WEEK 7

FIRE SUPPRESSION means slowing down the rate of burning, whereas, CONTROL means keeping the fire from
spreading or holding the fire to one area. EXTINGUISHMENT is putting the fire completely out.
 
FOUR METHODS OF FIRE EXTINGUISHMENT AND HOW IT WORKS
 
Extinguishing a fire is somewhat comparable to the elimination of life. For example; the cooling of the fire may be
compared to asphyxiation (elimination of the oxygen supply), and the separation may be compared with malnutrition
or starvation. The tetrahedron concept adds a fourth element - chemical reaction.
 
Under the triangle-of-fire-concept, there are three (3 ways of suppressing, controlling, and extinguishing a fire,
namely:
 
1.       Cooling - The cooling process uses an extinguishing agent whose primary characteristic is heat absorption.
Water is the best general cooling agent for firefighting purposes. Used on Class A fires, the water absorbs the heat
generated at the surface of the burning material, thus, reducing the temperature of the material below its flash point.
Water can be also used on Class B fires, which include flammable petroleum products. As with a Class A fire, the
water absorbs much of heat, reducing the vaporization rate of the liquid fuel. This is the most noticeable in a fire
involving lubricating oil, whose flashpoint is between 300 to 450 degrees F. It is of less value in a fire involving
gasoline, with its flashpoint at -45 degrees F. water could never cool gasoline below its flashpoint. The extinguishing
ability of the water is broken into fine particles to accelerate heat absorption.
2.       Smothering – excludes the oxygen from the fuel so that the gases or vapours of the fuel cannot ignite and
continue the combustion. CO2 and AFFF are used in this purpose.
3.       Separation – the removal of the fuel, as in the example of turning off a valve in a gas line prevents the fuel and
oxygen from coming together. If fuel is not available, the heat, regardless of the temperature, cannot affect the fuel,
therefore, therefore, there is no fire.
                                                                                                                                                            These three
methods of extinguishment explain how fires are extinguished with the used of water, CO2, and foam. They do not
entirely account for the account for the results obtained by vaporizing liquids or dry chemicals.
The next paragraph will explain the fourth element, the chemistry of fire in terms the theory of reactivity.
 
4.       Chemical Chain Reaction – the fourth method of extinguishment is known as inhibition or the interruption of
chemical reaction.
The sequence of events in suppressing or extinguishing a fire with dry chemicals or vaporizing liquids includes some
aspects of the first three methods.
Using the potassium bicarbonate (dry chemical) as an example, you can follow the process of the fourth method of
extinguishment. Remember this is a rapid reaction and does not necessarily happen one step at a time.
First, the heat of the fire vaporizes the potassium bicarbonate thereby producing water, carbon dioxide, and
potassium dioxide. In the process of vaporization and the change of these compounds, a substantial. Amount of heat
is absorbed by the water and some smothering occurs due to the release of CO2.
Second, the chemical reaction resulting when the potassium dioxide unites with the water formed by the fire creates
an amount of potassium hydroxide.
Third, some potassium hydroxide reacts with certain products released from the fuel, thus forming water and
potassium monoxide. Other potassium hydroxide molecules react with the free hydrogen of the combustion to form a
potassium atom and molecules o water. Finally, this combination of reactions halts the process of fuel uniting with
oxygen of the air, thereby breaking the chemical chain reaction and stopping the fire.
Finally, this combination of reactions halts the process of fuel uniting with oxygen of the air, thereby breaking the
chemical chain reaction and stopping the fire.
 
EXTINGUISHING AGENTS
 
The effectiveness of an extinguisher on a particular fire depends on the amount and type of agent in the extinguisher.
Different extinguishing agents can be used to put out a certain class of fire by one or more methods.
 
1. Removing oxygen;
2. Removing the fuel;
3. Removing heat; and
4. Interrupting the chemical chain reaction.
 
Some extinguishing agents may be able to extinguish more than one class of fire. They are marked with multiple
letters or multiple numerical-letter ratings.
                                                                                                                     
The following are the most common extinguishing agents, the class of fire they are used, and the extinguishing
methods used:
1.       WATER used only on Class A fires. Water is the most effective in cooling the burning material below its ignition
temperature. It is the most commonly used agent in firefighting.
In its natural state, it is highly stable and may be used to extinguish most types of fire if properly applied. Due to its
conductive properties, water should not be used on electrical fires.
Additives:
There are many additives for water used in fire-fighting. Each of these has a specific purpose and effect on the water.
Ways or Methods Water Extinguishes Fires
Cooling - The outstanding heat absorbing qualities of water make it an excellent cooling agent. In the cooling
process, water is applied in large enough amounts to reduce the temperature of the surface of the burning material to
below its flashpoint. The amount of water required depends on the burning material (temperature) and the manner in
which water is applied (straight or fog stream).
Smothering - When water is used to smother a fire, stream must be generated in sufficient amounts to exclude or
displaced air. If the steam generated is confined in the combustion zone, the smothering action will be enhanced. In
ordinary combustibles, the cooling effect of the water not the smother-normally causes extinguishment. The
smothering effect does not does not completely extinguish the fire; rather, it has a tendency to suppress flaming.
Usage:
Water is generally used on Class A fires. Fires involving high flashpoint liquids (such as heavy fuel oil, and asphalt)
may be extinguished when water is effectively applied in spray form. Water may also be used to extinguish Class C
and Class D fires in some cases. In these cases, use extreme caution to avoid injury to personnel and/or damage to
equipment.
 
2.       CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) - A number of its properties make C02 a desirable extinguishing agent. It is non-
combustible and non-reactive with most substances. CO2 provides its pressure for discharge from storage cylinders
or extinguishers. Being a gas, CO2 can penetrate and spread to all parts of fire.
Effects:
Extinguishment with CO2 is primarily by Smothering. It covers or blankets the burning materials and reduces the
oxygen content to below levels needed for combustion. Even though it is very cold, it has a little cooling effect on a
fire when compared with equal amounts of water. This is the reason when fires that have been apparently
extinguished with CO2 re-ignite from hot surfaces or embers as the CO2 dissipates.
Usage:
Due to its non-conductivity, CO2 is very effective for use on Class C fires. It is also used on Class B fires, but another
agent is needed in blanketing or smothering on large are fires to prevent re-ignition.
CO2 can cause unconsciousness and death in connections needed for extinguishment. A 9% concentration is about
all most people can take without becoming unconscious within just a few minutes.
 
3.       DRY CHEMICAL - The dry chemical extinguishing agents in use today are mixtures of powders and various
additives that improve the storage, flow, and water repellency of the powders. Sodium bicarbonate, Potassium
bicarbonate, and mono ammonium phosphate are some of the powders commonly used today. Dry chemical is stable
at low temperatures, but it has an upper storage temperature of 140°F. At temperatures above 1400F some caking or
sticking of the powder occurs. These agents are said to be non-toxic, but in discharging large amounts they may
cause some breathing and visibility problems.
Effects:
Flames banish almost at once when dry chemical is applied directly to the fire area. But the exact chemistry and
mechanism of the extinguishing agent are not fully known. It has been suggested that the dry chemical agents inhibit
the chain reaction in the combustion zone has a greater effect in the extinguishment than the smothering or cooling
actions and radiation shielding have.
 
Usage:
There are Two Basic Types of Dry Chemical:  
a). Ordinary and Regular Dry Chemical - generally refer to those powders that are intended for use on Class B or
Class C fires.
b). Multi-purpose Dry Chemical - refers to a powders listed for use on Class A, B, C fires.
Be careful not to confuse ordinary, regular, or multipurpose dry chemical with "dry powder".
 
4.       DRY POWDER - Dry powder is a generally term for agents used to extinguish combustible metal fires.
No one dry powder has been found to be effective on all types of combustible metals.
Effects:
Dry powder generally extinguishes fires by excluding air from the combustible metal. To some extent, heat is
absorbed by the powder to lower the e temperature of the metal to below ignition point (as with G.I. powder).
Usage:
Dry powder is used primarily on Class D fires and should not be used on other types of fire, due to limited value on
these fires.
 
5.       AFFF - AQUEOUS FILM FORMING FOAM - has replaced protein foam for all around firefights purposes.
Protein base foam is now used primarily for runway foaming operations and for some training purposes.
Effects:
The quick "knock-down" and "heat reduction" properties of AFFF have proven it to be a highly effective agent.  These
properties, combined with its ability to seal the surface of burning hydrocarbon fires to prevent "flashback”, make it an
outstanding and effective extinguishing agent with which to work. When AFFF is applied to the surface of a
flammable liquid fire, the surface active material (surfactant) provides a vapor sealing effect. This is not only
extinguishes the fire built also prevents the release of fuel vapors which could result in flashbacks. This vapor seal is
also very hard to break-up by walking, or moving some hose lines through it.
Usage:
As with any other extinguishing agent, its effectiveness depends on the proper application. The AFFF is designed to
be applied at a 6% mixture (94 parts water to 6 parts AFFF concentrate). This mixture should be applied in a rainfall
manner, or lobbing effect to allow rapid spreading over the surface. It is used primarily to extinguish on Class B fires.
It may be used on Class A fires but may be less effective than plain water. Foam spray (fog) is more conductive than
plain water fog, because the material contained in the foam allows the water to conduct electricity. \
6.       HALONS (HALOGENATED AGENTS) -These agents have been used for over 50 years. Continuous research
has brought these agents to the present high degree of effectiveness in interrupting the chain reaction they possess
along with a decrease in life safety hazard.
 
The older (better known) agents such as carbon tetra-chloride (Halon 104) and chlorobromomethane (Halon 1011)
are less effective and more toxic than the newer agents now in use.
 
Halon 1211 (bromochlorodifluoromethane) is a gas at normal temperature, but with its relatively high boiling point
(+25 F), requires pressurization to expel it at a satisfactory rate for extinguishment. Halon 1211 is discharge both
partly as a liquid spray and partly as a gas.
 
Halon 1301 (bromotrifluoromethane) is treated as a C liquefied gas and, like carbon dioxide, requires no pressurizing
agent for expulsion at normal temperature. Nitrogen may be added to storage containers when temperature is below
0 F, to ensure adequate discharge pressure.
Halon 1301 is the least toxic of the Halons. This low toxicity allow for safe discharge from total flood systems in
occupied spaces such as computer rooms.
 
Halon is a generic term for halogenated hydrocarbons and is a chemical compound that contains carbon plus one
more elements from the halogens series (fluorine chlorine, bromine, or iodine).
 
Although a very large number of halogenated compounds exist, only a few are used to a significant extent as fire
extinguishing agents. Halogenated vapor is a non-conductor of electricity and is effective in fighting surface fires in
such commodities as flammable liquids, most solid combustible materials, and electrical.
 
Effects:
Halogenated agents work chemically to extinguish fire. They stop combustion process by breaking the fire chain
reaction and prevent further fire propagation. This chemical fire-stopping action happens with only a low
concentration of halogenated agent used. Application of the agent may be applied locally by g a compressed bottle of
non-combustible gas similar to a carbon dioxide fire extinguisher. This type of application is effective in controlling or
extinguishing surface fire involving flammable liquid, solids, or gases, such a dip tanks, quench tanks, spray booths,
oil-filled transformers, or vapor vents.
 
Usage:
Halogenated agents are very effective on Class B and Class C fires and have some effects or success on Class A
fires.
 WEEK 8
FIRE EXTINGUISHER
·         It is a mechanical device usually made of metal, containing chemicals, fluids, or gases for stopping fires, the
means for application of its contents for the purpose of putting out fire (particularly small fire) before it propagates,
and is capable of being readily moved from place to place.
·         It is a portable device used to put out fires of limited size.
Classes of Fire Extinguishers:
1.        Portable Fire Extinguisher - Portable fire extinguishers offer the greatest potential for immediately controlling
workplace fires. Their portability and relatively easy operation often make them ready for use within seconds.
Classification and Ratings:
Different type of fire extinguishers is designed to extinguish fires involving different types of fuels. Extinguishers are
classified as Class A, B, C, and D or combination depending on the fire against their agents is effective.
The class of extinguisher should be on the extinguisher shell. The "picture symbol” labelling system now in use is
designed to make the operation of fire extinguishers more effective and safe to use through the use of less confusing
pictorial labels. The system also emphasizes when not to use an extinguisher on certain types of fires.
Class A type of extinguisher is used on fires involving ordinary combustible materials such as wood, clothes,
and paper.
Class B extinguisher is used on fires involving liquids, grease, and gases.
Class C extinguishers are used on fires involving energized electrical equipment.
Class D extinguisher is used on fires involving combustible metals such as titanium, magnesium, zirconium,
sodium, and potassium.
Information Indicated on the Extinguisher
1.       Date of original filling;
2.       Chemical contents;
3.       Type of extinguisher;
4.       Operating instruction and safety procedure in usage
5.       Name and address of the manufacturer;
6.       Name and address of the dealer.
Fire Extinguisher Ratings
            Class A and Class B extinguishers carry a numerical rating to indicate how large a fire an experienced person
can put out with the use of an extinguisher.
The ratings are based on reproducible physical test conducted by Underwriter's Laboratories that are designed to
determine the extinguishing capability for each size and type of extinguisher.
·         Class A Ratings
            An extinguisher for Class A fires could have any one of the following ratings. The numerical rating for this
class of fire extinguisher refers to the amount of water the fire extinguisher holds and the amount of fire it will
extinguish.
·         Class B Ratings
            An extinguisher for Class B fires could have any one of the following ratings. The numerical rating for this type
of extinguisher states the approximate number of square feet of flammable liquid fire that a non-expert
individual can expect to extinguish.
 

·         Class C Ratings
            Extinguishers rated for Class C fires are tested only for electrical conductivity. However, no extinguisher
gets Class C ratings without a Class A and/or Class B rating. This class of fire extinguisher does not have a
numerical rating. The letter "C" indicates that the extinguishing agent is non-conductive.
·         Class D Ratings
            Class D extinguishers are tested on metal fires. The agent used depends on the metal for which the
extinguisher was designed. Check the extinguisher faceplate for the unit's effectiveness on specific metals. There is
no picture designator for Class D extinguishers. This type of extinguisher generally have no rating nor are they given
a multi-purpose rating for use on other types of Class D fires.
The Most Common Extinguishing Agents Used:
1.       WATER - used only on Class A fires. These extinguishers contain water and compressed gas and should only
be used on Class A fires. Water is the most effective in cooling the burning material below its ignition temperature.
Under certain conditions, the steam converted from the water will exclude oxygen and smother the fire.
Anti-freeze solutions added to the water in some of these extinguishers prevent freezing but add nothing to the
effectiveness. Most of the extinguishers are 2% gallons in capacity and it will deliver a stream up to 40 feet
horizontally contains water and compressed gas.
2.       DRY CHEMICALS: Dry Chemical extinguishers ners are usually rated for multi-purpose use. It contains an
extinguishing agent and uses a compressed, non-flammable gas as a propellant.
Types:
a. Regular or ordinary (sodium and potassium bicarbonate respectively) used only Class B or C Class fires.
b. Multi-purpose dry chemicals (ammonium phosphate) used on Class A, Class B, and Class C.
Dry chemicals inhibit the chain reaction and, to a certain degree, cool and smother the fire. These agents are
chemically treated with a substance to keep them water resistant and free flowing. This also helps prevent packing of
the chemical while stored inside the extinguisher. These dry chemical extinguishers may be found in sizes which
range from 2 1/2 to 30 pounds.
3.       CARBON DIOXIDE - used on Class B and Class C fires. CO2 extinguishes fire by smothering, reducing the
oxygen level below that which supports combustion. These extinguishers are only effective from 3 to 8 feet. Under
certain conditions, the coldness of the gas also helps put out the fire. It is an inert gas. When CO2 is stored under
pressure in a cylinder or tank such a fire extinguisher, it changes from a vapor to a liquid.
      When it passes through the discharge valve a. of a fire extinguisher, it changes from a liquid to a gas and the
expansion chills it to low temperatures so that proximate 30 % of the liquid CO2 is converted into solid dioxide "snow"
or "dry ice." The cooling will often cause ice to form around the "horn" where the gas is expelled from the
extinguisher. Since there is the possibility that the fire could re-ignite, continue to apply the agent even after the fire
appears to be out.
 
4.       FOAM - used only on Class A and B fires. Foam removes fuel by forming a layer over a burning liquid and
preventing flammable vapors from escaping. Foam will also smother by keeping Oxygen from mixing with the vapors
and cool with a constant layer of water bearing foam.
 
5.       HALONS - used on Class B and C fires. These liquefied gases are most effective in interrupting the chain
reaction, but they also have slight smothering and cooling effects. These are made up of carbon and one or more
halogen elements like fluorine, chlorine, iodine, and bromine. These types of extinguishers are often used to protect
valuable electrical equipment since they leave no residue to clean up. Halon extinguishers have a limited range,
usually from 4-6 feet. The initial application should be made at the base of the fire, even after the fires have been put
out.
 
6.       METAL/SAND EXTINGUISHERS these types of extinguishers are primarily used for flammable metals (Class
D) and have the characteristics of a blanketing effect (smothering) on the fire. The most common extinguishing agent
used is sodium chloride.
 
7.       HALOTRON I EXTINGUISHERS - These extinguishers are intended for use on class B and Class C fires.
Halotron I is an ozone-friendly replacement for Halon 1211 (which was banned by international agreements starting
1994). This "clean" agent discharges as a liquid, has a high visibility during discharge, does not cause thermal or
static shock, leaves no residue and is non-conducting. These properties make it ideal for computer rooms, clean
rooms, telecommunications equipment, and electronics, and it is expensive.
 
8.       FE-36 - (HYDROFLUOROCARBON-236FA OR KNOWN AS HFC-236FA) it is a DuPont-manufactured Halon
1211 replacement. This agent is less toxic than both Halon 1211 and Halotron I. It has a zero ozone-depleting effect
or potential. FE-36 is not scheduled for phase-out whereas Halotron production to slated to cease in 2015.
 
9.       WATER MIST EXTINGUISHERS - Ideal used for Class A fire where a potential Class C hazard exists. Unlike
an ordinary water extinguisher, the misting nozzle provides safety from electric shock and reduces scattering of
burning materials. In non-magnetic versions, water mist extinguishers are the preferred choice for MRI or NMR
facilities or for deployment on mine sweepers. MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) NMR's (Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance Spectrometers)
 
STEPS IN USING PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS:
1.       Pull the pin at the top of extinguisher. When in place, the pin keeps the handle from being pressed, breaking
the plastic or wire inspection band.
2.       Point the nozzle or outlet toward the base of the fire. If the hose is clipped to the extinguisher body, unclip it
first. 3.
3.       Press the handle above the carrying handle to discharge the agent. To stop the discharge, release the handle.
4.       Sweep the nozzle in side to side motion before the flames to spread the extinguishing agent. Direct the agent
at the base of the flames. After the fire is out, probe for smoldering hot spot or liquids that could reignite. Make sure
the fire is out. Back away from the fire area to protect yourself from possible danger or flashback.
Remember the acronym, "P.A.S.S.”
·         P - Pull the Pin.
·         A - Aim extinguisher nozzle at the base of the flames.
·         S - Squeeze trigger while holding the extinguisher upright.
·         S - Sweep the extinguisher nozzle from side to side, covering the area of the fire with the extinguishing agent.
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF EXTINGUISHERS:
Once a fire extinguisher is purchased and installed, it becomes the responsibility of the owner to maintain the
extinguisher so that it remains fully operable. To fulfill this responsibility, there should be a program to provide for the
periodic inspection of each extinguisher and an effective extinguisher maintenance program.
Procedures for Inspecting Various Types of Extinguishers:
1.       Check accessibility and proper location;
2.       Check for tag for date of last recharge or inspection;
3.       Check nozzle for obstruction and operations;
4.       Examine for corrosion (leaks at seams) or mechanical damage; The
5.       Check lock pin and seal;
6.       Determine if full (water level, pressure gauge, weight);
7.       Examine condition of hose and hose coupling:
8.       Check horns for cracks, dirt, or grease it accumulations;
9.       Date of inspection and initials of inspector.
 
Damaged Extinguishers
      Leaked, corroded, or otherwise damaged extinguisher shells or cylinders should be discarded or returned to the
manufacturer for repair.
      CAUTION: Never Try To Repair The Shell or Cylinder Subjected To Pressure. If an extinguisher shows slight
damaged or corrosion and it is questionable whether it is safe to use, it should be given a hydrostatic test by the
manufacturer or a qualified testing agency. Leaking hose, leaking gaskets, nozzles, can be replaced by fire brigade
personnel.
Testing Extinguishers:
      State when, how, and by whom extinguishers are service tested and hydrostatically tested:
Extinguishers, fire hoses and other fire safety equipment (alarms, exit signs, emergency lights) need to be checked
on a regular basis to ensure they are in working condition. A quick visual check is to be done at least monthly by the
monitoring personnel in the area. Under OSHA regulations extinguishers and hoses must be checked and
documented at least once a year by a qualified inspector.
A sign-off tag should be present for documentation purposes, to verify that the extinguishers have been inspected.
1.       Service Test - a service test of an extinguisher 8 an operational test of the extinguisher to see to it that it is
operating properly. This test is normally conducted at least once a year during the scheduled maintenance cycle.
2.       Hydrostatic Test - hydrostatic test is an internal pressure check of an extinguisher cylinder or shell to detect
possible failure under pressure. Normally, during the testing the cylinder or shell is filled with water (hydro). The test
should be conducted immediately upon discovering of any indication of mechanical injury or corrosion to those
extinguishers which exert internal pressure.
The Following Are Extinguishers Recommended For Testing Every 5 Years: I.
1.       Cartridge operated water extinguishers;
2.       Stored pressure water extinguishers;
3.       Dry Chemical with soldered brass or stainless steel shells;
4.       Carbon Dioxide - NOTE: CO2 extinguishers with a cylinder made to DOT specifications should be tested
according to DOT requirements.

Types of Extinguishers To Be Tested Every 12 Years 1.

1.       Halon 1211
2.       Halon 1301
3.       Cartridge operated dry powder
4.       Stored pressure dry chemical with aluminum, brazed brass or mold steel shells.
5.       Cartridge-operated dry-chemical with mild steel
      When an extinguisher fails a hydrostatic test, it must be destroyed.
Conditions Which Allow the Destruction of an Extinguishers:
When the shell or cylinder threads are damaged;
1.       When the extinguisher has been burnt in a fire;
2.       Pitting exists due to corrosions.
Care and Maintenance of Fire Extinguishers:
            At least once a month a fire extinguisher should be inspected on the following factors/reasons:
a.       The extinguisher is not blocked by equipment, coats or other objects that could interfere with access in an
emergency;
b.       The pressure is at the recommended level. On extinguishers equipped with a gauge the needle should in the
green zone - not too high and not too low;
c.       The nozzle or other p[arts are not obstructed:
d.       The pin and tamper seal (if it has one) are intact:
e.       There are no dents, leaks, rust, chemical deposits and other signs of abuse/wear. Wipe off any corrosive
chemicals, oil, gunk, etc. that may have landed on the extinguisher;
f.        Some manufacturers recommend the shaking of dry chemical extinguishers once a month to prevent powder
from packing/caking;
g.       Hydrostatic testing is recommended to ensure that cylinder is safe to use (pressure testing).
 
      If the extinguisher is damaged or needs recharging, replaced it immediately. Recharge all extinguishers
immediately after use regardless of how much they were used.
 
 WEEKK 9
CHARACTERISTICS OF FLAMMABLE MATERIALS
 
            The differences between materials that will burn are very important. Simply knowing that a material will burn
helps you very little. "Wood will burn" is a general statement; the kind of wood-hard or soft- thick or thin will you to
know when and how fast it will burn. This L still doesn't give you enough information on flammable material.
            The specific differences in the properties are known as characteristics, and all flammable materials have
characteristics peculiar to themselves. All matter, including flammable materials will exist in at least one of three
states.
These states-or groups are known as:
1.       Liquids
2.       Gases
3.       Solids
 
            As firefighters, you should know the contents of a container to determine the pressure buildup when the
container is near a fire. Too high a pressure is liable to burst the tank or otherwise endanger life or lives.
 
Liquids Defined
            Liquids are fluids that do not generate more than 40 psia when heated to 100 degrees F (psia is pound- per-
square inch absolute).
To determine whether a fluid should be classed as a gas or a liquid, it is tested.
 
Types of Liquids
A.     Flammable Liquids - these are liquids with a flashpoint below 100 degrees F and a vapor pressure not over 40
psia at 100°F. They called Class II liquids, which are subdivided into the following classes:
·         Class IA any liquid that has a flashpoint below 73F, and a boiling point (BP) below 100°F.
·         Class IB any liquid that has a flashpoint below 73 F, and a boiling point at or above 1000F.
·         Class IC any liquid that has a flashpoint below 100°F, but not below 730F.
 
B.     Combustible Liquids - liquids that have a flashpoint pro at or above 100°F. They are subdivided into the
following categories:
·         Class II - any liquid having a flashpoint at or above 100°F and below 1400F.
·         Class IllA - any liquid having a flashpoint at or above 140°F and below 200°F.
·         Class IIIB - any liquid having a flashpoint at or above 200OF.
 
Types of Flammable Liquids:
 
1.       Hydrocarbons
a.       alkanes
b.       alkenes
c.       alkynes
d.       aromatics
2.       Halogenated Carbon
a.       alcohol
b.       aldehydes
c.       amines
d.       ethers
e.       ketones
f.        esters
Hazards of Flammable Liquids:
1.       Produce Vapours that:
·         burn
·         corrosive
·         oxidizers
·         toxic
·         narcotic
·         unstable
2.       Slopover - Water trapped at bottom of storage tanks vaporizes from heat expanding and expelling contents
above it.
Gases
 
            Gases are classified by their chemical, physical properties, and usage.
A.      Chemical Properties - chemical properties of gases are of prime interest to firefighters, as they reflect the
ability of the gas to react within it or with other materials.
The chemical properties of gases may be broken down as follows:
1.       Flammable gases any gas that which burn in normal concentrations of oxygen in the air. These gases are
subjected to the same conditions as flammable vapors.
2.       Non-flammable gases any gases that will not burn in air. Some of these will support combustion and are called
oxidizers. Those that do not support combustion are called inert gases.
3.       Reactive gases any gases that will react within itself or with other materials under conditions other than fire, i.e.
shock, heat, and etc.
4.       Toxic gases-any gases that may complicate firefighting efforts due to its serious life hazards.
B.      Physical Properties - is the physical behavior of a gas both outside and inside its container and when
accidentally released, these are of prime interest to firefighters.
 
The Physical Classification are the following:
1.       Compressed gases matter which is solely in a gaseous state in its container with a lower pressure limit of 25
psig (pounds per square inch gauge) at normal temperature of 70 F to 100°F.
2.       Liquefied gases matter which exist partly as a gas and partly as a liquid at normal temperatures inside the
container and remain under pressure as long as any liquid is in the container.
3.       Cryogenic gases - gas which remains as liquefied gas in its container at temperature far below normal
temperature.
 
C.     Usage - Classification of gases is made by their usages. However, there will be much overlapping in these
usages.
1.       Fuel gases which burn with air to produce heat, power, or light.
2.       Industrial gases used in industrial processes such as: water treatment, welding and cutting, refrigeration, and
etc.
3.       Medical gases used for medical purposes such as therapy and anesthesia.
 
Flammable Compressed Gas
1.       Natural Gas: it is the most common flammable gas.
2.       Methane - lighter than the air and not toxic.
3.       Propane and Butane colorless, tasteless, odorless, and not toxic heavier than air.
4.       Acetylene me
·         colorless, tasteless, odorless - shock sensitive
·         Burns ethylene 42170F 5.
5.       Hydrogen
·         difficult to keep in container
·         lighter than air - extremely flammable
6.       Ethylene Oxide
·         gas at room temperature extremely wide explosive range
·         3.0 to 100%% 7.
7.       Oxidizer - can burn inside its own container
Non-Flammable Gas:
1.       Oxygen
·         most common does not burn
·         supports combustion
2.       Ammonia
·         non-flammable
·         But does burn flammable range is less than 10% water
·         soluble
3.       Refrigerants - may be toxic when heated
4.       Halogens: Fluorine - most powerful oxidizer, extremely toxic, extremely reactive, water reactive Chlorine toxic,
corrosive, irritating
5.       Acid Gases
·         Turn to acids when dissolved in water
·         toxic, corrosive, irritating 6.
6.       Inert Gases:
a.       Helium
b.       Nitrogen
c.       Argon
d.       Carbon dioxide
e.       Krypton
f.        Neon
g.       Other Gases
 
Solids
 
            Combustible solids are those which ignite burn and change chemically when subjected to heat or fire. The
heat must be approximately 3500F or higher. Above this temperature, ordinary materials will give off enough vapors
or gases to burn. Examples are wood, paper, and cloth.
            There are other combustible solids which may ignite or detonate at lower temperatures. These combustible
solids are classed as hazardous chemicals and should be kept in suitable containers. They should be separated from
each other materials which react with them.
            Combustible Metals - most of combustible metals are chemical elements which are part of earth's
composition. Very few if any, are found in the natural state, as in gold. The pure metal is extracted from mineral ore
deposits by chemical processes. Some of the combustible metals are the following:
1.       Sodium
2.       Magnesium
3.       Titanium
4.       Potassium
5.       Uranium
6.       Lithium
7.       Zirconium
8.       Sodium-potassium alloys
 
Combustible Solids
1.       Wood
2.       Carbon a)
·         Coal& charcoal
·         Carbon monoxide
·         carbon dioxide
·         carbon monoxide is flammable
·         burns very hot
3.       Phosphorous
·         Pyrophoric - reacts violently when it contacts air
·         Bombs, pyrotechnic devices
4.       Sulfur
·         non-toxic in elemental form
·         sulfur dioxide formed when burn, toxic
5.       Metals
6.       Cellulose Nitrate
·         common, flammable, toxic
·         clear plastic materials
·         Oxidizing agent
7.       Ammonium Nitrate - explosive, oxidizing agent fertilizer, explosive when contaminated with fuel
8.       Other Nitrates
·         must be considered flammable and/or explosive
·         liberates toxic nitrogen oxides
9.       Solids with Flashpoints
·         Naphthalene - does not burn, gives off flammable vapors at 1740F.
 
EFFECTS OF FIRE ON VARIOUS MATERIALS
 
1.       Wood - Wood burns with an open flame and it chars depending upon its type, condition, and thickness.
Laminated wood girders, etc., will burn more readily than solid timbers of the same dimensions. Wood than shingles
will burn readily, and under certain conditions will curl and fly off a roof or wall, spreading fire in all directions.
Ordinary plywood under fire conditions has a tendency to "unpeel," exposing fresh surfaces to a fire; generally,
plywood will burn through more quickly than a solid board of the same thickness. The exterior and marine grades of
plywood use binder resins which have some fire resistance and will not burn as rapidly as the ordinary grades.
2.       Steel - In its usual form is non-combustible, however, steel wool and filings can be ignited under certain
conditions. In a burning building, structural steel may heat rapidly, lose its strength, and deform. Corrugated steel
sheeting, usually galvanized or coated with asphalt compounds is extensively used for siding and roofing. Some of
the asphalt coated materials will ignite, and the burning asphalt has a tendency to melt, rapidly spreading the fire. All
sheet-metal panels, siding, roofs, and partitions tend to deform under fire conditions.
3.       Masonry - In general, brick, stone, and concrete prolong exposure to heat, may crack or spall (crumbled). Of
are considered fire resistant. Under conditions of If suddenly cooled by the water from a hose stream, the surface of a
heated masonry wall may crack or spall with a near-explosive force and destructive effects on the wall.
4.       Miscellaneous Construction Materials -In In addition to the three most common building materials, there are
number of other materials that are used in all type of buildings. These types of materials are normally used for interior
finishes, roofing, or decorative purposes.
·         Plastic sheeting - A translucent, corrugated, plastic-impregnated fiberglass panels used for natural
illumination of structures. Used for combustibility varies according to the type of their type of plastic used as a binder.
Most types are slightly less combustible than wood, but still burn readily.
·         Glass - While glass is non-combustible, its normal brittleness is increased by sudden cooling. This causes it to
crack and shatter. Under conditions of elevated fire temperatures, glass, whether in the form of window panes or
blocks may melt and run.
·         Asphalt -asbestos siding, roofing, and shingles. All these are combustible to a degree, depending on the
relative amounts of asphalt and inert material compounds in their makeup.
·         Clay tile - These are used for floor covering, partitions, flues, etc., tile can be generally classed with masonry
as non-combustible. Under fire conditions, its behavior is similar to masonry, depending upon its thickness, density,
and surface texture.
·         Fiberboard - Fiberboards of vegetable or animal materials are generally combustible, while those of mineral
origin are not. Unless specially treated to retard flame spread, they decompose readily under heat and emit
flammable gases with a correspondingly high rate of flame propagation. Certain compressed, hard surfaced boards
composed of wood fiber with phenolic binder materials can be considered slow-burning. The s0-called "marine" or
"tempered" hardboards are in this slow-burning category.
·         Gypsum board - Widely used as an interior finish for partitions, walls, and ceilings, it is regarded as non-
combustible. Under fire conditions (especially if it cools suddenly) it may crack and splinter or chip. When it is
installed over wood studs in an approved manner, gypsum board protects one face of the combustible material.
·         Plastics and synthetic resins - To date more types and forms of plastics and synthetic resins are commonly
used as building materials, and for related purposes. Their behavior under fire conditions varies widely, according to
their chemical composition, ranging from essentially non-combustible through slow burning; to highly flammable No
general rule of fire behavior can be established for these materials. Also, toxicity of their burning waste products
varies with their chemical composition.
·         Examples of these materials (arranged in increasing order of flammability):
o   Bakelite-type (phenolic) materials
o   Poly-vinyl plastics
o   Celluloid-type materials
·         Acoustical and insulation materials - In general, acoustical and insulation materials composed of animal or
vegetable materials are combustible, while those of mineral origin are not. Under fire conditions, even those normally
regarded as noncombustible may be disintegrated or severely damaged by relatively little heat. However, some
acoustical tiles, when used with approved assemblies, will provide 1, 2, and 4 hour protection against the passage of
flame.
 
FIRE RETARDANT TREATMENT:
Two General Types of Fire-Retardant:
1.       Surface Coating - is usually used in combination with a paint, decompose at the point of contact of a flame or
other heat source to form a blister filled with an infinite number of tiny bubbles. These bubbles insulate the point
against further effects of heat until additional flame contact decomposes and disintegrates the blister.Top of Form
 
2.       Impregnation - It is usually done at a processing chemicals, under pressure, into the pores of the materials to
be protected.
            Both treatments vary on its effectiveness, depending on the material to be treated, the chemicals used, and
the efficiency of the coating or impregnation. Neither is can considered to be the equal of non-combustible
construction. Some solids, such as metals, like der magnesium and titanium are often used as construction material.

WEEK 10
HAZARDOUS MATERIAL IDENTITICATION
Hazard Classification
 
In the year 1976, the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) used a hazard classification and identification system all its
own for explosives and other dangerous materials.
After many years of study, the DoD implemented the present classification system based on a system recommended
for international use by the United Nations Organization (UNO).
 
Below are the listings of all nine UNO Classes of Dangerous Materials:
 
Class 1 Explosives
Class 1 is divided into four divisions which indicate the type of hazards expected.
 
A.      Class Division1.1
Mass detonating explosives comparable to Quantity-Distance (Q-D) Class 7 and M designated items. Assigned to
this class are principally blast hazards. They may be expected to mass detonate when a small portion is initiated by
any means, such as fire, severe concussion or impact impulse of an initiating agent.
B.      Class Division 1.2
Non-mass detonating, fragment producing explosives. These items for which the principal hazards may be fragments,
toxicity, or blast.
C.     Class Division 1.3
It includes explosives that present a mass fire hazard. Items assigned to this class usually burn vigorously with little
or no possibility of no possibility of extinguishing fires that have gained headway in storage situations. Explosions
normally are confined to pressure propagating Shock waves or damaging blast or damaging blast pressures beyond
the specified magazine distance. A serious fire-spread hazard can exist from projected burning fragments of
propellant, incendiary materials, packing materials, etc.
D.     Class Division 1.4
It includes explosives with a moderate fire hazard, but no blast hazard. Items assigned to this class primarily present
fire hazards producing no blast and virtually no fragmentation or toxic hazards beyond the normal1 fire hazard
(clearance) distance.
Class 2 - Gases: Compressed, liquefied or dissolved under pressure.
Class 3 - Flammable Liquids
Class 4 - Flammable Solids
Class 5 - Oxidizing Substances and Organic Peroxides
Class 6- Poisonous (toxic) and Infectious Substances
Class 6 is divided into 2 divisions
A.      Class Division 6.1 Poisonous (toxic) gas, vapors or substances:
These materials are comparable to Q-D Class 8, which includes those CB agents and items normally assembled with
explosive components, or where explosive components present little or no blast or fragment hazards. No quantity-
distances separations have been specifically established for this class as a whole. Special safety criteria or
instructions have not been provided with the stock involved and safety separation appears necessary because of
agent persistency, volatility, toxicity, or other particular feature, requests for information should be made to higher
headquarters.
B.      Class Division 6.2 Substances containing disease-producing micro-organisms.
This class division category is included for information only.
Class 7 Radioactive Substances
Class 8-Corrosives
Class 9 Miscellaneous dangerous substances (substances which present a danger not covered by the other classes).

NFPA Standard No. 704. Fire Hazards of Materials

 
Visually illustrates the hazards to firefighters fighting fires in fixed installations such as chemical processing areas,
storage and warehouse facilities, and laboratory entrances. The “704 Diamond" colored numbers is used to illustrate
the degree of hazard in 1th and the flammability and reactivity of hazardous materials.
 
The higher the number (0-4), the greater the degree of hazard. These numbers and symbols are easily recognized by
firefighters and they can take immediate steps to protect themselves. Unfortunately, this has not been widely adopted
by the general public or governmental units other than the fire departments. Unfortunately, this method has not been
widely adopted by the general public or governmental units other than the fire departments.
 
The Department of Transportation (DOT) labeling system is perhaps the most widely used. New and more descriptive
placards and labels have been selected that permit fire fighters and emergency service people all over the world to
visually understand the hazards they face at the scene of an emergency.
 
Some of the more common labels and placards are described here (see Figure 2) and should be explored in depth.

NOTE: The word "Gasoline" may be used in place of "Flammable" for highway transportation of gasoline. The words
"Fuel oil" may be used in place of "Combustible" for highway transportation of fuel oil that is not classed as a
"flammable liquid."
 
IMPORTANT
1.       All four sides of the vehicle must be placarded. Placement of the front placard may occur on either the cab or
the cargo body, from any other marking or sign.
2.       Placard must be placed at least 3 inches away from any other marking or sign. Double placarding should be
adjacent to each other.
3.       Combinations of vehicles, each of which contains hazardous materials, shall be each placarded in accordance
with the above chart.
 
  

FIGURE 3
SOURCE: http://readyandsafe.mt.gov/Home/Articles/nine-elements-of-a-hazardous-material-plan

EMERGENCY ACTION GUIDE FOR HAZARDOUS MATERIALS

 
CHLORINE: (Non-flammable Gas, Poisonous)
 
Potential Hazards
·         Fire: Cannot catch fire
May ignite combustible
·         Explosion: -Container may explode due to heat of fire.
·         Health: - Contact may cause burns to skin or eyes.
·         Vapors may be fatal if inhaled
·         Runoff may pollute water supply.
Immediate Action
·         Get help and notify local authorities
·         If possible, wear self-contained breathing apparatus and full protective clothing
·         Keep upwind and estimate immediate danger Area
·         Evacuate according to Evacuation Table.
 
Immediate Follow-up Action
Fire:
·         Move containers from fire area if without risk
·         Cool containers with water from maximum from maximum distance until fire is out
·         Do not get water inside containers
·         Do not use water on leaking container
·         Stay away from ends of tanks.
Spill or Leak:
·         Do not touch spilled liquid
·         Stop leak if without risk
·         Use water spray to reduce vapors
·         Isolate area until gas has dispersed
·         Do not get water inside container
First Aid:
·         Bring victim to fresh air and open area. Call for emergency medical care. Effects of contact or inhalation may
be delayed.
·         If victim is not breathing, give artificial respiration
·         If breathing difficult, give oxygen.
·         If victim contacted the material, immediately flush skin or eyes with running water for at least 15 minutes.
·         Remove contaminated clothes
·         Keep victim warm and quiet
  

WEEK 11

STRUCTURAL FIRE FIGHTING:

1.       INITIAL PROCEDURES:
A. Sounding the Alarm - The crew member who discovers/receives the fire alarm must sound the alarm promptly.
B. The crewman who sounds the alarm must be sure to give the exact location of the fire, information regarding the
type of fire. The exact location may indicate the need of fast and immediate response.
2.       FIRE FIGHTING PROCEDURES/STRATEGY:
A.     Size-up
The evaluation and observation of the fire scene on the following:
1.       Class of fire (what combustible materials are burning)
2.       The appropriate extinguishing agent to used
3.       The appropriate method of attack
4.       How to prevent the extension of fire.
5.       The required manpower and firefighting assignment.
B.     Attack
The method of action to gain immediate control to prevent or minimize the extension of fire to exposures.
Methods of Attack:
1. Direct Method
2. Indirect Method
C.     Ventilation
Types:
1. Vertical ventilation
2. Horizontal ventilation
3. Mechanical/forced ventilation
4. Combination of Vertical & Horizontal
D.     Exposures
E.      Extinguishment
An action/method performed by fire fighters in putting off the fire by means of extinguishing agent, such as; water,
chemicals and foam.
F.      Rescue
G.     Overhaul
H.     Salvage
 
THE FOLLOWING ARE THE OTHER STRATEGY USED IN FIREFIGHTING:
1.       Locate the fire
2.       Confine the fire
3.       Extinguish the fire
4.       Exposures
In addition to the basic, tactics the following are also added:
1.       Rescue
2.       Overhaul
3.       Ventilation
4.       Salvage
 
 
LOCATION
Locating the fire sounds like a simple matter. In an open lumber yard where flames are reaching for the sky, it is a
simple matter. But finding or locating a fire in a room in a cellar of a three-storey dormitory or building which is filled
with dense smoke is not an easy task.
CONFINEMENT
Confining the fire is the next step in strategy. Judgment, skill, and experience must be used to the utmost to
determine whether or not the fire is to be routine or a disaster. Confining the fire simply means to restrict its spread to
its point of origin or at least to the area involved.
 
EXTINGUISHMENT
Extinguishing the fire may take as little water as that use in a booster line, or it may take thousands of gallons played
through heavy appliance. The decision rests upon the judgment, skill, training, and experience of the officer-in-
charge.
 
 FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN EXTINGUIHSMENT
TIME OF THE DAY
A.      The hour of the day can have a direct bearing on the life and fire hazards involved.
B.      Time also has a direct bearing on the speed of the response of firefighting and rescue vehicles.
C.     During hours of darkness, special lighting equipment may be needed. Night operations may require auxiliary
firefighting personnel.
 
WEATHER
Some of the Weather factors that must be considered:
A.      TEMPERATURE
B.      HUMIDITY
C.     WIND AND PRECIPITATION
 
THE FIRE
Factors to be evaluated at the Fire Scene
A.      Extent of the Fire;
B.      Its location in the building;
C.     The type of contents involved;
D.     The life hazard/s;
E.      The fire conditions
F.      Type of construction
 
OCCUPANCY
Determine the number of people that occupy the building, including the materials that are found in it. Also note the
nature of the units occupying the building.
 
VENTILATION
It is a method used for clearing the building of smoke and gases, localize the fire, and reduce smoke and forcible
entry damage.
 
Types of Ventilation:
1.       Vertical Ventilation  - the method to establish vertical ventilation is, it must be worked from the top and down.
Heated gases and smoke rise to the highest point and, if confined, will tend to "mushroom" or rise to the highest point
of the building, exerting their heating effect on everything they touch.
2.       Cross or Horizontal Ventilation - If the smoke and gases have not reached the higher levels, cross ventilation
can clear the building one floor at a time. Windows are the easiest and generally most available for the common
types of buildings, but the indiscriminate opening of windows and doors can defeat the purpose of ventilation.
3.       Mechanical or Forced Ventilation - A process or method of ventilation whereby a device such as smoke
ejector is utilized to remove faster excessive heat and dense smoke in a confined building.
 
Factors to Determine the Location for the Opening/Ventilation:
1.       Location of intensity of fire
2.       Highest point on the roof
3.       Direction of wind
4.       Existing exposure
5.        Extent of fire
6.       Obstruction
 
Steps in the procedure for vertical ventilation
1.       Check the condition of the roof support to make that they have been burned away or weaken to point where
there is a possibility to collapse der your weight. Feeling the roof for hot spots you helps you determine if the fire has
reached the point to cause weakening
2.       Plan a way of escape from the roof in case of an emergency, such as roof collapse. Have a lifeline, especially
on a peaked roof, to prevent falling.
3.       Use any available openings that are part of the roof construction, such as skylights or roof trap doors.
4.       Make certain passageway for the smoke and heat extends down through the ceiling of the room. A hole in the
roof is of no use if there is no relief for gases, heat, and smoke in the room below.
5.       The opening should be large enough to provide a rapid exit for the smoke and gases.
6.       Work with the wind at your back, keeping in mind the heat, explosive characteristics, and toxic effects of
escaping gas.
 
Steps in the Procedure for Cross Horizontal Ventilation
1.       Open the windows on the leeward side first, and then open the windows on the windward side.
2.       After one floor is clear, ventilate the next floor in the same manner.
3.       If at all possible, avoid making openings below the level of the fire.
4.       If the opening is made at the same floor level as the fire, hose lines should be available for immediate use.
5.       Avoid ventilating a building in such a way that fire is withdrawn through any building part that is not involved.
6.       When making an opening, exercise great care to prevent the spread of the fire to exposures, and have hose
lines available to protect the exposures.
 
EXPOSURES
It is an action taken by the firefighters to cover or secure other building/s, people from exposing themselves near the
affected area or danger from fire.
 
Factors that contribute Ignition to Exposure:
1.       Direction and velocity of the wind;
2.       The relative humidity of the atmosphere;
3.       The distance between the building (the most important single factor in the potential danger of an exposure
hazard).
Type of Exposures
1.       Fire Exposures refers to the property exposed to the fire, such as property directly across alleys or besides the
fire building.
2.       Life Exposures refers to the danger to the lives of the occupants of any building that is in line with the travel of
dangerous fumes or gases thrown off by fire as well as to the occupants of any building that is seriously exposed to
the fire from the building on fire. All other firefighting actions (tactics) stem from this basic strategy.
 
RESCUE
Any action taken by the firefighters to remove occupants/persons from a burning building/hazards to a safety place.
 
A.     HYDRAULIC RESCUE TOOLS
Hydraulic rescue tools are used by emergency rescue personnel to assist vehicle extrication of crash victims, as well
as other rescues from small spaces. Hydraulic rescue tools are powered by a hydraulic pump, which can be hand-,
foot, or Engine-powered, or even built into the tool itself.
CUTTER - The cutter is a hydraulic tool which is designed to cut through metal. It is often called a crab-cutter, owing
the shape and configuration of its blades.
SPREADER - A spreader is a hydraulic tool designed with 2 arms which have a narrow tip. The tip of the tool can be
inserted into a narrow gap between two vehicle panels (such as between 2 doors, or between a door and a fender)-
when the tool is operated, the arms are opened, drawing apart the metal in the panels. Spreaders are used to "pop"
vehicle doors from their hinges.
SPREADER-CUTTER - Whilst a cutter or spreader tool is designed for designed for a particular application, a
combination tool is also available which combines the cutting and spreading functions of separate tools into a single
tool. In tool. In operation, the tips of the spreader-cutter's blades are wedged into a seam or gap for example, around
a vehicle door- and the device engaged.
POWER - The tools operate on the basis of hydraulic oil pressure of up to 720 bar, which must be provided from a
power source. At present, there are 3 different means of generating the pressure. The most commonly used source is
separate power unit, which is a small petrol engine connected to a hydraulic pump. The oil is pressured in the pump
and conveyed in a hose under pressure to the tool.
B.     BREATHING APPARATUS
A device that provide the user with an additional supply of air or breathing protection.
A self-contained breathing apparatus, or SCBA, sometimes referred to as a Compressed Air Breathing Apparatus
(CABA) or simply Breathing Apparatus (BA) is a device worn by rescue workers, firefighters, and others to provide
breathable air in a hostile environment. When not used underwater, they are sometimes called not used industrial
breathing sets. The term "self-contained" means that the breathing set is not dependent on a remote supply (e.g.,
through a long hose). If designed for use under water, it is called SCUBA (self-contained underwater breathing
apparatus).
An SCBA typically has three main components: 1.
1.       A high-pressure tank (e.g., 2200 psi to 4500 psi);
2.       A pressure regulator;
3.       An inhalation connection (mouthpiece, mouth mask or face mask), connected together and mounted to a
carrying frame.
Two kinds of SCBA:
1.       Closed Circuit - The closed-circuit type filters, supplements, and recirculates exhaled gas: It is used when a
longer- duration supply of breathing gas is needed, such as in a rescue and in long tunnels, and going through
passages too narrow for a big open-circuit air cylinder.
2.       Open-Circuit - Open-circuit industrial breathing sets are filtered, compressed air, rather than pure oxygen.
Typical open-circuit systems have two regulators; a first stage to reduce the pressure of air to allow it be carried to
the mask, and a second stage regulator to reduce it even further to a level just above standard atmospheric pressure.
This air is then fed to the mask via either a demand valve (activating only on inhalation) or a continuous positive
pressure valve (providing constant airflow to the mask).
Parts of Breathing Apparatus:
a.       Face piece - An assembly that fits onto the face of the person using the breathing apparatus, forming a tight
seal to the face and transmitting air or or oxygen to the user.
b.       Regulator - A device that is used to control the pressure of air coming from the cylinder.

OVERHAUL
A complete and detailed check of the structures and materials involved in the fire to
make sure that every spark and ember has been extinguished and to have an
assurance against re-ignition.
SALVAGE
An action taken by the firefighters in preventing excessive damage by fire, smoke, and water with the use salvage
cover or by removing materials out from the burning building