also, it still utilizes triangular
tessellation to design the geometric surface of a model. Therefore, it stores information
about every triangle. This includes coordinates of each different vertices.
 The. STL file describes both binary representations and ASCII. However, binary files
are more compact. Therefore, they are more common.
 There are several software packages that support the. STL file format. This file specifies
an unstructured surface by the vertices of the triangles
Applications of. STL Files
 . STL file format transmits the geometry of a 3D design and brings CAD designs to life.
This file format is widely used for:
Rapid prototyping
 . STL file format enhances the creation of scale models for quick prototyping.
Therefore, STL file format design a part and then prints out to test the part in various
scenarios. This file format does this before finalizing the design.
3D printing
 3D printing is an approach to industrial production. With the help of. STL file format,
designers print 3D design in layers. This will help to create stronger and lighter parts.
Computer-aided manufacturing
Advantages of. STL files
 Almost all 3D printers can utilize the. STL file format. This is because it is widely
recognized as the standard for 3D printing. Therefore, it is a great choice for printing
and designing 3D objects.
 Also, the. STL file can create various objects. Irrespective of the shape, this file format
can design an accurate model. It can create objects like plant pots and drones.
 STL files are faster at processing despite their small size. This is because of the absence
of texture and color. Therefore, this file format is a great option when printing an object
or model in a single material and color
 Metadata can’t be stored on this file. For instance, it can’t store details like location and
copyright. These details are very crucial to publishing.
 . STL file has limited capabilities in terms of texture and color. Therefore, it is ideal for
designing prototypes instead of the final product.
SLC File
 SLC is short for Stereo-Lithography Contour. SLC files describe two-dimensional
contours of the three-dimensional models. These contour lines are polylines.
 SLC files are ASCII (text) files that save models as a series of slices. This means that
models based on SLC files cannot be orientated;
 only their scale (size) and position on the build tray can be controlled. For this reason,
the model’s orientation must be suitable for production before it is saved as an SLC
file.
 Because of the nature of SLC files, the appearance of models in Objet Studio may be
different than the solid-object images displayed from STL files.
Common Layer Interface (CLI)
 The Common Layer Interface (CLI) is a universal format for the input of geometry data
to model fabrication systems based on layer manufacturing technologies (LMT).
 It is suitable for systems using layer-wise photo-curing of resin, sintering or binding of
powder, cutting of sheet material, solidification of molten material, and any other
systems which build models on a layer-by-layer basis.
 CLI is intended as a simple, efficient and unambiguous format for data input to all
LMT-based systems, based on a "2 1/2D" layer representation (only polylines only
Instead of lines and Arcs).
 Slicing Step can be avoided in some applications.
 The error in the layer information is much easier to be correct than that in the 3D
information. Automated recovery procedures can be used if required, editing is also not
difficult.
 The CLI format only has the capability of producing polylines of the outline of the slice.
Rapid Prototyping Interface (RPI)
 It can be derived from currently accepted STL Format data.
 Topological Information is added to the RPI format.
 Redundancy in the STL file is removed and the size of file is compacted.
 An interpreter which processes a format as flexible and extensible as the RPI format, is
more complex than that for the STL format.
 Surface patches suitable for solid approximation cannot be identified in the RPI format
LEAF
 The LEAF or Layer Exchange ASCII Format is generated by Helsinki University
of Technology.
 Layers are composed of 2D Primitives and currently the only ones which are planned
for implementation are polylines.
 It is easy to implement and use; It is not ambiguous; Human readable representation.
 The new interpreter is needed for connecting the RPS.
 The structure of the format is more complicated than STL format; STL format cannot
be changed into this format
HP/GL
 HP/GL (Hewlett-Packard Graphics Language) is a standard data format for graphic
plotters.
 Data types are all two-dimensional, including lines, circles, splines, texts, etc.
 The advantages of the HP/GL format are that a lot of commercial CAD systems have
the interface to output the HP/GL format and it is a 2D geometry data format which
does not need to be sliced.
 HP/GL is a 2D data format, the files would not be appended, potentially leaving
hundreds of small files needing to be given logical names and then transferred.
 Support structures required must be generated in the CAD system and sliced in the same
way.
CT
 CT (Computerized Tomography) scan data is a particular approach for medical
imaging.
 This is not standardized data. Formats are proprietary and somewhat unique from one
CT scan machine to another.
 The scan generates data as a grid of three-dimensional points, where each point has a
varying shade of gray indicating the density of the body tissue found at that
particular point.