Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction

Hand-out 12:
Elements of the Fire Triangle
THE FIRE TRIANGLE

injuries, environmental damage, and sometime fatalities. It is therefore essential that everyone has safety
knowledge in the preservation of fires and preparedness in dealing with them.

Fire hazards can occur

oxygen Heat anywhere because the

three components of
fire

are present everywhere:

fuel, heat, and oxygen

Fuel

Fire is the process of rapid oxidation of any material resulting in burning. Oxidation

means that oxygen molecules interact with different substances in the environment, making it unstable and thus
creating a reaction. When burning happens, heat, and other reaction products are released.

A fire triangle is a model that shows the three essential components that when present together can start a fire
and sustain it- fuel, heat, and oxygen.

FUEL

- Fire needs fuel source or combustible material in order to burn. Fuel comes in different forms: solid (e.g.,
wood, paper, plastic), liquid (e.g., gasoline, kerosene, acetone), and gas (e.g., methane, propane, acetylene). Different
types of fuel burn at different rates.

HEAT

- This is needed to start and continue the combustion process. Combustion happens when flammable vapor mix
with air (oxygen) and is ignited by a spark or flame. In essence, when the ignition temperature (heat) of the fuel (any
material) is reached, combustion reaction happens. This is because the energy stored in that material reacts with the
oxygen that is present in the air, giving off heat. Most solid combustible materials ignite immediately because they
instantly give off vapor and readily reach their ignition or flammable temperature. Other solids may take time to ignite
because of their density such that the flammable vapor does not get released fast. Liquid fuels, on the other hand, give
off flammable vapor even in cold temperatures. Hence, fire may still be produced even in temperatures below 0oC.
Petrol is an example of a liquid fuel that can be ignited at 43oC below 0.

OXYGEN
Fire hazards ca occur
This constitutes about 21% of the air around us.
anywhere because the
Oxygen reacts with flammable vapors given off by
three components of fire
fuels and the reaction releases heat. The magnitude
are present everywhere.
of the fire, whether it is going to be explosive or
Fire will not cease until
flammable, depends on the ratio between the oxygen
one or more of the
and fuel.
components are removed
 Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction
Hand-out 12:
Elements of the Fire Triangle
THE FIRE TETRAHEDRON

The fire tetrahedron represents the addition of a component in the chemical chain reaction, to the three already

present in the fire triangle. Once a fire has started, the resulting exothermic chain reaction sustains the fire and allows it
to continue until or unless at least one of the elements of the fire is blocked. Foam can be used to deny the fire the
oxygen it needs. Water can be used to lower the temperature of the fuel below the ignition point or to remove or
disperse the fuel. Halon can be used to remove free radicals and create a barrier of inert gas in a direct attack on the
chemical reaction responsible for the fire. Combustion is the chemical reaction that feeds a fire more heat and allows it
to continue.

OXIDIZER

The oxidizer is the other reactant of the chemical reaction. In most cases, it is the ambient air, and in particular
one of its components, oxygen (O2). By depriving a fire of air, it can be extinguished. For example, when covering the
flame of a small candle with an empty glass, fire stops. To the contrary, if air is blown over a wood fire (as with bellows),
the fire is activated by the introduction of more air. Some chemicals, such as fluorine gas, perchlorate salts such as
ammonium perchlorate, or chlorine trifluoride, act as oxidizers, sometimes more powerful ones than oxygen itself. A fire
based on a reaction with these oxidizers can be very difficult to put out until the oxidizer is exhausted; that leg of the fire
triangle cannot be broken by normal means (i.e., depriving it of air will not smother it). In certain cases, such as some
explosives, the oxidizer and combustible are the same (e.g., nitroglycerin, an unstable molecule that has oxidizing parts
in the same molecule as the oxidizable parts).

Reaction is initiated by an activating energy, in most cases, it is heat. Several examples include friction, as in case
of matches, heating an electrical wire, a flame (propagation of fire), or a spark (from a lighter or from any starting
electrical device). There are also many other ways to bring sufficient activation energy including electricity, radiation,
and pressure, all of which will lead to a temperature rise. In most cases, heat production enables self-sustainability of
the reaction, and enables a chain reaction to grow. The temperature at which a liquid produces sufficient vapor to get a
flammable mix with self-sustainable combustion is called its flash-point.

EXTINCTION OF FIRE

To stop a combustion reaction, one of the three elements of the fire triangle must be removed. Without
sufficient heat, a fire cannot begin, and it cannot continue. Heat can be removed by the application of a substance which
reduces the amount of heat available to the fire reaction. This is often water, which absorbs heat for phase change from
water to steam. Introducing sufficient quantities and types of powder or gas in the flame reduces the amount of heat
available for the fire reaction in the same manner. Scraping embers from a burning structure also removes the heat
source. off the electricity in an electrical fire removes the ignition source.

Without fuel, a fire will stop. Fuel can be removed naturally, as where the fire has consumed all the burnable
fuel, or manually, by mechanically or chemically removing the fuel from the fire. Fuel separation is an important factor in
wildland fire suppression, and is the basis for most major tactics, such as controlled burns. The fire stops because a
lower concentration of fuel vapor in the flame leads to a decrease in energy release and a lower temperature. Removing
the fuel thereby decreases the heat.

Without sufficient oxygen, a fire cannot begin, and it cannot continue. With a decreased oxygen concentration,
the combustion process slows. Oxygen can be denied to a fire using a carbon dioxide fire extinguisher, a fire blanket or
water.

ROLE OF WATER IN FIRE-FIGHTING

Water can have two different roles. In the case of a solid combustible, the solid fuel produces pyrolyzing
products under the influence of heat, commonly radiation. This process is halted by the application of water, since water
is more easily evaporated than the fuel is pyrolyzed. Thereby energy is removed from the fuel surface, and it is cooled,
and the pyrolysis is stopped, removing the fuel supply to the flames. In firefighting, this is referred to as surface cooling.

In the gas phase, i.e., in the flames or in the smoke, the combustible cannot be separated from the oxidizer, and
the only possible action consists of cooling down. In this case, water droplets are evaporated in the gas phase, thereby
lowering the temperature and adding water vapor making the gas mixture noncombustible. This requires droplets of a
size less than about 0.2 mm. In firefighting, this is referred to as gas cooling or smoke cooling.
 Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction
Hand-out 12:
Elements of the Fire Triangle
Cases also exist where the ignition factor is not the activation energy. For example, a smoke explosion is a very
violent combustion of unburned gases contained in the smoke created by a sudden fresh air input (oxidizer input). The
interval in which an air/gas mix can burn is limited by the explosive limits of the air. This interval can be very small
(kerosene) or large (acetylene).

Water cannot be used on certain type of fires:

 Fires where live electricity is present – as water conducts electricity it presents an electrocution hazard.
 Hydrocarbon fires – as it will only spread the fire because of the difference in density/hydrophobicity. For
example, adding water to a fire with an oil source will cause the oil to spread, since oil and water do not mix.
 Metal fires – as these fires produce huge amounts of energy (up to 7.550 calories/kg for aluminum) and
water can also create violent chemical reactions with burning metal (possibly even serving as an additional
oxidizing agent). Since these reactions are well understood, it has been possible to create specific water-
additives which will allow:
 A better heat absorption with a higher density than water.
 Carrying free radical catchers on the fire.
 Carrying foaming agents to enable water to stay on the surface of a liquid fire and prevent gas release.
 Carrying specific reactive which will react and change the nature of the burning material.

Water-additives are generally designed to be effective on several categories of fires (class A + class B or even
class A + class B + class F), meaning a better global performance and usability of a single extinguisher on many different
types of fires (or fires that involve several different classes of materials).

Causes of Fire

Generally, there are two causes of fire: natural and man-made. The natural causes of fire are those that result
from natural hazards such as lighting and volcanic activities. Lightning triggers fire because it carries with it a large
amount of energy that can induce ignition temperature changes in the material (fuel) that it comes in contact with. So,
when lightning strikes, say on a hut or grass, the ignition temperature of the hut or grass s suddenly reached, causing
combustion to take place at once. The other natural causes of fire are volcanic eruptions. Fire can be generated by the
objects that get burned along the path of lava or by ejected pyroclastic materials from a volcano. When the object
comes in contact with combustible materials, such as plants, fire can happen. Similarly, when there is land movement
due to seismic activities, damaged power lines or power circuits may ignite a fire.

On the other hand, mad-made causes of fire are those caused by human or machine errors. Here are some
examples:

A. Electric wiring.

Faulty wiring, short circuits, overloaded circuits, and loose wiring connections may induce fire in any structure or
building. To prevent electrical fires, avoid overloading the circuits and overheating electrical appliances; check electrical
cords and replace old, worn wirings; and get an electrical engineer or licensed electrician to check your electrical wirings
and connections, especially if you detect any electrical malfunction.

B. Unattended ignition sources.

A lighted candle, an improvised gas lamp, a cooking stove, and other sources of ignition which are left
unattended may topple and/or burn nearby flammable objects. Never leave an open flame unattended and keep
combustibles away from it to prevent fire.

C. Cigarettes.

Cigarette butts that are not properly put out and are thrown carelessly can spark fire. The glowing ember from a
discarded cigarette can come in contact with a flammable material and cause fire. Careless smoking such as falling
asleep at night with a lit cigarette can also start a fire. To prevent creating fire, make sure that cigarette is fully
extinguished before throwing it.

D. Chemicals at home.

Many hazardous and flammable substances can be found at home. Pesticide, lighter fluids, gasoline, spray
paints, kerosene, dry cleaning agents, paints solvents, and nail polish are flammable liquids that are used for wide
variety of purposes in the household. These substances contain chemicals that when mixed with air will give off vapor
 Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction
Hand-out 12:
Elements of the Fire Triangle
that can ignite and burn when an ignition source is present. Flammable liquids should be kept closed and stored in
proper containers. Do not store flammable liquids in the same cabinets with other dangerous substance because they
can react violently. Make sure they are kept away from any ignition source and away from children.

E. Gasoline leaks from vehicles.

A gasoline (fuel) leak from a vehicle is likely caused by corrosion, a worn-out seal or gasket, or a broken fuel
injector. A leak from the tank, engine, fuel pump, or motor compartment can be dangerous because these places get
very hot. With enough heat and gas, along with the oxygen in the air, ne spark can ignite the gas and start a fire. One
indicator of an imminent car explosion is the release of a strong gas smell where gas is leaking. If you detect a strong gas
odor, immediately take your car to an auto repair shop and have it checked and repaired by a professional mechanics.