CHAPTER 1

THE ELEMENTS OF FIRE

FIRE
- A rapid, self-sustaining oxidation process accompanied by the evolution of heat and light of varying intensity
- An active chemical reaction that takes place between fuel, heat and oxygen in the form of light and noticeable heat
- A chemical reaction; the rapid oxidation of a fuel producing heat and light an oxidation taking place with a rate
rapid enough to produce heat and light

TECHNOLOGY
- The branch of knowledge that deals with industrial arts and sciences
-the application of such knowledge that is used to produce the material necessity of society

ELEMENTS OF FIRE OR TRIANGLE OF FIRE FUEL

- Anything that will burn when heated with sufficient oxygen

OXYGEN
- Aids in combustion; comes from the atmosphere we breath; the atmosphere contains: 21% oxygen,
78% nitrogen and 1% impurities

HEAT
- source of ignition

TRIANGLE OF FIRE
- For many years, the fire triangle (oxygen, fuel and heat) was taught as the components of fire. While this
simple example is useful, it is NOT technically correct.

TETRAHEDRON OF FIRE
- a geometric representation of what is required for fire to exist, namely, fuel, an oxidizing agent, heat, and
an uninhibited chemical reaction
FIRE TETRAHEDRON
- Oxygen (oxidizing agent)
- Fuel
- Heat
- Self-sustained chemical reaction
Each component of the tetrahedron must be in place for combustion to occur. Remove one of the four components
and combustion will not occur. If ignition has already occurred, the fire is extinguished when one of the components
is removed from the reaction.

OXYGEN (Oxidizing Agent)

- A colorless, odorless gas and one of the compositions of air which is approximately 21% percent by
volume
OXYGEN SOURCES OXYGEN REQUIREMENTS
1. 21% of normal oxygen 1. 12% no fire
2. 78% nitrogen 2. 14% flash point
3. 1% other gases 3. 21% fire point

FUEL
-The material or substance being oxidized or burned in the combustion process.

FUEL SOURCES
1. Solid Molecules are closely packed together
2. Liquid Molecules are loosely packed
3. Gas Molecules are free to move

HEAT
- The energy component of the fire tetrahedron
- when heat comes into contact with a fuel, the energy supports the combustion reaction
- heat energy is measured in units of Joules (J), however it can also be measured in Calories (1Calorie=
4.184 J) and BTU's (1 BTU= 1055 J)
 TEMPERATURE
-A measure of the degree of molecular activity of a material compared to a reference point
-A measure of the degree of molecular activity of a material compared to a reference point measured in
degrees Farenheit or degrees Celsius

Celsius Fahrenheit Response

37 98.6 Normal human oral/body temperature
44 111 Human skin begins to feel pain
48 118 Human skin receives first degree burn injury
55 131 Human skin receives a second degree burn injury
62 140 A phase where burned human tissue becomes numb
72 162 Human skin is instantly destroyed
100 212 Water boils and produces steam
140 284 Glass transition temperature of polycarbonate
230 446 Melting temperature of polycarbonate
250 482 Charring of natural cotton begins
300 572 Charring of modern protective clothing fabrics begins
600 1112 Temperature inside a post-flashover room fire

TYPES OF ENERGY (COMMON SOURCES OF HEAT)

1. CHEMICAL ENERGY
- The most common source of heat in combustion reaction
When any combustible is in contact with oxygen, oxidation occurs. The reaction of this process results in the
production of heat.
ex. Heat generated from burning match, self-heating (spontaneous heating)

2. ELECTRICAL ENERGY
- Can generate temperature high enough to ignite any combustible material near the heated area

Examples:
1. Over current or overload
2. Arcing
3. Sparking
4. Static
5. Lightning

3. NUCLEAR ENERGY
- generated when atoms either split apart (fission) or combine (fusion)
Ex.
1. Fission heats water to drive steam turbines and produce electricity
2. Solar energy is a product of a fusion reaction

4. MECHANICAL ENERGY
- an energy created by friction and compression
1) Heat of friction - the movement of two surfaces against each other, thus producing sparks
2} Heat of compression - heat is generated when a gas is compressed in a container or cylinder

SELF-SUSTAINED CHEMICAL REACTION

Combustion is a complex reaction that requires a fuel (in the gaseous or vapor state}, an oxidizer, and
heat energy to come together in a very specific way. Once flaming combustion or fire occurs, it can only continue
when enough heat energy is produced to cause the continued development of fuel vapors or gases. Scientists call
this type of reaction a "chain reaction".

A chain reaction is a series of reactions that occur in sequence with the result of each individual reaction
being added to the rest
 FIRE DEVELOPMENT
When the four components of the fire tetrahedron come together, ignition occurs. For a fire to grow
beyond the first material ignited, heat must be transmitted beyond the first material to additional fuel packages.

STAGES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF FIRE

1. IGNITION - Describes the period when the four elements of the fire tetrahedron come together and combustion
begins

2. GROWTH - Shortly after ignition, a fire plume begins to form, above the burning fuel. As the plume develops, it
begins to draw or entrain air from the surrounding space into the column.

3. FLASHOVER - The transition between the growth and the fully developed fire stages and is not a specific event
such as ignition. During flashover. Conditions in the compartment change very rapidly as the fire changes from one
that is dominated by the burning of the materials first ignited to one that involves all of the exposed combustible
surfaces within the compartment

4. FULLY-DEVELOPED - Occurs when all combustible materials in the compartment are involved in the fire

5. DECAY - As the fire consumes the available fuel in the compartment, the rate of heat released begins to decline.

THREE (3) STAGES OF FIRE

1. INCIPIENT STAGE - initial stage of fire

Characteristics:

1. normal room temperature oxygen plentiful

2. thermal updraft rise accumulates at higherpoint
3. temperature at1000 F
4. Producing CO2, CO, SO2, water and other gases

2. FREE BURNING PHASE - a phase of burning in which materials or structures are burning in the presence of
adequate oxygen

Characteristics:

- Fire has involved more fuel

- oxygen supply has depleted
- Heat accumulates at upper area
- temperature exceeds 1,330 F
- area is fully involved

3. SMOLDERINGPHASE - final phase of burning wherein flame ceases but dense smoke and heat completely fill
the confined room

CHAPTER2
MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER

Heat is by-product of combustion that is of significant importance to the firefighter. It is heat that causes fire to
sustain its combustion and, more important, to extend. When heat given off as a product of combustion is exposed to
an unheated substance, certain changes occur that can make the new substance a contributing factor in extending a
fire.

1. CONDUCTION - heat transfer within solids or between contacting solids

When a hot object transfers its heat, conduction has taken place. The transfer could be to another object or to
another portion of the same object. As we have discovered and will be constantly reinforced about, combustion
occurs on the molecular level. When an object heats up, the atoms become agitated and begin to collide with one
another. A chain reaction of molecules and atoms, like wave energy, occurs and causes the agitated molecules to
pass the heat energy to areas of non-heat.

2. CONVECTION - heat transfer by the movement of liquids or gasses

Air that is hotter than its surroundings rises. Air that is cooler than its surroundings sinks. Air is made up of many
molecules floating about freely. Even so, it still has weight. Some molecules are made up of the same element. For
example, oxygen in its natural state will combine will another oxygen atom to form a stable oxygen molecule. In a
given volume, air at a given temperature will have the same density. When heated, as in conduction theory, the
molecules become agitated and begin to collide with one another. In the process, the molecules are demanding more
space to accommodate the vibrations and they push into one another as they seek that space. When that happens,
the density of a given volume is reduced and it weighs less. Because it weighs less, it rises until it reaches
equilibrium-the level at which the weight is the same as the surrounding atmosphere.

3. RADIATION
- heat transfer by electromagnetic waves
- The last form of heat transfer occurs by radiation. As we have already seen, heat energy can be
transmitted directly when molecules collide with one another and cause the waves of heat energy to
travel.

4. FLAME CONTACT - heat may be conducted from one body to another by direct flame contact

PROPERTIES OF FIRE

A. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. Specific gravity - the ratio of the weight of a solid or substance to the weight of an equal volume of water.

2. Vapor density - the weight of volume of pure gas compared to weight of a volume of dry air at the same
temperature and pressure.

3. Vapor pressure - the force exerted by the molecules on the surface of the liquid at the equilibrium.

4. Temperature - the measure of the thermal degree of the agitation of molecules of a given substance; the measure
of the molecular activity within the substance.

5. Boiling Point - the constant temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the atmospheric
pressure.

6. Ignition temperature - the minimum temperature to which the substance in the air must be heated in order to
initiate or cause self-contained combustion without addition of heat from outside sources.

7. Fire point - the temperature at which the material will give off ample vapors to keep burning.

8. Flash point - the temperature at which the material is not hot enough to keep burning, but still gives off enough
vapors to cause a flame across the surface.

B. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

1. Endothermic reaction - are changes whereby energy is absorbed or is added before the reaction takes place.
2. Exothermic reaction - reactions or changes that releases or give off energy.
3. Oxidation - a chemical change in which combustible material and an oxidizing material react.
4. Combustion or flame - the manifestation of fire is in its gas-phased combustion; matter that is produced by fire.

Ignition Temperature
 Material F C
Gasoline 536 280
Kerosene 410 210
Turpentine 488 253
Paper 842 450
Wood 489 254
Coal 750 400

CLASSIFICATIONS OF FIRE BASED ON CAUSE

A. NATURAL FIRE - involves fires without direct human intervention

Examples:
-Earthquake
-Typhoon Lightning
-Spontaneous combustion arising from the storage of combustible
-materials in poorly ventilated places
-Explosion from petroleum products, alcohol and other substances Sun rays focused on glasses which
may serve as convex lens

B. ACCIDENTAL FIRE
-Carelessly discarded cigarettes
-Careless disposition of readily combustible materials
- Poorly managed or defective heating facilities
-Overheating, spark and electrical defects
-Overload electric circuits/ Octopus connections
-Children playing matches
-Use of candles

C. INCENDIARY FIRE - is one deliberately set under circumstances in which the person knows that the fire should
not be set.

D. UNDETERMINED FIRE CAUSE - whenever the cause cannot be proven, the proper classification is undetermined

CLASSIFICATIONS OF FIRE BASED ON BURNINGFUEL

CLASS A Ordinary solid materials such as wood, paper, fabrics, etc.

This will be indicated by deep cited fire, leaves ashes and embers (glowing coals) after burning
CLASS B Flammable liquids such as gasoline, lube oil, kerosene, paint thinner, etc.
CLASS C Electrical appliances: causes electric shock
CLASS D Metal fire such as magnesium (white elements burning with dazzling light), sodium (a silver white
metallic element), etc.; creates violent reaction
CLASS E Flammable gases such as LPG, LNG, etc,; also creates violent reaction

FIRE CLASSES IN THE UNITED KINGDOM AND C -combustible gasses

EUROPE D -combustible metals
A -ordinary combustibles E -electrical equipment
B -flammable or flammable liquids F -cooking fats and oils
C -flammable gasses
D -combustible metals FIRE CLASSES IN THE U.S.A. (NFPA)
E - ( this class is no longer existing in Europe) A -regular combustibles
F -cooking oils and fats B -flammable liquids and gasses
C -electrical appliances
FIRE CLASSES IN AUSTRALIA AND ASIA D -combustible metals K - cooking oils and fats
A –every combustibles K -cooking oils and fats
B -combustible or combustible liquids