Course Description

This course is designed to teach students the basic concepts necessary to understand fire and how to
effectively extinguish incipient stage fires. A basic understanding of these concepts can aid workers in
handling emergency situations involving fires. The course is designed to meet the requirements of OSHA
regulation 29 CFR 1910.157. Other standards referenced in the course are NFPA 10 and NFPA 30.

Table of Contents
Theory of Fire Page 3

Fire Tetrahedron Page 4

Fire Development Page 12

Classification of Fires Page 15

Principles of Extinguishment Page 18

Extinguishing Agents Page 20

Fire Extinguishers Page 25

Fire Extinguisher Risk Assessment Page 28

Using a Fire Extinguisher Page 30

Fire Extinguisher Maintenance Page 31

Fire Safety Page 33

Rescue Drags and Carries Page 35

 1 Theory of Fire
1.1 Fire, also called burning or combustion, is a rapid chemical reaction that results in the
release of energy in the form of light and noticeable heat. Most combustion involves
very rapid oxidation.
1.2 Oxidation The chemical reaction by which oxygen combines chemically with
elements of a burning substance. Even when oxidation proceeds very slowly, as in the
case of a piece of iron that is rusting, a small amount of heat is generated. However,
this heat is usually dissipated before there is any noticeable rise in the temperature of
the material being oxidized. With certain types of materials, slow oxidation can turn
into fast oxidation (fire) if the heat is not dissipated. When this occurs, it is said that
spontaneous combustion has occurred. Such things as rags or papers soaked with
animal or vegetable fats or with paints or solvents are particularly subject to
spontaneous combustion if stowed in confined spaces where heat of oxidation cannot
be dissipated rapidly enough.
Oxidation can occur at different rates.

Rust is a very slow oxidation

process which can take months to
occur

Fire is a rapid oxidation process

Explosions take place when

oxidation occurs instantaneously

1.3 Flash Point- is the lowest temperature at which a flammable substance gives off
vapors that will burn when a flame or spark is applied.

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 1.4 Fire Point, which is usually a few degrees higher than the flash point, is the
temperature at which the fuel will continue to burn after it has been ignited.

1.5 Auto-ignition or Self-ignition point is the lowest temperature to which a

substance must be heated to give off vapors that will burn without the application of
a spark or flame. In other words, the auto-ignition point is the temperature at which
spontaneous combustion occurs. The auto-ignition point is usually at a much higher
temperature than the fire point.

2 Fire Tetrahedron
A tetrahedron is simply a shape which has four parts.
We will use this model to describe fire. This is the
most important concept to understand when it comes
to understanding fire. The model states that it takes
four components for a fire to occur. The old model
used to be called the fire triangle which said that it
took the following for a fire to occur.
 Fuel
 Heat
 Oxygen
We know now that in order for a substance to
continue to burn, one additional component must take
place, thus we get the tetrahedron.

 Chemical Chain Reaction

Lets take a more detailed look at these components.

2.1 Fuel- also called a reducing agent, is found in three physical states.
 Solids
 Liquids
 Gases

2.1.1 Solids- Must first go through a process before the substance will burn. It must
go through pyrolysis.

Pyrolysis is the chemical decomposition of a substance through the action of heat.

As solid fuels are heated, combustible materials are driven from the substance. If
there is sufficient fuel and heat, the process of pyrolysis generates sufficient
quantities of burnable gases to ignite if the other elements of the fire tetrahedron
are present. Most people are under the mistaken impression that the solid material
is burning which is not actually the case. It is the gases produced from the
substance. In the following diagram the principle of pyrolysis is shown.

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 Surface to Mass Ratio- is the area of the fuel in proportion to the mass. One
example of this is wood. To use wood it must be cut into a log. The mass of the log is
very high, but the surface area is very low, thus the surface-to-mass ratio is low. The
log is then milled into boards. The mass is reduced but the surface area is increased,
thus increasing the surface-to-mass ratio. The sawdust that is produced when the
lumber is milled has an even higher surface-to-mass ratio. If the boards are sanded
the resulting dust has the highest surface-to-mass ratio of the examples given.

As this ratio increases, the fuel particles become smaller (more finely divided)
increasing their ignitability. As the surface area increases, more of the material is
exposed to the heat and thus generates more burnable gases due to pyrolysis.

A solid fuels actual position also affects the way it burns. If a solid fuel is in a vertical
position, fire spread will be more rapid than if it is in horizontal position. The rapid
fire spread is due to increased heat transfer through convection as well as
conduction and radiation.

2.1.2 Liquids- fuel gas is generated by a process called vaporization

Vaporization- is the transformation of a liquid to its vapor or gaseous state. The rate
of vaporization is determined by the substance and the amount of heat energy
applied to it.

For example water left in a pan eventually evaporates. The energy required for this
process comes from the sun or surrounding environment. Water in the same pan
placed on a stove and heated to boiling vaporizes much more rapidly because there
is more energy being applied to the system. The rate of vaporization is determined
by the substance and the amount of heat applied to it.

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 Vaporization of liquid fuels generally requires less energy input than does pyrolysis for solid
fuels. This is primarily caused by the different densities of substances in solid and liquid
states and by the fact that molecules of a substance in the liquid state have more energy
than when they are in the solid state. Solids also absorb more of the energy because of
their mass. The volatility or ease with which a liquid gives off vapor influences ignitability.

Surface to Volume Ratio- is an important factor in their ignitability. A liquid assumes

the shape of its container. Thus, when a spill or release occurs, the liquid assumes
the shape of the ground, flows, and accumulates in low areas. So when a liquid is
released from its container, this ratio increases significantly as does the amount of
fuel vaporized from the surface.

2.1.3 Gases- Gaseous fuels can be the most dangerous of all fuel types because they
are already in the natural state required for ignition. No pyrolysis or vaporization is
needed to ready the fuel and less energy is required for ignition.

For combustion to occur after a fuel has been converted into a gaseous state, it must
be mixed with air (oxidizer) in the proper ratio. The range of concentrations of the
fuel vapor and air is called the Flammable Range.

Lower Flammable Limit (LFL)- is the minimum concentration of fuel vapor and air
that supports combustion. Concentrations that are below the LFL are said to be too
lean to burn.

Upper Flammable Limit (UFL)- is the concentration above which combustion cannot
take place. Concentrations that are above the UFL are said to be too rich to burn.

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 Air + Combustibles
Too Lean Too Rich

LEL/LFL UEL/UFL

For Example, if we have a substance with a flammable range of 1 to 12 percent, this

means that fire or explosion can occur if the atmosphere contains more than 1 percent
but less than 12 percent of vapor of this substance. In general, the percentages referred
to in connection with flammable or explosive ranges are percentages by volume.

Remember that Gases is are the most dangerous type of fuel because they are already in
the phase of matter that burns. For this reason we store most gases that are used in
industry and residentially as a liquid under pressure. It is important to remember that
the only thing keeping the gas in its liquid form is it being under pressure. If a tank
ruptures during a fire, all the liquid will vaporize and expand which can cause a very big
explosion. It is commonly referred to as a BLEVE ( Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor
Explosion).

2.2 Oxygen/Oxidizers
Oxygen is one of the more common elements in our atmosphere. Oxidizers are
those materials that yield oxygen or other oxidizing agents during the course of a
chemical reaction. Oxidizers themselves are not combustible, but they support
combustion when combined with a fuel. Oxygen is the most common oxidizer. The
following are some common oxidizers:

Bromates Bromine Chlorates

Chlorine Fluorine Iodine

Nitrates Nitric Acid Nitrites

Perchlorates Permanganates Peroxides

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 Oxygen exists in the atmosphere normally at a
concentration of 21%. When oxygen concentrations
exceed 21 percent, the atmosphere is considered to be
oxygen enriched.

Under these conditions materials exhibit very different

burning characteristics. Materials that burn at normal
oxygen levels burn more rapidly in oxygen-enriched
atmospheres and may ignite much easier than normal.
Some petroleum based materials will auto-ignite in oxygen
enriched atmospheres. Many materials that do not burn
at normal oxygen levels, burn readily in oxygen enriched
atmospheres.

EX. Nomex® is a fire resistant material which is used to

construct the protective clothing worn by firefighters. At
normal oxygen levels it does not burn. When placed in an
atmosphere of approximately 31 percent oxygen it ignites
and burns vigorously.

To make a comparison, fires and humans will react

similarly depending on the concentration as in the picture
below.

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 2.3 Heat
Heat is the energy component of the fire tetrahedron. When heat comes into
contact with a fuel, the energy supports the combustion reaction in the following
ways:

1. Causes the pyrolysis or vaporization of solid and liquid fuels and the production
of ignitable vapors or gases.
2. Provides the energy necessary for ignition
3. Causes the continuous production and ignition of fuel vapors or gases so that the
combustion reaction can continue.

For discussion on fire behavior, chemical, electrical, and mechanical energy are the
most common sources of heat that result in the ignition of a fuel.

2.3.1 Chemical

Chemical heat energy is the most common source of heat in combustion reactions.
When any combustible is in contact with oxygen, oxidation occurs. This process is
almost always results in the production of heat. The heat generated when a
common match burns is an example of chemical heat energy.

Self-heating (also known as spontaneous heating) is a form of chemical heat energy

that occurs when a material increases in temperature without the addition of
external heat. In order for spontaneous ignition to occur, the material must be
heated to its ignition temperature.

An example of a situation that could lead to spontaneous ignition would be a

number of oil-soaked rags rolled into a ball and thrown into a corner. If the heat
generated by the natural oxidation of the oil and cloth is not allowed to dissipate,
either by movement of air around the rags or some other method of heat transfer,
the temperature of the cloth will eventually become sufficient to cause ignition.

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 2.3.2 Mechanical

Mechanical heat energy is generated by friction and compression.

Heat of Friction- is created by the movement of two surfaces against each other. This
movement results in heat and/or sparks being generated.

Heat of Compression- is generated when a gas is compressed. Diesel engines use this
principle to ignite fuel vapor without a spark plug. The principle is also the reason that
SCBA cylinders feel warm to the touch after they have been filled.

2.3.3 Electrical

Electrical heat energy can generate temperatures high enough to ignite any combustible
materials near the heated area. Electrical heating can occur in several ways including
the following:

 Current flow through a resistance

 Overcurrent or overload
 Arcing
 Sparking
 Static
 Lightning

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3 Fire Development

When all the components come together flaming combustion occurs. Heat produced by the
initial fire package is transmitted to additional fuel packages. The initial package creates a
plume of hot gases. Outside fires are spread primarily by winds, terrain, and other exposed
fuel packages. An enclosed fire is very complex and tends to be fuel or oxygen controlled.
When the existing reducing agents have been utilized, the fire is then fuel controlled. In a
fire that is ventilation controlled there is a limited source of oxygen.

When no intervention is taken the fire will develop through five stages

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 3.1 Ignition Stage
Ignition is defined as the period when all the components of the fire tetrahedron are
brought together and is piloted or non-piloted. The fire at this point is confined to the
initial package. Room temperature at this point is approximately 110 0F (380C).
Superheated gases generated by the combustion process are rising to the top of the
compartment. The air in the room has about 20% oxygen. The plume above the fire
entrains air from the compartment. This is the stage at which fire extinguishers are an
effective means of extinguishment. If the compartment is equipped with a sprinkler
system or other fire fighting system it is usually activated during this stage.

3.2 Growth Stage

An interior fire, unlike an exterior fire, is greatly affected by the walls and ceiling which
confine the superheated gases created by the fire. In an exterior fire, the air entrained
by the fire has a cooling affect on the fire while in an interior fire the temperature of
the fire is constantly increasing. During the growth stage, in an interior fire, the air
entrained by an interior fire is constantly increasing. The superheated gases rise and
begin to collect at the ceiling. The gases will spread and begin to layer. The
temperature varies throughout the room. Typically, the temperature of the
superheated gases decreases as they move away from the centerline of the plume.

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 3.3 Flashover
A rapid temperature increase occurs within the compartment, commonly referred to
as flashover. Flashover is a transitional stage between the growth and fully developed
fire stage. The layering of superheated gases creates radiant heating which causes
combustibles within the compartment to simultaneously ignite. The temperatures
range between 9000-1,2000F. This temperature directly correlates with the ignition
temperature of carbon monoxide which is the most common gas emitted during
pyrolysis.

3.4 Fully Developed or Free Burning Stage

The fire has now developed into a fully developed fire. This stage is defined by its high
heat. All combustibles are now involved in the fire. The heat released is defined by
the volume of the fuel package as well as the number and type of ventilation.
Superheated gases can travel into nearby areas and ignite.

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 3.5 Decay Stage
As the available fuel packages are being utilized the heat release rate begins to decline
and marks the beginning of the decay phase. The fire has become fuel controlled,
flames begin to decline, and temperatures within the compartment have diminished.

Another hazardous situation can occur during this time. If the fire consumes enough
oxygen to reduce the level below 14%, and there isn’t an available source of oxygen,
the flames will go out and the fire begins to smolder. The heat is continuing to cause
the fuel to emit flammable vapors which gather in the space. If oxygen is rapidly
introduced back into the space, the flame will return and ignite the unburned
flammable gases causing a backdraft.

 Low Oxygen
 High Heat
 Smoldering fire
 High fuel vapor
concentrations

Introduction of oxygen causes fire of explosive force

4 Classification of Fires
Fires are classified according to the nature of the combustibles or fuels involved. The
classification of any particular fire is important, since it determines the manner in which the
fire must be extinguished. Fires are classified as Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class
K.

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 4.1 Class A
These are fires that occur in such ordinary combustible materials such as wood, cloth,
paper, upholstery, and similar materials. Class A fires are usually extinguished with
water, using high or low velocity fog or solid streams. Class A fire leaves embers or
ashes and they must always be broken up to ensure total extinguishment.

USA UK

4.2 Class B
These are fires that occur in a vapor-air mixture over the surface of flammable
liquids such as gasoline, jet fuels, diesel oil, paints, thinners, solvents, lubricating oils,
and grease. Dry chemical, foam, light water, carbon dioxide, or water fog can be
used to extinguish Class B fires. The choice of agents depends on the circumstances
of the fire.

USA UK

In The USA the classification consists of flammable liquids and gases. They are classified
together as most flammable gases are stored as a liquid under pressure. The UK system
splits these into two separate classes, Class B being flammable liquids and Class C being
Flammable gases. It is split in the UK as there are certain techniques which can be used
to fight these types of fires and they have some characteristics which are unique to
flammable gas fires.

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 4.3 Class C
These fires are those occurring in energized electrical equipment. Non-conducting
extinguishing agents such as dry chemicals, carbon dioxide, and halogenated agents
are used for extinguishing Class C fires. Carbon dioxide or a halogenated agent is
preferred because they leave no residue. Halogenated agents are usually only in
special applications as it is expensive and not environmentally friendly as they are
fluorocarbons. Once the energy source is de-energized the fire becomes a Class A or B
fire.

USA UK

4.4 Class D
These fires are those occurring in combustible metals such as magnesium, titanium,
zirconium, sodium, potassium, calcium, lithium and Zinc. Special techniques have
been developed for the control of this type of fire. Class D fires have extremely high
temperatures, in excess of 2000 0F. Most combustible metals are reactive to water.

USA UK

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 4.5 Class K
Class K is a newer class recognized by NFPA 10 which involves Cooking Oils or Fats.
The special characteristics of these types of fires are considered important enough to
classify them separately. Do not attempt to fight a class K fire with water or CO 2 as an
adverse reaction can occur which can cause injury or the fire to spread. Class K
extinguishers should be used which will be more effective than dry powder
extinguishers and also there is less potential of splashing. It is referred to as class F in
the UK.

5 Principles of Extinguishment
Overall, Fires may be extinguished by removing a component of the fire tetrahedron (fuel,
heat, oxygen or chemical chain reaction) or by slowing the rate of combustion. The method
of extinguishment used in any specific instance depends on the classification of the fire and
the circumstances surrounding the fire.

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 5.1 Removal of Fuel
Although removing the fuel to control a fire is not usually possible, there may be
circumstances in which fuel removal is possible. Firefighting parties might have to shift
combustibles to safe areas and to take whatever measures which are possible to
prevent additional fuel from coming into contact with the fire. Supply valves in fuel
and oil lines must be closed immediately which is an example of fuel removal. A
common technique used in wild land firefighting is called back-burning. This is
intentionally burning the fuels in front of a progressing fire to make a fire break
preventing fire spread past the back burned area.

5.2 Removal of Heat

Heat may be transferred in three ways: radiation, conduction, and convection. It is
radiant heat the is felt when you stand near an open flame. In conduction, heat is
transferred through a solid material. In convection, the heated air and other gases
rising from a fire bring heat to all combustible materials within reach.

If enough heat can be removed by cooling the fire to a temperature below that at
which it will support combustion, the fire will go out. Water is the most commonly
used cooling agent. Water may be applied as a solid stream, as fog, or incorporated as
foam. The way in which the water or other cooling agent is applied depends on the
nature of the fire.

5.3 Control of Oxygen

The third component of the fire triangle, oxygen, is difficult to control because it is
difficult to remove oxygen from the atmospheric air that normally surrounds a fire.
Oxygen can be diluted or displaced by other substances that are non-combustible, so
the fire will go out.

If fire occurs in a closed space, it can be extinguished by diluting the air with Carbon
Dioxide (CO2) gas. This dilution of the air must reach a certain point before the flames
are extinguished. A large volume of CO2 must be used to reduce the oxygen content to
15 % or less. Oxygen’s normal concentration in the atmosphere is 21%.

5.4 Inhibiting the Chain Reaction

Reduce the rate of combustion by interrupting the chain reaction. As is graphically
illustrated by the fire tetrahedron, all four components must be in place in order to
have flaming combustion. Dry chemical disrupts the normal function of the free
radicals in a fire. The free radicals are unstable products of combustion that are found
in the intermediate stage of flame evolution. Halon is another agent which works by
interrupting the chain reaction.

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6 Extinguishing Agents
No matter what method of fire extinguishment is used, it must be rapidly if the fire is to be
brought under control. Most fires start from small points of ignition, but they can spread
rapidly. If a fire is to be successfully extinguished, it must be done rapidly as possible. Even
a slight delay may cause the fire to grow beyond control with the available equipment. The
extinguishing agents commonly used in the petroleum industry include water, foam, dry
chemicals, and carbon dioxide (CO2).

6.1 Water
Cooling is the most common method of fire extinguishment, and water has the
greatest capacity for heat absorption. Most burning substances can be cooled below
their ignition points by the application of water.

6.1.1 Extinguishing Properties of water

 Is readily available
 Is relatively Inexpensive
 Has great heat absorbing capability
 Absorbs a great amount of heat when
converted to Steam
 The greater the surface area the greater
the heat absorption
 At 100 0C water expands to 1700 times
the original volume
Water is usually applied by means of an all purpose nozzle. With the all purpose
nozzle, water may be applied as a solid stream, as a high velocity water fog, or as low
velocity fog. Fog is preferred to the solid stream unless reaching a fire that is some
distance away is necessary or when penetrating power of the solid stream is
required. Fog pattern will absorb more heat and in some cases can smother the fire
by displacing oxygen.

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 Pattern Advantages
 Maintains better visibility
 Greater reach
 Greater penetrating power
Strait Stream  Less likely to disturb thermal
layering in a structure
 Allows adjustment of pattern
to suit situation
 Aids in ventilation
Fog Pattern  Dissipates heat by exposing
the maximum water surface
for heat absorption
Disadvantages
 Cannot be used for foam
application
 Provides less heat absorbtion
 Cannot be used on class C
fires because of electrocution
hazard
 Does not have the reach or
penetrating power of strait
stream
 Are more susceptible to wind
currents

Water fog affords considerable protection to the firefighter by forming a screen of

water droplets between himself and the fire. This fog screen gives protection
against the intense heat of the fire and thus gives the firefighter a certain amount of
maneuverability in attacking the fire. Water fog also dilutes or absorbs various
vapors and can be used to wash fumes and smoke from the atmosphere.

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 6.1.2 Hose handling techniques
When handling a charged hose line the nozzle man should
 Hose cradled against the inside of the leg
 Hose braced against front of the body and Hip
 Foot of supporting leg on hose
 Hand on nozzle bale when flowing water

Handling the hose alone can be difficult therefore the

The following technique can be used:

With two fire fighters or more the following technique should be used.

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 6.2 Foam
Foam is a highly effective extinguishing agent for smothering large fires, particularly
flammable liquids.
6.2.1 Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF) / Lightwater
Is a synthetic, film forming foam liquid. The unique action of light
water stems from its ability to make a light water film float on
flammable fuels. As foam is applied over the flammable liquid
surface, an aqueous solution drains from the bubbles and floats out
over the surface to provide a vapor seal. This aqueous film forming
action enhances extinguishment and prevents reflash.
Foam works in the following way:

Foam should be applied in the following methods:

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 6.3 Dry Chemical
Dry chemical powders extinguish a fire by preventing a chemical reaction from
occurring. The do not smother the fire and they do not cool it. Instead, they
interrupt the chemical reaction that is fire by suspending fine particles in the fire. In
effect, the dry chemicals put a temporary screen between the heat, oxygen, and fuel
and maintain this screen just long enough for the fire to be extinguished. Four types
of dry chemical extinguishing agents in use to extinguish fires:

6.3.1 Sodium Bicarbonate is the original dry chemical extinguishing agent.

It is generally called regular dry chemical and is widely used because it
is the most economical dry chemical agent.

6.3.2 Potassium Bicarbonate also known as Purple-K-Powder or PKP. PKP is

used for extinguishing Class B and Class C fires. It is very effective
against these fires. However, it is both corrosive and abrasive and
should be used on Class C fires only in emergencies. PKP is primarily
used in extinguishers. It can also be used in conjunction with AFFF.

6.3.3 Potassium Chloride was developed as a dry chemical that would be

compatible with protein foam. Its extinguishing properties are about
equal to those of potassium bicarbonate. One drawback is the
tendency to cause corrosion after is has extinguished the fire.

6.3.4 Monoammonium Phosphate is called multipurpose dry chemical

because it can be effective on Class A, Class B, and Class C fires.

6.4 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Carbon Dioxide is a very effective agent for extinguishing fires by smothering them, by
reducing the oxygen available for combustion. This smothering action of carbon
dioxide is temporary. The fire fighter must remember that the fire can quickly rekindle
if oxygen is again admitted to a heat source.

Carbon dioxide is a dry, non-corrosive gas that is inert when in contact with most
substances. Carbon dioxide does not damage machinery or other equipment. Since it
is a non-conductor of electricity, carbon dioxide can safely be used in fighting fires that
might present electric shock hazards. However, the frost that collects on the horn of a
carbon dioxide cylinder is a conductor of electricity.

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 Although carbon dioxide is nonpoisonous, it is dangerous to the firefighter because it
does not provide a suitable atmosphere for breathing. Asphyxiation can result from
breathing carbon dioxide.

6.5 Halon
Halon is an excellent extinguishing agent that extinguishes by interrupting the
chemical reaction. Halon has an ozone-depletion potential and has been phased out
of production. The only exception that has been made is if no other alternatives are
available. Halon 1211 and Halon 1301 are the two most common halogenated
compounds used for fire extinguishment. Halogenated vapor is nonconductive and is
effective in extinguishing Class B and Class C fires.

6.6 Special Powders

None of the agents listed so far are effective on class D fires. No single agent will
extinguish all combustible metals. Special agents have been developed to control and
extinguish metal fires. Some of the agents are graphite based powders others are
sodium based.

7 Fire Extinguishers
A fire extinguisher is an active firefighting device used to extinguish or control small fires,
often in emergency situations. They are effective in the incipient or ignition phase of a fire.
There are two main types of extinguishes, the stored pressure and the cartridge operated
types.

7.1 Extinguisher Anatomy

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 7.2 Extinguisher Types
Extinguishers are rated for the types of fires they are effective in extinguishing.

7.2.1 Water Extinguishers –There are two main types of water

extinguishers: Air pressurized water (APW) and Water mist

Air pressurized water extinguishers

 Rated for class A fires

 30-40 ft. effective range
 Extinguishes by cooling the burning material
Water mist type

 Uses a fine misting nozzle to break up a stream of

deionized water to the point that it will not conduct
electricity back to the user
 Rated for Class A and Class C fires

7.2.2 Foam Extinguishers – Applied to liquid fuel

fires to form a foam blanket on the surface of
the fuel preventing oxygen from reaching the
fire and also preventing vapors from being
released. It helps reduce the chance of the

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 fuel re-flashing. Effective on Class A and Class
B fires.

7.2.3 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) – Carbon dioxide is

agent which displaces oxygen. It is effective
on Class B and Class C fires. It can be used
on a person but care must be taken as the
agent is very cold and can cause frostbite.
There is also a hazard of asphyxiation.
Carbon dioxide extinguishers are easily
identifiable by their oversized plastic gauge.
They also do not contain a pressure gage.

3 – 8 foot effective range because it is easily

effected by wind currents.

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 7.2.4 Dry Chemical Powder (DCP)

 PKP, sodium bicarbonate, and Potassium

Cartridge Type
Chloride are rated for Class B and Class C
 Multipurpose Dry Chemical (monoammonium
Phosphate) is rated for Class A, Class B, and
Class C fires.
They are pressurized with nitrogen or carbon
dioxide. You should never mix agents as they may
react causing increased pressure inside the
extinguisher. DCP can reduce visibility and create
respiratory problems. Some cannot be used with
foam as they will degrade the foam blanket.
Many are corrosive to metals.

5 – 20 ft. Effective Range

7.2.5 Class D powders

Most Class D extinguishers will have a special

low velocity nozzle or discharge wand to
gently apply the agent in large volumes to
avoid disrupting any finely divided burning
materials. No one powder can put out all
combustible metal fires. The label will specify
which metals the extinguisher is intended for.

7.2.6 Wet Chemical

Contain a special potassium acetate based

agent which reacts with the cooking oil
forming a foam blanket sealing the oxygen off
from the fire. It also acts as a cooling agent.

10 – 12 Ft. Maximum range

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 Extinguisher Summary
Extinguisher Type Works by Effective Against

Pressurized Water Cooling

Carbon Dioxide Smothering

Dry Chemical Breaks Chain Reaction

Multi-Purpose Dry
Breaks Chain Reaction
Chemical

Halon Breaks Chain Reaction

Combustible Metal Smothering

Wet Chemical Smothering/Cooling

Isolating
Foam
Fuel/Cooling/Smothering

8 Fire Extinguisher Risk Assessment

Portable fire extinguishers have two functions: to control or extinguish small or incipient
stage fires and to protect evacuation routes that a fire may block directly or indirectly with
smoke or burning/smoldering materials.

To extinguish a fire with a portable extinguisher, a person must have immediate access to
the extinguisher, know how to actuate the unit, and know how to apply the agent
effectively. Attempting to extinguish even a small fire carries some risk. Fires can increase in
size and intensity in seconds, blocking the exit path of the fire fighter and creating a
hazardous atmosphere. In addition, portable fire extinguishers contain a limited amount of
extinguishing agent and can be discharged in a matter of seconds. Therefore, individuals
should attempt to fight only very small or incipient stage fires.

Prior to fighting any fire with a portable fire extinguisher you must perform a risk
assessment that evaluates the fire size, the fire fighters evacuation path, and the
atmosphere in the vicinity of the fire.

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Risk Assessment Question
Is the fire too big?
Is the air safe to breathe?
Is the environment too hot or
smoky?
Is there a safe evacuation
path?
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Characteristics of incipient stage
fires or fires that can be
extinguished with portable fire
extinguishers
The fire is limited to the original
material ignited, it is contained (such as
in a waste basket) and has not spread
to other materials. The flames are no
higher than the firefighter's head.
The fire has not depleted the oxygen in
the room and is producing only small
quantities of toxic gases. No respiratory
protection equipment is required.
Heat is being generated, but the room
temperature is only slightly increased.
Smoke may be accumulating on the
ceiling, but visibility is good. No special
personal protective equipment is
required.
There is a clear evacuation path that is
behind you as you fight the fire.
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Characteristics of fires that
SHOULD NOT be fought with a
portable fire extinguisher (beyond
incipient stage) - evacuate
immediately
The fire involves flammable solvents,
has spread over more than 60 square
feet, is partially hidden behind a wall or
ceiling, or cannot be reached from a
standing position.
Due to smoke and products of
combustion, the fire cannot be fought
without respiratory protection.
The radiated heat is easily felt on
exposed skin making it difficult to
approach within 10-15 feet of the fire
(or the effective range of the
extinguisher). One must crawl on the
floor due to heat or smoke. Smoke is
quickly filling the room, decreasing
visibility.
The fire is not contained, and fire, heat,
or smoke may block the evacuation
path.
9 Using a Fire Extinguisher
The Following Steps Should be followed when responding to an incipient stage fire:

 Sound the fire alarm and call the fire department, if appropriate
 Identify a safe evacuation path before approaching the fire. Do not allow the fire,
heat, or smoke to come between you and your evacuation path
 Select the appropriate type of fire extinguisher
 Discharge the extinguisher within its effective range using the P.A.S.S Technique
(PULL, Aim, Squeeze, Sweep)
 Back away from an extinguished fire in case it flames up again
 Evacuate immediately if the extinguisher is empty and the fire is not out
 Evacuate immediately if the fire progresses beyond the incipient stage

Most fire extinguishers operate using the P.A.S.S. Technique:

1. PULL the pin. This will break the tamper

seal.

2. Aim----Aim Low, pointing the extinguisher

nozzle (or its horn or hose) At the base of
the fire
Note: Do not touch the plastic discharge
horn on CO2 extinguishers, its gets very cold
and may damage skin.

3. SQUEEZE---Squeeze the handle to

release the extinguishing agent.

4. SWEEP---Sweep from side to side at the

base of the fire until it appears to be out.
Watch the area. If the fire re-ignites, repeat
steps 2-4.

If you have the slightest doubt about

your ability to fight a
fire……………….EVACUATE IMMEDIATELY

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10 Extinguisher Maintenance
Extinguishers should be expected following the schedule mentioned below.

10.1 Monthly Inspection

Minimal knowledge is necessary to perform a monthly “quick check” or inspection.
Fire extinguishers shall be inspected when initially placed in service and thereafter at
approximately 30-day intervals. These monthly inspections shall include a check of at
least the following items:
 Located in designated place
 No obstruction to access or visibility
 Operating instructions on nameplate legible and
facing outward
 Safety seals and tamper indicators not broken or
missing
 Fullness determined by weighing or “hefting”
 Examination for obvious physical damage,
corrosion, leakage, or clogged nozzle
 Pressure gauge reading or indicator in the
operable range or position

10.2 Annual Maintenance

Stored pressure extinguishers containing a loaded stream agent shall be
disassembled on an annual basis and subjected to complete maintenance. The
stream charge shall be permitted to be re-used, provided it is subjected to agent
analysis in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions. A tag shall be placed on the
extinguisher which includes month and year the maintenance was performed. It
shall also contain the name of the agency performing the test and initials of the
person performing the maintenance. Usually this maintenance is done by a third
party which has the proper tools and procedures to do this level of maintenance.

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 Monthly Annual Annual (metal)

10.3 Six-Year Maintenance

Every extinguisher which has a 12 year hydrostatic test shall be emptied and
subjected to the applicable maintenance procedures. This usually includes removal
of the agent by proper means.

10.4 Hydrostatic Testing

Hydrostatic testing shall be performed by persons trained in pressure testing
procedures and safeguards who have suitable testing equipment, facilities, and
appropriate servicing manuals. Hydrostatic tests will include both an internal and
external visual examination of the cylinder.

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 Hydrostatic Test Interval for Extinguishers
Extinguisher Type Test Interval (years)
Stored pressure water, loaded stream, and/or antifreeze 5
Wetting agent 5
AFFF 5
FFFP 5
Dry chemical with stainless steel shells 5
Carbon Dioxide 5
Wet chemical 5
Dry chemical, stored pressure, with mild steel shells, brazed brass or 12
aluminum shells
Dry chemical, cartridge or cylinder-operated with mild steel shells 12
Halogenated agents 12
Dry Powder, stored pressure, cartridge or cylinder operated, with 12
mild steel shells

11 Fire Safety
Fire prevention is the best way to prevent loss of property and life. A big part of prevention
is the identification of fire hazards.
11.1 Fire hazards
A fire hazard is a condition that encourages a fire to start or increases the extent or severity
of a fire. Basic fire chemistry suggests a fire cannot survive without a fuel supply, sufficient
heat source, oxygen supply, and a self-sustained chemical reaction. Therefore, hazardous
fire conditions can be prevented by eliminating one or all of these elements.

Control of the oxygen supply hazard is only practical under special circumstances because
21 percent oxygen is normally present in air. Control of the hazards associated with fuel
supply and heat sources are the most manageable.

11.1.1 Fuel Hazards

 Ordinary combustibles such as wood, cloth, or paper

 Flammable and combustible gases such as natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas
(LPG), and compressed natural gas (CNG). (NFPA 30 for storage info)

 Flammable and combustible liquids such as gasoline, oils, lacquers, or alcohol

 Chemicals such as nitrates, oxides, or chlorates

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  Dusts such as grain, wood, metal, or coal

 Metals such as magnesium, sodium, or potassium

 Plastics, resins, and cellulose

11.1.2 Heat Source Hazards
 Chemical heat energy- Materials being improperly stored can result in chemical
heat energy. Materials may come in contact with each other and react (oxidizer
and reducing agent), or they may decompose and generate heat.

 Electrical heat energy- Poorly maintained electrical appliances, exposed wiring,

and lighting are all electrical heat sources.

 Mechanical heat energy- Moving parts on machines, such as belts and bearings,
are a source of mechanical heating
11.1.3 Common Fire Hazards

A common fire hazard is a condition that is prevalent in almost all occupancies and
encourages a fire to start. Be alert for the following common hazards:

 Poor housekeeping and improper storage of packaging materials and other

combustibles
 Defective or improperly used heating, lighting, or power equipment

 Improper disposal of floor cleaning compounds

 Misuse of fumigation substances and flammable or combustible liquids

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 11.2 Emergency Action Plan
A company should develop an emergency action plan to be enacted with any fire
emergency. The plan should include the following items:
 Describe the routes for workers to use and procedures to follow
 Account for all evacuated employees
 Address evacuation of employees who stay behind to shutdown critical
equipment
 Include preferred means of alerting employees to a fire emergency
 Make the evacuation signal known to all employees
 Ensure emergency training
 Require employer review of the plan with new employees whenever the plan is
changed
12 Rescue Drags and Carries
If the situation arises where you need to quickly remove someone from a life threatening
situation the following drags and carries can be used:

12.1 Collar Drag

12.2 Fireman’s Carry

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 12.3 One Person Lift

12.4 Pack Strap Carry

12.5 Extremity Carry

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 12.6 Two Person Arm Carry

13 Summary
With an effective knowledge of the theory presented in the course along with practical
training, employees can reduce the number of severe injuries or even deaths that occur in
industrial settings every year. Students should remember the fire tetrahedron and it is the
basis for all operations from firefighting to fire prevention.

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