C a m b r id g e

Advanced
Grammar
in Use A self-study refere nce a n d p ra c tic e bo ok
for a d v a n c e d learners of English

Third E d itio n
f with answers a n d CD-RO M

--

W M artin H e w in gs
C D -R O M
Advanced
Grammar
in Use
A self-study reference a n d p ra ctic e book
for a d v a n c e d learners of English

Third Ed itio n
with answers and CD-ROM

M artin H e win gs
Ca m b r id g e
U N IV E R S IT Y P R ESS
C A M B R I D G E U N I V E R S I T Y PR ESS
Cambridge, N ew York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town,
Singapore, Sao Paulo, D elhi, M exico City

Cambridge University Press

Th e Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, U K
www.cam brid ge.org
Information on this title: www.cam brid g e.org /9781 107699892

Third edition © Cambridge U niversity Press, 1999,2013

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 1999

Second edition 2005
Third edition first published 2013

Printed in Italy by L.E.G . O . S.p.A.

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-1-107-69989-2 Paperback with answers and C D -R O M for W in d o ws XP, Vista or 7

and Mac O SX 10.6, 10.7
ISBN 978-1-107-69738-6 Paperback with answers
ISBN 978 -1- 107 -61378-2 Paperback with out answers

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or

accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referre d to in
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o r will remain, accurate or appropriate. Information regarding prices, travel
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the time of first printing but Cambridge U niversity Press does not guarantee
the accuracy of such information thereafter.
Thanks vii
To th e stu d ent viii
To th e t e ach er ix

Tenses
1 Present co ntinuous and present sim ple 1
2 Present co ntinuous and present sim ple 2
3 Past sim ple and present perfect
4 Past co ntinu o us and past sim ple
5 Past p erfect and past sim ple
6 Present p erfect co ntinuous and present perfect
7 Past p erfect co ntinuous, past p erfect and past co ntinuous
8 Present and past tim e: review

The fu ture
9 W ill and be going t o
10 Present sim ple and present co ntinu o us for the future
11 Future co ntinuous and future p erfect (co ntinuo us)
12 Be t o + infinitive; be a b o u t t o + infinitive
13 O th er w ays of talkin g about the future
14 The future seen from th e past

Moda ls a nd semi-modals
15 Ca n, co uld , be a b le t o and be a ll o w e d t o
16 W ill, w o u l d and use d t o
17 M ay and mig h t
18 M ust and hav e (got) t o
19 N e e d(n't), d o n't n ee d t o and d o n't h av e t o
20 Sh o uld, o u g h t t o and had b e t t e r

Linking verbs, passives, questions

21 Linking verbs: be, a p p ear, se e m ; b eco m e, g e t, etc.
22 Forming passive sentences 1
23 Forming passive sentences 2: verb + -ing or t o -in fin it iv e
24 Using passives
25 Rep orting with passives; It is said t h a t ...
26 W h - q u est i o ns with w h o, w h o m , w hich, h o w and w h ose
27 N egative questions; echo questions; questions with t h a t -cl a uses

Verb com ple m enta tion: what follo w s verbs

28 Verbs, o bjects and co m ple m ents
29 Verb + tw o o bjects
30 Verb + -ing forms and infinitives 1
31 Verb + -ing forms and infinitives 2

If yo u are n ot sure w hich u nits yo u need to stu dy, use th e St u d y p la n n e r on page 210. iii
R eporting
32 Reporting people's words and th ou ghts
33 Reporting state m e n ts: t h a t -cl a uses
34 Verb + w h -cla use
35 Tense choice in reporting
36 Rep orting offers, sug gestions, orders, inte ntio ns, etc.
37 M odal verbs in reporting
38 Reporting w h a t people say using nouns and a djectives
39 Sh o uld in t h a t -cl a uses; th e present su bjunctive

N ouns
40 A gre e m ent b etween subject and verb 1
41 A gre e m ent b etween su bject and verb 2
42 A gre e m ent b etween su bject and verb 3
43 Com pound nouns and noun phrases

Articles, determ iners a nd qu a ntifiers

44 A / a n and o n e
45 A / an, t h e and zero a r t icle 1
46 A / an, t h e and zero a r t icle 2
47 A / an, t h e and zero a r t icle 3
48 So m e and a n y
49 N o, n o n e (of) and n o t a n y
50 M uch (of), m a n y (of), a lo t of, l o ts (of), etc.
51 A ll (of), w h o le, e v er y, each
52 Fe w, li t t le, less, f e w e r

R ela tive cla uses a nd oth er types o f cla use

53 Relative pronouns
54 O th er relative words: w h ose , w h e n , w h ere b y, etc.
55 Prepositio ns in relative clauses
56 O th er w ays of adding inform atio n to noun phrases 1: a d ditional noun phrases, etc.
57 O th er w ays of adding inform atio n to noun phrases 2: pre p ositio nal phrases, etc.
58 Participle clauses with a dverbial m eaning 1
59 Participle clauses with a dverbial m eaning 2

Pronouns, substitution a nd leaving out words

60 Reflexive pronouns: h erself, h i mself, t h e m se lv es, etc.
61 O n e and o n es
62 So and n o t as su bstitutes for clauses, etc.
63 D o so; such
64 More on leaving o ut words after a uxiliary verbs
65 Leaving out t o -in f in it iv es

r '
I l f you are not sure w hich units yo u need to stu dy, use th e St u d y p la n n e r on page 210.
A djectives a nd adverbs
66 Position of a djectives
67 Gradable and non-grada ble a djectives 1
68 Gradable and non-grada ble a djectives 2
69 Participle a djectives and com pound a djectives
70 A djectives + t o -in fin it iv e, -ing, t h a t -cl a use , w h -cla use
71 A djectives and adverbs
72 A djectives and adverbs: co m parative and su p erlative forms
73 Co m p arative phrases and clauses
74 Position of adverbs 1
75 Position of adverbs 2
76 Adverbs of place, directio n, ind efinite frequency, and tim e
77 Degree adverbs and focus adverbs
78 C o m m e nt adverbs and view p oint adverbs

Adverbia l cla uses and conjunctions

79 A dverbial clauses of tim e
80 Givin g reasons: as, b eca use, etc.; f o r and w it h
81 Purposes and results: in o rd er t o, so as t o, etc.
82 C o ntrasts: a lt h o u g h and t h o u g h; eve n t h o u g h / if; w hile , w h ilst and w h e r e as
83 If 1
84 If 2
85 If I w e re y o u ...; i m a gin e he w e re t o win
86 I f ... n o t and u nless; if and w h e t h e r; etc.
87 Co nnecting ideas in a se nte nce and b etween sentences

Prepositions
88 Prepositio ns of position and m ove m ent
89 B e t w e e n and a m o n g
90 Prepositio ns of tim e
91 Talking about exceptio ns
92 Pre positions after verbs
93 Pre positions after nouns
94 Two- and thre e-word verbs: word order

Organising inform ation

95 T h ere is, t h e re w as, etc.
96 It 1
97 It 2
98 Focusing: i t -cl a uses and w h a t -cl a uses
99 Inversion 1
100 Inversion 2

s \
If yo u are n ot sure w hich units yo u need to stu dy, use th e St u d y p la n n e r on page 210.
J
Ap p endix 1 Irre gular verbs 202
Ap p endix 2 Passive verb forms 204

Glossary 205

Study planner 210

Gra m m ar re mind er 222

A d ditio nal exercises 240

Key to Exercises 251

Key to Study planner 277
Key to A d ditio nal exercises 278

Index of gra m m atical ite ms 281

Index of lexical ite ms 287

D
If yo u are not sure w hich units yo u need to stu d y, use th e St u d y p la n n e r on page 210.
I would like to thank all those who worked with me on the first tw o editio ns of A dva nced Gra m m ar in
Use, in p articular Jeanne M cCarten and Alison Sharpe for th eir enco urag em ent. Thanks also to my form er
colleagues and stu d ents in the English for Internatio nal Stud ents U nit at the U niversity of Birmingham for
th eir help and interest.

For this third edition I am grateful to Colin M cIntosh, N ora M cD onald, A nnab el M arriott, Sabina Sahni,
Kevin D oherty, A n dy George, Claire Cole and Jan et W eller. Claire and Jan et in p articular have given me
tre m en d o us su p p ort in preparing the book and th e acco m panyin g C DRO M .

Thanks to Sophie Joyce, Sandy N ichols, Katie Mac, Ian M itch ell and David W ham o n d for the illustratio ns
and to Kam ae Design for th eir work on th e finished pro duct. I would also like to thank Cam brid g e U niversity
Press for allowin g me access to th e Cam brid g e Internatio nal Corpus.

M any stu d ents and teach ers sent me co m m ents on th e 2nd e ditio n, and th ese have been very helpful in
writin g this new edition. Thank yo u all for takin g the trouble to co ntact me.
Finally, my thanks, as ever, to Suzanne, David and Ann.

The auth ors and publishers acknowle d g e the fo llowin g sources of photo graphs and are grateful for the
p ermissions grante d.
p. 6: W ith G o d /Sh u tterst o ck; p. 11: C o msto ck Im a g es/Thinkstock; p. 17: Thinksto ck; p. 33: Image Source/
Glo wim a g es; p. 39: Thinkstock; p. 109: Thinksto ck; p. 114: Bild ag entur RM / Glowim ag es.

vii
W h o t h e book is f or
A dva nced Gra m m ar in Use is for advance d stu d ents of English. It was writte n m ainly as a self-stu dy
book, but mig ht also be used in class with a teacher.

H o w t h e book is organise d
There are 100 units in the book, each looking at a p articular area of gram m ar. Som e sectio ns w ithin
each unit focus on th e p articular use of a gra m m atical pattern, such as will be + -ing (as in will be
travelling) -, others explore gra m m atical co ntrasts, such as w h e th er to use would or used to in reporting
past events, or when w e use exce p t or exce p t for. The 100 units are grouped under a num b er of
headings such as Tenses and The fu ture, and yo u can find d etails of this in th e C ontents. Each unit
co nsists of tw o pages. O n the left-han d page are expla natio ns and exam ples; on th e right-hand page
are practice exercises. The le tters n ext to each exercise sh o w yo u which sectio n(s) of th e left-han d
page yo u need to understand to do th a t exercise.

A t the back of the book you w ill find a num b er of furth er sectio ns.
Appendices (pages 202 and 2 04) Two appendices provide furth er inform atio n about irre gular
verbs and passive verb forms.
O G lossary (page 205) Although terms to describ e gram m ar have been kept to a m inim u m, so me
have been include d, and yo u can find expla natio ns of these terms in th e Glossary.
Q S tudy pla n ner (page 210) You can use th e S tudy pla nner to help you decide which units you should
study, or which parts of th e Gram m ar reminder you should read first.
Gra m m ar rem inder (page 222) This presents exam ples and expla natio ns of areas of gram m ar th at
you are likely to have studied alrea dy at earlier stag es of learning English. References on th e left-
hand page of each unit point you to th e sectio ns of th e Gra m m ar rem inder relevant to th a t unit.
Read th ese sectio ns to refresh y o ur und erstandin g before yo u start w ork on the more advance d
gram m ar points in th e unit.
Addition al exercises (page 240) If you w a n t furth er practice of gram m ar points, fo llo w the
references at th e b otto m of th e right-hand page of a unit. Th ese w ill t e ll yo u which of the
Addition al exercises to do next.
Keys (pages 251, 277 and 278) You can check yo ur answers to the practice exercises, S tudy pla nner
and Addition al exercises in th e keys. You w ill also find co m m ents on so m e of the answers.
O Indexes (pages 281 and 287) Use the Indexes to help yo u find th e gram m ar or vocab ulary yo u need.

H o w t o use t he book
It is not n ecessary to work through th e units in order. If yo u know which gram m ar points yo u have
d ifficulty w ith, go straig ht to th e units th a t deal with th e m , using the C ontents or Indexes to help you
find th e relevant unit. W hen yo u have found a unit to stu dy, read through any related m aterial in the
Gram m ar rem inder before you begin.
You can use the units in a num b er of w ays. You might stu dy the explanatio ns and exam ples first, do
the exercises on th e op posite page, check yo ur answers in th e Key to Exercises, and then look again at
the expla natio ns if yo u made any mistakes. If yo u just w a n t to practise an area of gram m ar yo u think
you already know, you could do the exercises first and then stu dy th e expla natio ns for any yo u got
wrong. You mig ht of co urse sim ply use th e book as a reference book w ith o u t doing th e exercises.

Cor p us in f or m a tio n
A corpus is a large collection of texts stored on a co m puter. In writing Adva nced Grammar in Use
we have worked with th e Cam bridge International Corpus (CIC), a m ulti-m illio n word collection of
real speech and writin g, and the Cam brid ge Learner Corpus, a collection of exam answers writte n by
stu d ents. From these corp ora we can learn more about language in use, and about th e co m m on errors
made by learners. Using this inform atio n, w e can be sure th at the gram m ar explanations and exam ples
in the book reflect real language, and we can focus on problem areas for learners. We have also used the
CIC to produce word boxes, listing the m ost co m m on words found in particular gram m ar patterns.
To the teacher
A dva nced Gram m ar in Use was writte n as a self-stu dy gram m ar book but teach ers mig ht also find
it useful for su p ple m entin g or sup porting th eir classro o m teaching. The book w ill pro bably be m ost
useful for advance d level stu d ents for reference and practice.

No a tte m p t has been mad e to order th e units according to level of d ifficulty. Instea d, you should
select units as th ey are relevant to the sylla b us th a t you are fo llo win g with y o ur stu d ents, or as
p articular d ifficulties arise, rath er than workin g through fro m beginning t o end. A ltern atively, you
could ask stu d ents to do th e m ultiple-ch oice t est in the S tudy pla n ner (page 210) and focus on units
th a t deal with areas of gram m ar where stu d ents are least successful.

D o n't forg et to point stu d ents to the Gra m m ar rem inder (page 222). This is a reference-only section
which presents basic knowle dg e on a num b er of areas of gram m ar. It w ill be useful for stu d ents to
read through a sectio n before moving on to the more advance d m aterial in th e units. At the beginning
of each section of the Gram m ar rem inder yo u w ill find inform atio n ab o ut the unit(s) it relates to.

There are m any w ays in which you can use the book with a class. You mig ht, for exam ple, present
th e expla natio ns on th e left-hand page of a unit, and use th e exercises for classro o m practice.
A ltern atively, you mig ht w a n t to begin with th e exercises and refer to th e left-hand page only when
stu d ents are having pro blems. You could also set p articular units or groups of units (such as those on
Articles or N ouns) for self-stu dy if individ ual stu d ents are having d ifficulties. A n oth er p ossibility might
be to develop yo ur own classro o m -base d a ctivities around th e expla natio ns on the left-hand page of
a unit, and then set the exercises as co nsolidation m aterial for self-stu dy. W hen stu d ents need furth er
practice of gram m ar points from a num b er of different units, refer th e m to th e Addition al exercises
(page 240). References at th e b otto m of the right-hand pages sho w where the relevant Addition al
exercises can be found.
An edition of A dva nced Gra m m ar in Use with o u t th e answers is also available, and so m e teach ers
mig ht prefer to use it w ith th eir stu d ents.
The third edition of A dva nced Gram m ar in Use has th e sam e co m prehensive gram m ar coverage as
previous e ditio ns, but m any of its exercises have been revised and its layo ut made m ore user-friendly.

ix
Advanced
Grammar
in Use
Unit
1 Present continuous and present simple 1
Sta te verbs GSBXZ3S3
We can use the present co ntinuous with so m e state verbs (e.g. a t t r a c t , like, lo o k, love, so u n d) to
e m phasise th at a situatio n is t e m p orary or for a period of tim e around the present. Co m pare:
Ella stays with us quite often. The children lo v e having her here, a nd
O Ella's w ith us at th e m o m ent. Th e children are lo vin g having her here.
State verbs which we rarely use with th e present co ntinu o us include b elie ve, c o nsist of, d o ub t, o w n.

Som e verbs have different meanings when th e y are used to talk ab out states and when th ey d escribe
actio ns. W ith th eir ‘state' meanings, th ey usually take sim ple rath er than co ntinuous forms. W ith th eir
'action' meanings, th ey m ay take sim ple or co ntinuous forms, depending on co ntext. Co m pare:

o
The app d o esn't a p p ea r to w ork on my phone, (appear: sta te = se em) and
C arley Robb is curre n tly a p p earin g in a m usical ”
n j /cl* xa. - i Also: c ost , e x p ect, f e el, fi t, have,
on Broadway. / She often a p p e ars in m usicals. . . . .
(ap pear: action = take part) ,m a g m e' m e asu re ’ t h ,n k ' w eig h

M e n tal st a t e verbs

W ith so m e verbs describing m enta l states (e.g. find, re alise, re gret, t hin k, u n d e rst a n d) w e can use
th e present co ntinuous to em p hasise th at we have recently starte d to think about so m ethin g or th a t
w e are not sure about so m ethin g. Co m pare:
I re g re t th a t the co m pany w ill have to be sold. (= I've made the d ecision and I'm sorry about
it) and
O I'm re g re t tin g my decision to give her the jo b. (= I'm increasin gly aware th a t it w as the wrong
d ecision)

W hen it m eans ‘think carefully about', co nsid e r is o nly used w ith th e present co ntinuous:
H e's co nsid erin g takin g early retire m ent. ( not He considers takin g early retire m ent.)
Som e oth er verbs describing preferences and m ental states (e.g. a gree, b eliev e, co nclu d e, k no w,
pre f er) are rarely used with th e present co ntinuous:
Q I b elie ve you now. (not I'm believing yo u now.)

P erf o r m a tiv es

W e use th e present sim ple w ith verbs which p erform the actio n th ey d escrib e (= p erform atives):
I su g g est yo u park outsid e th e city and
get the bus to th e centre. Also: ack n o w le d g e, a d m it, a d vise, a p o lo gise,
beg, co n f ess, co n g ra t u la t e , d eclare, de ny,
W e re q u est th a t yo u read th e terms
f orbid, g u ara n t e e, na m e, order, p er m it, pre dict,
and co nditions carefully before signing.
pro mise, re f use, re m ind, re q u est, t ha n k, w arn

Som e verbs used as p erform atives w ith th e present sim ple in a ffirm a tive (= p ositive) se nte nces
(a p olo gise, d e ny, g u ara n t e e, pro m ise, su g g est) have a sim ilar m eaning with eith er the present
sim ple or the present co ntinu o us in ne gative sente nces:
I d o n't d e n y / I'm n o t d e nyin g takin g the books, but Miguel said it would be okay.

M odals are often used with p erform atives to make w h a t w e say more t e n ta tive or p olite:
O W e w o uld a d vise yo u to arrive tw o hours before th e flig ht leaves.
I m ust beg you to keep t his a secret.

2
E x e rcises
m m C o m p le t e each pair o f se n t e nces using t h e sa m e verb (in a q u estio n f or m or n e g ative if
n ecessary) fro m t he box. Use t h e prese n t co n tin u o us; if t h is is n o t p ossible, use t he prese n t
si m ple. Use t o add an y w o rds o u tsid e t h e gap and use co n tract e d f or ms w h er e a p pro pria t e.

a ttract c o n sis t o f doubt feel fit

have li k e t ook- m e asu r e so u n d
’s d o es
1 a I hear yo u're having yo ur house repainte d. H ow X it Poking ? (or H o w / i t Look ?)
d o es
b I bought this new dress to d ay. H ow X it Look ?
2 a a : W h a t are you doing w ith th a t ruler? b: I ................................. th e area of th e kitchen.
b The garden .....................................12 by 20 m etres.
3 a I w h e th er I'll get ano th er chance to retake th e exam,
b I suppose she mig ht be at hom e to nig ht, but I .................................. it.
4 a The new science m useum curre n tly 1 0,000 visitors a m onth,
b Flo wers bees with th eir brig htly-coloured petals.
5 a Carlos w o n't work at th e to p of th e 20-store y building because he heights,
b a : H ow's th e new jo b? b: W ell, at the m o m ent, I it at all.
6 a My car's in th e garage to day. Th ey new brakes.
b I bought this ju m p er for Anna, but it her so I'll have to take it back.
7 a W h a t’s yo ur shirt made fro m? It like silk.
b I w o n't be coming to w ork to day. I very w ell.
8 a The roof of th e h o u s e .................................. only plastic sh e e ts nailed down in a fe w places.
b Th eir scho ol uniform black trousers and a dark green jum p er.
9 a Sim on's new song quite good, but he d o esn't think he's ready y e t to perform
it in public.
b a : W hat's t h a t noise? b: I t ..................................... like a bird stuck in th e chim n ey.
10 a Poulson tre atm e n t for a knee injury, but should be fit to play on Saturday,
b My sister long blonde hair. You're bound to recognise her.

Cr oss o u t an y i m pro b a ble a nsw ers.

& --- liSfe. —’ > >--~r* £ " % < '/ ^

R eply Reply A:-J F o rw ard P r.n t T c JDc

D e ar A u n t M ara,

T h a n k s f o r y o u r m e ssa g e . I (1 ) a pologise / 'm a pologising fo r n ot g e ttin g b ack to yo u so o n er, b ut I'v e

b e en in cre d ib ly b usy. W h e n I w e n t into n u rsin g , yo u w arn e d m e t h a t it w o uld be re a lly h ard w o rk , b ut
I (2 ) a d m it / 'm adm itting t h a t I d id n't re a lly b e lie v e y o u . D o n't g e t m e wro n g - I (3 ) don't su g g e st
/ 'm not su gg estin g t h a t I'm n ot e n jo yin g it. It's in cre d ib ly re w ard in g , b ut I (4 ) now re a lise / 'm now
re a lising how h ard th e jo b is. W hen I g e t h o m e I j u s t e a t (n o t v e ry w e ll, I (5 ) co n fess / 'm co n fessin g )
an d go stra ig h t to b e d. It d o e sn't h elp t h a t th e b us jo u rn e y to th e h osp ita l is so slo w . I (6 ) co n sid er / 'm
considering b uyin g a car, w hich will m a k e t h in g s e asier, I h o p e.

An d w h a t a b o u t y o u? H ow (7 ) do you find / a re you finding livin g in a v illa g e a f t e r so m a n y y e a rs in

th e c ity? I (8 ) know / 'm knowing h ow d iffic u lt it is fo r yo u to tra v e l su c h a long w a y, b ut it w o uld be
lo v e ly if yo u co uld c o m e an d st a y w ith m e f o r a w e e k e n d . I'v e g o t p le n ty of ro o m in m y fla t. I (9 ) don't
gu a ra ntee / 'm not gu ara nteeing to c o o k as w ell as yo u d o, b ut I (1 0 ) pro m ise / 'm prom ising to find
tim e to sh o w yo u aro u n d t h is lo v e ly old t o w n.

H o p e to se e yo u so o n. Ke e p in t o u ch .

Lo v e,

M artina

- A d d itio n a l e xe rcise 1 (page 240) 3

Unit
2 Present continuous and present simple 2
We often use th e present sim ple and present co ntinu o us in stories and jokes
in inform al spoken English to create th e impression th a t events are hap pening
now. This can make th e m more direct and excitin g and hold people's atte n tio n:
She g o es up to this man and lo o ks straig ht into his eyes. H e's not w e a rin g his glasses, and he
d o esn't r eco g nise h e r ...
This m an's p la yi n g g olf when a kangaroo b o u n ds up to him,
gra bs his club and hits his ball ab o ut half a mile ...

The main events are usually described in sequence using the

present sim ple and lon ger background events are described
using th e present co ntinuous.

In narratives and anecd otes the present sim ple can be used
to highlight an event. O fte n it is used after past te nses and
with a phrase such as su d d e n ly or a ll o f a su d d e n:
I was sittin g in th e park, reading a newspaper, when a ll o f a sudden this dog ju m p s at me.

We also use the present sim ple and present co ntinu o us in live co m m e ntaries (for exam ple, on sp orts
events) when the re port takes place at th e sam e tim e as th e actio n:
King se r v es to th e left-hand co urt and A dams m a k es a w o n d erful return. She's pla yin g
m a g nificent tennis in this m atch ...

W e can use th e present sim ple in phrases such as It sa ys here, I hear, I g a t h er, I see, I u n d e rst a n d
and T h e y sa y, (So m e o n e) sa ys, (So m e o n e) t e lls m e to intro duce news th a t we have heard, read,
seen (e.g. on televisio n), or been told. W e can also use past tenses (e.g. It said here, I heard):
I g a t h e r yo u're worrie d ab o ut Pedro.
O Sophia t e lls m e yo u're thinkin g of emigrating.
Professor H endriks is at th e co nference and I h e a r she's an excelle nt speaker.

The present sim ple is often used in news headlin es to talk ab o ut events th a t have recently happened:

SEC O N D Q U A KE HITS JAPA N p i R E B R E A K S O U T I N H O T EL R O O M

SCIENTISTS F IN D ICE ON THE MOON FOREIGN M INISTER R E S IG N S

We can use th e present sim ple to refer to th e co nte nts of books, films, newsp ap ers, etc:
Th o m pson gives a list of th e largest European co m panies in Cha p ter 6.
A t the beginning of th e book, thre e men find $4 m illio n in a crashed plane.
In th e film , Loni Baranski t a k es th e role o f a private d etective.

W e can use th e present co ntinuous with adverbs such as a l w a ys, c o nst a n t ly , co n t i n u a lly or f o re v er
to em phasise th a t so m ethin g is done so often th a t it is ch aracteristic of a person, group or thing:
Q a : I think I'll stay here after all. b: Yo u're consta ntly ch an gin g y o ur mind.
O Jaco b is a re ally kind person. He's always o f f erin g to help me with m y work.
W e often use this p attern to indicate disapproval. The past co ntinuous is used in a sim ilar w ay with
th ese adverbs (e.g. W as O livia alw ays ask in g you for m oney, t o o?).
We can use the present co ntinu o us to d escrib e so m ethin g w e re gularly do at a certain tim e:
At eight o'clock I'm usually drivin g to w ork, so phone me on my mo bile.
Seven o'clock is a bit early. W e're g en erally ea tin g th en.

4
E x e rcises
C o m p le t e t h ese se n t e n ces using t h e verbs in brack e ts. Use t h e p rese n t sim ple or prese n t
co n tin u o us.
1 Rodriguez p asse s to Messi wh o just over the bar. Barcelona
.................................. much more in this h a l f ... { p a ss- sh o o t - a t t a c k )
2 A man home late one night after th e office C hristm as party. His wife
................. for him, and she to him ... { a rriv e - w a it - s a y )
3 I w e n t to a co ncert yesterd ay in th e To wn H all. In the mid dle of it, w hile th e orchestra
.............................. this man su d d e n ly on his seat a n d ..................................... to
co nduct th e m, { p l a y - st a n d - st a r t )

m C o m p le t e w h a t each p erson sa ys a b o u t t he n e ws t h e y have read or heard using t h e prese n t

t e nse p hrases in C. f j j
I. ..se e. the g overnm ent's giving dnp h e a lt h
G o ve rn m e n t g i v es h e al t h se r v ic e billio ns
s e rv ic e cl Lot more m oney.
Vegecorp are going to
V e g e c o r p t o sa c k 1,0 00 w o r k e rs.

President C artm an announced a new w e ’re going to have

public holiday on his birthday, A ugust
6th. He m ade the an n o u n c e m e n t...

Bruno's
Did you hear th at Bruno's
crashed his car again?

Ed
she's
0^£Qtanewj°b-^

th ey've identified
A team of researchers claims
to have identified a gene which
. causes some people to overeat.

v --------------------------

m Exp an d on e o f t h e se ts of n o t es b elo w t o co m p le t e each dialo gu e.

co n t i n u a lly / ch a n g e / m in d f o re v e r / m o an / w o r k f o re v e r / ask m e / m o n e y
c o nst a n t l y / cri t icise / drivin g

a: I ca n't read this, b: You're a lw ^ y .5 compUunmg a bou t my h .

a: Can I b orro w €10? b : Y o u 'r e ........................................................................................
a: That was a dang erous thing to do. b: You're
a: I think I'll stay here after all. b: You're ...................... ..............................................
a: I had a bad day at the office again, b : You're ........................... ................

C o m p le t e each pair o f se n t e n ces using t h e sa m e verb (in n eg a tive f or m if n ecessary). Use t he

prese n t co n tin u o us or t h e p rese n t si m p le. Use A t o add an y w ords o u tsi d e t he gap. 0 2 0
1 a a: Shall I phone at six? b : N o, w e usually ........................... dinner at t h a t tim e.
b I lam b, thanks. I'm a veg etarian.
2 a Gielm an H enry V in th e latest pro duction at th e Royal Th eatre.
b Th ey c o nstan tly loud m usic until th e e arly hours of th e m orning.
3 a I n orm ally th e children to scho ol at 8:3 0. Perhaps we could m e et at 9:00.
b In his 2007 book, W all a co ntroversial vie w of Britain's role in th e war.

A d d itio n a l e xe rcise 1 (page 24 0)

 Unit
Past simple and present perfect
Tim e expressions th at refer to th e present, such as t h is m ornin g / w e e k / C B B & 3 5 3
m o n t h and t o d a y, can be used with eith er past sim ple or present p erfect verbs.
If w e think o f t h is m ornin g (e tc.) as a past, co m plete d tim e period, then we use th e past sim ple; if
we think of t h is m ornin g (etc.) as a tim e period which includes th e present m o m ent, then w e use the
present p erfect. Co m pare:
I di d n't sh a v e this morning. (= the morning is over and I didn't shave) and
O I h a v e n't sh a v e d this morning. (= it is still th e m orning and I might shave later)

In a se ntence which includes a tim e clause w ith since, w e g en erally prefer a past sim ple verb in th e
tim e clause and a present p erfect verb in th e main clause. Th e tim e clause refers to a p articular point
in th e past:
S ince Mr Dodson b eca m e president un e m plo ym ent has incr ease d , { ra therth a n ... has
b eco me ...)
Q She hasn't b ee n a ble to play tennis since she bro k e her arm. { ra th erth a n ... has broken ...)

N ote, however, th a t we use th e present p erfect in th e tim e clause if th e tw o situatio ns described in the
main clause and tim e clause extend until th e present:
H av e yo u m e t any of y o ur neighbours since y o u ’ve liv e d here? { n o t ... yo u lived ...)

W ith tim e clauses intro duced by af t e r, w h e n , u n til, as so o n as, o nce, b y t h e t i m e and th e tim e
expressions t h e m in u t e / se co n d / m o m e n t th e past sim ple refers to past, co m plete d events and the
present p erfect refers to fu ture events. Co m pare th ese exam ples:
G A fte r she le f t h ospital (p ast), she had a long holiday, and
G A fte r Lucas h as le f t scho ol (fu ture), he w ill be spending six m o nths in India.
Q The m inute I g o t the news ab o ut Anna (p ast) I tele phoned my parents, and
I'll co ntact yo u the m inute I've g o t my exam results, (future)

In th e tim e clause in sentences like this it is possible to use the past p erfect instead of th e past sim ple
(e.g. A fter she ha d l e f t ...) and th e present sim ple instead of the present p erfect (e.g. A fter Lucas
le a v es ...) with th e sam e m eaning (see also Unit 5).

In news re ports, yo u w ill often read about or hear recent events intro duced w ith the present p erfect,
and then th e past sim ple or o th er past tenses are used to give d etails:

A Russian sp acecraft h as re t u rn e d safely to Earth with its tw o

passengers. US astro naut Sco tt Keane and Russian cosm o naut
O lga Kaleri lan d e d in th e early hours of W ednesday.

An A m erican w o m an has b eco m e th e first person

to make 2 millio n co ntrib utio ns to W ikip edia.
Esther M iller b eg an editing the site eight years ago.

A fter th e pattern It / T h is / T h a t is / will be t h e f irst t im e ... w e g en erally use the present p erfect in
th e n ext clause:
That's the first time I've se e n Jan look em barrasse d, (rep orting a past event)
It won't be the first time she h as v o t e d against the g overnm ent, (talkin g about a future event)
N ote th a t after It / T h is / T h a t was t h e f irst t im e ... w e g en erally use th e p ast p erfect (see U nit 5):
O It was the first time I'd t a lk e d to D im itra outsid e th e office.
- ?H -........:
E x e rcises
C o m p le t e each se n t e nce w it h a verb fro m t he box. Use t he prese n t p erf ect or p ast sim ple, wit h
a n eg a tive f or m w here n ecessary. Q
hav e go o v e rsle e p rea d sp e n d w ear

1 a : Shall I make us so m e dinner? It's alrea dy eight o'clock.

b: N o, th anks. I ........to th e d entist this afterno on and my m outh hurts to o much to eat
anythin g.
2 I ......... thre e lectures to d ay and I still have tw o more later this afterno on.
3 It w as so hot t o d ay t h at I shorts and a T-shirt at w ork.
4 We £200 on food this m onth and there's ano th er we ek to go before I g et paid.
5 a : Do you w a n t a lift hom e?
b: N o , I this m orning because my alarm clock did n't go off, so I need to work late.
6 I ................. much of th e re p ort y e t, but I have to finish it by th e we ekend.

m C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces w it h t he p airs o f verbs fro m t he box. Ch o ose t h e m ost a p pro pria t e

t e nse — prese n t p erf ect or p ast si m ple.

be a b l e - f e e l h a p p e n -s p e a k im p ro v e-b e
not w a n t - f a ll r e sc u e - b e w o r k - n o t have

1 Maria to go swim m in g since she inth e river.

2 Since she at the co m pany she ......................... a day o ff through illness.
3 Since he the girl from a house fire, h e on TV alm ost every day.
4 A lot since I l a s t .......................... to yo u.
5 Since I to drive I much more ind epend ent
6 Stefan's reading en orm o usly since he at scho ol.

O n e se n t e nce in each pair is wron g. C o rrect it by replacin g t he p ast si m p le w it h t he prese n t

p erf ect o f t he it alicise d verb.
1 a Rem em b er th a t after yo u signed th e co ntract yo u w o n't be able to change yo ur mind,
b Carlo's injury only became ap parent after he signed to play for Real Madrid.
2 a As soon as I fin ish ed colle ge I w a n t to travel around A ustralia,
b I didn't have tim e to ch eck th e essay. I handed it in as soon asI fin ish ed it.
3 a By the tim e Sarah g o t to w ork th e m eeting had finishe d,
b I'll probably have finished bre akfast by th e tim e th e children got up.
4 a I recognised her th e m o m ent I he ard her laugh,
b I'll t e ll yo u w h a t tim e w e're co ming the m o m ent I he ard fro m Emil.

H ere are so m e e x t rac ts fro m a t ele visio n n e ws re p ort. Ch o ose t h e m ore a p pro pria t e t e nse -
prese n t p erf ect or p ast si m ple - f or t h e verbs in brack e ts. SUB
1 W hen President N elson d r i v e s ( arrive ) in Paris this evening, it w ill be the first tim e she
(visit ) Europe since her election vict ory in May.
2 The V ictoria H ospital in M illto wn ( close ) to new p atients after m ore cases of
food poisoning. Three eld erly patients (die ) last we ek inthe outbreak.
3 The rate of inflatio n ............................. ( drop ) to 4 .8% . It's th e first tim e in n early tw o ye ars that
th e rate ( fall ) b elow 5%.
4 N early 6 00 la p t o p s..................................... (ste al ) from M inistry of Defence staff over th e past five
years. H owever, a spokesperson ........................ (insist) th a t there had been no se curity
pro blems as none of th e co m p uters (hold ) secret inform atio n.

A d d itio n a l exe rcise 2 (page 241)

Unit
4 4 Past continuous and past simple
tit W hen w e talk about tw o events or a ctivities t h a t w e n t on over th e sa m e Reminder -* A6-A8, A13
period of past tim e, w e can ofte n use th e past co ntinuous or th e past sim ple
for both:
Mia w as rea din g to th e children w hile was reading / read
Ben w as w ash in g up. ( or ... rea d ... w ash e d up.)

Using th e past co ntinu o us em p hasises t h a t the event or p ast now

a c tivity (‘was reading') was in progress during the past
was washin g up / washe d up
period o f tim e (‘while Ben was washin g up'). Co m pare:
O W h en I w as le arnin g / le arn e d to drive I w as living
with m y parents.
W as le ar n in g em p hasises t h a t the a c tivity w as in progress (‘I had lessons during this tim e') and
le arn e d em phasises co m pletio n (‘I passed my t est during this tim e').

W hen we talk about tw o or m ore past co m pleted events t h a t followe d one anoth er, w e use th e past
sim ple, not the past co ntinuous, for both (see also U nit 5C):
Q She g o t up when th e alarm clock w e n t off.

We usually use th e past sim ple rath er than th e past co ntinuous to talk about repeated past actio ns:
W e w e n t to Spain thre e tim es last year.
Q Did you driv e past her house every d ay?
H owever, we can use th e past co ntinuous, p articularly in spoken English, when we w a n t to em phasise
th at repeated actio ns w e n t on for a lim ite d and te m p orary period of past tim e:
O W hen Kata was in hospital, we w e r e v isit in g her tw ic e a day. (or ... we visit e d ...)
To lose w eig ht before th e race, I w asn 't e a tin g any biscuits for w e eks, ( or ... I did n't e a t ...)
or to talk about so m ethin g th a t happened surprisin gly often:
O Last w eek I w as havin g t o bring w ork home every night to get it all done, (or ... had ...)
O W hen th e build ers w ere here I w as m a kin g th e m cups of tea all th e tim e, (or ... m a d e ...)

W e often use th e past sim ple in a narrative (e.g. a report or a story) to talk ab o ut a single co m plete
past event and th e past co ntinu o us to describ e th e situatio n th a t existe d at th e tim e. The event mig ht
have interrupte d th e situatio n, or happened w hile the situatio n was in progress:
Erika dro p pe d her bag w hile she w as g e t t in g into her car.
She w as sh a k in g with anger as she l e f t th e hotel.

W e can use eith er th e past co ntinu o us or past sim ple (or past p erfect; see U nit 5E) with so m e verbs to
talk ab o ut thin gs w e intende d to do but didn't:
O W e w e r e m ea nin g to call in and see yo u, but Marc w asn't feeling w e ll, (or W e m e a n t ...)
A lso: co nsi d e r + -in g, e x p e c t t o , h o p e t o , in t e n d t o , pla n t o / o n + -in g, t h in k a b o u t / o f + -in g, w a n t t o

These verbs (w ith th e exceptio n of m ea n and e x p ect) and w o n d e r a b o u t can also be used with the
present and past co ntinu o us to re p ort w h a t w e mig ht do in th e future. Th e past co ntinu o us is less
d efinite than th e present co ntinuous:
I w as t h in k in g o f going to China next year, but it depends how much m o ney I've got. (less
definite than I’m t hin k in g o f going ...)
O W e w e r e w o n d erin g a b o u t invitin g Eva over to m orro w, (less definite than W e're w o n d erin g
ab o ut ...)
E x e rcises
C o m p le t e t h e se n t e n ces using t h ese pairs o f verbs. Use t he p ast sim p le in one gap and t h e p ast
co n tin u o us in t h e o ther. Q Q

c o m e -s h o w -get— g©^ h o p e - g i v e l i v e -s p e n d
lo o k - se e p la y - bre a k st a r t - ch eck in

1 J u s t a s l wees getting into th e bath all the lights w e n t off.

2 I .................. to go a w ay this weekend, but my b o ss.. me so m e work t h a t I
have to finish by M onday.
3 W hen I in Paris, I thre e hours a day travellin g to and from
work.
4 A frien dly A m erican co uple chattin g to him as he................ at th e hotel
recep tio n.
5 I bumped into Lena last we ek. She a lot b etter than when I last
.................................. her.
6 My boss into th e office just as
I everyo ne m y holid ay photos.
7 I ............................. bad minton fo ur tim es a w e ek
before I .................................. my ankle.

Th is tim e, use t h e sa me t e nse, ei t h er p ast sim ple or p ast co n tin u o us, in b oth sp aces,
a d d -taste go o f f - l i g h t n o t list e n - e x plain p ush -ru n n o t w a t c h - drea m

8 The sm oke alarm wh en he acandle underneath it.

9 I ca n't re m e m b er how to a nsw er this question. I m ust co nfess th a t I w hile the
te ach er it to us.
10 She more salt to th e soup, and then i t ......................................much better.
11 Although th e televisio n was on, I ..................................... it. Instead I about my
holidays.
12 S h e .................................. open th e door and into the roo m.

Look a gain a t n u m b ers 1, 4, 7 and 11 in 4.1. W hich of t h ese se n t e nces co uld have b o th ver bs in
t h e p ast si m p le? W h a t dif f ere nce in m eanin g, if any, w o ul d t h ere b e?

C o m p le t e t his e m ail w it h ei t h er t h e p ast si m ple or t h e p ast co n tin u o us f or m o f t h e verbs in

b rack e ts. W h ere a l t e r n a ti v es are p ossible, t hin k a b o u t an y dif f ere nce in m eaning. 0 9

I ( 1 ) .......... ( b u y ) a n e w a la rm clo ck th e o th er d a y in T a y lo r's th e j e w e ll e rs, w h e n I

a c t u a lly (2 ) (s e e ) so m e b o d y sh o p liftin g . I'd j u s t fin ish e d p ayin g fo r m y clo ck
an d as I (3 ) ( tu rn ) ro u n d , an e ld e rly w o m a n (4 ) ( slo w ly p u t ) a
silv e r p la te into a bag t h a t sh e (5 ) ( c a rry ) . T h e n sh e (6 ) ( w a lk )
o v e r to a n o t h e r p art o f th e sh o p an d (7 ) ( p ick up ) an e xp e nsiv e - lo o kin g w a tc h
a n u m b e r o f ti m e s. W h e n sh e ( 8 ) ......... ( th in k ) t h a t n o b o dy (9 ) ( lo o k ) ,
sh e ( 1 0 ) ................................... ( dro p ) it into th e b a g . B e fo re I ( 1 1 ) ................................... ( h a ve ) a c h a n c e to
te ll th e s t a f f in th e sh o p , sh e ( 1 2 ) ................................... ( n o tice ) t h a t I (1 3 ) ( w a tch )
h er an d (1 4 ) ( h u rry ) o u t. U n f o rtu n a t e ly f o r her, tw o p o lic e o ffic ers
(1 5 ) ( w a lk ) p ast ju s t a t t h a t m o m e n t an d sh e (1 6 ) ( ru n ) stra ig h t
into t h e m .

-> A d d itio n a l e xe rcise 1 (page 240)

Unit
5 Past perfect and past simple
W hen w e give an acco unt of a sequence of past events w e usually Reminder -* A6-A8, A14-A15
put th ese events in chronolo gical ord er using the past sim ple. If we
w a n t to refer to an event out of ord er - th a t is, an event which happened before th e last event in the
se quence w e have writte n or spoken about - we can use the past p erfect. Stu dy the use of th e past
p erfect and past sim ple in th e t e xt on th e right:

O rd er of events: 1 gave present 2 wro te em ail

3 made mistake 4 realised mistake
O rd er events 1 wro te e m ail 2 had given present
are m entione d: ( out o f order) 3 realised mistake
4 had m a d e m istake ( out o f order)
I wrote £lara an email to thank her
for the present she had given me
for m>f birthday last week, b ut as
soon as I pressed the 'send' button, I
realise d that I had made a mistake
and sent it to her sister instead.

W hen w e understand th a t we are talkin g ab o ut events before ano th er

past event, we d on't have to co ntinu e using the past p erfect:
W e b o u g h t a new car last m o nth. We'd drive n m y parents' old car for ages, but it st a r t e d
(or had st a r t e d ) to fall a part. W e p u t ( or had put) a new engine in it, but th a t di d n't so lv e
(or ha d n't solv e d ) th e pro blems we were having.

If th e ord er of past events is clear from the c o ntext (for exam ple, if tim e expressio ns make th e order
clear) w e can often use eith er the past perfect or th e past sim ple:
A fte r Ivan ha d f inish e d reading, he put o ut th e light, ( or ... Ivan f inish e d ...)
The tw o lead ers agreed to m e et, even though e arlier talks had faile d to reach an a gre em ent.
( or ... talks f aile d ...)

The past p erfect is often used in reporting w h a t w as origin ally said or th o u g ht in th e present p erfect or
past sim ple (see also U nit 35):

Talk in g a b o u t a p ast e v e n t Re p ortin g t h is p ast e v e n t

’I ha v e m e t him before.' I w as sure th a t I ha d m e t him before.
( n o t ... I m et him ...)
‘The villag e h asn't ch an g e d m uch.' I found th a t th e villag e ha d n't chan g e d
m uch, ( n o t ... th e villa g e didn't change ...)

‘225 people d r o w n e d in th e recent flo o ds.' Police said th a t 225 people ha d d r o w n e d in

th e recent floo ds, ( or ... dr o w n e d ...)
‘I st o l e th e w atch.' She a d mitte d th a t she ha d st o le n the
w a tch, ( or ... st o l e ...)

W e can use either the past p erfect or past sim ple (and often past co ntinu o us and past perfect
c o ntinuous; see U nits 4 and 7) when w e talk about thin gs t h a t w e intende d to do, but didn't or w o n't
now do in th e future:
I ha d h o p e d to visit th e g allery before I left Florence, but it's closed on M ondays, ( or I h o p ed
..., I w as h o pin g ..., I ha d b ee n ho pin g ...)
Q Aron p la n n e d t o retire at 60, but w e have persuaded him to stay for a few more years.
( or Aron ha d p la n n e d ..., Aron w as plan nin g ..., Aron had b ee n plan nin g ...)

10
E x e rcises
g i Th e ev e n ts m e n t io n e d in t he m a gazin e art icle are list e d b elo w. W rit e t h e order in w hich t he
ev e n ts are m e n t io n e d and t he n t h e ord er in w hich t h e y occurre d (or w ere t h o u g h t t o occur).
C o m p are t h e t w o lists and co nsid er w h y t h e p ast p erf ect (in it alics) w as used.

How I b o u g h t my dream house

W h e n I first sa w t h e o ld h o use I h a d ju st m ove d to th e are a . It h a d b e e n
e m p ty f o r a b o u t a y e a r a n d w as b e g in n in g t o n e e d so m e re p a irs, b u t
th e h o use w as e xa c t ly w h a t I w a n t e d . B u t b y th e tim e I h a d p u t to g e th e r
e n o u g h m o n e y I le a rn t th a t a p ro p e rty d e v e l o p e r h a d b o u g h t it a n d
p la n n e d t o turn it into a h o t e l. Six m o n ths la t e r I h a d n e arly given up h o p e
o f fin d in g a n y w h e re t o live in th e v illa g e w h e n I h e ard th a t th e h o use w as
fo r sa le a g a in . T h e p ro p e rty d e v e l o p e r h a d d e c id e d to in v est h is m o n e y
in a n e w h o usin g d e v e l o p m e n t on th e e d g e o f t h e v illa g e . I b o u g h t th e
h o use im m e d ia t e ly a n d I'v e liv e d t h e re h a p p ily e v e r sin c e .

events order events are order of events

mentioned in text

I moved ... Z Z
I l e a r n t ...
The pro p erty d evelo per decided ...
I heard ...
I first saw the old house 1
A pro p erty d evelo per bought it .............. 1...............
I nearly gave u p ...
I put to g e ther enough m o n e y...
It was e m p ty

Q U n d erlin e t h e co rrect o p tio ns. In so m e cases o nly on e is co rrect, and in o t h e rs b ot h are co rrect.
i < 4 :4 h
1 As Jo nas w as intro duced to Mrs Lopez, he realised th a t he h a d m e t / m et her before.
2 During the previous week, I had been / w e n t to the gym every evening.
3 He denied th a t he h ad taken / took the m o ney from the office.
4 I thou ght it w as th e best film I h a d seen / sa w in my life.
5 The boy told me th at he had lost / lost his train ticke t and didn’t know how he would get home.
6 A t th e co nference, scie n tists reported th a t th ey had fo u n d / fou n d a cure for m alaria.
7 The te ach er guessed th at so m e of the children h a d ch e a ted / ch e a ted in th e exam.
8 She said th a t she had made up / m ade up her mind wh o to vo te for, and th a t I co uld n't persuade
her to change.
9 Th o m as explaine d th a t he h ad gone / w e n t home early because he felt ill.
10 W hen I asked Maria about Jakub, she a d m itte d that she hadn't h e a rd / didn't he ar from him for
ages.
11 The w aiter to ok m y plate a w ay before I h ad fin ished / fin ished eating.
12 Julia said she didn't w a n t any dinner. A p parently, she had e a ten / a te already.

Expand t h ese se ts o f n o t es using t h e p ast p erf ect t o begin each se n t e nce . Q

I / e x p ect / o p er a ti o n / p ai n f ul I / h o p e / l e a v e / by n in e
H e / n o t m ean / insu l t / her Lara / n o t in t e n d / b eco m e / d e n t ist
I / n o t t h in k o f / co o k ra b bit

1 1 H<*d Hoped, bo Leave by nin e , but I oversle pt and missed th e train.

2 ............................................................................................................. ;she alw ays wante d to be a v
3 .........................................................................................................................................................., but I didn't feel a thing.
4 ,until Andrei told me how
5 ,but Daria w

-* A d d itio n a l exe rcise 3 (page 241)

Unit
6 Present perfect continuous and present perfect
W e use th e present p erfect co ntinu o us to express the idea of an Reminder A9-A12, A16-A17
a c tivity (a task, piece of w ork, e tc.) in progress until recently or until
th e tim e of speaking:
H a v e yo u b ee n w o rk in g in th e garden a ll day? You look exhauste d.
She's b ee n w ri tin g th e book since she was in her twenties and at last it's finished.

now

N ote th a t w e often use tim e expressions to say h ow long th e a c tivity has been in progress.
W e d on't use th e present p erfect co ntinu o us w ith verbs such as b elo ng, k n o w , (dis)lik e, and
u n d e rst a n d th a t d escrib e unchanging states:
H a ve yo u k n o w n each oth er long? (not H ave yo u been knowing ...)
Q I h a v e n 't lik ed ice cream since I ate to o much and was sick. ( not I haven't been liking ...)

W hen w e talk ab o ut situatio ns (g eneral ch aracteristics or circu mstances) th at exist until th e present
w e can often use eith er th e present p erfect or present p erfect co ntinuous:
O W e've b ee n lo o k in g f o r w ar d t o this holid ay for ages, ( or W e've lo o k e d f o r w a r d t o . . .)

W e often use th e present p erfect or th e present p erfect co ntinu o us to talk ab o ut so m ethin g th at

has recently finished if w e can still see its results. H owever, w e g en erally use th e present p erfect
co ntinuous w ith verbs t h a t suggest extend ed or rep eated a ctivity. Co m pare:
O H e's bro k en his finger and is in a lot of pain. (not He's been breaking ...) a nd
I've b ee n p la yi n g squash and need a shower! ( more likely than I've played ...)

W e use the present p erfect co ntinu o us rath er than th e present p erfect when w e draw a conclusion
from w h a t w e can see, hear, etc. W e often use this form to co m plain or criticise:
W h o's b ee n m essin g around with my papers? T h e y’re all over th e place.
O You've b ee n e a tin g ch oc olate, haven't yo u? There's so m e on y o ur shirt.
W hen w e talk ab out th e result of circu mstances or an a ctivity, we use th e present p erfect, rath er than
th e present p erfect co ntinuous. W h en w e focus on th e process w e often use eith er the present p erfect
or th e present p erfect co ntinuous. Co m pare:
Prices hav e d ecr e ase d by 7%. (not Prices have been decreasing by 7%.) and
O Prices hav e b ee n d ecr e asin g recently, ( or Prices h av e d ecr e ase d ...)
I've use d thre e tins of paint on th e kitch en w alls, ( not I've been using thre e tins of paint on th e
kitchen w alls.) and
I've b ee n usin g a new kind of paint on th e kitchen w alls, ( or I've use d ...)

The present p erfect co ntinu o us em p hasises th a t an a c tivity is ongoing and re peated, w hile the present
p erfect suggests th e a c tivity happened only once or on a sp ecifie d num b er o f occasio ns:
Miguel has b ee n kicking a fo otb all against the w all all day. ( more likely than ... has kick ed ...)
He h as p la ye d for th e n atio nal tea m in 65 m atch es so far. ( not He has been playing for th e
natio nal tea m in 65 m atch es so far.)

Co m pare:
The w orkers hav e b een ca llin g for th e chairm an's resignation. (= em p hasises a num b er of
tim es, pro bably over an extend e d period) and
W orkers hav e ca ll e d for m ana g e m ent to begin ne g otiatio ns on pay. (= mayb e a num b er of
tim es or only once.)
E x e rcises
C o m p le t e each pair o f se n t e n ces using t he sa m e verb. Use t h e prese n t p erf ect in o n e se n t e nce
and t h e prese n t p erf ect co n tin u o us in t he o t her. Use n eg a tive f or ms w here a p pro pria te. CS9
d isa p p e ar give put rea d st a y st o p sw im

1 a M artina G o nzale z in a rented fla t since returning to Buenos Aires,

b We at this h otel a couple of tim es before.
2 a All day, th e police m o torists to question th e m ab out the accid ent,
b G ood, th e noise .........................................I can start co ncentratin g on my w ork again.
3 a I ................................. any o f D icke ns'n o vels.
b I this book on astro p hysics for hours and I'm still o nly on page six.
4 a Dr F le tc h e r............................................ th e sam e lecture to stu d ents for th e last ten years.
b Mr Sato nearly a millio n pounds to the ch arity this year.
5 a I did 20 lengths of th e pool to d ay. I th a t far since I was at scho ol,
b I and I fe el exhauste d.
6 a In recent ye ars, co m panies increasing reso urces into intern et marketing,
b The South African coal co m pany the Calverto n Mine up for sale.
7 a An im p orta nt file fro m my office.
b Plants and veg eta bles from my garden since w e had new neighb ours.

H ere are t w o v ie ws on t h e g o vern m e n t's a n n o u nce m e n t t h a t it is t o cu t t h e m o n ey it gives t o

t h e In flu enza Research Ce n tre. If n ecessary, co rrect t h e p rese n t p erf ect co n tin u o us ver bs using
ei t h er t h e p rese n t p erf ect or p ast si m ple.
a Dr Petra Adams, the D irector o f the C entre
( \
It's re m arkable to think th at since 1950 influenza (1) has been
claiming more than 5 0 ,0 0 0 lives in this co untry, and in 1957 alone
around 6 ,0 0 0 people (2) have been dying. But over th e last 20 years
w e at th e Centre (3) have been making co nsid era ble progress on
understandin g the illness. W e (4) have been producing over a hundred
books and articles reporting th e results of our research and in 2012
th ey (5) have been awarding th e N ob el Prize for m e dicine to one of
m y colleagues. In our more recent work we (6) have been looking
into th e effects of influenza on heart disease and we (7) have also
been exploring a possible link b etween clim a te change and th e recent
increase in th e num b er of cases of influenza. It is a trag edy th a t the
g overnm ent (8) has been making this decision now.

b S a bir Khan, the O pposition spokesperson fo r science

The previous g overn m ent (1) has been investing huge am o unts
of m o ney into th e Centre and I think it's terrible th at the present
g overn m ent (2) has been a nnouncing this cut when the num b er of
cases of influenza (3) has been increasing. The Centre (4) has been
running successfully for m any ye ars. But this decision is just ty p ical of
this g overn m ent. It (5) has been n eglecting health research ever since
it w as electe d, and (6) has been cutting back on spending on science
g enerally. Although the g overnm ent says th a t th e cut is necessary
because of the recent world eco n o m ic pro blems, I (7) have been
finding evid ence th a t th ey (8) have been pla nning this for so m e tim e.
I (9) have been speaking to th e M inister ab o ut this yesterd ay and
(10) have also been writing to th e Prim e M inister de manding th a t the
decision should be reversed.
V--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- J

A d d itio n a l e xe rcise 2 (page 241) 13

Unit Past perfect continuous, past perfect and
7 past continuous
W e use th e past p erfect co ntinu o us to t alk about so m ethin g th a t was in Reminder -* A14-A15, A18
progress recently before or up to a past point in tim e, and the past
p erfect wh en we talk ab o ut a finished a c tivity before a past tim e:
I'd b ee n finish in g so me w ork in th e garden when Lea arrive d, so I didn't hear her co m e in.

o
( not I'd finished so m e w ork in the garden when Lea arrive d, so I didn't hear her co m e in.) and
I'd finish e d all the ironing so I starte d cleanin g th e win d ows, ( not I'd been finishing all the
ironing so I starte d cleanin g th e win d o ws.)

had been finishing had finished

p ast now p ast now

We can often use eith er the past p erfect co ntinuous or th e past p erfect with a sim ilar meaning:
I'd b ee n w o rk in g / I'd w o rk e d hard all year, so I fe lt th a t I deserved a holiday.

If w e talk about how m any tim es so m ethin g happened in a period up to a p articular past tim e, we use
th e past p erfect, not th e past p erfect co ntinuous:
H ow m any tim es ha d yo u m e t him before yesterd ay? ( not H ow m any tim es had you been
m eeting ...)
I ha d st a y e d in the h otel tw ice in th e 1990s. ( not I had been stayin g in the hotel tw ic e ...)

The past p erfect co ntinuous can be used to talk about a situatio n or a c tivity th a t w e n t on before a
p articular past tim e and (i) finished at th a t tim e, (ii) continued beyond it, or (iii) finished sh ortly
before it:
(i) We'd b ee n drivin g for ab out an hour wh en th e engine su d d enly stop ped.
(ii) She fe lt terrible during th e interview because she had b ee n su f f erin g from flu since the
previous day.
O (iii) W h en I last saw O m ar, he'd b een ru n nin g and was out of breath.
If we are not intereste d in how long th e a c tivity w e n t on, w e can use the past co ntinuous instead of
th e past p erfect co ntinuous. Co m pare:
W hen th e merger was announce d it b ecame ap p are nt t h a t the tw o co m panies ha d b een
d iscussin g the p ossibility since last ye a r, a nd
A friend told me ab o ut a co nversation sh e’d rece ntly overheard. Two w o m en w e re d iscussin g
th eir holiday plans ...
I first m et M ateo and Lucia when th ey ha d b een g oin g o u t to g e ther fo r five ye a rs, and th ey
didn't get married for a no th er thre e years after th at, and
Karin m et Lars when she w as goin g o u t with his best friend.

Rem em b er th a t we d on't describe states w ith co ntinuous tenses (see U n it 1), and w e use th e past
p erfect, not the past p erfect co ntinuous, even when w e fo cus on the length of a situatio n up to a
p articular past tim e:
We had only o w n e d th e car for six weeks when th e clutch broke, ( not W e had been owning
th e car for six weeks ...)

Th e past p erfect co ntinuous is m ainly used in writte n t exts and is less co m m o n in speech. Here is an
exam ple in a newsp ap er article:
The body of a clim b er wh o w e n t missing in th e Alps was fin ally found yesterd ay. C arl Sims had
b ee n cli m bin g alone near th e H arz W a terfall, which has claim e d m any lives in the past.

14
E x e rcises
C o m p le t e each pair of se n t e n ces using o n e verb fro m t h e box. Use t h e p ast p erf ect co n tin u o us
if p ossible; if no t, use t h e p ast p erf ect. £ }
a p p ly ca rr y fly w o rk

1 a She o nly for the co m p any for a couple of m o nths,

so I was surprised to hear th a t she'd left.
b She fin ally her w ay up from train e e to a
m ana g e m ent p osition, and she cele brate d her pro m otion with a big party.
2 a The avalanche................................ th e m 500 m etres down th e m o untain but no one was
hurt.
b She to ok a b ottle from th e bag she all the w ay from hom e.
3 a We for visas early, but still hadn't got th e m by the w e ek before the
holiday.
b She for jo bs, w ith o u t success, since leaving university.
4 a He all the w ay fro m N ew York to be at yesterd ay's meeting.
b W h en th e plane was diverted, sh ortly after take-off, it from London to
Frankfurt.

Use t h e p ast p erf ect co n tin u o us f or m of t h e verb in brack e ts if a p pro pria t e; if no t, use t h e p ast
p erf ect. Q Q
1 Mrs Bishop to have children for ye ars, and only became pregnant at the age
of 45. (try)
2 This was th e first tim e we had been to the castle, even though w e Prague a
fe w tim es before, (visit)
3 She bought her first w atch at th e age of eight. It ............................... tw o pounds, ( cost )
4 Em m a W ille m s novels for ten ye ars before she published her first book.
( write )
5 For so me tim e Daniel about passing th e exams and eve n tu ally decided to
change the co urse he was taking, (worry)
6 My te ach er was really annoyed with me. It was th e third tim e I late for
scho ol th at w e ek, ( arrive )
7 I ................................... a lw a y s.............................................. it would be easy to get a jo b, and was
disapp ointed to be rejecte d. ( believe )
8 We about Sarah wh en, to our a m aze m ent, she walke d through the door.
( talk )

In w hich one of t h e se n t e n ces w h er e y o u have used t h e p ast p erf ect co n tin u o us do y o u t hin k
t h e p ast co n tin u o us is m ore lik ely?

St u d y t his co n v ersa tio n e x tract. If t h e it alicise d verbs are co rrect, w rit e / . If t h e y are wron g,
co rrect t h e m using ei t h er t h e p ast p erf ect (active or p assive) or p ast p erf ect co n tin u o us. CD
a: H ow w a s yo ur weekend?
b: N ot great, actu ally. I (1 ) 'd re a lly been looking forward to a relaxing co uple of days. But e arly on
Saturd ay m orning Mum phoned to say th a t Dad (2) had been taking ill.
a : O h, no! W h a t (3) had happened?
b: She (4) had ju st been hearing th a t he (5) had been flow n by helico p ter to hospital in Edinburgh
from a villag e calle d Contin where he (6) had fish e d with my Uncle Mark.
a : And is he okay? W h at's wrong with him?
b: W ell, Uncle Mark said that Dad (7) had been complaining of a bad headache m ost of yesterd ay,
but he (8) hadn't been wanting to go back to th e hotel and sp oil the day. But then in the evening,
just as th ey (9) had stopp ed fishin g for th e day, he (10) had been colla psin g...

A d d itio n a l exe rcise 3 (page 241) 15

Unit
8 Present and past time: review
C o n t i n u o u s a n d si m p l e Reminder - Section A

W hen we focus on an a ctivity itself, startin g before and continuing up to (and possibly beyond) a
particular point of tim e, rather than focusing on actio ns as co m plete d events, we use continuous forms:
O Ingrid ca n't co m e to th e phone. She's w ash in g her hair.
C As y o u're n o t usin g y o ur car at th e m o m ent, can I b orrow it?
Q This tim e yesterd ay I w as f ly in g over th e Pacific.
W as she w e a rin g th at red dress when you saw her?
W e use sim ple forms to talk ab o ut g eneral situatio ns, habits, and things th a t are or were alw ays true:
O W hen I w o rk e d as a p ostm an I g o t up at thre e o'clock every morning.
Miguel d o esn't p la y g olf very w ell.
These birds b uild th eir nests on th e ground.
G Th e earth quake st r u ck th e area at mid day yesterd ay, (p ast sim ple for co m plete d events)
W e use sim ple forms w ith verbs t h a t describ e unchanging states (th at stay th e sa m e):
Q She in t e n ds to w ork hard at scho ol and go on to university.
O Did yo u u n d e rst a n d th e instructio ns w e were given?
H owever, w e can use co ntinu o us forms w ith th ese verbs when th ey describ e so m ethin g hap pening or
changing:
She w as in t e n din g to talk to Tony about th e idea, but she didn't get th e o p p ortunity.
I'm u n d e rst a n d in g physics much b etter now th a t Mr Davies is teachin g us.

Perfect

W e use p e rfe ct verb forms to describ e one event or state from th e point of vie w of a later tim e. The
present p erfect sug gests a co nnectio n b etween so m ethin g th a t happened in th e past and th e present
tim e. N ote, however, th a t the situatio n or event does not have to co ntinue u ntil the tim e of speaking,
only to have so me co nnectio n or relevance to the present tim e:
I've f inish e d th a t book yo u w ante d, so yo u can borrow it now.
O H a ve yo u t u r n e d th e heating off? I d on't like it to be on when I’m not at hom e.
Your nose is bleeding. H as so m eb o dy hit y o u?

Th e past p erfect is used to locate a past event before a no th er past event:

I invite d him out to dinner, but he said he ha d alrea dy ea t e n.
O By the tim e I picked up th e phone, th ey ha d rung off.

C o m b in a tio ns o f p erfect an d co n tin u o us

W e co m bine the p erfect and co ntinu o us forms in the present p erfect co ntinu o us to describ e an
a c tivity in progress eith er at or recently before th e tim e of speaking, and p ossibly beyond it:
I hav e b ee n f o ll o w in g th e discussions on the forum with great interest.

W e can also use th e present p erfect co ntinu o us to t alk about a ctivities t h a t have rece ntly finished
with so m e result th a t can be seen, heard, e tc.:
Look at th e dirt on y o ur clothes! H a ve yo u b een digging in th e garden again?

The past p erfect co ntinu o us has a sim ilar meaning. H owever, th e point of reference is not 'now'
(as it is w ith th e present p erfect co ntinuous) but a point in th e past:
O W hen w e m et Lena and Marko, th ey had b ee n riding.
It had b ee n sn o w in g h eavily for hours and when I w e n t to th e door I co uld n't open it.

16
E x e rcises

••
A m y is writ in g a blog f or her frie n ds and f a m ily as sh e t ra v e ls aro un d A ustralia. Use t h e prese n t
si m ple, prese n t co n ti n u o us, p ast si m ple or p ast co n tin u o us o f t h e ver bs in t h e box t o co m p le t e
t he e x tract. O
In 1-10 use:
a rriv e f e e l (x 2 ) get go know sp e n d text w ait w ri t e

In 11-20 use:
ask co m p lain e n jo y get (n o t) g e t on h e ar lo o k (x2) se e m st a r t

I (1 ) guyi w rd xn g this blog in a hotel room in Perth. I (2) here a couple

of hours ago a ft er a long coach jo urn e y from A d elaid e. I (3) pretty tired so
th is will only be a sh ort post before I (4) to sle e p. As you (5 ) , I
(6) last w e ek in A delaid e with Ruby. I (7) h er a month or so ago
to tell her when I would be arrivin g , and she (8) at th e airp ort for me when
I ( 9 ) ........................ th ere. For th e first few d ays I ( 1 0 ) ........................ quite jet-la g g e d, but I
soon (1 1) over th a t a ft er a few d ays of lazing around on th e b each. Ruby
(1 2) living in A delaid e a lot, although sh e ( 1 3 ) .......................... for a new jo b
ju st now. It (1 4) th at sh e (1 5) v ery well with h er colleag u es.
A p p arently th ey c o nsta ntly ( 1 6 ) .......................... ab out th e working conditions and it
(1 7) to annoy Ruby. Sh e (1 8) me to p ass on h er best
w ish es to all h er old frie n ds. So now I (1 9) .......................................forward to explorin g
Perth. I (2 0) ........................................ it's a wonderful place. I'll post ag ain so on. A m y

( D C o m p le t e t h is e x t rac t fro m a n e wsp a p er art icle using t h e p ast sim p le, prese n t p er f ect or p ast
p erf ect o f t h e v er bs in brack e ts. Q

R0NS0N SACKED IN UNITED CUTS

Aston United ( 1 ) .HM e s a c k e d .. . (sack)
their manager, Neil Ronson. The former England
football international ( 2 ) (say) that he
(3 ) ....................(hear) the news when he
(4 ) ....................(return) from a three-week holiday
in Spain and that it ( 5 ) (come) as a
complete shock. ‘There ( 6 ) ..................... (be) no
hint of any problem when I (7) .................. (leave)
for the holiday.’ Aston United ( 8 ) ....................
(appoint) Ronson as manager two years ago and
last season they (9) (finish) second in
the First Division. However, they (10)
(win) only five matches so far this season. The
chairman of the club, Peter White, last night
(11 ) .................. (accuse) Ronson o f lack of
commitment to the club. ‘N eil’s attitude
(12 ) .................. (disappoint) us recently. Over the
last few months he (1 3 )....................(spend) more
time on Spanish beaches than working with the
players in Aston.’

«£» H ere is t h e rest o f t h e co n v ersa tio n in Ex ercise 7.3. If t h e it alicise d verb is co rrect, w ri t e / .
If it is wro n g, co rrect it using t he p ast si m ple, prese n t p erf ect, p ast p erf ect, prese n t p erf ect
co n tin u o us or p ast p erf ect co n tin u o us. G 9
a: (1) Did he have any health pro blems recently?
b: W ell, he (2) 's been suffering from stress for so m e tim e, but we (3) have thought a holiday in
Scotlan d would be relaxing for him. He (4) worked to o hard for m o nths, and we (5) Ve been
trying to persuade him to have a break for ages before he agreed.
a: So ( 6 ) have yo u gone up to Scotlan d when you (7) have he ard ?
b: N o, Mum ( 8 ) has gone up to be with him, but the doctors (9) have ch ecked him over and (10) had
been saying th a t it's not to o serious. Th ey (11) g ave him so m e m e dicine to bring d own his blood
pressure and (12) had told him th a t he needs co m plete rest for a co uple of m o nths. So Mum's
driving him back in th e car to m orro w.
a: W ell, send him my best wish es when you speak to him.
b: Thanks, I w ill do.

17
Unit
9 W ill and be going t o
We can use eith er w ill or be goin g t o to talk ab out so m ethin g th a t is
planned, or so m ethin g th a t w e think is likely to happen in th e future:
O W e w ill stu dy clim ate change in a later part of th e co urse, (or W e are going t o stu dy ...)
W here w ill yo u stay in Berlin? (or W h ere are y o u goin g t o stay ...? )
The south of th e city w o n ’t be affecte d by the power cuts, ( or ... isn't going t o be affecte d
We ofte n prefer be g oin g t o in inform al co ntexts (see also D).

We use w ill rath er than be goin g t o to make a pre diction based on our opinion or exp erience:
W h y not co m e over at th e w e eken d? The children w ill enjoy seeing yo u again.
O ‘Shall I ask Lam ar?' ‘ N o, she w o n't w a n t to be disturb e d.'
We use be goin g t o rath er than w ill when w e make a pre diction based on so m e present evidence:
The sky’s gone really dark. Th ere's goin g t o be a storm.
0 ‘W hat's th e m a tter with her?' ‘It looks like she's goin g t o faint.'

To pre dict the future w e often use w ill with I b e t (inform al), I e x p ect , I h op e, I im a gin e, I reck o n
(inform al), I t hi n k, I w o n d e r and I'm sure, and in questio ns with t h in k and reck o n:
O I imagine the sta dium w ill be full for th e m atch on Saturday.
Th a t cheese sm ells aw ful. I bet nobo dy w ill eat it.
W hen do yo u think y o u 'll finish w ork?
Do yo u reckon h e'll say yes?
Be goin g t o can also be used with th ese phrases, p articularly in inform al c o ntexts.

We use w ill wh en we make a decision at th e m o m ent of speaking and be goin g t o for d ecisions about
th e future th a t have already been mad e. Co m pare:
I’ll pick him up at eight, (an offer; making an arran g e m ent now) and
I'm goin g t o c o llect th e children at eight, (this was previo usly arrang ed)
‘Pineap ples are on sp ecial offer this week.' ‘In th at case, I'll buy tw o.' and
0 W hen I've saved up enough m oney, I'm g oing t o buy a sm artpho ne.
H owever, in a fo rm al style, w e use w ill rath er than be g oin g t o to talk about future events th a t have
been previo usly arranged in so m e d etail. Com pare:
A re yo u g oin g t o talk at th e m eeting to nig ht? and
O The m eetin g w ill begin at 9 am. Refreshm ents w ill be available from 8:30 onwards.

W e can use w ill or be g oin g t o w ith little difference in meaning in th e main clause of an if -se n t e n ce
when w e say th at so m ethin g (o ften so m ethin g negative) is co n ditio nal on so m ethin g else:
O Yo u'll / You’re goin g t o knock th a t glass over if yo u're not careful.
W hen th e future event does not depend on the actio n described in the if -cla use, we use be goin g t o,
not w ill. This kind of sente nce is m ainly found in spoken English. Com pare:
I'm goin g t o open a b ottle of lem onad e, if yo u w a n t so m e. (= I'm going to open a b ottle of
lem onad e. Do yo u w a n t so m e?) and
I'll open a b ottle of lem onad e if yo u w a n t so m e. (= If yo u say yo u w a n t so m e, I'll open it.)

H owever, we use w ill, not be goin g t o, when th e main clause refers to offers, requests, pro mises, etc.
and a bility:
If Erik phones, I'll let yo u know. (= an offer; ’..., I'm going to let yo u know' sug gests ‘I intend to
let yo u kn ow when Erik phones')
0 If yo u look to y o ur left, y o u'll see th e lake. (= y o u'll be able to see; ‘ ... y o u ’re going to see . . . ’
suggests ‘I know this is w h a t you can see when yo u look to y o ur left')
and when one thin g is th e logical consequence of another:
O If you d on't switch on the m o nitor first, th e co m p uter w o n't co m e on.

18
E x e rcises
C o rrect or i m prove t h e se n t e n ces w here n ecessary by chan gin g t h e it alicise d w ill ('11) f or ms t o
be g oin g t o f o r ms. Q 9
1 H ave you seen N adia recently? She'U-have a no th er baby, ’s going to h a v e
2 The m etho d is quite sim ple, and I'm sure it will be fa m iliar to m ost of yo u already.
3 a : I ca n't co m e over during th e day.
b : I ’ll see yo u to m orro w evening, th en.
4 Are th ese new skis yo urs? Will y o u ta ke up skiing?
5 W h erever yo u go in Brazil, yo u'll fin d th e people very frien dly.
6 Jam ie says he'll be a p olitician when he grows up - and he's only five years old!
7 It's gettin g very humid - w e'll have a th un d erstorm.
8 I hear you'll se ll yo ur car. H ow much do you w a n t for it?
9 You ca n't play fo o tb all in th e garden. 17/ cu t th e grass.
10 a : W hat's th e m a tter with Paula?
b : She says sh e'll be sick.
a : She7/ fe e l b etter with so me fresh air.
11 a : I've been offered a new jo b in M unich, so 17/ leave Cameo.
b : W hen will y o u te ll y o ur boss?
a : I'm not sure. Perhaps 17/ try to see him later to day.
12 a : Did I te ll you I'll have dinner with Karl on Thursd ay?
b : But w e'll see a film with H amid on Thursday. You've known about it for weeks.
a : Sorry. In th a t case, 17/ sort ou t a different day with Karl.
13 a : Did you get th e th eatre ticke ts?
b : N o. I forgot all ab o ut th e m. I'll book the m to m orro w.
14 a : W e've got sm all, medium and large. W h a t size do yo u w a n t?
b : \'m going to have a large one, please.
15 a : Shall I give Ian ano th er ring?
b : Yes, I exp ect he'll be hom e by now.
16 a : W h a t are those bricks for?
b: I '11 build a w a ll at th e side of th e garden.

C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces w it h w ill ('11) or be goin g t o and an a p p ro pria t e verb. If b oth w ill and
be g oin g t o are p ossible, w ri t e t h e m bot h. Q
1 If you w a n t me to, I U exp la m . how the e quip m ent works.
2 If yo u w a n t to help us, we th ese tre es at the b otto m of th e garden.
3 You ...........................................y o ur back if yo u try to lift th a t box.
4 If I give yo u th e m o n e y........................................... y o u ........................................ me so m e oranges when
yo u're out?
5 If you press th e red button, the m a c h in e .............................................
6 I Laura this weekend, if you'd like to co m e too.
7 He's been told th a t if he's late once more he .........................................
8 If yo u listen carefully, y o u ..................................... an o wl inth e trees over there.

-> A d d itio n a l e xe rcise 4 (page 242)

Unit
10 Present simple and present continuous for the future
P r e s e n t si m p l e
W e can ofte n use eith er th e present sim ple or w ill to talk about fu ture events th a t are part of some
tim eta ble d or pro grammed arran g e m ent or routine. H owever, w e prefer th e present sim ple for fixed,
unchangea ble events. Co m pare:
O D o es th e sale fin ish on Th ursd ay or Friday? ( or W ill the sale fin ish ...? ) a nd
O The sun rises at 5:16 to m orro w, ( more likely than The sun w ill rise ...)
W e avoid th e present sim ple when we talk ab o ut less form al or less routine arran g e m ents, or
pre dictio ns. Instead we use w ill, be goin g t o, or th e present co ntinuous:
O A re you st a y in g in to w atch T V to nig ht, or are yo u co m in g dancing? ( not Do yo u stay to
w atch T V to nig ht, or do yo u c o m e ...)
It's only a problem in Britain now, but it w ill a f f e c t th e rest of Europe soon, ( n o t ... but it
affects th e rest of Europe so on.)

W e use the present sim ple, not w ill, to refer to th e future -

in tim e clauses with conjunctions such as after, as soon as, before, by t he time, w hen, w hile, until:
When yo u se e Ben, t e ll him he still ow es me so m e m oney, ( not W h en you w ill see Ben ...)
I sho uld be finished by the time yo u g e t back, ( n o t ... by the tim e yo u w ill get back.)
in conditional clauses with if, in case, provided, and u nless:
O Provided th e right so ftw are is available, I should be able to solve th e problem.
I'll bring so m e san d wich es in case w e d o n't fin d anywhere d ecent to eat.
iT when we talk about possible future events with sup pose, supposing, and w h a t if at the beginning of a
sentence. N ote that the past simple can be used with a similar meaning:
O S uppose we m iss th e bus - how w ill w e g et ho m e? ( or S u pp ose w e m isse d ...)
O What i f th e train's late? W h ere shall I m e et yo u th e n? (or What i f th e train w as late?)

P rese n t co n t in u o us

W e can often use eith er the present co ntinuous or be going t o with a sim ilar m eaning to talk about
planned future events. The present co ntinu o us indicates th a t w e have a firm intentio n or have made a
d efinite decision to do so m ethin g, although this m ay not alrea dy be arrang ed:
A re yo u se ein g th e d octor again n ext w e ek? ( or A re yo u goin g t o se e ...? )
I'm n o t ask in g To m to th e party, ( or I'm n o t g oin g t o ask ...)

H owever, w e d on't use th e present co ntinu o us for th e fu ture -

'fc when we make or report predictions about activities or events over which we have no control (we can't
arrange these):
I think it's goin g t o rain soon.
O Scie ntists say th a t th e sa tellite w o n't ca use any damag e when it falls to Earth.
when we talk about permanent future situations:
O People are g oin g t o live / w ill live lon ger in the future.
O H er new house is goin g t o ha v e / w ill hav e thre e flo ors.

M any people avoid be g oin g t o + go / co m e and use th e present co ntinu o us forms of go and co m e
instead:
I'm goin g to to wn on Saturday, (rather than I'm going to go t o to w n ...)
O A re yo u co m in g home for lunch? (rather than Are yo u going to co m e ...? )
E x e rcises
( B ) If p ossible, use t h e prese n t si m ple o f a verb fro m t h e box t o co m p le t e each se n t e n ce. If not,
use w ill + in finitive. e s

a cce p t ch a n g e get give o u t go le n d lo o k a f t e r

m iss p la y rain rea d st a r t st o p w ant

1 W e .........................................our exam results on th e 20th August.

2 Alex .................................. our cats w hile we're a w ay n ext week.
3 I think I'll take an um brella in case it ............................................
4 There is a reading list to acco m p any m y lecture, which I ....................................... at th e end.
5 The new drug on sale in th e USA n ext year.
6 The co ncert at 7:30, not 7:15 as it says in th e pro gram me.
7 Provided it raining, w e'll go for a w alk this afterno on.
8 W h a t if I ................................ my plans and decide to stay longer? W ill I need to re new my visa?
9 We M ariam when she leaves, but she says sh e'll keep in touch.
10 Unless my parents me so m e m oney, I w o n't be able to go on holiday this
year.
11 Tonight Fra n c e .......................................... G erm a ny in a m atch im p ortant for both tea ms.
12 It is unlikely th a t the g overn m ent the court's decision.
13 Supposing I ..................................... to upload a vid eo to YouTub e? H ow do I do th a t?
14 By th e tim e y o u ....................................... this letter, I should be in N ew Zealand.

I B 3 Cr oss o u t an y a nsw e rs t h a t are wro n g or v ery u nlik ely. If t w o a nsw e rs are p ossible, co nsi d er t he
dif f ere nce in m eaning, if any, b e t w ee n t he m .
1 It’s not a deep cut, but i t a scar.
a w ill leave b is going to leave c is leaving
2 Did yo u know I ........................ a new car n ext w e ek?
a w ill buy b am going to buy c am buying
3 a : I’m not sure how I'll get to th e co ncert, b: W e can take yo u. W e yo u up at eight,
a w ill pick b are going to pick c are picking
4 I'm sorry I ca n't co m e for dinner. I to York tonig ht,
a w ill drive b am going to drive c am driving
5 The high-speed rail lin k .............................. the jo urn e y tim e between the cities sig nificantly.
a w ill cut b is going to cut c is cuttin g
6 I have to go now. I .............................you back later to day.
a w ill call b am going to call c am calling
7 D on't go out now. I ....................... lunch and it'll be cold by the tim e yo u get back.
a w ill serve b am going to serve c am serving
8 Unless help arrives w ithin th e n ext f e w days, th o usa n d s...............................
a w ill starve b are going to starve c are starvin g

C o m p le t e t h ese dialo g u es w it h ei t h er prese n t sim ple f or t h e f u t ure or p rese n t co n tin u o us f or

t h e f u t ure using t h e verbs in brack e ts. If n ei t h er of t h ese is co rrect, use w ill or b e g oin g t o .
CQ2EBE)
1 a: Sim on Bianchi (1 )........................................... { join ) us for dinner. You know, th e novelist.
b: Yes, I've read so me of his books.
a: I'm sure yo u ( 2 )...................................... {like ) him. His latest book (3)
{ com e ) out at th e end of this week. If you w a n t, I'm sure he ( 4 ) .................................. {give )you
a signed copy.
2 a: Have y o u heard th a t BW M (1) {sack ) 300 w orkers?
b: That's bad news. Supposing th ey (2) { close ) co m ple tely - th at would be
awful.
a: But I've heard th a t th ey (3) { build ) a new fa ct o ry in Ireland. If yo u look on
th eir w e bsite, yo u (4) (see) a lot of inform atio n about it.

- A d d itio n a l e xe rcise 4 (page 242)

Unit
11 Future continuous and future perfect (continuous)
F u t u r e c o n t i n u o u s: I w i l l b e d o i n g

W e can use th e fu ture co ntinu o us to t alk about:

(i) so m ethin g th a t is pre dicted to start before a p articular point of fu ture tim e, and th a t m ay co ntinue
after this point (o ften th e result of a previous decision or arran g e m ent):
O W hen it goes into orbit, th e sp acecraft w ill be ca rryin g 30 kilos of pluto niu m.
O Anna w ill be helpin g us to organise the party.
(ii) a future a c tivity th a t is part of th e norm al co urse of events or th a t is one of a rep eated or regular
series of events:
O Dr Lin w ill be giving th e sa m e talk in room 103 at ten n ext Thursday.
O W ill y o u be drivin g to work, as usual?
We can often use eith er th e fu ture co ntinu o us or th e present co ntinuous when we talk about arranged
activities or events in the fu ture (see also Unit 10). Co m pare:
W e w ill be le avin g for Ista n b ul at 7:00 in th e evening, (tim eta ble d; or ... are le avin g ...) and
O W hen the race starts later this afterno on th e drivers w ill be ho pin g for drier w e a th er than last
year. (n o t ... are hoping ...; not reporting th e d etails of a pro gramme or tim e ta ble)

W hen w e d on't w a n t to indicate willin g n ess, inte ntio n, invitatio n, etc., w e prefer to use th e future
co ntinu o us instead of w ill. For exam ple, if guests have staye d longer than yo u wante d, and yo u d on't
know when th ey are leaving, you mig ht ask:
C W ill you be st a y in g with us again to nig ht? (asking about th eir plans) ra ther than
O W ill yo u st a y with us again to nig ht? (th ey mig ht think this is an invitatio n)

F u t u r e p e r f e c t a n d f u t u r e p e r f e c t c o n t i n u o u s: I w i l l h a v e d o n e a n d I w i l l h a v e b e e n
d oin g

W e use th e future p erfect to say th a t so m ethin g w ill be ended, co m plete d, or achieved by a p articular
point in th e future:
O By the time yo u g e t hom e I w ill hav e cl e a n e d the house from top to b otto m.
I'm sure his a w ful b ehaviour w ill soon have b ee n f or g o t t e n. (= passive form)

W e use the future p erfect co ntinuous to em phasise the duration of an ac tivity in progress at a
p articular point in th e future:
O N ext y e a r I w ill hav e b ee n w o rk in g in th e co m pany for 30 years.
W ith both th e fu ture p erfect and fu ture p erfect co ntinuous we usually m ention the future tim e
(e.g. By the time y o u g e t home ..., N e x t y e a r ...).

The future co ntinuous, future p erfect and future p erfect co ntinu o us can also be used to say w h a t we
believe or imagine is hap pening around now:
We could ask to borrow Joe's car. He w o n't be usin g it to d ay - he w e n t to w ork by bike.
G M ost people w ill ha v e f o r g o t t e n th e fire by now.
Tennis fans w ill ha v e b ee n q u e uin g at W im ble d o n all day to buy tickets.

We can use the future p erfect co ntinu o us to say w h a t w e think was happening at a point in th e past:
O M otorist V icky H esketh w ill hav e b ee n ask in g herself w h e th er speed cam eras are a good idea
after she was fined £100 last w e ek for driving at 33 mph in a 30 mph zone.
E x e rcises
C o m p le t e b oth se n t e nces in each pair w it h on e verb fro m t h e box. Use t h e f u t ure co n tin u o us
(w ill / w o n ' t b e + -ing) in on e se n t e n ce and w ill / w o n ' t + in finitive in t h e o ther. Q 0 O
give le av e m o ve use w o rk

1 a W e will lease in an hour or so, so make sure yo ur suitcase is packed,

b W ith o u t more chea p housing, fa m ilies Willbelting the villa g e and find hom es in t o w n.
2 a Will
.................................. yo u be Working late at th e office again? I w a n t to know when to cook.
b a : W e need to g et this order se nt out before M onday.
Will Work
b : W ell, I ......................................................................................................... over th e weekend if th a t w ill help.
3 a I won't be
......................................................................
using my car until n ext we ek, so yo u can b orrow it if you like.
b My grandad won't ↳Se a co m puter. He says he’s very hap py with his old typ ewriter.

4 a Is yo ur suitcase very h eavy? I Will gise

...................................................................... yo u a hand with it if yo u like.
b Dr Sankey Will be giing evid ence at the tria l o f Jam es Morgan next week.
5 a He's parked his car across our drive and says he would mode it. Shall I call th e police?
Will be
mowing
b The tw o sc h o o ls.............................................. to a single cam p us at th e beginning of Sep tem b er.

Make se n t e n ces w it h a beginning fro m (i), a verb fro m (ii) (eit her in t h e f u t ure p erf ect or f u t ure
p erf ect co n tin u o us), and an e ndin g fro m (iii). Q 3 0

(0 (ii) (iii)

1 The w e a th er forecast says th at ... th e o bjective w e set ourselves when we

th e rain ... to ok over.
act
2 If th e co m pany is making a profit ... by th e m orning and to m orro w w ill be dryr-
achieve
by the end of th e ye ar then we ... ... for 50 years, and sh ows no sign of retiring
cleaf-
3 In tw o y e a rs'tim e M orneau ... fro m the th eatre.
finish
4 1am co nfid ent t h a t 1 ... ... th e re p ort before th e end of the week.
discover
5 This book on Proust is really ... it for a m o nth, and I'm still only half way.
read
d ifficult. O n Saturd ay 1 ... ... there have been so m e late changes to the
6 As d elegates wh o arrived early ... co nference pro gram me.

1 The weather -forecast says t h a t the ram will h ave cleared by the morning and,
tomorrow... wjW be dry......................................

H ere is p art o f an e m ail fro m Emily, an English t e ach e r in Jap an, t o her friend Rosa. U n d erlin e
t h e co rrect o p tion.

Hi Rosa

G re e tin g s fro m O sa k a! Ho pe t h is fin d s yo u all w e ll. I su p p ose by now sch o o l (1 ) will c lo s e / w ill h a ve closed
fo r C h rist m a s an d yo u (2 ) will be enjoyin g / will h a ve been enjoying a re st. It's hard to b e lie v e t h a t T im 's
a lre a d y 18 an d t h a t it's o nly a fe w m o n ths u ntil he (3 ) will be le aving / will h a ve been le a vin g sch o o l fo r
c o lle g e.

My m ain n e w s is t h a t m y bro th er, Jo e , an d his f a m ily (4 ) will h a ve been arriving / will be arriving n ext
Frid a y as p art o f t h e ir big trip aro u n d th e w o rld . By th e tim e t h e y g e t h ere t h e y (5 ) will be going / will
h a ve been to C a lif o rn ia an d N ew Z e a la n d . No d o u b t Jo e 's ch ild re n (6 ) will h a ve been pla nning / will pla n
it all o u t fo r m o n ths! T h e y (7 ) won't be spen ding / won't h a ve sp e n t all t h e ir tim e w ith m e. Jo e h as to go
to To kyo on b u sin e ss, so I (8 ) will h a ve k e p t / will be keeping th e re st of th e f a m ily e n t e rta in e d w h ile h e's
a w a y. T h e n t h e y (9 ) will all be going / will all h a ve been going to Kyo to ...
iZ£
-A

23
Unit
12 Be t o + infinitive; be ab out t o + infinitive
Be t o + in fin itive is co m m o nly used in news rep orts to talk ab o ut events t h a t are likely to happen in
th e near future:
Police officers are t o v isi t every hom e in th e area.
Q The main Ro m e-to - N a ples railw ay line is t o be re o p e n e d to day, (p assive form)

It is also used to talk about form al or o fficial arran g e m ents, fo rm al instructio ns, and to give orders:
O You are n o t t o le av e th e scho ol with o u t my permission.
The European Parlia m ent is t o in tr o d uce a new law on safe ty at w ork.
Children are n o t t o be l e f t unsupervised in th e m useum, (passive form)
Passive forms are often used to make orders and instructio ns more im personal.

N ote th a t we only use be t o + in fin it iv e to talk about future events th a t can be co ntrolle d by people.
Co m pare:
G In th e n ext fe w years, th o usan ds of speed ca m eras are t o a p p ea r on m ajor roads, ( or ... w ill
a p p ea r ...) a nd
Scie ntists say th e y ca n't pre dict wh en or where th e disease w ill a p p e ar again. (n o t ... the
disease is to appear again; th e appearance of th e disease ca n't be co ntrolle d)
O The Presid ent is t o re t u rn to Brazil later to d ay, (or ... w ill re t u rn ...) and
O The co m et w ill re t u rn to our so lar syste m in around 500 ye ars, ( not Th e co m e t is to return ...;
th e m ove m ent of the co m e t ca n’t be co ntrolle d)

H owever, when be t o + in finitiv e refers to th e future from the past (see Unit 14B), we often use it to
describe w h a t happened to so m eone, wh e th er th ey were able to influence events or not:
M atth ew Flin ders sailed past Tasm ania in 1770, but it w as t o be a furth er 30 y ears before he
landed there. happened
~

Clare A tkins w as t o w ri t e tw o m ore books about her exp eriences in Africa before her d eath in
1997.

We often use be t o + in fin itiv e in if -cla uses to say th a t so m ethin g m ust happen first (in th e main
clause) before so m ethin g else can happen (in the if -cla use):
2 G / / th e human race is t o su rviv e, w e m ust look at enviro n m ental pro blems now. As
1 The law needs to be revised / / justic e is t o be d o n e, (p assive form) 2

Co m pare the use of be t o + in fin itive and th e present sim ple for th e future in if -cla uses:
2
O If Lopez is t o win gold at th e n ext O lym p ics, he needs to w ork on his fitn ess, and1
If Lopez w ins gold at th e next O lym p ics, he has said th a t he w ill retire from athle tics.
N ote how th e order of cause and effects in if -se n t e n ces is reversed with th ese tw o tenses:
If Lopez is t o w in gold ... (= e ffe ct), he needs to w ork ... (= cause) and
O If Lopez w ins gold ... (= cause), he has said th a t he w ill retire ... (= effect)

W e use be a b o u t t o + in fin itiv e m ainly in co nversation to say th a t so m ethin g w ill (not) happen in the
very near future:
G W e're a b o u t t o ea t. Do yo u w a n t to join us?
Q Ap pearing on TV might make her fa m ous, but it's n o t a b o u t t o m a k e her rich.
a : W h y d on't yo u switch it off and turn it back on again?
b : Yes, I w as a b o u t t o t r y th at wh en yo u cam e in.
( not Yes, I w as to try ...) (referrin g to the future
from th e past)

24
E x e rcises
C o m p le t e t h ese n e ws e x t rac ts using t h e verbs in brack e ts. Use be t o + in f in it iv e if p ossible and
w ill + in f in it iv e if no t. Use act iv e or p assive f or ms as n ecessary.
1 Jon Stob bard has writte n his first new play for 15 ye ars. Its first p erform ance
was to be staged
........................................................... (stage) at the N ew Victoria Th eatre.
2 The new sa fe ty syste m Will (stop)
stoptrains a ut o m a tically if th ey pass a

.
danger signal.
3 Stafford Boys' Scho ol is do be merged ( m erge ) with the nearby Bicton G irls' Sch o ol to
form a new co -e d ucatio nal esta blish m e nt.
4 There are fears th a t sea levels Will .........................................
rise (r/se)ca tastro p hically inth e next 50
years.
5 The old design and techn olo gy p ro gra m m e are no be replaced......... (repla ce ) with a new
.........
c o m p uter science course.

N o w use t he verbs in t h e box t o do t he sa m e in 6 t o 10.

b eco m e cr e a t e in cr e ase receive re tire succe e d

6 Managing Director Lars Lindberg, 5 9 ,........................................................ this su m m er a ye ar early. He

by Christina Fontana, who joine d th e co m pany last year.
7 As the te m p eratures fall with th e onset of winter, th e refugee crisis Will become
more severe.
8 Pro duction line sta ff at th e H eathcote garden furniture factory in N ortham
a pay rise fo llowin g a big new order from Italy.
9 Seve nty new posts at th e fact o ry followin g a m ajor investm ent by
th e parent co m pany in th e United States.
10 The recent rapid rise in house prices in th e so uth-east ...... th e demand
for higher salaries am ong lower-paid w orkers.

U n d erlin e t h e co rrect a nsw e rs. In so m e cases both a l t e rn a ti v es are p ossible.

1 You need to w ork much harder if you have / are to have any chance of passing th e exam.
2 My sister is to sta rt / is a bout to start a PhD in Physics. V
3 Mrs Patel is likely to b eco me th e Foreign M inister if the p arty wins / is to win power at th e next
electio n.
4 If yo u enjoy / are to e njoy ro m antic co m e dies, then this is a film you m ust see.
5 a : Can you typ e this le tter for m e?
b : Sorry, Vm ju st to go I' m ju st a bout to go hom e. It'll have to w ait until to m orro w.
6 If Beckman recovers / is to recover fro m a fo ot injury, it se e ms certain th a t he w ill play in
Saturd ay’s m atch a gainst Spain.
7 If th e university keeps / is to keep its internatio nal re putation, it m ust first invest in b etter
facilities for stu d ents.
8 Jo nas Fischer has denied th a t he is to resign / is about to resign as m arketing manager.
9 It starte d sn owing an hour ago, and from th e look of th ose clouds thin gs are to g e t / are a bout to
g e t a lot worse.
10 If th e railw ay syste m is im proved / is to be improved, th e g overn m ent sho uld invest su bstantial
a m o unts of m o ney now.

^ < > /' ' y

Unit
1 3 4 O ther ways of talking about the future
Som e phrases are co m m o nly used to refer to actio ns or events in th e fu ture with a m eaning sim ilar to
be a b o u t t o + in fin itive (see Unit 12C). W e can use be on t h e v erg e o f ... / brin k o f ... / p oin t o f ...
(+ -ing or n ou n) to say th a t so m ethin g w ill happen soon:
People are on t h e verg e o f starvatio n as th e drought co ntinues.
O Scie ntists are on t h e brin k o f making m ajor advances in th e fig ht a gainst AIDS.
C Exhauste d, m e n tally and p hysically, she w as on t h e p o in t o f colla pse.
Be on t h e brin k o f usually refers to so m ethin g im p orta nt, excitin g, or very bad.

W e use be d u e t o (+ in finitive) to say th a t so m ethin g is exp ected to happen at a p articular tim e,

be su re / b ou nd t o (+ in finitiv e) to say th a t so m ethin g is likely or certain to happen, and be se t t o
(+ in finitiv e) to say th at so m ethin g is ready to happen:
The co m pany's chief executive is d u e t o retire n ext year, but fo llowin g to day's ann o unce m ent
of furth er losses she is su re t o be asked to leave sooner.
‘W ill there be so m ewhere to get a coffee at the sta tio n?' ‘ O h, yes, th ere's b o u nd t o be.’
H er new film is se t t o be a great success.

N ote t h a t we use d ue t o + n ou n to give th e reason for so m ethin g, not to talk about th e future
(e.g. D u e t o fog, all flig hts from th e airp ort have been cancelle d).

W e use so m e verbs with a t o -in f in it iv e to talk ab o ut intentio ns:

A lso: a im *, a gree,
W e g u a ra n t e e to refund y o ur m o ney if yo u are dissatisfied
e x p e c t*, h o p e*,
w ith the co m puter.
i n t e n d*, m ean,
The p rese n t si m p le + t o -in f in it iv e or p rese n t co n t in u o us + t o -in fin it iv e
p la n*, p ro m ise,
can be used with th e verbs marked * to talk about intentio ns:
p ro p ose*, reso lv e,
O I aim to g e t to Bangkok by th e end of June, ( or I'm ai m in g t o g e t ...;
u n d e rt a k e, w a n t*
I w as aim in g t o g e t ... is also possible, but more te n ta tive)

Som e people, p articularly in speech and in jo urnalism , use be lo o k in g + t o -in fin it iv e to mean
planning a co urse of actio n:
O W e're lo o kin g to cre a te 3 ,0 0 0 jo bs in th e city over th e n ext year.

W hen th e phrases and verbs in A and B are used w ith past tense forms, th e y are usually concerned
w ith future events seen from the past (see also Unit 14):
It was his 64 th birth d ay in 2 0 0 6 and he w as du e to retire th e followin g year.
Q N athan ha d reso lv e d to becom e flu e nt in Spanish before he left university.
O The new m ana g e m ent ha d b ee n lo o k in g to cre a te 20 new jo bs.

Som e people use sh a ll (and sh an't) instead of w ill (and w o n ’t) in state m e n ts ab out th e future with I
and w e. H owever, it is more co m m on to use w ill (p articularly its co ntracte d form '11) and w o n't:
He was a good friend and we s h a ll miss him greatly, ( more com m only ... w e 'll miss ...)
O I'm just going to buy a newspaper. I sh a n 't be long, ( more com m only I w o n ' t ...)
In current English w e d o n't usually use sh a ll / sh a n 't with oth er subjects to talk about th e future,
although this is found in fo rm al rules and in old er literary styles:
The m atch referee sh a ll be th e sole jud ge of fair play.
O All people of th e world sh a ll live to g ether as brothers.

26
E x e rcises
Expand t h e n o t es t o co m p le t e t h e n e ws e x tracts, using t h e p hrases in

verg e-b eco m e su re -face b rin k - g o se t-la u n ch

se t- m a k e su r e - p r o v i d e b o t m d - r a is e d u e -re t u rn
p o i n t -si g n ^ o t n t - m ove v erg e-q u it d u e-u n d erg o

1/2
The decision of Cornico to relocate its international headquarters to Switzerland is
bound, to r a ise questions about the government’s new profits tax. It seems that other
major financial firms are also on t h e point o f moving their h ea d q uarters out of Londo n.

3/4 N ASA’s latest Mars probe i s ................... to Earth later today. A spokesperson for NASA
said that the probe would be bringing back rock samples that are exciting
new information about the planet.

3 /6 The Countryside Conservation Society is ................................ a new million-Euro scheme

for the protection of end ang ere d plant sp e cies. It is estim ate d that over 200 sp e cies are
.............................................. extinct inthe country.

7/8 Sources at the United Nations have said that the governments of North and South Alicia are
an agreement to end their long-running border dispute. However, any
agreement is resistance from rebel forces in South Alicia, who have said
they will fight on.

9/10 Tennis star Sancho Gomez is a second operation on his injured shoulder.
H e w as tennis e arlier this y e ar after a first op eration w as u nsu cc essfu l.

11/12 EU agriculture ministers are an important announcement on increasing

support to farmers when they meet in Brussels on Monday. ‘Many farmers are
out of business,’ said the Italian representative, ‘and the matter must be decided very soon.’

C o m p le t e t h e se n t e n ces w it h t h e verb p airs fro m t he box. Use ei t h er t he prese n t sim ple or

prese n t co n tin u o us f or t h e first verb. If b o th t e nses are p ossible, w ri t e t h e m both.

aim - t o st u d y e x p ect - t o finish lo o k— Fepfaee^ in t e n d - t o m o ve

p r o p o se - t o deal r e s o l v e - t o give up g u a r a n t e e - t o find

1 My co m puter is now five ye ars old, and I T fQP.kwg to re p la c e it w ith a faster one.
2 In th e first half of th e co urse w e'll stu dy micro biolo gy, and in the second half I
........................................................................................ with g enetic engineering.
3 W e haven't co m plete d th e w ork y e t, but w e ..........................................................................................
it later this week.
4 I haven't done much work at colle g e so far, but I ..............................................................................................
hard er fro m now on.
5 Every N ew Year h e .............................................................................................. eating biscuits, but by February
he has starte d again.
6 W e ca n't provide th e spare parts ourselves, but w e ................................................................... -..............
a supplier wh o can.
7 At the m o m ent I co m m ute for over thre e hours a day, but I ...................................................
closer to my w ork in th e n ext fe w m o nths.

U n d erlin e t he p ossible o p tio ns.

1 I have passed y o ur le tter on to th e manag er wh o shall / will reply sh ortly.
2 Sorry, but I sh a n't / won't be able to give yo u a lift after all.
3 I think yo ur parents shall / will be very happy with y o ur d ecision.
4 O n ly people over th e age of 18 shall / will be eligible to vote in th e referendum.
5 You sha n't / won't w a n t to eat yo ur dinner to nig ht after all t h a t chocolate.
Unit
14 The future seen from the past
There are a num b er of w ays of talkin g ab o ut an a c tivity or
event th a t was in th e future at a p articular point in th e past.
In order to express this idea, w e can use the past tenses of th e
verb forms w e w o uld n orm ally use to talk ab o ut th e future. p ast now
These forms are often used in reporting (see U nits 3 2 - 3 6). <
Co m pare th e followin g sentences:

The fu ture fro m n o w ... The fu ture fro m the p a s t ...

I haven't got much m oney, so I think I'll Eleni decided th a t she w o uld st a y at home
st a y at home this su m m er. for th e su m m er.

I'm n o t goin g t o sa y anythin g about the I w asn 't going t o sa y anythin g about the
exams to day, because I d on't have tim e. exams, but th e stu d ents asked me to.

I'm havin g a m eetin g w ith m y tu t or I co uld n't go to the m atch because I w as

to m orro w to discuss my w ork. havin g a m eetin g with my tutor.

W ill you be going alone, or is Louise going A t th e tim e, I th o u g ht I w o uld be going

with yo u? alone, but then Jan said he wante d to co me.

The exam w ill ha v e f in ish e d by thre e The exam was so easy th a t m ost people
o'clock, so I'll see yo u th en. w o u l d hav e f inish e d after 30 minutes.
There is t o be a m eeting of m inisters this It w as announced th a t there w as t o be a
evening. m eetin g of m inisters t h at evening.

W hen th e scho ol closes, all th e children are Mrs N ovak heard th a t she w as t o be
t o be m o ve d to one nearby. m o ve d to a post in a nearby scho ol.

As th e bell is a b o u t t o go for th e end of the The bell w as a b o u t t o go when all the

lesson, pack yo ur books away. children starte d to pack th eir books away.

If th e future seen fro m th e past is still in th e future for the speaker, then eith er form is possible:
It w as announce d this m orning th a t there is / w as t o be a sta te m e n t this evening.

In so me cases w e d on't kn ow w h e th er th e a c tivity or event happened or not. Co m pare:

I didn't phone to give him th e news because w e w e re se ein g each oth er later. He was very
upset when I told him. (= w e saw each other) a nd
W e w e re se ein g each oth er later th a t day, but I had to phone and cancel. (= we didn't see
each other)

To talk about an a c tivity or event th a t was in th e future at a p articular point in th e past, w e can
use w as / w e re t o + in fin itiv e (for thin gs t h a t actu ally hap pened) and w as / w e re t o ha v e + p ast
p ar ticip le (for things th a t were exp ecte d, but didn't hap pen):
A t th e tim e she was pro bably the best actor in th e th e atre co m pany, but in fact so m e of her
colleagues w e re t o b eco m e much b etter known.
Th e boat, which w as t o ha v e t a k e n th e m to th e island, failed to arrive.
He w as t o fin d o u t ye ars later th a t th e car he had bought w as stole n.

N ote, however, th a t in less form al c o ntexts it is m ore natural to use be su p p ose d t o:

I w as su p p ose d t o help, but I was ill. ( more natural than I was to have helped ...)
E x e rcises
W rit e / if t h e it alicise d p arts are co rrect. If t h e y are wro ng, co rrect t he m . e
1 I'm going to do th e washing, but we'd run out of washing powder.
2 The co ncert to nig ht would be over by about 9:30. W e could eat after th at.
3 W hen we were passing Ivan's house, we thou ght we'd drop in and see him.
4 a : W h ere shall I hang my co at? b : Sorry, I th ou ght Ella will have shown yo u. O ver there.
5 Th e manag er o f N ewtown United said th a t th e t eam is to be a nnounced at nine to m orro w.
6 The second half was a bout to start, so shall we go back to our seats now?
7 I knew th at by th e morning I would be feelin g exhauste d, but I just w ante d to go dancing.
8 a : W here's O liver? He is supposed to be here yesterd ay, and there's still no sign of him.
b : I'm a bout to ask the sam e question.
9 I didn't phone Ben this m orning because I was going to see him when I've finished work.
10 D N A t estin g was to be used by police in the search for the missing Dublin scho olb oy. His parents
have w elco m e d the news.
11 We are m eeting at seven in th e Glo be coffee bar. Can yo u be th ere, to o?
12 We didn't exp ect th at having a rab bit as a pet will cause so m any problems.

In w hich thre e cases can w e use ei t h er a p ast or prese n t t e nse f or m in t h e it alicise d p ar ts?

Ch o ose t h e m ore a p p ro pria t e o p tion, (a) or (b), t o co m p le t e t h ese se n t e n ces.

1 The m eetin g was to have taken place in the hall, ...
a but had to be cancelle d at the last minute.
b and was w e ll atten d ed.
2 She was to have appeared with H eath Ledger in his last fil m ...
a and was a tre m en d ous success.
b but the part w e n t to her sister.
3 Later, in Rome, I was to m eet Professor Pearce ...
a and was very impressed by his knowled ge of Italian culture,
b but he left before I got th ere.
4 The tw e n ty police officers wh o were to have gone off d uty at eight ...
a w e n t to th e Christm as party.
b had to rem ain in th e police statio n.
5 It was to take 48 hours to get to Japan ...
a and we were exhauste d when w e arrived,
b but we managed to do it in only a day.
6 A fter the w ar he was to teach at London U niversity ...
a but no m o ney was available to em ploy him.
b for ten years.
7 The bridge was to have been co m pleted this y e a r ...
a but a num b er of accid ents have led to d elays.
b and is to be opened by th e president next m o nth.
8 The new road w as to have a m ajor im pact on traffic in the busy to w n centre, ...
a making life much easier for co m m uters.
b but the crowd ed roads continue d.
9 The co nstructio n of the cath e dral was to have begun in 1650 ...
a and go on for over 80 years.
b but a sh ortag e of lab our delaye d the start for a furth er 20 years.
10 W e w ere to stay w ith Rodrigo in Lisbon ...
a m any tim es before he moved to Madrid,
b but he moved to Madrid.
C a n , c o u ld a n d b e a b le t o : a b ilit y C S S S S S u E iB lS
W e so m etim es use be a b le t o instead of can and co u ld to talk ab out a bility. W e avoid be a b le t o -
when we talk about something that is happening as we speak:
W atch me, Mum; I can stand on one leg.
( n o t ... I'm able to stand on one leg.)
before passives:
Films can now e asily be stre a m ed online, ( ra ther than Films
are now e asily able to be stream e d ...)
I
when the meaning is ‘know how to':
O C a n you co ok? (rather than Are yo u able to co ok?)

If w e talk about a single achieve m ent, rath er than a g eneral a b ility in th e past, w e usually use be a ble
t o rath er than co uld. Co m pare:
Sophie co u ld play th e flu te quite w e ll, ( or ... w as a b le t o a g eneral a bility) a nd
O She swa m stro n gly and w as a b le t o cross th e river easily, even though it was sw olle n by the
h eavy rain, ( not She swam strongly and could cross ...; a sp ecific achieve m ent)

H owever, co uld is usually m ore natural than be a b le t o -

in negative sentences:
O I trie d to get up but I co u ld n't m ove.
with verbs of the senses, e.g. feel, hear, see, sm ell, t ast e, and with verbs of ‘thinking’, e.g. believe,
decide, reme m ber, un derst an d:
I co u ld re m em b er th e crash, but nothing after th at.
A' after the phrases t he o nly thing / place / tim e, and after all when it means ‘the only thing':
A ll w e co u ld see w ere his fe et,
to suggest that something alm ost didn't happen, particularly with al m ost, hardly, just, nearly:
I co u ld ne arly touch th e ceiling.

C a n a n d c o u l d : p o ssi b i l i t y

To talk about th e th e ore tical p ossibility o f so m ethin g happening w e use co uld , not can. H owever, we
use can, not co uld, to say th a t so m ethin g is possible and actu ally happens. Co m pare:
It co u ld be exp ensive to keep a cat. (= if w e had one, it could or it m ay not be exp ensive) a nd
It ca n be exp ensive to keep a cat. (= it can be, and it so m etim es is)

W e use can't, not co u ld n't, to say th a t so m ethin g is th e ore tically or actu ally im possible:
O There ca n't be m any people in the world wh o haven't w atch e d televisio n.
The d octor ca n't see yo u this m orning; he's busy at th e hospital.

W e use ca n to indicate t h a t there is a very real p ossibility of a fu ture event hap pening. Using co uld
sug gests th a t so m ethin g is less likely or th at there is so me doubt about it. Co m pare:
W e ca n stay with Jake in O slo. (= w e w ill be able to stay) and
W e co uld stay with Jake in O slo. (= it's possible; if he's there)

C o u l d a n d b e a l l o w e d t o : p e r m issi o n

To say th a t in th e past so m eone had genera l permission to do so m ethin g - th a t is, to do it at any

tim e - we can use eith er c o u l d or w a s / w e r e a l l o w e d t o. H owever, to talk about p ermission for one
p articula r past actio n, w e use w as / w e re a ll o w e d t o, but not co uld. Co m pare:
A nyone w as a ll o w e d t o fish in th e lake when th e co uncil owned it. ( or ... co uld fish ...) a nd
Although he didn't have a ticke t, Ned w as a ll o w e d t o co m e in. ( n o t ... could co m e in.)
In neg ative sentences, w e can use eith er co u ld n't or w asn 't / w e re n 't a ll o w e d t o to say th a t
permission w as not given in g eneral or p articular situatio ns:
I co u ld n't / w asn 't a ll o w e d t o open th e present until m y birth day.
E x e rcises
stm U n d erlin e t h e co rrect or m ore n a t u ra l o p tio n (or b oth if p ossible).
1 Valuables can / are able to be left in th e hotel safe. Please ask at th e rece ption desk.
2 W e c o u ld / were able to finish th e hockey m atch before it starte d sn owing too heavily.
3 The rebels c o u ld / were a ble to draw on th e sup p ort of over 2 0 ,0 0 0 soldiers.
4 Could y o u / Were y o u able to understand Professor Larsen's lecture? I found it really d ifficult.
5 a : Do yo u w a n t a gam e? b : Sorry, I ca n't / 'm n o t a b le to play chess.
6 Look at me, I can / 'm able to ride my bike w ith o u t any help.
7 W h en the firefig hters arrived th ey cou ld / were able to put out the fla m es in a co uple of minutes.
8 The air was so p ollute d in th e city ce ntre, I cou ld h ardly / was h ardly able to breathe.
9 I knew Petra had been decorating. I c o u ld / was able to sm ell th e paint when I cam e in.
10 Can y o u / Are yo u able to drive with o u t y o ur glasses?
11 N o changes can / are able to be mad e to this rail ticke t after purchase.
12 He cou ld / w a s a ble to untie th e ropes w ith o u t the guards noticing.
13 She looked all over the house, but co u ld n 't / w asn't able to find her keys anywhere.
14 I was very busy at work, but I cou ld / w a s a ble to have a co uple of days off last week.

( 3 3 C o m p le t e t h ese blog p osts w it h ca n, co u ld and b e a ll o w e d t o (or t w o f or ms if p ossible).

Use n e g ative f o r ms w he re n ecessa ry. 0 9

a a s

We w e n t ca m pin g in t he north of Sp ai n last July. A s you pro b a bly know, it (1)

rain a lot on t he c o ast , eve n in m idsu m m er, an d t he d ay w e arriv e d w e (2)
b elieve how heavy t he rain w as. Eve n t u ally w e found a p la ce to ca m p, in a field next to a
b e ach . We had a n e w t e n t - t he a d v er tise m e n t f or it sa id , ‘T h is t e n t (3) be
asse m b le d in two m in ut es with no pre vio us e x p e ri e n ce .’ W ha t a jo k e! Now, t here
(4) be many p e o ple w ho h a v e n ’t ha d dif ficult y putting up a t e n t a t so m e time,
but it t ook us m ore t han t wo h ours. A nd t he n, j u st as it w as d on e, a man ca m e alon g an d sa id
tha t w e (5) ca m p t h ere - it w as priva te property. So w e ha d to t a k e t he t en t
do wn a g ain. Th e n Ev a j u st sa id , ‘ W ell, w e (6) st a y he re all night. L e t ’s go to tha t
hotel in t he last villa ge w e drove t hr o u g h.’ Unf ort unat ely, w he n w e got t h ere they w ere full.
But they w ere very kind an d w e (7) ca m p a t t he e nd of t heir g arde n!

I t is o fte n sa id t h a t s p o rts c o a c h e s ( 1 ) ............................... b e s t ric t , b u t a t h le t e La n c e J o rd a n 's

w as in cre d ib ly h ard on him in th e y e a r b e fo re t h e O ly m p ic G a m e s. F o r in s t a n c e , La n c e
( 2 ) ............................... s t a y up la t e r t h a n n in e , alth o u g h on h is b irt h d a y h e (3 ) w a tc h
t e le v isio n u n til t e n a s it w a s a s p e c ia l o c c asio n ! O f c o u rs e , all La n c e (4 ) t h in k o f w as
g o in g o u t w it h h is frie n d s in th e e v e n in g , a n d he (5 ) h a r d ly w a it f o r th e G a m e s to
.

fin ish to g e t b a c k to a n o rm a l lif e . W h e n h e c o m p la in e d , h is c o a c h j u s t s a i d , 'T ru s t m e an d y o u'll

w in g old - yo u (6 ) l o se !' A n d h is c o ach w a s rig h t. He w o n a g old m e d al in t h e 4 0 0
m e tre s in a w o rld re c o rd t i m e . A n d on t h e n ig h t o f h is v ic t o ry La n c e (7 ) c e le b ra t e
- by st a y in g up u n til 11 o 'clo c k! 'B u t no la t e r / sa id h is c o a c h . 'T h e W orld C h a m p io n sh ip s a re o n ly
tw o y e a rs a w a y .'

-> A d d itio n a l e xe rcise 5 (page 242) 31

Unit
16 W ill, w ould and used t o
W iU an d w o u ld i3 M E R g B E l

W e can use w ill (for th e present) and w o u l d (for th e past) to talk about -
’f r characteristic behaviour or habits:
O Every day Dan w ill co m e home from w ork and turn on th e TV.
A t scho ol she w o u l d alw ays sit q uie tly and pay atte ntio n.
YV things that are or were always true:
Cold w e a th er w ill kill certain plants.
O During th e war, people w o u l d eat all kinds of things th a t w e d on't eat now.
(For th e use of w ill to talk about the future, see U nit 9.)
W e d on't use w ill or w o u l d in this w a y to talk about a p articula r occasion. Co m pare:
Each tim e I gave him a problem he w o u l d so lv e it for me. and
Last night I gave him a problem and he so lv e d it for me. (n o t ... he would solve i t ...)
H owever, w e can use w ill n o t (w o n't) and w o uld n o t (w o uld n't) in eith er case. Co m pare:
He w o u l d / w o u l d n 't w alk the five miles to his place of w ork, (ch aracteristic behaviour) and
O She w o u l d n 't say w h a t w as wrong when I asked her.

In spe ech, w e can stress w ill or w o u l d to criticise people's ch aracteristic behaviour or habits:
O She just w o n't do the washin g up when I ask her.
I was hap py when Ryan left. He w o u l d talk about people behind th eir backs.
W e can also express disap proval of so m ethin g th ey have done using w ill:
‘I fe el sick.' ‘W ell, if yo u w ill eat so much, I'm not surprised.'

W e can use use w ill to draw co nclusio ns or state assu m p tio ns about thin gs t h a t are th e case now
(see also Unit 9B):
O M artina w ill be at hom e by now. Let's go and see her.
You w ill kn ow th a t Ewan and Lucy are engaged. (= I assum e yo u alrea dy know)

W o u l d a n d u se d t o

W hen w e talk ab o ut repeated events in th e past th a t d on't happen now w e can use eith er w o uld or
use d t o + in finitive. H owever, w e can use w o u l d only if th e tim e reference is clear. Co m pare:
We use d t o p la y in th e garden. ( not W e would play ...; tim e reference not given) and
O W h e n ever we w e nt to my uncle's house, w e w o u l d / use d t o p la y in th e garden.
We can use use d t o but not w o u l d when w e talk about past states t h a t have change d:
O The factory use d t o be over there.
O Didn't yo u use t o have red hair?
W e d on't use eith er use d t o or w o u l d when we say exactly how m any tim es in t o tal so m ethin g
hap pened, how long so m ethin g to ok, or th a t a single event happened at a given past tim e:
W e visit e d Switzerland fo ur tim es during th e 1990s. (not W e would / used to v is i t ...)
She w e n t to Ja m aica last m o nth. ( not She would / used to go t o Ja m aica last m o nth.)

W o u l d / w i l l h a v e + p ast p a r t ici p l e

To talk about an unreal p ast situatio n - th at is, an im aginary situatio n or a situatio n th a t might have
happened in the past, but didn't - w e use w o u l d ha v e + p ast p ar ticip le:
O I w o uld hav e b ee n hap py to see him, but I didn't have tim e.
H owever, to say th a t w e think a past situatio n a ctu ally hap pened, w e use w ill hav e + p ast p ar ticip le:
As it w as cloudy, few people w ill ha v e se e n last night's lunar eclipse, (ra th erth a n ... would
have seen ...)

32
E x e rcises
C o m p le t e t he d o ct o r and p a tie n t sp eech b u b bles using w ill or w o u l d f ollo w e d by o ne of t h ese
verbs. If w ill or w o u l d are n o t p ossible, use a verb in t he p ast si m ple.
be ca use e x ercise find ha v e know si t sp e n d

M ost days I ....................... 5 O ver tim e poor posture

eight hours or more in front of .................................. back pain.
my computer.

------------ H i V
t**
--------------------------------------
Yesterday I .................................. a
sharp pain in my lower back.

N o, I'm not th at fit now. When I

was at college, I ..........
in the gym m ost days.

When I tried to stand I T h a t .............................. probably

.................................. th at I couldn't .................................. th e result of
straighten up. sitting badly.

If n ecessary, co rrect t h ese se n t e n ces using w o u l d or use d t o . If n eit h er w o u l d nor use d t o is

co rrect, use a p ast si m ple verb f or m.
1 I would enjoy stu dyin g Latin when I was at scho ol.
2 O rw e ll would spend winters in Spain and sum m ers in England.
3 W e would live in a bungalow on th e south co ast, and then we moved to a flat in t o w n.
4 You used to teach at H alsto n U niversity, didn't yo u?
5 O n Saturd ays and Sundays th e ferry used to take to urists across to th e island.
6 The co m m itte e would m eet fo ur tim es last we ek, but still no decision has been reached.

C o m p le t e t h ese se n t e n ces w it h w ill h a v e or w o u l d h a v e and t he p ast p artici ple of o ne of t h ese

verbs. Q
a p p ro ve b uy he ar hurt n o tice p re f er w atch

1 Accordin g to official figures, over half the p o p u la tio n .........................................................

th e final of th e song c o ntest on TV last night.
2 I enjoyed th e exhibitio n - but I d on't think my gran d m oth er
of it.
3 I d on't think th e dog ......................... anyone, but Iwas still glad when the
owner took it away.
4 I’m sure by now yo u about yesterd ay's rob bery at th e su p erm arket.
5 The train jo urn e y was quite c o m forta ble, although I to fly.
6 Regular readers ................................................................... th e return of a p opular fe ature to our w e bsite.
7 a : Did you like th e present Justin gave yo u for y o ur birth d ay? b : W ell, an um brella stand isn't
so m ethin g I m yself, but I sup pose it might be useful.

C o m p le t e B's resp o nses b elo w t o sh o w criticism or disa p proval. O

1 a: I think I'm putting on w eig ht, b : W ell, if yo u .....................................................................................
2 a: I've got a hea dache, b : W ell, if you ..... ..........................................................................................................
3 a: I'm really hot. b : W ell, if yo u .......................................................................................................................................

- A d d itio n a l e xe rcise 5 (page 242)

Unit
17 May and might
M ay and m ig h t often have a sim ilar m eaning when w e talk about p ossibility. Re m in d er - C IS - C19
H owever, w e prefer m a y in aca d e m ic or fo rm al language to talk about
ch aracteristics or b ehaviour:
The seeds from th e plant m a y grow up to 20 ce ntim e tres in length,
and in speech w e prefer m ig h t to say w h a t w e w ill p ossibly do in th e future:
O I m ig h t paint th e kitchen purple.
W e d on't use m a y to ask questio ns about th e p ossibility o f so m ethin g hap pening. Instead we use,
for exam ple, co u ld (n 't) or th e phrase be lik ely:
O C o u ld it be t h a t yo u d on't w a n t to le ave? (not M ay it be t h a t yo u ...? )
O A re yo u lik ely to be in Spain again th is su m m er? (n ot M ay yo u be in Spain ...? )
It is possible to use m ig h t in this typ e of question, but it is rath er form al:
M ig ht th ey be persuaded to change th eir minds?
N ote th a t w e can use m a y in form ally asking for p ermission and offering help:
M ay I leave n ow? Q M ay I help yo u?

M ight (not ’m a y’) + b are in fin itiv e is so m etim es used to talk ab out w h a t w as typica lly th e case in the
past. This is a form al or literary use:
During th e w ar, th e police m ig h t arrest yo u for criticisin g th e g overn m ent.
Years ago children m ig h t be se n t down mines at th e age of six. (passive form)

W e can also use co u ld + b are in fin it iv e in exam ples like this to talk about past a b ility (see U nit 15).
For exam ple, 'During th e war, the police could arrest yo u ...' m eans th at th e police were le gally able to
arrest yo u.

W hen w e say th a t a person or thin g co m p ensates to so me exte n t for a lim itatio n or weakn ess by
having ano th er ch aracteristic, we can use a pattern w ith m a y / mig h t n o t + b are in fin it iv e ... b u t ...
or m a y / m ig h t n o t ha v e + p ast p ar t icip le ... b u t ...:
Th e painting m a y n o t be a m asterpiece, b u t th e colo urs are rem arkable.
She m ig h t n o t have d a nced very gracefully, b u t she had a lot of energy and enthusiasm.

W e use m a y / m ig h t (n ot ’can') + hav e + p ast p ar ticip le and m a y / m ig h t (n o t ‘can') + be + -ing to

talk ab o ut possible events in th e past, present and future:
Do yo u think Laura m a y / m ig h t h a v e c o m p le t e d th e report by n ow? (past)
His m aths m a y / m ig h t ha v e i m pro ve d by th e tim e th e exam co m es round, (future)
Marco isn't in his office. He m a y / m ig h t be w o rk in g a t home to d ay, (present)
W h en I go to Vie nna I m a y / m ig h t be st a y in g w ith Max, but I'm not sure y e t. (future)
N ote th a t co u ld can be used in th ese sentences instead of m a y or migh t:
Do yo u think Laura co u ld hav e co m p le t e d the report by now?

W e can use m a y / m ig h t ha v e b ee n + -ing to talk ab o ut possible situatio ns or a ctivities th a t w e n t on

over a period of past tim e:
C C allu m didn't know where th e ball was, but he th o u g ht his sister m ig h t ha v e b ee n playi n g
with it before she left for scho ol.

34
E x e rcises
m m C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces w it h ei t h er m a y or m ig h t, w h ich e v er is m ore likely.
If n ei t h er is p ossible, use an alt er n a tiv e. Q E O
1 W e ....................................................... go to M ajorca for our holiday this sum m er.
2 The planet Venus be seen cle arly in th e night sky this m o nth.
3 yo u see Yase min this we eken d?
4 I feel really sore after playing tennis. I think I have a bath.
5 a : Som eo ne's left t h eir co at, b : it be N adia's?
6 Exceeding the state d dose cause drowsiness.

U n d erlin e t h e co rrect answ er. HD

1 You should have co m e dancing. You might have e n jo y e d / m ight enjoy it.
2 She might have trie d / might have been trying t o get a book o ff the to p sh elf when she fell.
3 Dr C arter m ight have com e / m ight be coming over this evening, so can yo u tidy the house up a
bit?
4 As recently as th e 1950s, em ployers might be requiring / m ight require a w o m an to leave her jo b
when she got marrie d.
5 I've been offered a new jo b, so I m ay be moving / m ay have m oved to Dubai.
6 W hy not co m e and see us in M arch? The w e a th er m ay have been improving / m ay have im proved
by then.
7 During th e riots of the 1960s, people m ight be imprisoned / m ay be imprisoned sim ply for being
on the streets.
8 He said he was in a lot of pain, but he m ay have been exaggerating / m ay exaggera te.
9 In th e past, left-hand e d children m ight be punishing / m ight be punished for not holding a pen in
th eir right hand.
10 I m ay have to ld / m ay te ll yo u this before. I can't rem em ber.

it B 5 S I C o m p le t e t h ese se n t e n ces in a n y a p pro pria t e w ay.

1 He m ay not be th e best singer in the w orld, but

2 Hugh's old car mig ht not be terrib ly c o m forta ble, but

3 H er English gram m ar m ay not be very accurate, but

N o w ex pand t h ese n o t es t o co m p le t e t h e se n t e n ces belo w,

so u n d / e x citin g a gree / hi m e x p r ess / f e eli n gs o p e n ly w o r k 7 q u ic k ly

4 He rmaxj not work very ..^ uickUj.. but at least he's very reliable.
5 ................................................................................................ , but his o pinions on m usic make yo u think.
6 , but she is really very fond of yo u.
7 ................................................................................................. , but th e new m useum o f fishin g is actu ally
very good.

- > A d d itio n a l exe rcise 5 (page 242)

 Unit
18 M ust and have (got) t o
W e use m ust and m ust n o t in form al rules and re gulatio ns and in warnin gs: Reminder C20- C24
Bookings m ust be made at least seven days before d ep arture.
O The g overn m ent m ust n o t be allowe d to a pp oint judg es.
In spoken English w e often use m ust and m ust n 't (= m ust not) to propose a future arran g e m ent,
such as a m eeting or social event, w ith o u t making d etaile d plans:
O W e m ust get to g e ther more often. O W e m ust n 't leave it so long next tim e.
W e can also use I m u s t ... to remind ourselves to do so m ething:
Q I m ust charge my phone. I m eant to do it yesterd ay, but I forg ot.

To draw a co nclusio n about -

something that happened in the past we use m ust + have + p ast participle:
That's not Clara's car. She m ust ha v e b orro w e d it fro m her parents.
something happening at or around the time of speaking we use m ust be + -ing:
O I ca n't hear a noise. You m ust be i m a ginin g things.
something that is likely to happen in the future we use m ust be going t o or m ust be + -ing:
'W h a t are all those w orkm en d oing?' ‘I think th ey m ust be going t o dig up th e road.'
O I was wrong about th e m eeting being to d ay. It m ust be ha p p e nin g n ext Friday.
a present situation we use m ust be, or have (got) t o be in informal speech:
Th eir g oalkee p er has g o t t o be at least tw o m etres tall! ( or ... m ust be ...)

W e can use m ust ha v e t o to say th a t we conclud e so m ethin g based on w h a t we know about a present
situatio n and m ust ha v e had t o to conclude so m ethin g about a past situatio n:
I ca n't access the data base. You m ust ha v e t o p u t in a password. (= a password is necessary)
M att w asn't at hom e when I w e n t round. He m ust ha v e ha d t o go out unexp ecte dly.
N ote t h a t w e ca n't say ‘m ust've (got) to' but we can say m ust'v e had t o.

In questions th a t hope for or exp ect a neg ative a nsw er we prefer hav e (g o t) t o, although in form al
c o ntexts m ust is so m etim es used:
D o we ha v e t o a nsw er a ll th e q uestio ns? ( or H ave w e g o t t o ...? , form a lly M ust w e ...? )
W e use hav e t o in questions th a t im ply a criticism . M ust can also be used, although so m e people
think this is rath er old -fashioned. W e usually stress h av e and m ust in sentences like this:
Q D o yo u ha v e t o play y o ur tru m p e t here? It's deafening! (form a lly M ust yo u play ...? )

So m etim es w e can use eith er ha v e t o or h av e g o t t o. H o w ever -

we use have t o with frequency adverbs:
A lso: a l w a ys, n ever, n o r m a ll y,
Q I often hav e t o w ork at th e weekend to get rar ely, so m e t im es, etc.
everything done.
with the past simple we use had t o especially in questions and negative sentences:
W hen did yo u hav e t o give it back? ( not W hen had you got to give it back?)
W e did n't ha v e t o w ait to o long for an answer, ( not W e hadn't got to w ait to o long ...)
'ft if have is contracted (e.g. I've, He's, It'd) then we must include got:
I need a new pair of shoes, and th e y'v e g o t t o be blue, ( n o t ... th ey've to be ...)
we don't use have got t o with other modal verbs:
M otorists will hav e t o w ait until n ext ye ar to use th e bridge, ( not M otorists w ill have got to
w a i t ...)

N ote also th a t ha v e g o t t o is often preferred in inform al speech.

.-‘91
36
E x e rcises
i g i C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces w it h o n e o f t h ese f or ms: m ust h a v e + p ast p ar t ici p l e; m ust + b are
in f in it iv e; m ust b e + -ing; or m ust h a v e (h a d) t o. Use t h e verbs given. ( ? )
1 W hen I left m y lapto p on the train I th ou ght I’d never see it again. But som eone
it and handed it in to th e lost pro p erty office, (find)
2 Luisa owns a big car and a y a ch t. She .............................................................incre dibly rich, ( be )
3 a : Everyo ne’s going into the hall, b : The m eeting soon. Let's go.
(start )
4 W ith o u t things like washin g m achin es and dishwashers our grand parents
.................................................................. much harder in th e kitchen than w e do to day, ( work )
5 I didn't think Rob was coming to th e meeting. He his mind, ( change )
6 a : I w o nd er how yo u get past security.
b : I sup pose yo u ................................................... so me form of ID. (show )
7 a : I thou ght Paul would be home.
b : H e ....................................... Lotta to w ork. He said he w o uld, (take)
8 Look at all those birds. There ........................................................... at least a thousand of th e m, (be)

W rit e n e w se n t e nces wit h a si m il ar m eaning. Use h a v e / h as g o t t o w here p ossible or

pre f era ble; if n o t, use h a v e / h as t o .
1 It is necessary to do all of this photoco pying before lunchtim e.
A il o f fy ls p h o to w p y w g h a s gob to be done / h a s .to be done before lunckitune
2 It is rarely necessary to ask Hannah to tid y her roo m. Hannah ...
3 Is it n ecessary for us to hand in th e ho m ework to m orro w? H a v e ...
4 It w asn't necessary for me to go to th e hospital after all. I ...
5 W as it necessary for Ben to go alo ne? Did ...
6 It is so m etim es necessary for A dam to start w ork at 6:3 0. A d a m ...
7 It is necessary to exten d th e colle ge to acco m m o d ate th e new stu d ents. The college ...
8 It m ay be necessary to cancel our holiday because my m o ther is ill. We ...

If n ecessary, co rrect t h e it alicise d p arts of t his e m ail m essa g e. Q Q )

- o?

Hello M aria,
So rry I h a v e n ’t b een in touch for a while. You (1) must have been wondering w h a t’s be en hap p enin g. W ell, I must
ad mit I’v e had a pretty awful w e e k. W h en I got ho m e from w ork last M onday, the front door w as wid e o p en. Th e
d o or’s very stiff, and I (2) alw ays have got to pull it very hard to shut it. My n eig h b o ur’s a lw ays sayin g, ‘(3) H ave
you to bang the door so h ard ?’ W h en I went in I found that the h o use had be en burgled. T h e y (4) must have
climbed over the fe nce in the b ack gard en. N one of the win d ows and d o ors w ere d a m a g e d, so so m e o n e very sm all
(5) must have to squ ee z e through the tiny win d ow in the kitch en. I su p p ose I (6) must le ave it o p en, but I didn’t
exp ect anyo n e to be able to get in. Th e n th ey (7) must have come through the h ouse and o p en ed the front door
for the o th ers. O f c o urse, the first thing I did w as to call the p olice and I (8) m ustn’t wait very long for them to get
h ere. Fortunately, the only thing that w as ta ken w as my TV. I think the burglars (9) must be disturbed , p erhaps
when the p ostm an ca m e. So now (10) I've to get a n ew lock for the front door and re p lace the TV, and I (11) must
put so m e lo cks on the w in d o ws. I su p p ose I (12) m ay must get a burglar alarm , too. I m ust sa y I’ve n ever really
wante d o ne, but n e e ds must!
A nyw ay, (13) I ’ve to go. H op e the fa mily is w ell. J e ss ic a (14) must get rea dy to go b ack to university. And you
(15) must be busy with the n ew scho ol y e a r just about to start. W h en you h ave tim e, w e (16) h ave to get to gether
for a w e e ken d.
All the b est for now,
Amy

Can y o u find t h re e o t h e r co m m o n e x pressio ns wit h m u st?

A d d itio n a l e xe rcise 5 (page 242 ) 37

 Unit
19 A N eed(n't), d on’t need t o and d on't have t o
We can use n ee d as an ordinary or a m o dal verb (follo we d by a Reminder -* C25- C28
bare infinitive). As a m o dal verb it d o esn't change its tense and d o esn't
add ‘-s' for the third person singular. Co m pare:
O I n ee d e d to leave early, or O She's thirsty. She n e e ds a drink. (= ordinary verb) and
O You n ee d n't spea k so loudly. (= m o dal verb)
W hen it is a m o dal verb n ee d is m ost co m m o nly used in neg ative se nte nces:
O I've alrea dy cleaned th e car so yo u n e e d n't both er to do it.
O I w as very nervo us before th e interview, but I n ee d n't have worried - I got th e job!

O ther verbs often used with n ee d n o t (n e e d n't): a p ply, co ncern, f ear, in v o lve, m ea n, p anic

It is so m etim es used in questions, but we prefer to use n ee d as an ordinary verb or hav e t o:

O N e e d you go so so on? (= m o dal verb; less co m m on and rath er form al)
D o yo u n ee d t o go so so on? (= ordinary verb) or Do you ha v e t o go so so on?

It is rarely used in affirm ative sentences (th at is, not questions or n egatives), but is so m etim es found
in writte n English, p articularly in fictio n:
O W e n ee d have no fear for N icole, she can take care of herself.

In oth er styles of form al writte n English it is used in this w ay w ith negative w ords such as har dly,
n ev er, n o b o d y / no on e, and o nly:
Th e changes n ee d only be sm all to make th e pro posals acce p table, ( less form a lly Th e changes
only need to be ...)
N obody ever n ee d know ab o ut th e m oney. (less form a lly N ob ody ever needs to know ...)
‘I d on't w a n t my parents to know.' ‘Th ey n ee d n ever find out.' (less form a lly Th ey never need
to find out.)

To give p ermission not to do so m ethin g we can use eith er n e e d n't or d o n't n ee d t o:

You n ee d n't c u t the grass, I'll do it later, ( or You d o n't n ee d t o c u t th e grass ...)
To talk ab out a g en eral necessity, we prefer d o n't n ee d to:
You d o n't n ee d t o be over 18 to get into a nightclub, ( ra therth a n You nee dn't be ...)

W e can often use eith er n ee d n't or d o n't h a v e t o with little difference in m eaning to say th a t it is
unnecessary to do so m ething:
- • » • '•>> >- - *> -
You n e e d n't whisp er. N o b o dy can hear us. ( or You d o n't ha v e t o ...)

H owever, so m e people prefer n ee d n't when it is th e speaker wh o decides th e lack of n ecessity, and
d o n't hav e t o when so m e b o dy else or extern al rules make so m ethin g unnecessary. Co m pare:
O As yo u worked late yesterd ay yo u n e e d n't co m e in until ten to m orro w morning, (the
sp eaker's d ecision) and
W e've been told th a t w e d o n't h av e t o be at w ork until ten to m orro w, (rep orting so m eone
else's d ecision.)
wm mJ
W e can use n e e d n't (or d o n't hav e t o) to say th a t so m ethin g is not n ecessarily true. W e d on't use
'v.nV. x .» v-'.Vv' m ust n 't in this w a y (see also U nit 18C):
Ik#: Volcano es n e e d n't erupt c o nsta n tly to be classifie d as ‘active', (or V olcano es d o n't ha v e t o
C• # •>: • ' erupt ...; not V olcano es m ustn't e r u p t ...)
U-oS^**• -•

N owa d ays it n ee d n't cost a fortune to own an e-book reader, ( or N owa d ays it d o esn't hav e
t o c o s t ...; not N owa d ays it m ustn't c o s t ...)

38
E x e rcises
4 3 9 A M atch t h e se n t e n ce b eginnings and e n ds. Join t he m w it h n e e d n 't and t h e b are in finitive o f on e
o f t h e ver bs fro m t h e box. Q

b o t h er ch a n g e co n ce r n p anic w o rr y

1 I'll give yo u a lift to th e statio n so you ... ... th e d etails on th e form.

2 The questio ns are in th e book so you ... ... yo urse lf with viruses.
3 A ll th e win d o ws have screens so yo u ... ... to co py the m down.
4 O ur so ftware provides full co m p uter se curity so yo u ... ... about booking a taxi.
5 The new tax laws d on't co m e into force until n ext ye ar so you ... about being bitten by
m osquito es.

( 3 § Re writ e t h e f o llo w in g in a f o r m al st y le using n ee d. Q

1 It is hardly n ecessary for us to remind yo u th at the m o ney is now due.
We need Hardly remind, you. tycub the money is now due.....
2 It is only necessary for us to look at th e rainfall figures to see the seriousness of th e problem.
3 W ith such a lead in the opinion polls it is hardly n ecessary for th e D e m o crats to b other
cam paigning before th e election.
4 It is not n ecessary for anyone to know wh o paid th e ranso m to th e kidnappers.
5 A fter such a huge lo ttery win, it is not necessary for him to work again.

El U n d erlin e t he m ore lik ely o p tio n. If t h e o p tio ns are e q u ally likely, u n d erlin e t h e m both.
1 In m ost developed co untries, people needn't J don't need to boil w a ter before th ey drink it.
2 You needn't / don't need to w alk. I'll give yo u a lift.
3 I'll e m ail a su m m ary o f th e lecture so yo u needn't / don't need to take notes.
4 You needn't / don't need to have a u niversity degree to b ecome a police officer.
5 You needn't / don't need to buy me a birth d ay present.
6 In m ost cities yo u needn't / don't need to pay to get into th e galleries and m useums.

« B B 1 C o rr ect a n y m ist a k es in t h e e x t rac ts fro m a sp eech m a de by t h e m ana gin g direct o r of a

co m p a n y t o her e m p lo yees.

You needn't to worry about I need hardly to te ll you how

losing yo ur jo bs. im p ortant it is that we get this
order.

Need we make any changes in

co mpany policy? You do n’t have to cancel your
holiday plans.

Changes in technolo gy m ustn't

be a problem, but in fact
provide opp ortunities.

I don’t have to remind you

th at we are comp eting with
tw o oth er companies.

A d d itio n a l exe rcise 5 (page 242) 39

Unit
20 Sh o uld, o ug ht to and had b e tte r
W e can often use eith er sh o uld or o u g h t t o to talk ab o ut o blig atio ns and Reminder -> C29- C32
reco m m en d atio ns (e.g. You sh o u l d / o u g h t t o finish y o ur ho m ework before
yo u go o ut) and pro b ability (e.g. It sh o ul d / o u g h t t o be ready by now) altho ugh in general sh o ul d is
used more fre quently. O u g h t t o is used p articularly in speech and m ost often to talk ab o ut o bligation
rath er than pro bability.
W hen w e co nclu d e, on th e basis of so m e evid ence w e have, th a t so m ethin g is certain or very likely we
can use m ust (see U nit 18) but not sh o ul d / o u g h t to:
Q It's th e third tim e she's been skatin g this w eek. She m ust re ally enjoy it.

N ote also th e followin g d etails -

we prefer sh ould when we say what an outside authority recommends:
The m anual says th a t th e co m p uter sh o uld be disconnecte d from the p ower sup ply before
th e cover is rem oved, (ra ther than ... ought to be disconnecte d ...)
if we use should (or w ould), not o ught to, when we give advice with I ...:
I sh o ul d leave e arly to m orro w, if I w ere yo u. ( or I w o uld leave ...; or I'd leave ...)
we prefer should in questions, particularly w h-q u estions:
W h a t sh o ul d I do if I have any pro blems? O Sh o u ld I ring yo u at hom e?

W e use sh o uld / o u g h t t o + ha v e + p ast p ar ticip le to talk ab o ut so m ethin g th a t didn't happen in the

past and w e are sorry th a t it didn't:
W e sh o ul d / o u g h t t o ha v e w ai t e d for th e rain to sto p. (I'm sorry we did n't)
W e often use this pattern to indicate so m e regret or criticism and the neg ative forms sh o u l d n 't /
o u g h t n 't t o h av e are alm ost alw ays used in this way.

W e also use sh o ul d / o u g h t t o + h a v e + p ast p ar ticip le to talk about an exp ectatio n th a t so m ethin g

happened, has happened, or w ill happen:
If th e flig ht w as on tim e, he sh o ul d / o u g h t t o ha v e arrive d in Jakarta e arly this m orning.

W e can use sh o uld in questions t h a t are offers or th a t request co nfirm atio n or advice:
Sh o u ld I phone for a taxi for yo u?
W h o sh o ul d I pass th e message to?
N ote th a t in sentences like th ese w e can also use sh a ll with a very sim ilar meaning.

Co m pare th e use of sh a ll and sh o ul d in sentences such as th e followin g, wh ere ‘I shall' m eans ‘I

intend to' and ‘I should' m eans ‘I ought to':
O I sh a ll read th e scrip t on th e train to m orro w, ( or I'll read ...) a nd
I sh o uld read th e script on th e train to m orro w but I know th a t I'll be too tire d.

W e can use ha d b e t t e r instead of sh o uld / o u g h t to, esp ecially in spoken English, to say th a t we think
it is a good idea to do so m ething:
If yo u're not w e ll, yo u'd b e t t e r ask Clare to go instead, ( o r ... yo u sh o uld / o u g h t t o ...)
although w e d on’t use it to talk ab out th e past or to make general co m m ents:
You sh o uld / o u g h t t o have cau ght a later train, ( not You had b etter have c a u g h t...)
I d o n't think parents sh o u l d / o u g h t t o give children sw e ets, ( n o t ... parents had b etter
give ...)

W e prefer had b e t t e r if w e w a n t to express p articular urg ency or in dem ands and thre ats:
There's so m e one m oving ab o ut d ow nstairs. We'd b e t t e r call th e police, quickly.

N ote th a t th e neg ative form is ha d b e t t e r n o t, and in questions the su bject co m es after had:
He'd b e t t e r n o t be late again or h e'll be in trouble.
H a d we b e t t e r get a taxi? ( or Sh o uld we get ...? )

40
E x e rcises
CES) C o m p le t e t h ese se n t e n ces w it h sh o u l d / o u g h t t o + in f in it iv e (active), sh o u l d / o u g h t t o b e +
p ast p a r t ici p l e (passive), or sh o u l d / o u g h t t o h a v e + p ast p a r t ici p l e using each o f t h e verbs
fro m t h e box o nce only.

a nsw e r arriv e be go put re m o ve resig n se n d w ear win

1 Th o m as is running so w e ll at th e m o m ent th a t he ............................................................................

th e 8 0 0 m etres easily.
2 W h ere th e cheese? In th e fridg e?
3 The t ic k e ts.................................................................................a co uple of weeks before w e go on holiday.
4 Paym ent for the full a m o u nt ........................................................................ with this ap plication form.
5 A ll p acka gin g............................................................................... before switchin g on th e printer for th e first
tim e.
6 It's im p orta nt to look sm art at th e interview. Y o u asuit.
7 There are m any people wh o think the Presid ent ........................................................................... ye ars ago.
8 ............................................................................... w e .................................................................................. th e questions in
English or in French?
9 If yo u w a n t my advice, I ................................................................................ by train rath er than car.
10 I can't imagine what's happened to N adia. She here by now.

In w h ich se n t e nces can y ou use sh o u l d or m ust and in w hich can y o u o nly use m u st? W he re
bot h are p ossible, co nsi d er t h e dif f ere nce b e t w ee n sh o u l d and m ust. O
1 A tim e ta b le be set for with drawin g th e army.
2 Lev isn’t home y e t. He ............................ have been held up at work.
3 a : I w o n d er how old Louis is?
b : W ell, he w e n t to scho ol with m y m oth er, so he be w e ll over 50.
4 If yo u sm ell gas, you phone th e em erg ency number.
5 You try to visit N e p a l - it's a b eautiful co untry.
6 a : I kn ow I'm alw ays co m plainin g th at my house is sm all, but it's very co nvenie nt for w ork.
b : Yes, it ............................... be han dy living so close to y o ur office.

If n ecessa ry co rrect t h ese co n v ersa ti o ns using sh o u l d / o u g h t t o , m ust , sh a ll, or ha d b e t t e r, or

w ri t e . Q E E O
1 a: There's so m ethin g wrong w ith David's co m puter y e t again.
b: He should wish he'd never bought it.
2 a : The next meeting's on 3rd April.
b : I'd b etter make a note of th at, or I'll forget.
3 a : Have you put on weig ht recently?
b : Yes. I shall do m ore exercise, but I never seem to have tim e.
4 a : The children from next door have been thro win g sto nes at our win d ows.
b : W ell, th ey sh o uld n't do it again, oth erwise I'll call the police.
5 a : I'm freezing.
b : You'd b etter have worn a thicker co at.
6 a : Businesses had b etter not be allowe d to give m o ney
to p olitical parties.
b : I t o ta lly agree.
7 a : W hen have w e got to be in Bristol?
b : By four. I think we'd b etter get starte d.
8 a : Do yo u w a n t to go out for lunch?
b : W ell, I should be revising for my m aths exam ... but okay.
9 a : I've looked all over th e house and ca n’t find th e keys.
b : W ell, if th ey're not here, th ey m ust still be in the car.
10 a : It's so exp ensive to park here.
b : Yes, I d on't think people had b etter pay to park at w ork at all.

- A d d itio n a l e xe rcise 5 (page 242)

Unit
21 Linking verbs: be, appear, see m; beco me, get, etc.
W h en an a djective or noun phrase is used after a verb t o describ e the su bject or say w h a t or wh o the
su bject is, the a djective or noun phrase is a co m ple m ent and the verb is a linking verb:
Clara is a doctor. She se e m e d un able to co ncentra te.

O th er linking verbs;

‘being' linking verbs: e.g. be, keep, M ost of th ese verbs can be follow e d by either an a djective or
prove, re m ain, st a y noun phrase (e.g. It so u n ds nice / a nice place).

'b ecoming' linking verbs: W h en th ey are used as linking verbs, co m e and gro w
e.g. b eco m e, co m e, e n d up, (e.g. co m e t o k n o w, g ro w t h o u g h t f u l) can't be followe d by
gro w, t u rn o u t a noun phrase.

'seeming' linking verbs: Kee p is o nly follow e d by a noun if an adjective fo llo ws it

e.g. a p p ear, lo o k, se e m , so u n d (e.g. It k e p t him a w a k e).

A fter th e verbs a p p e ar (= se ems tru e), lo o k (= se e m), pro ve, se e m , and t u rn o u t w e can often eith er
includ e or o m it t o be:
The room a p p e ars (to be) brighter than when I last saw it.
H owever, fo llowin g th ese verbs t o be is usually included before th e a djectives alive, alo n e, asle e p,
and a w a k e, and before th e -ing forms of verbs:
O I didn't go in because sh e a p p ea re d t o be asleep. ( n o t ... she appeared aslee p.)

Before a noun we include t o be when the noun tells us w h at th e subject is, but often leave it out when
we give our opinion of the person or thing in the subject. W e leave out t o be in form al English. Compare:
He walked into w h at se e m e d t o be a cave. ( n o t ... w h a t seeme d a cave.) and
She se e m s (t o be) a very efficie n t sa lesperson.

We use th e linking verb b eco m e to describ e a process of chang e. A num b er of oth er linking verbs can
be used instead of b eco m e, including co m e, ge t, go, gro w, t u r n (int o).

W e use g e t rath er than b eco m e: in inform al speech and writin g before d if ficu lt, ill, in t e rest e d ,
pre g n an t, susp icio us, u n ha p p y, and w o rrie d; in im p eratives; and in phrases such as g e t cha n g e d
(clo th es), g e t d resse d , g e t m arrie d / div orce d:
I first g o t suspicious when he looked into all the cars. (more form a lly ... b eca m e suspicious ...)
Don't g e t upset about it! W h ere did yo u live before yo u g o t m arried ?
W e prefer b eco m e to talk ab out a more a bstract or tech nical process
of change: Also with: a p p are n t,
G He b eca m e recognised as an exp ert. a w are, co n vince d,
C Th eir bodies ha v e b eco m e a d a pted to high altitu d es. in f ec t e d , irre le v a n t,
o b vio us
W e use b eco m e, not g e t, if there is a noun phrase after th e linking verb:
O Dr M orales b eca m e an adviser to th e g overn m ent.

W e use go or t u rn, not usually g e t or b eco m e, when we talk ab o ut colo urs changing:
O The traffic lights t u r n e d / w e n t green and I pulled away.

We often use go to talk about chang es, p articularly for unwante d situatio ns. For exam ple:

go d e a f / blind / bald; go m a d / cr a z y / wild; The co m p any w e n t b ust and had

go bad / o f f / m o u ld y / ro t t e n; go b ust; go dead; to close.
go missin g; go wron g. O My co m puter's g o n e w ro n g again.
But note: g e t ill, g e t old, g e t tire d. Som e people g e t ill very easily.

A fter th e verbs co m e, g e t, and gr o w (but not after b eco m e) w e can use a t o -in fin it iv e. C o m e and
gro w are often used to talk ab o ut grad ual change:
42 O I eve n tu ally ca m e / g re w to a pprecia te his w ork. (n o t ... became to ap preciate his w ork.)
E x e rcises
Put brack e ts aro un d t o be in t h ese se n t e n ces if it can be le f t out.
1 The jo b turned out to be far easier than I'd exp ecte d.
2 W hen I looked through th e win d ow, Ella appeared to be alone.
3 W h a t he calle d his Tittle cottag e in th e c o u n try’ proved to be a castle.
4 Hassan proved to be an excelle nt source of inform atio n ab out the town.
5 She appeared to be satisfied with th e w ork I'd done.
6 I've adjuste d th e aerial and th e t elevisio n se ems to be workin g okay now.
7 W hen I picked th e crab up I thou ght it was dead, but it turned out to be alive and pinched me.
8 W ith only five m inutes of th e m atch left, Spain look to be heading to victory.
9 a : W e've decided to buy a Ford, b : Th a t se ems to be a very good choice.
10 He only looked to be about ten y ears old, but I knew he m ust be a lot older.

C o m p le t e t h e se n t e nces wit h an a p p ro pria t e f or m of b eco m e or g e t.

1 Give me a few m inutes to changed, and th en I'll be ready to go.
2 Th e state of th e railw ays a m ajor p olitical issue during th e last election cam paign.
3 Research has shown th at w o m en wh o pre gnant w hile dieting increase th eir child's
risk of o b esity.
4 Th e reasons for my decision w ill clear at th e n ext meeting.
5 D o n 't ........................ annoyed with me, but I've lost the car keys.
6 I didn't finish the book. I just co uld n't interested in it.
7 A fter th e strang e events in th e house she co nvince d th a t it was haunte d.
8 I had just divorced when I m et M arianne.

C o m p le t e each se n t e n ce w it h an a p pro pria t e f or m of o n e o f t h e ver bs in brack e ts and a w ord or

p hrase fro m t he box.
b e r se r k b li n d b ust dead to know t o li k e re d tire d

1 I was at a zoo once when an ele p hant w e n t b erserk and attacke d its keeper, {go / turn )
2 A few seconds later th e line and Marc put down th e handset, { g o / t u rn )
3 A fter th e spider bit Rachel her ankle and starte d to sw e ll up. { g o / get )
4 He's a ctu ally quite frien dly when yo u him. ( becom e / g e t )
5 I'll take over driving when y o u { get / go )
6 W e soon ..............................each oth er and have been great friends ever since. (becom e / co m e )
7 The d octor told me th at w ith o u t im m e diate tre atm e n t I mig ht .{ g o / t u r n )
8 The co m pany wh en the bank w o uld n't lend it any m ore money, { g o / g e t )

If n ecessary, co rrect t h e it alicise d p arts o f t his blog.

*
<- -> e rt

T h e m orn in g w e w e re g o in g on h o lid ay e v eryth in g se e m e d to (1) turn wrong. T h e t a xi w a s d u e a t 8:0 0

to t a k e u s to th e a irp o rt. W h e n I lo o k e d in o n A d a m at 7 :0 0 h e (2) see m ed awake, s o I w e n t d o w n st a irs
to m a k e b re a k f a st. W h e n I o p e n e d th e frid g e I fo u n d th a t th e m ilk (3) had gone off, s o w e c o u l d n ’t h a v e
b re a k f a st. T h e n A d a m (4) se e m ed taking a lo ng tim e to c o m e d o w n , s o a t 7 :3 0 I w e n t b a c k u p st a irs an d
h e still (5) h a dn’t becom e dressed. H e sa id h e w a s n ’t fe elin g w e ll, b ut I ju st sh o u t e d , ‘Yo u c a n ’t (6) get
ill w h e n w e ’re g o in g on h o lid a y!’ A ft e r th a t th e k e ys to th e lu g g a g e (7) got missing, b ut A d a m e v e n tu a lly
fo u n d th e m in h is ja c k e t p o c k e t. B y 8 :3 0 th e ta xi h a d n ’t arriv e d a n d I w a s startin g (8) to becom e worried.
It w a s (9) getting obvious th a t w e w e re g o in g to m iss o ur p la n e if w e d i d n ’t le a v e s o o n . B u t ju st th e n th e
ta xi arriv e d a n d w e m a d e it to th e airp o rt with m in u t es to s p a re . Su rp risin g ly, a ft e r s u c h a b a d st a rt, it
(10) turned out to be a n e xc e lle n t h o lid ay.
Unit
22 Forming passive sentences 1
Verbs such as give take both a direct o bject (D O ) and an Reminder -> Section D & Appendix 2
indirect o bject (IO ) in tw o patterns: V + IO + D O or V + D O +
p re p osi tio n + IO. These verbs have tw o corresponding passives:

active V + IO + D O p assive Also: a w ar d, han d, lend,

V + D O + pre p + IO of f er, se nd, t h r o w (=
Alice gave us th a t vase. / W e w ere given th at vase (by A lice). / 'giving' verbs); ask, read,
t e ach (= ‘telling' verbs)
A lice gave th a t vase to us. *4 T h a t vase w as given (t o) us (by A lic e). /

The passive form yo u choose depends on which is more appro priate in a p articular c o ntext. If we
sp ecify an agent (see Ap p endix 2), this fo llo ws by at th e end of th e clause. N ote th a t in inform al
c o ntexts ‘t o ’ can be left out in th e second passive pattern.

Verbs th a t can't be followe d by I O + D O in the active have only one of th ese passive forms:

active V + D O + pre p + IO passive Also: an n o u nce, d e m o nst ra t e ,

, . , , . . d escrib e, in tro d uce, m e n tio n,
He explained th e problem to me. / The problem w as explained to pro p ose, re p ort, su g gest
me. y (= 'reporting' verbs)

Verbs follow e d by o b je ct + c o m p le m e n t in the active have one passive form:

active V + o b je c t + c o m p l e m e n t passive Also: ap p oint, d eclare, ma ke, n o mina t e,

Th e y ele cte d her presid ent. She was electe d v o t e (to do with giving a particular position);
presid ent. call, na m e, t it le (= 'naming' verbs)

Som e verbs th a t are follow e d by o b je c t + b are in finitiv e (= an infinitive w ith o u t ‘to') in th e active are
follow e d by a t o -in f in it iv e in th e passive:

active V + o b je c t + b are in f in it iv e passive Also: f e e l, hear, help (a lso +

Th ey have m ad e him return th e H e has been m ad e to o bject + t o -in fin it iv e), o bserv e,
m o ney. return th e m oney. se e (see also U nit 23A)

T r a n si t i v e t w o - a n d t h r e e - w o r d v e r b s (see also U nit 94)

Som e have passive forms:

active passive Also: ca rr y o u t (= put into practice),

Ella l o o k e d a f t e r him. He w as looked aft er (by Ella). disa p p ro ve of, h old o v er (= d elay), t a l k
d o w n t o (= patronise)
Som e are not used in the passive:

active no passive Also: b rush up on (= revise), cast (y o u r mind)

W e c a m e up a g ainst b ack (= try to re m e m b er), g e t (so m e t h in g) d o w n
a pro ble m. (= w rit e), t a k e a f t e r (= resem ble)

So m e can be only used in the passive with certain senses:

active p assive Also: (passive possible meaning / no passive

Th e y p u t o u t th e fire. The fire w as put out. meaning): ca ll (so m e o n e) up (order to join
I p u t o u t a hand to ste a d y the arm y / tele phone); ca ll (so m e o n e)
m yself. b ack (ask to return / telep hone); le t in
(allo w into a place / allo w rain, etc. in);
le t o u t (allo w to leave / let out a sound)
44
E x e rcises
« a » Re write t he se n t e n ces using o ne or, if possible, t w o p assive f or ms.Look care f u lly a t t h e t e nse. Q
1 Som eo ne handed me a note. I w as h a n d e d cl note. / A note w as hancle d. to rne..................
2 Som eo ne offered her a seco nd-han d bicycle.
3 Som eone has proposed im prove m ents to th e develo pers.
4 Som eone suggested so me interestin g changes to me.
5 Som eo ne award ed him a prize.
6Som eo ne w ill announce th e President's arrival to the waitin g jo urnalists.
7 Som eo ne had mentioned th e password to the thieves.
8 Som eo ne has lent me so m e skis.
9 Som eo ne is sending me a lot of spam e m ails.
10 Som eo ne is going to explain th e changes to th e stu d ents.

C o m p le t e each first se n t e n ce w it h a sui t a b le f or m of a verb fro m t h e box. The n co m p le t e t he

seco n d se n t e n ce using t h e sa m e verb and t he p assive.

a p p oin t d ecla r e d e m o nst r a t e help- in tr o d uce se e

1 People helped, Rob to his fe e t after the accid ent.

.. . . R p . b . , . w . ^ , accident
2 To ny me to Mrs Rossi at his birth day p arty J. ...............................................................

3 Has a n y o n e Chris this m o rn in g ? H as C h ris .................................................................

?
4 T h e y ............................................ Sven Larsen Regional Sales Director for Scan dinavia.
Sven Larsen......................................................... .............................................................................
5 I am certain th a t Sarah her suita b ility as co m pany director to those who
still have any d oubt. I am c e rt a in thdtfc S a r a h ’s su rt a b U liy a s company cUrector

6 Th ey Alan W atso n winn er of th e election after a recount.

Alan W atson...........................................................................................

^ p ossible, re w rit e each se n t e nce using a p assive f orm o f t h e it alicise d t w o - or t h re e- w ord verb.
If n o t, w ri t e ‘ N o passive'.
1 Children often look up to strict te ach ers.
S t r i c t t e a c h e rs a r e o ft e n look e d up to by ch i l d r e n . ......
2 The co m pany ph ased ou t th e pro duct over a period of thre e years.

3 The stu d ents g o t th e inform atio n down as fast as t h ey could.

4 The decision has deprived m any people o f th e right to vote.

5 People often brush up on a foreign language just before a holiday.

6 Ben ca lled Mrs Patel back as soon as he got home.

7 Th e chairp erson h eld over th e last tw o ite ms u ntil th e next co m m itte e meeting.

8 The farm er preve n ted w alk ers fro m crossing the field after he fe n ce d it off.

- > A d d itio n a l e xercise 6 (page 243)

Unit Forming passive sentences 2: verb + -ing or
MSi t o-infinitive
A c t i v e p a t t e r n s w i t h v e r b + -i n g
Verbs followe d by o b je c t + -ing in th e active are mad e passive with 'be' + p ast p ar ticip le + -ing:
Th ey sa w the monkey cli m bin g over the fence. (= active)
The monkey w as se e n cli m bin g over the fence. (= passive) Also, bring, ca tch, he ar, find,
keep, n o tice, o bserv e, se nd,
sh o w

Som e verbs th a t can be followe d by an -ing form can be used with a passive form b ein g + p ast
p ar ticip le:
O I really lo ve b eing given presents.
The children e njo y e d b eing t a k e n to A lso: av oid, d e ny, d escrib e, dislik e, face, h a t e,
(n o t) i m a gin e, lik e, re m e m b er, re p ort, rese n t
th e zoo.

Verbs which in th e active are follow e d by an o bject co nsistin g of a noun phrase and -ing cla use
usually have no passive:
I dread him ( or his) fin din g ou t.
A lso: a n t ici p a t e, a p p recia t e, dislik e, f org e t , ha t e,
( but not He is dreaded finding out)
im a gine, lik e, (n o t) mind, recall, re m e m b e r

A ctiv e p a t t e rns w it h v erb + t o -in fin itiv e

Th e active p attern verb + o b je ct + t o -in fin it iv e is made passive with 'be' + p ast p ar t icip le + t o-
in finitiv e. Co m p are:
Mr Wang h as t a u g h t Peter t o sin g for years, and
A lso: a d vise, a ll o w , ask, b elieve,
Peter h as b ee n t a u g h t t o sin g (by Mr Wang)
co nsi d e r, e x p ect , f eel, inst r u ct, m ean,
for years.
order, re quire, t e ll, u n d e rst a n d

N ote t h a t in so m e c o ntexts it is possible to make both verbs passive:

Q Changes to the taxatio n syste m are e x p ect e d t o be pro p ose d, ( compare the a ctive W e
e x p ect th e g overn m ent t o p ro p ose chang es to th e taxatio n syste m .)

Som e verbs follow e d by an o b je c t + t o -in f in it iv e in th e active have no passive:

Q Susan lik ed K arl t o be there, ( but not Karl was liked to be th ere.)

Also: (can't) b ear, ha t e, love, n ee d, pre f er, w a n t, w ish (= ‘liking' and ‘wantin g' verbs)

The active p attern v er b + t o -in f in it iv e + o b je ct is made passive with verb + t o be + p ast p ar ticip le.
Co m pare:
Sup erm arkets st a r t e d t o se ll fresh pasta only in th e 1990s. a nd
Fresh pasta st a r t e d t o be so ld by sup erm arkets o nly in th e 1990s.

A lso: (i) a p p ear, begin, co m e, co n ti n u e, se e m , t e n d;

(ii) a gree, ai m, arra n g e, a t t e m p t, hope, re f use, w a n t

The verbs in group (i) (and st a r t) have corresp onding m eanings in active and passive se ntences, but
th e verbs in group (ii) do not. Co m pare:
G People have come to see organic food as so mething only the we althy eat. (active) corresponds to
O rg anic food has co m e to be seen as so m ethin g o nly th e w e alth y eat. (passive)
Petra wante d to help me. (a ctive) does not correspond to
I wante d to be helped by Petra, (p assive)

46
E x e rcises
C o m p le t e each se n t e n ce using o n e p air o f v er bs fro m t h e box. Use eit h e r w as / w e r e + p ast
p a r t ici p l e + -in g or p ast si m p le + b ein g + p ast p ar t icip le.

avoid-ta k e d e n y -in v o lv e face-e x p el fin d - w a n d er k e e p - w ai t

le a v e - h o ld o b se r v e - h i d e re m e m b er - bit e r ese n t - g iv e se n d - t u m b le

1Inger w M .k e p t waiirn g for over thre e hours when she w e n t for her dental ap p ointm ent.
2W hen th e police first q uestioned him, W ayn e ................................................................. in th e robbery.
3I ...................................................................... th e baby w hile Karen w e n t to a nsw er th e door.
4W hen I woke up in hospital, I by the snake but nothing after th at.
5Th ey ........................................ priso ner by pretending to be dead.
6The m a n ........................................................................ a suspicious package under a seat in th e train.
7W hen th e bike hit her, Ana to th e ground.
8Two teenag ers yesterd ay from scho ol after th ey were found
with over a hundred stole n m o bile phones.
9 The man was taken to hospital when he lost and alone in th e
forest.
10 Tarik had worked in th e co m pany for 30 ye ars and he rath er ...................... ......................
orders by people who had been there o nly weeks.

f i t t Re writ e t h e se n t e n ces using o n e pair o f w ords fro m t h e box. Use p assive f or ms w it h p ast
p a r t ici p l e + -ing, p ast p a r t ici p l e + t o -in f in i t iv e , or p ast si m p le + b ein g + p ast p a r t ici p l e .

ask— sh o w - ca t c h - sh o p li f tin g e x p ect - a t t r a c t h e a r - arg u e

h a t e - t e ase min d - crit icise o bse rv e - e n t e r re q uire - co m p le t e

1 Th ey wante d us to sho w our passp orts at the border.

W e Mere, a sk e d , to sh ow our p assp orts a bjtk ie b ord er.
2 Th ey could hear Emil and Laura shouting at each other n ext door.
Emil a nd L a u r a .............................................................................................................................................................................
3 The oth er children made O llie unhap py when th ey tease d him.
O llie ..................................................................................................................................................................................................
4 Th ey saw th e burglar gettin g into th e m useum through a win d ow.
The b u rg l a r. ...................................................................................................................................................................................
5 Th ey think t h a t over 2 0 ,0 0 0 people w ill go to the pop co ncert.
The pop co n cert ..................................................................................................................................................................... ..
6 Th ey criticise d her but she w asn't unhap py about it.
S h e ....................................................................................................................................................................................................
7 Th ey said I had to fill in tw o co pies of th e custo ms d eclaratio n.
I.....................................................................................................................................................
8 Th ey caught Mrs Dee takin g thin gs fro m th e shop.
Mrs D e e ...........................................................................................................................................................................................

a n M ake p assive se n t e n ces beginning w it h t h e it alicise d w or d(s). - 0

1 Kay's questions began to irritate Marco.
Marco begoy\ to be irrigated- by Kay’s questions,., (corresponding meariing)...
2 The t ea m captain hopes to select O m ar.
3 A lastair arranged to take Kathy to th e statio n.
4 Critics have co m e to recognise G aldos as one of Spain's greatest novelists.
5 The south co ast co ntinues to a ttra ct holidaym akers.
6 H arris has agreed to interview the Fin ance Minister.

Do t h e se n t e n ces y o u have w ri t t e n have a corresp o n din g m eanin g t o t h e original, or a dif f ere n t

m ean in g? Look ca re f u lly a t t he t e nse in t h e se n t e nces given.

- > A d d itio n a l e xe rcise 6 (page 243)

Unit
24 Using passives
W e ty p ically use a passive rather than an active in th e Re m in d e r -* Sec ti o n D & A p p e n dix 2
followin g situatio ns.
Using a passive allows us to omit the agent (= the subject of the corresponding active sentence) by
leaving out the prepositional phrase with by. We prefer passives when the agent:
- is not known: My office w as bro k en in t o when I was on holiday.
- is ‘people in g en eral’: O An order form ca n be f o u n d on page 2.
- is unim p ortant: He is t h o u g h t to be so m ewhere in Russia.
- is obvious: Q She is b eing t re a t e d in hospital, (the agent is cle arly ‘m e dical staff')

In factual writing (e.g. describing procedures or processes) we often omit the agent, and use passives:
N ucle ar w aste w ill still be radioactive even after 2 0 ,0 0 0 years, so it m ust be d isp ose d o f
very carefully. It can be st o r e d as a liquid in stainless-ste el co ntain ers which are e n case d in
co ncrete. Th e m ost dangerous nucle ar w aste can be t u rn e d into glass w hich w ill be st o r e d in
deep underground mines.

In informal contexts, particularly in conversation, we often use active sentences with a subject such
as people, so m e b o d y / so meo ne, so met hing, t hey, we, or yo u even when we do not know who the
agent is. In more formal contexts, we often prefer to use a passive so that we can avoid any mention of
an agent. Compare:
T h e y're inst a llin g th e new co m p uter syste m n ext m o nth, and
The new co m p uter syste m is b eing inst a ll e d next m o nth. ( more form a l )

N ote also th a t so m e verbs have relate d nouns which express th e sam e m eaning. These nouns can be
used as th e su bject of passive sentences, with a new passive verb intro duced. Co m pare th e exam ple
above and:
The inst a lla t i o n of th e new co m p uter syste m w ill be co m p le t e d by next m o nth.

In English we usually prefer to put the to pic (w h a t is alrea dy being talked a b o ut) at th e beginning of a
se nte nce (or clause) and a c o m m e n t on th a t to pic at th e end. Cho osing the passive often allo ws us to
do this. Co m pare th ese tw o texts and note where th e to pic (in italics) is placed in th e second sente nce
of each. The second t ext uses a passive where th e em phasis is on th e (safe ty) valves:
The thre e m achin es teste d for the re port co ntained different typ es of safe ty valve. Th e Boron
Group in G erm a ny m anufacture d a ll the valves.
Th e thre e m achin es teste d for th e re port contained different typ es of safe ty valve. A ll the
va lves were m anufacture d by th e Boron Group in G erm any.
Using the passive allo ws us to put long su bjects at th e end o f a se ntence. So, for exam ple:
I w as su r p rise d by Dev's decision to give up his jo b and move to Sydney,
is m ore natural than 'D ev's decision to give up his jo b a nd m ove to S ydney surprised me', althoug h the
choice can depend on co nsid eratio ns of style and c o ntext.

Instead of making a t h a t -cl a use the su bject of a passive sentence, it is norm al to use an it -cla use
(see also U nit 25):
Everyb o dy b elieve d (th a t) th e plan would fail. ( a ctive )
O It w as b elie ve d th at th e plan would fail, { passive ) is more natural than
That the pla n would fa il w as b elie ve d by everyb o dy.
E x e rcises
W rit e p assive se n t e n ces a b o u t t he d e ve lo p m e n t o f an O ly m p ic G a m es sit e st ar tin g w it h t he
it alicise d w ords. ^ O E S B E S s P

Th ey built the main stadium in under They are holding the rowing
three years. competition on the River
THe.mam siadmty was Nene.
bwiii In under three years.

They had co mpleted the

Th ey have designed the main athletics track only a ye ar
stadium to acco m m od ate after the city got the
O lym pics.
many different sports.

Th ey w ill take down the They were using the handball

temporary stands after the venue as a warehouse until a
Gam es. year ago.

They will have completed They should have finished

the basketball arena by the the badminton arena by now.
end of May.

Re writ e t h ese se n t e n ces b eginning w it h a noun f or m e d fro m t he it alicise d verb (wit h t h e

if n ecessary). Use a p assive f or m o f t h e verb in brack e ts, and ma ke an y o t h e r n ecessary
chan ges.
1 Th ey w ill consider the issue at n ext week's m eetin g, { give )
Consuleraixon will be given to the >sswe a i next week’s meeting......
2 Th ey w ill a ppoint a new managing d irector n ext week, { m ake )
3 People have a ccused th e local co uncil of corruptio n, { m ake )
4 Th ey dem olished th e building in o nly tw o days, { co m plete )
5 Th ey w ill prese n t th e tro p hy after the spe eches, { make )
6 Local resid ents w ill c ertainly resist the proposed new in d ustrial area, { expect )

C o m p le t e t he t e x t w it h a p pro pria t e f or ms (activ e or p assive) o f t h e verbs in brack e ts.

Slowly but surely the coastline of Britain (1) Ls. bem g worn away., {wear away) by an advancing
sea. The country which once 'ruled the waves' now (2) (rw/e)bythem, with huge
forces threatening to destroy vast areas of hum an and wildlife habitat. Already some of Britain's last
wild, natural areas (3) (disappear), and experts (4) {fear)
that this is just the beginning. It (5) {estimate) that there will be a 38-55 cm rise
in average sea levels by the year 2100. According to the D epartm ent of the Environment, during the
next 50 years at least 10,000 hectares of farm land (6) {turn into) m ud flats and
salt m arshes by the increases in sea levels. Rather than trying to prevent the erosion, the present
governm ent (7 )................... {use) a m ethod of'm anaged retreat’ by creating new defences
further inland and allowing low-lying coastal farm land (8) {abandon) to
the sea. However, m any of the country’s m ajor cities could also (9) ......................... {affect).
London, Bristol and Cardiff all (10) ................... {expect) severe flooding as our sea defences
(1 1 ) {destroy) by the rising tides.

- > A d d itio n a l exe rcise 6 (page 243)

Unit
2 5 A Reporting with passives; It is said th a t
We often use a passive to rep ort w h a t people say, thin k, e tc., p articularly if it is not im p orta nt to
m ention wh o is being reported:
O People in th e area ha v e b ee n t o ld th a t th ey sho uld stay indo ors.
Everyo ne w as ask e d to bring so me food to th e party.

A n o th er c o m m on w a y of rep orting w h a t is said by an unsp ecifie d group of people is to use it +

p assiv e verb + t h a t -cl a use (see U nit 33 for more on t h a t -cl a uses). Using this pattern allo ws us to
put im p ortant inform atio n at th e end of th e se nte nce (see U nit 24C):
C It is re p ort e d th a t th e damag e is extensive. (com pare The damage is extensive, according to
g overnm ent so urces.)
It w as d ecid e d that th e m eetin g should be cancelle d, (or It w as decided to cancel the
m eetin g.)

A lso: all e g e, a n n o u nce, assu m e, b eliev e, ca lc u l a t e , clai m , co nsi d e r, d e m o nst r a t e , disco ver,
est a b lish , est i m a t e, e x p ect, f e e l, fin d, k n o w, m e n ti o n , reco m m e n d , r e v e al, sa y, sh o w , su g g est,
su p p ose, t hin k, u n d e rst a n d; a gree, d ecid e, h o p e, in t e n d , plan, pro p ose (can also be follow e d by
a t o -in f in it iv e cla use)

N ote th a t m any o th er verbs co nnecte d with reporting are not used with it + p assiv e v er b + t h a t -
cla use , but can be used as in A:
O W e hav e b een in f o r m e d th a t w e have to leave. Also: e nco u ra g e, p ersu a d e, r eassu re,
re m in d, t e ll, w ar n
( but not It has inform ed us ...)
These verbs need a p ersonal o bject before th e t h a t -cl a use in an active form (e.g. Th ey have informed
us t h a t ...)

An altern ative to it + p assiv e v er b + t h a t -cl a use is to use su b jec t + p assiv e ver b + t o -in f in it iv e if we
w a n t th e su bject to be th e to pic of the sentence (see U nit 24 C). Co m pare:
It is re p or t e d th at th e damag e is extensive, and
Q T h e d a m a g e is re p ort e d to be extensive.

M ost of th e verbs listed in th e first w hite box in B can also be used in this p attern exce p t for
a n n o u nce, d ecid e, m e n tio n, pro p ose, reco m m e n d , su g g est.

W e can only use t e l l in this p attern wh en it m eans 'order'. So w e can say:

I w as t o ld (= ordered) t o go with th e m to th e railw ay statio n,
but not ‘The accid e nt w as told (= said) to have happened just after m id nig ht’.

W ith so m e verbs w e can also use it + p assiv e v er b + w h -cla use to rep ort inform atio n given or found
out:
It has n o w b ee n re v e ale d who was resp onsible for the accid ent.
The decision to build th e bridge was taken before it w as est a b lish e d whether it was actu ally
needed.

Also: disco v er, e x plain, find, k n o w, reve al, sh o w, u n d e rst a n d

W hen a t h a t -cl a use begins t h a t + t h e r e ..., we can make a corresp onding passive form t h e re +
p assiv e v er b + t o be / t o hav e b ee n. Co m pare:
O It is t h o u g h t (t ha t) t h e re are to o m any o bstacles to peace, and
T h ere are t h o u g h t t o be to o m any o bstacles to peace.

We can use the sam e verbs in this pattern as w ith su b jec t + p assiv e ve rb + t o -in f in it iv e (see C).
E x e rcises
W hich o f t h e v erbs in brack e ts can co m p le t e t h e se n t e n ce? U n d erlin e o n e or both. Q Q Q
1 It was to hold new ne g otiatio ns next m o nth, ( a gre e d / a nnounced )
2 It has been th a t th e crash was th e result of pilo t error, ( pro posed / shown )
3 It was that Mrs Ho would chair the m eetin g, ( h o p e d / explained )
4 It has been to ap p oint Dr Ahmadi as head teacher, ( d e cid ed / su g g ested )
5 It has not ye t been wh o w as responsible for th e error, ( cla im ed / explained )
6 It has now been th a t half of cancer cases are lifestyle -relate d.
( established / revea led )
7 It is to e m ploy 500 people in the factory, ( exp ected / intended )
8 It is to close th e library p erm an ently from n ext A pril, ( pla nned / recom m ended )
9 It is th a t a no th er moon landing w ill take place next year, ( assumed / thought )
10 It has been how spiders are able to travel across the sea. ( discovered / said )

If p ossible, re w rit e t h ese n e wsp a p er hea dlin es as p assive se n t e n ces w it h it. If no t, w rit e X.

AGREEMENT THAT UN WILL SEND IN TROOPS

It has been agreed t h a i the UN will send in troops....

PATIENTS REASSURED ABOUT HOSPITAL SAFETY

3 W A TER D IS C O V E R E D O N M A RS
4
T E RR O R I S T S B E L IE V E D T O B E O PER A T IN G I N B E R L I N

5 MOON ASTRONAUTS EXPECTED TO RETURN TODAY

6 E X -PR E SID E N T JULIUS R EVEA LED AS SPY

W ARNING G IV EN A B O U T C O M P U T ER VIRUS

8 KING SAID TO B E MAKING G O O D RECOVERY

RESTAURANT ESTABLISHED AS SOURCE OF FOOD POISONING OUTBREAK

10
P O L IC E TO LD TO W ORK LO N G ER H O U RS

W rit e t w o n e w se n t e n ces f or each n u m b ered se n t e nce belo w, using it + p assiv e v e r b + t h a t -

cl a u se in on e se n t e n ce and su b j e c t + p assiv e v e r b + t o -in f in i t iv e in t h e o ther. (The seco n d
p a t t ern m ay n ot a lw a ys be p ossible.)

(1) We have discovered that a m echanical fault

caused the problem. (2) We don't think that the
fault is serious. (3) We exp ect that it will take several
weeks to correct the fault. (4) We have decided to
postpone the next rocket launch, and (5) we suggest
that th e next launch should take place in May.

1 It has been discovered that a m ech a nical f a u lt ca used the problem. / A m echanical f a u lt was
discovered to have ca used the problem.

A d d itio n a l exe rcise 6 (page 243)

Unit W h - q u estio ns with wh o, w h o m , w hich, h ow and
26 w h ose
W h o refers to people, and can be used as su bject, o bject or c o m ple m ent: Reminder Section E
W h o owns th a t car? W h o did you m e et? W h o was her fath er?

W h o m is used as a form al altern ative to w h o as o bject, and also directly after pre positions:
W h o m did you m e e t? To w h o m were yo u talkin g?

W h ic h is used to refer to people when w e w a n t to id entify so m e b o dy in a group:

‘W h ic h is yo ur bro th er?' ‘Th e one n ext to Luka.' (talkin g about a photo graph)
and w e can use w h ich instead of w h o to talk ab o ut p articular classes of people:
W h ic h do yo u think earns m ore, a te ach er or a police officer? (or W h o do yo u think ?)

W e usually use w hich, rath er than w h o or w h a t, in questions before o n e(s) and of, as w h ic h is
co m m o nly used to ask or talk about a ch oice b etween one or m ore things:
I’ve decided to buy one of th ese ju m p ers. W h ich one do yo u think I should choose?
W h ic h o f yo u would like to go first? (rather than W h o o f ...? )

W hen w e use w h o or w h a t as su bjects, th e verb th a t fo llo ws is usually singular, even if a plural answer
is exp ecte d:
W h a t is there to see in th e t o w n? (exp ects an a nsw er giving a num b er of things to see;
n ot W h a t are there to see in th e t o w n?)
H owever, the verb can be plural in echo questio ns (see Unit 27E) after a plural su bject or a subject
co nsistin g of tw o or more noun phrases joine d by and:
‘ Mr Alm eid a and his fa m ily are here to see yo u.' ‘W h o are here?' ( or W h o's here?)
and when w h o and w h a t functio n as co m ple m ents:
W h o are those people over th ere? W h a t are th e conse quences of th e d ecisio n?

H o w or w h a t?

How W hat
O H o w was the jo urn ey? W h a t w as the jo urn e y lik e?
(asking a g eneral opinion) (asking a general opinion)
H o w is y o ur bro ther? W h a t do yo u lik e a b o u t th e jo b?
(asking about general h ealth) (asking for d etails)
H o w do yo u like y o ur coffe e? W h a t if yo ur plan d o esn't work?
(asking about food and drink preferences) (asking ab out co nse quences)
W h a t's it ca ll e d ? (asking about a nam e)

H o w / W h a t (a b o u t)
C H o w / W h a t a b o u t a swim ? (m akin g a suggestion)
‘ He's a bit scary so m etim es.' ‘H o w / W h a t do yo u m ean?' (asking for more inform atio n)

W e can use w h ose to ask ab out the person th a t o wns or is resp onsible for so m ethin g. W h ose can be
used eith er before a verb (as a pronoun):
W h ose are th ese bo ots?
or before a noun or noun phrase (as a d eterm in er) intro ducing direct or indirect qu estions:
W h ose boots are th ese? She asked me w h ose co a t I was wearing.
In fo rm al c o ntexts w e can use a pre position before w h ose (see also Unit 55B):
In w h ose desk was it fo un d? ( less form a lly W h ose desk was it found in?)
H owever, in questio ns w ith o u t a verb a pre position co m es before w h ose:
‘W e're m eeting at nine.' 'In w h ose house?' ( not W h ose house in?)

52
Exercises
U n d erlin e th e c o rre c t o p tio n (o r b oth if p ossib le).
1 To whom / who should the d ocum ents be sent?
2 Which / Who of yo u is Dr H ansen? I have a message for yo u.
3 a : Here's a photo of our children at the fa ncy dress party, b: Who / Which is Isab ella?
4 a : Is yo ur sister at hom e? b: W h a t / Which one do yo u w a n t to speak t o?
5 Whom / Who do yo u hold resp onsible for th e damag e?
6 Who / Which w ill captain th e tea m if Zeinab isn't available?
7 Which / Who would you rath er be - a d octor or a vet?
8 Who / Whom translate d the book?

C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces w it h an a p pro pria t e prese n t si m p le f or m of t h e verbs in brack e ts.

1 W hat those cakes made fro m? (be )
2 Who yo u for M aths and English? ( te ach )
3 W hat th ere to see on th e island? (be)
4 Who th e m ajor d ecisions in the co m p any? ( m ake)
5 a : The Turners are in France. B : W h o in France? (be)
6 Who th eir textb o o k with th e m ? Put y o ur hands up. (have)

First, co m p le t e t he se n t e n ces w it h h o w , w h a t , or h o w / w h a t if b o th are p ossible. The n ch o ose

an a p pro pria t e a nsw e r f or each q u estio n.

1 W hat do yo u like ab o ut y o ur new jo b?' H a ‘It's really boring.'

b ‘I'd love one.'
2 if O m ar calls w hile yo u're o u t?’
c ‘I mean yo u've got to w e ar a suit.'
3 about a c o ffe e?' d ‘Tell him I'll call back.'
4 are yo ur parents th ese days?' e ‘It was great.'
5 's yo ur boss lik e?’ f ‘Lucia G arcia.'
6 g ‘It's never boring.'
do you like yo ur new jo b?'
h ‘Q uite w e ll, thanks.'
7 was th e ca m ping trip?'
i ‘W e had an excelle nt tim e.'
8 's yo ur boss calle d?' j ‘She w orks us re ally hard.'
9 do yo u m ean, “Sm art clo th es "?'
10 was th e ca m ping trip like?'
C o rrect an y m ist a k es in t he it alicise d w ords or, if n ecessary, su g g est w a ys o f m aking t he
se n t e nce m ore na t ural. If t h e se n t e nce is alrea d y co rrect, w ri t e %/. d-Mj
1 Who's caravan were you stayin g in?
2 Whose are all th ese books? .........................
3 He asked us who's car was parked in front of his house.
4 a : Who live in th e fla t upstairs? b: Th e Tho m pson fa m ily.
5 Whose going with you to Canada?
6 A bou t whose travels in N epal did Liam W ilson write a book?
7 What one of th e fo llowin g state m e n ts is tru e? ..................
8 Who of us has not told a lie at so m e tim e in our lives?
9 a : Can yo u post th e books to us? b: Whose address to?
10 a : A nts have got into the fridge! b : What has got into th e frid g e?............................

53
Unit Negative questions; echo questions; questions with
27 t h a t -cla uses
N e g a tiv e q u estio ns

W e usually make a ne gative y es / no or w h - q u est io n with an auxiliary verb (have, did, would, etc.)
+ - n 't to suggest, persuade, criticise, etc.
O W o u ld n't it be b etter to go to m orro w? Q W hy d o n't w e go out for a m eal?
In fo rm al co ntexts, or when w e w a n t to give so m e sp ecial em phasis to th e neg ative (perhaps to sh ow
th a t w e are angry, very surprised, or to stro n gly persuade so m e o n e), we can use n o t after th e subject
in negative questions. This hap pens p articularly in y es / no rath er than w h - q u est io ns:
Did she n o t realise th a t she'd broken it? ( less emphatically Di d n't she realise t h a t ...? )
Q C a n y o u n o t get there a bit e arlier? (less emphatically C a n 't you ...?)

We so m etim es use negative words o th er than -n ’t such as n ever, no, n o b o d y, n o t hin g, n o w h er e:

W h y do yo u n e v er help?
Have you n o w h ere to go? (or Do yo u have n o w h ere to go?)
or less e m p h atically or m ore inform ally:
W h y d o n't yo u ever help?
O H ave n't yo u got anywhere to go? (or D o n’t yo u have anywhere ... ?)

We can make a sug gestion with W h y n o t + ver b or W h y d o n't / d o e s n ' t ... (but not W h y do not /
does n o t ...):
Q W h y n o t decorate th e house yo urse lf? (or W h y d o n't yo u d ecorate ...? )

W h y d i d n ' t ... isn't used to make a sug gestion, but can sh o w th a t w e think an actio n was wrong. For
exam ple, depending on into nation and c o ntext, it can be used to criticise so m eone:
Q W h y di d n't yo u te ll me th a t in the first place? (I'm annoyed th a t yo u did n't)

N egative question forms, usually w ith a fallin g into natio n, are used in excla m atio ns giving opinions:
H av e n't yo u gro\frn^ D o esn't she lookTov&y ^ D id n't itsn o w/vTrto
a' ^

Ech o q u est io n s
Echo questions are used when we haven't understoo d w h a t has been said or to check t h a t we
heard correctly, perhaps because w e found it very surprising. W e mig ht rep eat, usually w ith a rising
into natio n, th e wh ole of w h at w as said:
’Tala's lost her jo b.' ’Tala's lost h e rjo o ?'
or focus on part of wh at was said using a stressed w h - w o r d or a phrase with h o w:
O ‘Leon's arriving at 6:30.' ’W h e n's Lej3p 3w vfn g? / Leon's arriving w lje ^ ?'
O ‘W e paid £ 3,0 0 0 for the painting.' ’ H o w m uch djcLyou-'pay? / You paid h o w j j j u ^ ? '

W e can use w h a t or ‘d o ’ w h a t to focus on th e verb or part of th e sente nce beginning with th e verb:
O ‘W e paid £ 3 ,0 0 0 for th e painting.' ‘You w b a f?' (or ’You dicTyvhat?')
Q ‘I think she's having a slee p.' ‘She's w b a f?' (or ‘She's d oin gj ^ vh ^ ?')

Q u estio ns w it h t h a t -cla u ses

A w h - q u est io n can refer to a fo llowin g t h a t -cla use , p articularly after verbs such as e x p ect, hope,
reck o n, sa y, su g g est, su p p ose, and t hi n k. We can leave out t h a t in th ese questions:
W h e n do yo u reckon (th a t) y o u'll finish th e jo b?
H owever, when the w h - w o r d is th e su bject, o bject or co m ple m ent of th e verb in the sub ordinate
clause, we do not use t h a t:
O W h a t did yo u think w as in the box? (not W h a t did you think th a t w as in the box?)

54
E x e rcises
W rit e n eg a tive q u est io ns f or B in t h ese dialo g ues, using - n 't w it h t h e w ords in brack e ts.
1 a : Can yo u lend me €10?
b: A gain? H ave n't you got a ny money l e f t ? ( ... m oney le ft? )
2 a : I'm annoyed th at you didn't co m e to the meeting.

b : W h y? ( ... m y em ail
3 a : I’ve had to bring th e children with me.

b: W h y? ( ...b a b y sit t e r? )
4 a : I’ll just finish my ho m ework before I go to scho ol.

b: B u t (... be supposed to / last night?)

5 a : I've put my bike in the sittin g roo m.

B:Th e sittin g room! (... outside?)

6 a : I'm taking the co ach to Vie nna.

b: But th at w ill take ag es (... ra ther / pla ne? )

Use t h e n o t es t o co m p le t e t h ese dialo g u es w it h t w o n e g a tive q u esti o ns. In t he first use -n't; in

t h e seco n d use n e v er, no, n o b o d y, n o t h in g or n o w h e re.
1 (ever / considered yo u m ight / wrong )
a: Haven’t you ever considered ijOU mlgklfc be wrong? / Have you never considered,
you might be wrong?
b: N o , I’ m su r e I'm rig h t.
2 ( you / any in terest / m aths a t all ) a : ?
b: N o , I've a l w a y s h a t e d it.
3 a : I sp ent th e night in the railw ay statio n, ( could / fin d a nywhere else / sleep )
b : .................................................................................................................................................................................................... ?
4 (can / re m e m ber anything a bout / a ccident ) a :

bN ot after g ettin g into th e car, no.

:
5 (why / ever do well / exa ms) a : ............................................................................................. .............
b : Perhaps yo u d on't revise enough.

6 ( there a nybody / yo u can ask / help ) a :.................................................................................................................................. ..................

b : I can't think of anyone.'

C o m p le t e th e ech o q u estio ns using a p pro pria te q u estio n w o rds or p hrases.

1 a: Jake's going to Chile, b: He's going where? / H e 's doing what? / H e's what?
2 a He's leaving at th e end of n ext w e ek.
:
b : He's leaving ?/ He's doing ?/ He's ?
3 a : H e'll be a w ay for thre e m o nths, b : H e'll be a w ay for ? / H e'll <
4 a : It w ill cost about £15,000. b : It'll cost ? / It’ll ?
5 a : He's sold his house to pay for th e trip.

b : He's sold ................ ?/ He's done ...............?/ He's ?

6 a : He's going clim bin g in the Andes.

b : He's going clim bing ?/ He's doing ? / He's ?

If n e c essary, c o rre c t a ny m ista k es in th ese se n te n c es. Pu t a tic k if t h e y are a lre a d y c o rre c t.

f lP H l
1 a : Mariam isn't answerin g her phone, b : W hy do you not e m ail her?

2 W h o do yo u exp ect t h at w ill read yo ur blog?

3 W hy did th e y suggest th at w e sho uld avoid using th e m o torw ay?
4 W as not it a brilliant film!
5 If she really w a nts to go rock clim bin g, w hy not let her?
6 W h a t did you say th a t is in th ese biscuits?
7 H ow do yo u think th a t Tw itter w ill have changed our lives in ten years' tim e?
8 W hy did not you te ll me you'd changed yo ur num b er?
Unit
28 Verbs, objects and complements
Som e verbs can be eith er transitive or intransitive, allowin g us to focus on
eith er th e person or thing performing the actio n, or the person or thing
affecte d by the actio n. Co m pare:
Q She cl ose d the door, (transitive) a nd The door close d, (intransitive)
I've rip p ed my shirt, (transitive) and My shirt h as ripped, (intransitive)

A lso: begin, bend, break, burn, chan g e, d ecre ase , drop, finish, increase,
m ove, o pen, sh u t, st a r t, v ary, w a k e (m ost are ‘chang e' verbs)

So me transitive verbs d on't need an o bject w hen the meaning is clear from th e co ntext:
O I often sin g (songs) in the shower.
O She p la ys ( the saxophone ) b eautifully.

Also: a nsw e r, ask, chan g e, co o k, d ance, drink, drive, ea t, f ail, park,

p ho n e, rea d, sm o k e, st u d y, w ash, w ash up, w av e, win, w rit e

A fter so m e verbs we usually add a com ple m ent - a phrase which co m pletes th e meaning o f a verb,
noun or a djective - which is an adverb or pre positional phrase:
The disease orig in a t e d in Britain, ( not The disease originated. W e need to add so m ethin g
ab o ut where or how it originated.)

O th er verbs usually have a co m ple m ent but m ay not. Co m pare:

He p ause d fo r a fe w m om ents, a nd He p ause d, (no co m ple m ent needed)

Som e verbs are co m m o nly follow e d by a p articular pre position or pre positions and th en an o bject
(see also U nit 94):
We had to d e al w it h hundreds o f com pla ints, ( not W e had to d eal.)
I'm sure th at blue car b elo n gs t o Murad, ( not I’m sure th a t blue car belongs.)

Also: a d h er e t o, asp ire t o, cu l m in a t e in I w it h, d e t r a c t fro m,

d if f e re n t ia t e b e t w e e n, inclin e t o / t o w ar ds, sp ecia lise in

Som e verbs are usually followe d by an o b je ct + p re p osi ti o n al p hrase c o m ple m ent:

I alw ays asso cia t e pizza with Ita ly, ( not I alw ays associate pizza.)
Q She p u t the report on the floor. ( not She put th e re p ort.)

Also: a t t ri b u t e ... t o, b ase ... on / up on, e q u a t e ... w it h, i n f l i c t ... on,

m ist a k e ... f or, regard ... as / w it h, re min d ... o f

So me verbs are often followe d by an o b je ct + a d je ct iv e (or a d je ct iv e p hrase) co m ple m ent:

The people of this co untry w ill h old the govern m ent responsible.
Conti p ro n o u nce d h erse lf f i t fo r the m atch.

Also: assu m e, b elieve, co nsid er, d eclare, find, ju d g e, prove, re p ort, t hin k.
(The o bject after d eclare, find, pro n o u nce and pro ve is usually a reflexive pronoun.)

Sentences with an o b je ct + a d je ct iv e co m ple m ent after th ese verbs are usually rath er form al. Adding
t o be after th e o bject or using a t h a t -cl a use can make sentences less form al:
Dr A dams argues th a t house prices w ill fall, but oth er eco n o m ists b elie v e the opposite true,
( or less form a lly ... believe th e op posite to be true, or ... believe t h a t th e op posite is true.)

56
E x e rcises
If it is p ossible t o o mit t he o bject (in italics) af t er t he underlined verbs, put bracke ts aro und it.

Aya was (1) reading ( a book ) when th e tele phone rang. It w as Val. She said, 'I calle d yo u earlier, but
nobo dy (2) answered the phone. W ould yo u like to co me over to (3) eat dinner tonight with me and
To m? Is eight/seven okay?' Aya (4) thanked Val and said th a t she'd love to co m e. At about seven
Aya starte d to get ready. She (5) washed h erse lf a nd (6) brushed her hair. Then she (7) chang ed her
clothes and (8) put on som e m akeup. A fter th at, she (9) drove her ca r to M alsto we, th e villag e where
Val and Tom live d. Val w as gardening when Aya (10) reached their house and she (11) waved her
h a nd when saw Aya. Aya (12) parked her ca r on the drive and walked over to Val. Val said, ‘To m's still
(13) cooking dinner, so I thou ght I had tim e (14) to pick som e flow ers. By the way, my sister Kate is
stayin g with us. She's (15) studyin g French at university, but is on holid ay at the m o m ent. I forgot to
(16) m ention her wh en I spoke to yo u earlier. I'll (17) intro duce yo u when w e go inside.' Aya
(18) enjoyed the evening very m uch. The food w as excelle nt and th ey talked a lot about th eir
holiday plans. Aya hoped to go to Canada, but w asn't sure ye t th a t she could (19) afford it. Before
she left, Aya helped (20) wash up the dishes. As she drove hom e, she decided th at she m ust
(21) invite Val and Tom for a m eal at her house very soon.

c m C o m p le t e se n t e nces 1 -4 w it h a co rrect v er b + p re p osi t io n + n o u n p h rase. C o m p le t e 5 -8 w it h

a co rrect v er b + n o u n p h r ase + p re p osi tio n .

Verbs Pre positions N oun phrases

( Use an appropriate form . )

a s p ir e a t t ri b u t e between f or t h e b lack ca r n a t io n al le a d e rsh i p

b ase c u l m in a t e in in on his su cc ess
d i f f e re n t ia t e in flic t on to to t h e d isco v e ry o f p e nicillin
m ist a k e sp ecia lise a su r p rise d e f e a t f a n t asy and r e a li t y
her n e w n o ve l se af o o d

1 Electors deserve more from a p olitical party th a t ccspires to notio nal. le a d e rsh ip
2 Years of research by Fle m in g .............................................................................................................................................
3 H er m ental co ndition makes it d ifficult for her t o .........................................................................................
4 Th ere’s a great restaurant by the harb our w h ic h ....................................................................................................
5 The team of a m ate ur fo otb allers the first division leaders
6 A fter Lewis's victory, he th e advice of his new train er
7 It was dark and raining and s h e .............................................................................................................................. a taxi
8 Em ma Janse has events th a t to ok place in 16th -century D en mark

C o m p le t e t h ese se n t e n c e s w it h a n y a p p ro p ria t e a d je c tiv e .

1 The scie n tific evid ence proved him
2 She declared herself with the result.
3 Th ey considered th e food .........................
4 I'm surprised th e plum b er hasn't turned up. I've alw ays found him .........................
5 W e believed her at scho ol.

N o w w ri t e less f o r m al versio ns using ei t h er t o b e af t e r t he o b ject or a t h a t -cl a use .

1 The scie ntific evid ence proved him to be guilty. / The scie n tific evid ence proved that he was guilty.

57
Unit
29 Verb + two objects
Som e verbs can be fo llow e d by tw o o bjects. Usually th e first o bject (= th e indirect ob je ct (10)) is a
person or group of people and th e second o bject (= the direct o b je ct (D O )) is a thing:
Can yo u bring me (= 10) som e milk (= D O) from th e sho ps?
He m a d e him se lf (= IO) a cup o f co ffe e. (= D O).
Many verbs th a t can have tw o o bjects m ay also be used with a D O only (e.g. I read a story). W ith
m any verbs th a t can have tw o o bjects, it is possible to reverse th e order of th e o bjects if w e put f o r or
t o before the IO (this is then called a preposition a l ob je ct ) . Co m pare:
O I b u ilt m y d aughter a doll's house, and
O ther verbs with f o r + object: b oo k, buy, ca tch,
I b u ilt a doll's house f o r my daughter.
ch o ose, co o k, f e tch , fin d, g e t, m a k e, order,
Can yo u p ass me th a t bandage? and
p our, sa v e
Can you p ass th a t bandage t o me?
O ther verbs with to + object: a w ar d, give, han d,
le n d, o f f er, o w e, sh o w , t e a c h , t e ll, t h r o w

We often use this p attern if w e w a n t to focus p articular atte ntio n on th e o bject after f o r / t o. W e also
use it if th e IO is a lot longer than th e D O :
L Jasmin taug ht music t o a large num b er of children at th e scho ol, ( not Jasmin tau g ht a large
num b er of children at th e scho ol music.)

If th e D O is a pronoun, a pattern with D O + p re p osit io n + IO is usual. Patterns w ith o u t a preposition

are avoided because th ey are considered to be bad style:
I gave th e m t o Isa. ( rather than I gave Isa th e m . / I gave th e m Isa.)
W e bought it f o r th e m . (ra ther than W e bought th e m it. / W e bought it th e m .)

Som e verbs can be used with eith er f o r or t o. O fte n there is a difference in meaning: t o suggests th at
there is a transfer of so m ethin g to so m eone, and f o r suggests th a t so m eone benefits fro m so m ething.
Co m pare:
Q I hadn’t got tim e to visit Mira, so I w r o t e a le tter t o her. and
O Mira had broken her wrist, so I w r o t e a le tter f o r her.
Also: bring, leav e, p ay, p lay, p ost, rea d, se ll, se nd, sing, t a k e

So m etim es, however, the m eaning is very sim ilar:

C He p la ye d th e piece t o ( or f or) me.
C Can yo u sin g th a t song again t o (or f or) us?
N ote th a t when o b je ct + o b je ct is used after th ese verbs it usually has a sim ilar meaning to th e verb
with o b je ct + t o + o b ject. For exam ple:
Q I sold him th e car. ( means I sold th e car t o him, not I sold th e car f o r him.)

So m e verbs th a t are followed by tw o o bjects canno t have th eir o bjects reversed with f o r / t o:
W e all e n vie d him his lifestyle, (but not W e all envied his lifestyle f o r / to him.)

Also: a ll o w , ask, cost, d e ny, f orgive, g u ara n t e e, p er m it, re f use

Som e verbs, such as d escrib e and fix, can only have a second o bject if this is a pre p ositio nal o bject -
with t o (see also Unit 22A). Compare:
She d escrib e d th e situatio n (t o m e), ( but not
Also: a d m it, an n o u nce, d e m o nst r a t e ,
She described me the situ atio n.) and
e x p lain, in tr o d uce, m e n tio n, p oin t o u t,
She t o ld this joke (t o m e), or She t o ld me this
pro ve, re p ort , sa y, su g g est
joke.
with for. Compare:
He fix ed th e tap (for m e), ( but not He fixed me th e ta p.) and
Also: co ll e c t , m e n d, re p air
I b oo ke d a room (f or her), or I b oo ke d her a room.

58
E x e rcises
C o m p le t e each se n t e nce w it h a suit a b le f orm o f a verb fro m t h e box and insert t o or f o r in an
a p pro pria t e place. W rit e t o / f o r if ei t h er can be used. Q Q Q

ch o ose o ffer p ass pay p ost read sa v e se ll take t e ach

•for
1 Elias hasn't got any m o ney so I'll have to th e b ill / .h i m .
2 Kasp ar hates going sho pping. I have to his cloth es him.
3 You're stayin g with D im itra at the weekend, are n't yo u? Can you this present her?
4 I ca n't reach the salt. Could yo u it me, please?
5 W hen Mr Durand bought th e house, w e all th e carp ets him as w ell.
6 He's got a very rewarding jo b. H e sp orts disable d children.
7 I haven’t got my glasses. Can you these instructio ns me, please?
8 Jane the le tter me on her w ay to w ork because I had flu and co uld n't go out.
9 I my old bike him, but he said he wante d so m ethin g more mo dern.
10 I'll be in late tonig ht. Can yo u so m e dinner me, please?

If n ecessary, co rrect t h ese se n t e nces. If t he se n t e n ce is alrea d y correct, w ri t e / . C S 0 0

1 He kin dly collecte d me so m e library books.
2 He a d mitte d his error for his colleagues.
3 I have to prepare a report for the meeting.
4 Can I ask a favo ur to yo u?
5 A sp ecial ticke t allo ws e ntry for people to all th e m useums in the city.
6 I'd like to intro duce yo u to my sister.

C o m p le t e t h ese t e x ts w it h o b jects ch ose n fro m t he box. Giv e all p ossible w ord ord ers and add
p re p ositio ns w here n ecessa ry. Q Q )

t h e p ro b le m / o ur t e a c h e r her p h o t o g ra p h / m e t h e g l a ss / h i m
a n o t h e r h a lf an h o ur / us his sist e r / m e t h re e b e d tim e st o ries / him
emattr/ hirrv his bro k en ca r / hi m the m oney / m e
a drin k / Ben a p a p er a er o p la n e / him
a fortune / you

1 aSam uel phoned. He w a n ts to co m e and stay with us at th e beginning of Septem ber.

:
b : But th at's when my parents w ill be w ith us. I'll have to send

Him a n ema i l / a n e mai l to him to explain t h e problem bo hi m .

2 W hen he described I didn't think I knew her, but when he showed
........................................................................................................................... I realised th at I had seen her at w ork.
3 Th e clock on th e w a ll was wrong. W hen we pointed out
she allowe d .................................................................................................................to finish the exam.
4 My thre e-year-old nephew, Luis, alw ays keeps me busy when I babysit. Last night I first had to
m a k e .....................................................................................................................................................................,t h e n I had to
m e n d ........................................................................................................................................................... and after th a t he
insiste d th a t I read ........................................................................... ..................................................
5 a : Your new m otorbike m ust have c o s t ...........................................................................................................................
b : W ell, actu ally, my parents l e n t ......................................................................................................................................
6 I p o ure d ....................................... ...................................................................................................................................................
and gave .......................................................................................................................................................................................
Unit
30 Verb + -ing forms and infinitives 1
Som e verbs can be follow e d eith er by an o b je ct + -ing or a p ossessiv e +
-ing with a sim ilar m eaning, although th e p ossessiv e + -ing form is usually
considered to be rath er form al:
Q I resented To m winnin g th e prize.
Also: d e t est, (dis)a p pro ve of, (dis)like,
( more form a lly I resented To m's winnin g th e prize.)
ha t e, lo ve, o b ject t o (= ‘(dis)liking'
C Mia recalled him buying th e book.
verbs); f org e t, ima gine, re m e m b er,
( more form a lly Mia recalle d his buying the book.)
t hin k o f (= 'thinking' verbs)

N ote t h a t w e only use a possessive form (Tom's, his) here to talk about a person or group of people:
I re m em b er t h e h o rse winnin g th e race, ( but n o t ... th e horse's winnin g ...)

Som e verbs can be fo llow e d by t o + -ing where t o is a pre position:

Q She co n f esse d t o ste aling th e money.
Also: a d a p t, a d just, a d m it , lo o k
You d o n't o b je c t t o working late tonig ht, do yo u?
f o r w ar d , o w n up, reso r t

N ote t h a t th ese verbs can also be follow e d by t o + n ou n p hrase:

O She c o n f esse d t o the crim e. Q You d o n't o b je ct t o the work, do yo u?

O th er verbs can be followe d by different pre positions + -ing. For exam ple:
by + -ing (begin, close, end, finish (off / up), open, st a r t (off / out))
G Can you b egin by cleaning th e flo ors, and then do th e win d o ws?
i-T on + -ing or on + o bject + -ing (co nce ntrat e, count, depend, f ocus, insist, rely)
G Clare insist e d on (Jack ) wearing a suit to th e party.
o f + -ing or of + o bject + -ing (approve, hear, know, speak, t alk, t ell)
H ave yo u ever he ard o f ( anyone ) getting arreste d for gossiping before?
G o bject + fro m + -ing (deter, discourage, keep, prevent, prohibit, stop)
O The noise from n ext d oor pre ve n t e d m e fr o m sleeping.

Som e verbs (f eel, hear, n o tice, o bserv e, o v er h ea r, see, w a t c h ) can be followe d by an o bject and
then eith er by an -ing form or b are in finitive, but th e meanings m ay be slig htly different. Co m pare:
I sa w them playing fo otb all from my win d ow, (-ing in dicates an actio n in progress) and
I sa w him smash th e b ottle, (bare in f initive in dicates a co m plete d actio n)
I was able to w a t c h them building th e new car park fro m my o ffice win d ow, (-ing suggests

o
th a t I w atch e d, but not fro m start to finish) and
I w a t c h e d him clim b through th e win d ow, and then I calle d the police, (bare in f initiv e
suggests I watch e d th e w h ole actio n from start to finish)

A fter th e verbs d are and help w e can use eith er a b are in fin itiv e or t o -in fin it iv e:
O I was angry w ith him, but I did n't d are ( to ) sa y anythin g.
W e hope th e Tw itter cam paign w ill help ( to ) raise awareness of th e problem.
W hen d are has an o bject, w e can o nly use a t o -in fin it iv e. Co m pare:
Q I d are d him to cross the river, ( not I dared him cross ...) a nd
G I help e d them ( to ) p ack.
A fter have, le t and m a k e we can use an o b je ct + b are in fin itiv e but not t o -in fin it iv e:
His exam results might m a k e him work harder, ( not ... mig ht make him to work ...)
G I had Irena clean up her bedroom before I l e t her go out to play.

60
E x e rcises
If p o ssi b l e , r e w r i t e t h e s e s e n t e n c e s u si n g t h e p o ss e ssi v e f o r m o f t h e o b j e c t . If n o t , w r i t e X. O
1 Ireally hate yo u having to be a w ay from hom e so much.
I h& te yo ur havin g to be awfluj -from Home so m u c h .....
2 W e d on't approve of the d evelo per locatin g the factory so close to houses.
3 I have alw ays detested th e dog ju m pin g up at me when I visit th e m.
4 N o one heard th e man sh o utin g for help.
5 It is d ifficult to imagine him acce ptin g the decision with o u t any o bjection.
6 N o one in th e crowd that day w ill forget Ashe fighting so hard to win th e m atch.
7 I re m em b er the m arguing a great deal when th ey were children.
8 The police investigated him stealin g cars from the city centre.

j R e w r i t e t h e i t a lic is e d p a r t o f e a c h s e n t e n c e so t h a t i t h a s a si m i l a r m e a n i n g . U se o n e o f t h e
v e r b s f r o m t h e b o x a n d a n -in g f o r m . C C T I

adapt a p pr o ve d isco u ra g e end own up rely

1 In a survey, 65% of d entists sa id that they had made mistakes in treating patients.
owned, wp to m akin g...
2 I d on't think children should wear je w e llery in sch o ol.................................................
3 I would like to finish with a sum m ary o f th e main points of m y t a lk...........................................
4 My parents sa id they thought I shouldn't go to university.................. ..................................
5 You ca n’t trust S ophie to turn up on tim e. ................................
6 I grew up in th e co untrysid e, and I found it difficult to g e t used to life in a big city.

fla n U n d e r li n e t h e m o s t li k e l y v e r b f o r m . C o n si d e r w h y it is t h e m o s t li k e l y . O
1 I heard th e tyre burst / bursting and then the lorry skidded across th e road.
2 Carl noticed so m eone w atch / w atching him from an upstairs wind ow.
3 She felt the wasp sting / stinging her just before she brushed it o ff her arm.
4 W ith a good telesco p e you can see th e eagles f e e d / fe edin g th eir chicks in the nest.

M a t c h t h e s e n t e n c e b e g i n n i n g s a n d e n d i n g s, a d d i n g a n a p p r o p r i a t e o b j e c t w h e r e n e c e ss a r y
an d w rit e (to) w h e r e t h is m i g h t b e i n c l u d e d .

1 W hen Lana th o u g ht of going on th e roller-co aster it made ... a prevent hay fever.
2 Th e new co urse is intende d to help ... b f e el quite HI.
3 Scie ntists hope th e new drug w ill help ... c co ntrol the speed of th e fan.
4 W e didn't agree with the d ecision, but w e did n't dare ... d w ait outside my office.
5 W hen Ethan arrives, have ... e understand mo dern art.
6 The dial on th e left lets ... f pro test against it.
1+ b When...LcLn.ci th o u g ht o f goirig on t h e rpLL^. — ...bt...rnctdLe;. .

-» A d d itio n a l exe rcise 7 (page 244)

Unit
3 1 4 Verb + -ing forms and infinitives 2
A fter so m e verbs w e need to include an o bject before a t o -in fin it iv e
in active sentences:
The police w ar n e d everyone t o st a y inside
A lso : a d v ise, a ll o w , b elie ve, ca use,
w ith th eir win d o ws closed, ( not The police
co m m a n d, e n a b le, e nco ura g e, e n t it le ,
warne d to stay ...)
f o rce, in vit e, order, p ersu a d e, re m in d,
sh o w , t e a ch , t e ll

A fter o th er verbs, however, we ca n't include an o bject before a t o -in fin it iv e:

W e've d ecid e d t o le a v e early.
A lso: a gree, co nse n t, f ail, h o p e,
( not W e've decided us to leave early.)
m an a g e, o f f er, p re t e n d, re f use, st a r t ,
t h r e a t e n ,v o l u n t e e r

A fter so m e verbs w e have to put a pre positio n, usually f or, im m e d iately after th e verb before an
o b je ct + t o -in f in it iv e (see also U nit 29):
Th ey arra nged f o r R ania to sta y in London. A lso: a d v er tise, ca m p aig n, long, plan,
( n o t Th ey arranged Rania to stay ...) w a i t (A fter a p p ly and ca m p aig n, the
Th ey a pplied f o r the court appeara nce to be t o -in f in it iv e is usually passive.)
postponed.
O th er verbs can be follow e d by different pre positions + o b je ct + t o -in fin it iv e. For exam ple:
a t + o bject + t o-in finitive (go on [= to criticise continually], keep on [= to talk about something many
tim es], scream, sh out, yell)
I shou ted a t the man to open th e door,
on + o bject + t o-infinitive (call [= to officially ask someone to do something], count, depend, prevail,
rely)
W e're depending on yo u to fin d a solution soon,
t o + o bject + t o-in finitive (appeal, gesture, m otion, signal)
He closed th e door and sign a lled t o the p ilo t to take off.

A num b er of oth er t o -in f in it iv e and -ing forms can also fo llo w verbs -
tY verb + negative t o-infinitive and negative -ing forms
W e d ecid e d n o t t o go to Paris after all. ( compare The people di d n't d ecid e t o go to war, it
was th eir p olitical lead ers.)
Som e of my friends ha v e co nsid e re d n o t goin g t o colle ge because of th e cost, ( com pare I
h a v e n 't co nsid e re d g oin g to colle ge - I d on’t w a n t to go on stu dyin g after scho ol.)
verb + t o have + p ast participle
The accid ent se e m s t o ha v e ha p p e n e d at around 1 pm yesterd ay.
Sim m o ns is alle g e d t o hav e assa u l t e d a police officer.
This form is often used to give an opinion (after verbs like se e m and a p p e ar) about a past event, or
to report w h a t is or was said (after passive verbs like is / w as alle g e d, b eliev e d, said, t h o u g h t) about
' ’t ' A V - past events.
sy.v

IIIIIIm verb + having + p ast p articiple

The verb + -ing and verb + havin g + p ast p ar ticip le forms have a sim ilar m eaning with th ese verbs:
I now re g re t b uyin g the car. and I now r e g re t havin g b o u g h t the car.
This form is m ost ofte n used with a d m it, d e ny, f or g e t, recall, re g re t and re m e m b er.

62
E x e rcises
C o m p le t e each se n t e n ce w it h on e o f t he verbs in brack e ts.
1 a My m o ther me to thro w a w ay m y old toys, ( thre a tened / told )
b My m o ther to thro w a w ay my old toys.
2 a Th ey to visit Riko in hospital. ( a llow ed / offered )
b T h e y ...............................us to visit Riko in hospital.
3 a I to carry the heavy boxes up the stairs. ( m anaged / persu aded )
b I H am za to carry the heavy boxes up th e stairs.
4 a She Lars to help in th e garden, ( agreed / encouraged )
b She to help in th e garden.
5 a I her to tid y up the house, ( pretended / reminded )
b I .......................... to tid y up th e house.
6 a Jo nas to stu dy eco no mics at university. ( advised / hoped )
b Jonas me to stu dy eco no mics at university.

g g } W rit e o n e w ord t h a t is missin g fro m each line in t h ese t e x ts. Put a / w h e r e t he w ord
sh o ul d be.

a
1 W hen 1advertise d a w e bsite designer for th e business, Greta got •for
2 th e jo b. But I've now learnt t h at you ca n't rely Greta to do anythin g.
3 1waite d ages her to co m e up with so m e initial ideas for th e site, and
4 th en 1 had to keep on her to do any m ore work on it. Finally, she said
she co uld n't do it after all.

b
1 M anagers of th e N atio nal Ele ctricity Co m pany have appealed workers
2 to end th eir strike, and have calle d th e g overn m ent to intervene in the
3 dispute. The Energy M inister said th a t he has arranged em ployers and
4 e m ployees to m eet n ext week, and he prevailed strikers to return to
w ork in the m eantim e.

u n C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces w it h t h e ver bs in brack e ts using o n e o f t he p a t t erns in sectio n C

o p p osit e. Giv e a l t er n a ti v es w h ere p ossible.
1 I ............................................................................... anyone M arta's new ad dress, ( a g r e e - n o t tell )
2 The prisoners ...................................................................................................................................................... through a
broken win d o w last night, ( th in k - esc a p e )
3 I ............................................................................................................ him at th e co nference, ( not reca ll - see )
4 H e ........................................................................................................ any stole n pro perty, (deny - receive )
5 H e ............................................................................... as th e person
who donate d th e m oney, ( a sk - n o t n a m e )
6 S h e ...........................................................................................................
all th e w ay back hom e, ( not fe e l lik e - w a lk )
7 I am sure m y purse was on th e ta ble a few minutes ago,
but now it
(seem - disappear)
8 The E tru sc a n s..................................................................................................
in Italy in th e 8th or 9th ce n tury BC. ( b e lie ve - a rriv e )

A d d itio n a l exe rcise 7 (page 244) 63

Unit
32 Reporting people's words and thoughts
Q u o t i n g a n d r e p o r t i n g in o u r o w n w o r d s

W hen we rep ort w h a t people think or w h a t th ey have said, we often give th e inform atio n using our
own words. W e do this with sente nces th a t have a reporting cla use and a reported cla use (see also
U nits 3 3 - 3 9):

reporting clause reported clause

She explained (th a t) she co uld n't take th e jo b until January,

He didn't t e ll me where to put the boxes.

If th e exact words are im p orta nt, w e might rep ort the actual words so m eone said. In writin g this is
done in a quot a tion :
G ‘I suppose yo u've heard th e latest news,' she said to me.
O ‘ O f co urse,' C arter replied, ‘y o u'll have to pay him to do the jo b.'
The reporting cla use can co m e before, w ithin, or at th e end of the quotatio n.

In the English used in stories and novels, the reporting verb (e.g. ask, co n tin u e) is often placed before
the subject when the reporting clause co m es after th e quotation exce pt when th e subject is a pronoun:
O ‘W hen w ill yo u be back?' asked Jim in. ( or ... Jimin aske d.)
‘And after th at I moved to Italy,’ she co ntinued, ( n o t ... co ntinue d she.)

N e g a t i v e s in r e p o r t i n g

To report w h a t so m eb o dy di d n't say or think, we make th e rep orting verb negative:

C He did n't t e ll m e how he would get to London.
If w e w a n t to rep ort a ne gative sentence, then we usually report this in th e reported cla use:
Q ‘You're right, it isn't a good idea.' —> He a gree d th a t it w asn 't a good idea,
although it m ay be reported in th e reporting cla use, depending on meaning:
‘I disagree. It's not a good idea at all.' —> He did n't a gree th a t it was a good idea.
H owever, with so m e verbs, to report a negative se ntence we usually make th e verb in th e reporting
clause negative:
‘I exp ect he w o n't co m e.’/ ‘I d on't exp ect he w ill co m e.' —> She did n't e x p ect him to co m e.

Also: b eliev e, f e el, in t e n d, plan, pro p ose, su p p ose, t hin k, w a n t

Re p o rtin g q u estio ns
To report a w h - q u est io n w e use a reporting cla use and a clause with a w h - w o r d:
She asked me w h a t the problem w as. I asked him w h e re to go next.

W hen w e report a y es / no q u est io n we use a reporting cla use follow e d by a clause beginning with
eith er if or w h e t h e r (but note th a t w e ca n't use if + t o -in fin it iv e; see U nit 34):
Q Liz wante d to know if / w h e t h e r we had any photos of our holiday.
The usual word order in a w h-, if-, or w h e t h e r-cla use is th e one we would use in a state m e n t:
‘ H ave yo u seen Paul re c e n tly?' —» She wante d to know if I had seen Paul recently.
H owever, if th e original qu estion begins w h a t, w hich , or w h o follow e d by be + co m p le m e n t, w e can
put the co m ple m ent before or after be in th e report:
O ‘W h o w as the win n er?' —» I asked who the winner was. ( or ... wh o was the winner .)

N ote t h a t w e d on’t use a form of do in the w h -, if-, or w h e t h e r-cla use:

She asked me where I found it. ( n o t ... where did I find it. / ... where I did find it.)
H owever, if we are reporting a neg ative qu estion, we can use a ne gative form of do:
He asked (m e) w hy I di d n't w a n t anythin g to eat.
 E x e rcises
Rep ort w h a t w as said, q u otin g t h e sp ea k er's e x act w ords using o ne o f t h e re p ortin g verbs fro m
t h e box. Put t h e re p ortin g cla use a f t er t h e q u o t a tio n and give a l t e rn a ti v e w ord ord ers w here
p ossible.
b o ast ch o rus co m m an d co n f ess e x plain gru m ble su g g est w o n d er

1 Co m e in out of th e rain now. ( her mother)

'Come m o u t o f t h e rahy n o w ,’..comm(xy\ <ied h e r mother / Her mother co m m an d e d..
2 W hy d on't we sto p for a coffe e? (she )
3 All right, Ge orgia, it was me. (he)
4 My novel is m ore excitin g than a Dan Brown thriller, (she )
5 I alw ays carry tw o um brellas with me because I'm alw ays losing th e m . (Lena )
6 O h, no, it's raining again. ( M a tt )
7 Good m orning, Miss N ovak, ( th ech ildre n )
8 Have I done th e right thin g? (I)

^ 2 2 1 C o m p le t e each se n t e n ce using a pair o f ver bs fro m t h e box. Make on e of t h e verbs n eg ative. ( 0

an n o u nce-g o ex p ect-b e f e e l-c o u ld 4 n t e n d—f w r t
i n s is t - b e p r o m ise - w o u l d t h in k -w o u ld t h r e a t e n - re p ay

1 ‘I didn't mean to upset Astrid .’ —> He dxA W t Intend., to h u rt her feelings.

2 ‘I w o n't give yo u th e m o ney back if yo u keep on at me.' —» He ....................... the
m o ney if she kept on at him.
3 ‘I can't ask my parents to help me again.' —> He th at he ask his
parents to help him again.
4 ‘I w asn't anywhere near th e scho ol at the tim e of the break-in.' —> He th at he
anywhere near the scho ol at th e tim e of th e break-in.
5 ‘I'm not going back to colle g e.' —> She th at she back to college.
6 ‘I w as surprised th a t Mum was angry.' —> He his m o ther angry.
7 ‘Adam w o n't mind waitin g.' —> She Adam .............. mind waitin g.
8 ‘I w o n't be late again.' —> She th a t she be late again.

C T I C o m p le t e t h e e m ail by re p orting t h ese q u estio ns using a w h -, if- or w h e t h e r -c la u se . 0

2 ‘W h a t are yo ur long-term care er plans?'

3 ‘ H ow m any languages do yo u sp eak?'
4 ‘W h ere did you learn Chin ese?'
5 ‘Can you use a spreadshe et?'
6 ‘ H ave you organised internatio nal co nferences b efore?'
7 ‘W ould you be willin g to live overseas for perio ds of tim e?'
8 ‘W hen can you start w ork?'

----- -----------------I--,--.-,,-.- - ----------------- ... - . - -■ ' ■ o :

CD
.........

Hi Karim,
Th e interview went well, although it was long and th ey aske d lots of questions. First, th ey wondered
(1) how I d h eard, ab o ut t h e jo b , and then th ey asked me (2) .
Th ey were very interested in the travelling I'd done. Th ey aske d me (3) .......................................................... ,
and th ey wondered (4) Th ere were questions about my previous
exp erience. Th ey wanted to know (5) , and th ey asked me
( 6 ) ........................................................................ .. At the end they aske d ( 7 ) .............................................................................
.............................................................. When I said 'Yes', th ey asked me (8) ......................................................................... !
I'll phone later and tell you more about it.
Emily
'' 'mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm
Unit
33 Reporting statements: t h a t -cla uses
W hen we report state m e n ts, w e often use a t h a t -cl a use in th e reported
cla use (see Unit 32):
He sai d (t ha t) he was enjoyin g his work.
O The m em b ers of th e Security Co uncil w ar n e d t h a t furth er actio n m ay be taken.
A fter th e more co m m on reporting verbs such as a gree, m e n ti o n, n o tice, pro m ise, sa y, and t hin k, we
often leave out t h a t, p articularly in inform al speech. H owever, it is not usually left o ut -
after less common reporting verbs such as co m plain, confide, deny, grum ble, sp ecula t e, w arn (and
after the common reporting verbs answer, argue, and reply)
in formal writing
if the t h a t -cla use doesn't immediately follow the verb:
She a gree d with her p arents a nd brothers t h a t it would be safer to buy a car than a m otorbike.
( ra therth a n ... and bro thers it w o uld be s a f e r...)

Som e reporting verbs which are fo llow e d by a t h a t -cl a use have an altern ative with an o b je ct +
t o -in f in it iv e (o ften t o be), although th e altern atives are often rath er form al. Co m pare:
I f e l t t h a t t h e r esu l ts were satisfactory, a nd , , , , ...
. - . , A . . , Also: ack n o w le d g e, assu m e, b elie ve,
I f e l t t h e r esu l ts t o be satisfactory. ,
co nsi d e r, d eclare, e x p ect, fin d, presu m e,
re p ort, t hi n k , u n d e rst a n d

If we use a t h a t -cl a use after an active form of so me verbs, w e m ust include an o bject b etween the
verb and th e t h a t -cl a use . This o bject can't be a pre p ositio nal o bject (see D b elow):
I n o t ifie d t h e b an k t h a t I had changed my ad dress, ( but not I notified th a t I ... / I notified to
th e bank th a t I ...)

A lso: assu r e, co n vince , in f o r m , p ersu a d e, re assu re, re m in d, t e ll

H owever, after so m e oth er verbs an o bject before a t h a t -cl a use is not alw ays necessary:
O Th ey p ro m ise d (m e) t h a t th ey would co m e to the party.

Also: a d v ise, sh o w , t e a ch , w arn

A fter so m e verbs w e can use a t h a t -cl a use with or w ith o u t a personal o bject before th e t h a t -cla use .
H owever, if w e do include an o bject, w e put a preposition before it.
After some verbs we use to:
Also: a n n o u nce, co m p lain, co n f ess,
She a d m it t e d (t o me) t h a t she was serio usly ill.
e x plain, in d ica t e, m e n tio n, pro p ose,
I p oin t e d o u t (to t h e driv er) th a t he had parked
reco m m e n d , re p ort, sa y, su g g est
across the entrance.
After some verbs we use wit h:
W e a gree d (w it h Ella) t h a t th e inform atio n should go no furth er.

A lso: arg u e, ch eck, disa gree, jo k e

iV After the verbs ask, de mand and require we use of:

Q The club asks (of its m e m b ers) t h a t th ey pay th eir fe es by 31st Dece mber.
The co m pany d e m a n ds (of its st a f f) t h a t th ey should be at w ork by 8:3 0.
This p attern is usually used in form al co ntexts. Less form ally we can use a t o -in f in it iv e cla use after
ask and re q uire (e.g. The club asks its m em b ers to pay th eir fees by 31st D ece m b er). H owever, we
can't use a t o -in f in it iv e cl a use after d e m a n d ( not The co m pany d em ands its sta ff to ...).

.i

66
 E x e rcises
U n d erlin e t he co rrect verb. If both are p ossible, u n d erlin e t he m b o th. Q
1 The d octors advised / persu aded th at I should rest for thre e m o nths.
2 The police a ssure d / prom ised resid ents th at everything possible w as being done to catch the
thieves.
3 A spokesperson for th e co m pany rem inded / warned th a t there m ay be d elays on th e railw ays this
su m m er due to m ajor engineering work.
4 W e should inform / teach children th a t diet is of vital im p ortance to health.
5 Russian scie ntists have shown / have convinced th at honey can prevent the growth of bacteria.
6 The co m pany has re assured / has a dvised custo m ers th a t cars ordered before 1st A ugust would be
delivered by the end of the m o nth.
7 Katarina told / prom ised th at she would be hom e before midnight.

If p ossible, re w rit e t h ese se n t e n ces in a m ore f o r m al w a y w it h a t o -in f in i t iv e cl a use . If not,

w ri t e X . Q
1 Two days after th e launch H ouston reported th a t th e sa tellite w as missing.
Two cUxjS cufter the. Uiunch Houston re p orte d t h e sa i & U it e to be m issin g .
2 The em ployees argued th a t th e reduction in wages was unlawful.
3 The jud g e th o u g ht t h a t his explanatio n was unconvincing.
4 I exp ected th at her plans would fail.
5 She stressed th a t her stories were aim ed prim arily at children.
6 Lucas acknowled ged th at his chances of winnin g th e race were slim.
7 W e found th at th e rugby sup p orters w ere very w ell behaved.
8 The president's sp okesman co m m ente d th at the election result w as a vict ory for d em ocracy.

C o m p le t e each se n t e nce w it h an a p p ro pria t e f or m of a verb fro m t h e box + t o , w i t h , or of.

M ore t han o n e verb m ay be p ossible, b ut use each verb a t le ast o nce,

a n n o u nce co m p lain disa gree jo k e m e n tio n re q uire

1 M artina th e shop assistant th at the lapto p she'd bought there w as faulty.

2 She her neighb ours th a t th eir dog w as keeping her awake at night.
3 He his friends th at he'd won the lo ttery and was going to Barbados.
4 The m inister shocked jo urnalists th a t she was to resign im m e dia tely.
5 The colle ge .................................. its stu d ents th a t th ey atten d all classes.
6 I Mr Jaco bs th a t th e stu d ents were lazy. I thou ght th ey were very e nthusiastic.
7 I forg ot to Chris th a t I'd be home late.

Su g g est co rrect io ns t o t he it alicise d w or ds in t his n e ws art icle. Q Q Q Q

PIK T O C U T W O R K F O R C E
.............................................................................................................
««»»“ «»*««« .
PIK, the toy manufacturer, (1) has warned they are to make over 100 employees redundant over the next
month. Managing Director Beth Edwards yesterday (2) explained employees that a national fall in demand
for traditional toys is to blame. She (3) confessed her audience that management had been surprised by
the downturn, but she (4) denied management had been incompetent. When asked whether staff would
receive redundancy pay, Ms Edwards (5) replied an announcement would be made within a few days, but
(6) reassured that they would receive financial compensation. She (7) went on to complain government
help for small businesses was insufficient and (8) dem anded ministers that they provide more support.
She (9) asked staff that they continue to work as normal until details of the redundancies were given. She
(10) reassured that the company would not close completely.

A d d itio n a l exe rcise 8 (page 245)

Unit
34 Verb + w h-cla use
Som e verbs can be fo llow e d by a clause beginning w ith a w h - w o r d (h o w, w h a t, w he n, w h ere, w hich ,
w h o, or w h y):
Th a t might e x p lain why he's unhappy.
A lso : arra n g e, c a lc u la t e , ch eck, ch o ose,
I co uld n’t d eci d e which train to catch.
d e b a t e, d e t e r m in e, disco ver, discuss,
Let's co nsid e r how we can solve th e pro blem.
est a b lish , find o u t, f org e t, g u ess,
Many o f th ese verbs can also be followe d by -
i m agin e, k n o w, le arn, n o tice, plan,
"fr a t h a t-cla use (see Unit 33):
rea lise, re m e m b er, sa y, see, t a l k a b o u t,
I d ecid e d th at I ought to leave.
t h in k (a b ou t), u n d e rst a n d , w o n d e r
a w h-cla use (except ‘w hy’) + t o-infinitive:
O Did yo u find o u t where to go?
N ote th a t if we add a su bject in th e w h -cla use we d o n’t use a t o -in fin it iv e
I ca n't imagine w h a t he likes about jazz.

Som e verbs m ust have an o bject before th e w h -cla use:

O She rem inded m e what (I had) to do.
Also: a d vise, in f or m , inst r u ct, t e a ch , w arn
I to ld Linda h o w to get to m y house.
The verbs ask and sh o w often have an o bject before a w h -cla use , but not alw ays:
C I asked (him) how I could get to th e statio n, and he told me.
These verbs can also be followe d by o b je ct + w h - w o r d + t o -in fin it iv e:
She t a u g h t m e how to p la y chess.
C I sh o w e d h e r where to p u t her co at.

W e can often use t h e w a y instead of h o w referring to eith er th e route or th e means:

C o back t h e w a y (th at / by w hich) yo u cam e, { or inform a lly G o back h o w you ca m e.)
Have you noticed t h e w a y (th at / in which) he spins the ball? (or ... noticed h o w he spins ...?)

N ote th a t w e d on't use ‘the w ay how', (e.g. not Go back th e w a y how yo u ca m e.)

W hether
W e can use w h e t h e r as the w h - w o r d in a w h -cla use when w e w a n t to sh o w possible ch oices.
W h e t h e r has a sim ilar m eaning to ‘if’ (see U nit 86):
He co uld n't re m em b er w h e t h e r / if he had turne d th e co m p uter off.

So me verbs can be follow e d by w h e t h e r + t o -in f in it iv e to talk about th e ch oice b etween tw o or more

p ossibilities. N ote th at 'if' is never used before a t o -in fin it iv e:
You have 14 days to d eci d e w h e t h e r t o k eep it or not. ( n o t ... to decide if to keep it or not.)

A lso: ch o ose, co nsi d e r, d e b a t e, d e t er m in e, d iscuss, k n o w (in questions and ne gatives),

t hin k a b o u t, w o n d e r (= ‘talkin g' or ‘thinking about choices' verbs)

Som e oth er ‘talkin g ’ and ‘thinkin g about ch oices’ verbs are not used with w h e t h e r + t o -in fin it iv e,
including ask , co n clu d e, e x p lain, i m a gin e, re alise , sp ec u la t e, t hin k.

N ote th e difference b etween th ese se ntences. The first has a w h -cl a use with w h e t h e r and the second
has a t h a t -cl a use (see U nit 33):
Q I didn't kn ow w h e t h e r th e shop was shut. (= if th e shop was shut or not)
I did n't kn ow t h a t th e shop was shut, (sug gests th a t th e shop was shut)

In rath er form al c o ntexts, p articularly in writin g, we can use as t o with a meaning sim ilar to ‘a b o ut’ or
‘concerning' before a w h -cla use . This is m ost co m m on before w h e t h e r:
O pinion was divided as t o w h e t h e r th e findings fro m th e stu dy were re presentative of the
p o pulation as a wh ole, { or less form a lly ... divided w h e t h e r...)
E x e rcises
M a tch se n t e nce b eginnings 1-10 t o en din gs a -j and ch o ose an a p pro pria t e w h - w o r d t o
co n n ect t he m . If n ecessa ry, add an a p pro pria t e o bject.
1 Before the m eetin g finished th ey arranged ... a .. to fit the parts back tog ether.
2 He to ok m y hands and sh owed ... b .. she w e nt after that.
3 I explained carefully so th a t the stu d ents c .. to put th eir coats.
understoo d ... d - .. to m e et next.
4 Anna was new in th e office and I had to keep e .. H elen w asn't with him.
reminding ... f .. m any sw e ets were in th e jar.
5 I saw Sarah leave th e building, but I didn't notice ... g .. th ey had to do in th e test.
6 W hen I saw Hugo alone at the party I wond ered ... h .. the path was dangerous.
7 As we walked over the hills the guide warned ... i .. everyone was.
8 A fter I'd dism antle d the m o tor I co uld n't re m e m b e r... j .. to hold the g olf club pro perly.
9 To win a prize yo u had to guess ...
10 As th e guests cam e in Diego told ...
1+d Before the nneetmg fin ish ed they arranged when / where to meet next.

U n d erlin e t he co rrect or m ore a p p ro pria t e verb.

1 She was thinking / debating w h e th er to invite Jere m y over for dinner.
2 The co uncil is m eeting this m orning to discuss / ask w h e th er to increase local taxes.
3 A p p arently Louis and Eva are considering / specula ting w h e th er to e migrate to A ustralia.
4 I have to im agine / choose w h e th er to get a jo b or ap ply to go to colle ge.
5 Scie ntists w ill have to decide / conclude soon w h e th er to start testin g the new drugs on people.

Z ak M iles has w ri t t e n a book a b o u t m o u n t ain cli m bin g in t he A n d es. C o rrect an y m ist a k es in

t h ese e x tracts.

me
T he v illagers w arn ed w h a t th e conditions w ere like a t h ig h e r altitu d e s, an d
advised to ta k e enough food for a week. T h ere w as som e discussion th ro u g h th e day
as w h e th e r th e snow would arriv e before my d escen t from th e m o u n tain , b u t I n ever
im agined how h a rd th e conditions would be. In th e m orning th ey show ed m e th e way
how to get to th e tra c k up th e m o u n tain .

W hen th e snow s ta rte d falling it w as very light, an d I couldn’t decide if to c a rry on

or go back down. Soon, how ever, I couldn’t see w here to go.

I w ondered if to re tra c e m y step s an d try to find th e tra c k again, b u t by th e tim e

I decided w h e th e r I should go back, th e tra c k h a d disap p eared .

As th e snow got h ea v ie r I b egan to re alise w h e th e r my life w as in danger. F o rtu n ately ,

m y y ea rs in th e A ndes h a d ta u g h t w h a t to do in ex trem e conditions. I knew th a t
th e re w as a sh e p h e rd ’s h u t som ew here on th is side of th e m o u n tain t h a t I could
s h e lte r in, b u t I d id n ’t know t h a t it w as n earb y or m iles aw ay.

69
Unit
35 Tense choice in reporting
V e r b t e n s e in t h e r e p o r t e d c l a u s e J2SSEEB B B SE®
W hen th e situatio n described in th e reported clause (see U nit 32) is in th e p ast when w e are reporting
it, we use a past tense (p ast sim ple, past co ntinuous, etc.):
C ‘I d on't w a n t anythin g to eat.' —» Yusuf said th a t he did n't w a n t anythin g to eat.
G ‘I'm leaving!' —» Lam ar a n n o u nce d th a t she w as leavin g.

W hen the situatio n described in th e reported clause w as a lre ady in the past wh en it w as spoken about
originally, w e often use th e past p erfect to report it:
O ‘W e have found th e missing girl.' —» Police said th a t t h ey had f o u n d th e missing girl.

H owever, if it is clear th a t one event to o k place before anoth er, then it m ay not be necessary to
indicate this by using th e past p erfect and we use th e past sim ple instead:
‘I've se nt o ut th e invitatio ns. I did it w e ll before th e wed ding.' —•>She r e assu re d me t h a t she
se n t out the invitatio ns w e ll before the wed ding. (o r ... ha d s e n t ...)

W hen th e situatio n described in th e reported clause is a perm a nent / habitu al situ ation, or still exists or
is relevant at the tim e w e are rep orting it, then we use a present tense (or present perfect) if w e also
use a present tense for th e verb in th e reporting clause:
G Dr W eir t h i n ks th at he sp e n ds ab out five m inutes on a typ ical a p p oin tm ent w ith a p atient.
US scie ntists clai m th a t th ey have d e ve lo p e d a new vaccin e against m alaria.
N ote t h a t th e present p erfect focuses atte ntio n on th e result of the actio n, not th e actio n itself.

H owever, when we use a past te nse in th e reporting clause w e can use eith er a present or past tense
(or present p erfect or past perfect) in th e reported clause:
She arg u e d th a t Carl is / w as th e best person for th e jo b.
O Th ey n o t e d th a t the rate of inflatio n h as / ha d sl o w e d down.
Choosing a present tense (or present p erfect) in th e reported clause em p hasises th a t th e situatio n
being reported still exists or is still relevant when we report it.

If we are not sure th a t w h a t we are reporting is n ecessarily true, or a situatio n m ay not still exist now,
we prefer a p ast rath er than a present tense. Co m pare:
O Yase min told me th at she has tw o houses. (= mig ht suggest th at this is true) and
O Yase min told me th a t she had tw o houses. (= mig ht suggest eith er th a t this is perhaps not
true, or th a t she once had tw o houses but d o esn't have tw o houses now)

V e r b t e n s e in t h e re p o r t i n g c l a u s e

To report so m ethin g said or thoug ht in th e past, th e verb in th e reporting clause is often in a p ast
tense:
O Just before her we d ding, she re v e ale d th a t she had been marrie d before.
W hen we rep ort current news, opinions, etc. we can use a present tense for th e verb in th e reporting
clause. In so m e cases, eith er a present or past tense is possible, although w e prefer a present tense to
em p hasise th a t w h a t w as said is true or still relevant when we report it:
O She sa ys th a t sh e’ll have t o close th e shop unless business im proves, ( or ... said ...)
We often prefer a present rath er than a past tense -
to report information that we have been told or heard, but don't know whether it is true:
I h e ar y o u ’re unhap py w ith y o ur jo b.
to report what is said by some authority:
O The law sa ys th a t no one under th e age of 16 can buy a lo ttery ticke t.
r to report what many people say:
O Every te ach er I’ve spoken to t e l ls me th a t stan dards of sp ellin g are in d ecline.
E x e rcises
« i > Re p ort t h ese se n t e nces using t he verbs fro m t h e box in t h e re p orting cl a uses and ei t h er t he
p ast sim p le or p ast p erf ect (or b o th if p ossible) in t he t h a t - cl a u se . Q

alle g e d co nce d e d d e nie d est im a t e d reca ll e d re p ea t e d

1 ‘I have never been in love with O liver.' —>

She, d ^ i ^ . thodb she., h&d ever been / w i^ ever m Oliver..
2 'M arkus has stole n je w e llery from my h o u s e .'—> She

3 ‘I think the vase is around 250 ye ars old.' —» She

4 T v e told yo u once. I've alrea dy seen th e film.' —> She

5 ’W ell, perhaps yo u're right. Maybe I did tre at Lara unkindly.' —» She

6 ‘I seem to re m em b er th a t W ilm a's great- gran d m oth er was from Spain.' —> She

I C o m p le t e t he se n t e nces w it h a verb ch ose n fro m a suit a b le pair. If b o th ver bs in t he pair are

p ossible, w rit e both.

has / had is / w as lo o ks / lo o k e d so lv e d / hav e so lv e d

st a t es / st a t e d u n d e rst a n d / u n d e rst o o d

1 Engineers hope th at th ey the pro blems with the bridge now th a t new
sup p orts have been b uilt, and th ey plan to reopen it n ext week.
2 The current law th a t an em ployee has th e right to app eal against dismissal.
3 Sim on is already a good tennis player, but he acce pts th a t he still a lot to
learn.
4 1 ................................ th at yo u w a n t to buy a second-hand car. Your bro ther just told me.
5 H ealth o fficials warn th at anyone who directly at th e sun during an eclipse
m ay put t h eir sight at risk.
6 Th ey reassured us t h a t th e path .................... p erfectly safe.

Ja mie Barn es and D a niel N o k es have been in t ervie w e d by t h e p olice in co n n ectio n w it h a

ro b b ery last w ee k. If n ecessary, co rrect t he t e nses in t he t h a t - c l a u se s in t h ese e x t rac ts fro m
t h e in t erv ie w re p orts. If n ot, w ri t e / . Su g g est p ossible alt er n a tiv es. 69

When I mentioned to Nokes th a t he had A t th e b e ginnin g of th e in tervie w I

been seen in a local shop last Monday,
he protested th a t he is a t home all day.
He swears th a t he didn’t own a blue
Ford Focus. He claimed th a t he had
been to the paint factory two weeks ago
to look for work. Nokes alleges th a t he
is a good friend of Jam ie Barnes. He
insisted th a t he didn’t telephone Barnes
last Monday morning. When I pointed
out to Nokes th at a large quantity of
paint had been found in his house, he
replied th at he is storing it for a friend.
re m in d e d B a rn e s that h e is entitle d to
h av e a la w y er p rese n t. H e d e nie d that
he kn e w a n y o n e by th e n a m e of D a niel
N o k es. B a rn e s c o nfirm e d that h e is in
th e a re a of th e p aint fact ory last M onday,
but sa id that h e is visitin g h is m other. H e
ad mitte d that h e is w alkin g alo n g N ew
Stre e t at aro un d te n. H e m a in ta ins that
h e w a s a v e ry h o n est p erso n a n d would
n e v er b e involve d in anythin g ille g al.

- * A d d itio n a l exe rcise 8 (page 245)

Unit
36 Reporting offers, suggestions, orders, intentions, etc.
Verb + (object) + to-infinitive clause
W hen w e re port o ffers, sugg estions, ord ers, inte ntio ns, pro mises, re quests, e tc. we can fo llo w so me
verbs in the reporting cla use (see U nit 33) with -
a t o-infinitive clause
‘The th e atre w ill be b uilt n ext to th e town h all.'—>Th ey pro p ose t o b uild the th e atre next to
th e to wn hall, ( not Th ey propose th e m to build ...)

A lso : a gree, d e m a n d , g u a ra n t e e, o f f er, p ro m ise, sw e ar, t h r e a t e n , v o lu n t e e r

an o bject + t o-in finitive clause

‘You should take th e jo b, Fran.' —> She e n co u ra g e d Fran t o t a k e th e jo b.

A lso: a d v ise, ask, ca ll o n, co m m a n d , inst r u ct, in vit e, order,

p ersu a d e, r eco m m e n d , re m in d, re q u est , urge, w ar n , t e ll

The o bject usually refers to th e person wh o th e offer, suggestion, etc. is made to; th a t is, th e person
wh o p erforms the actio n in th e reported clause.
Co m pare the use of ask with and w ith o u t an o bject before a t o -in f in it iv e cla use:
W e ask e d to leave our bags outsid e th e exam roo m. (= this is so m ethin g we w ante d) and
Th ey ask e d us to leave our bags outsid e the exam roo m. (= this is so m ethin g th ey w ante d)

Verb + that-clause or verb + to-infinitive clause

A fter so m e verbs w e can use a t h a t -cl a use instead of a t o -in f in it iv e cla use:
O He p ro m ise d to arrive on tim e, or
A lso: a gree, d e m a n d , e x p ect , g u ara n t e e,
O He p ro m ise d that he would arrive on tim e.
h ope, pro p ose, re q u est , v o w

W ith a t h a t -cl a use the person pro mising, etc. and the person referred to in th e reported clause m ay
be different:
He p ro m ise d that he w o uld n't be late. (‘He ...' and ‘... he m ay refer to different people)

A fter th e verbs insist, order, sa y and su g g est we use a t h a t -cl a use but not a t o -in f in it iv e cla use:
There w ere cheers when he su g g est e d that w e w e n t hom e early. (n o t ... sug gested to go ...)

A d vise and o rd er can be used with an o b je c t + t o -in f in it iv e cla use (see A) or a t h a t -cla use:
I a d vise d th a t she should acce pt, ( or I a d v ise d her to a ccept.) but not I advised to acce pt ...)

Verb + to-infinitive clause (not verb + that-clause)

A fter so m e verbs we use a t o -in f in it iv e cl a use but not a t h a t -cla use:
Carolyn in t e n ds to return to Dublin after a ye ar in Canad a.
A lso: long, o f f er, re f use,
( not Carolyn intends th a t she should return ...)
v o lu n t e er, w a n t

W hen we rep ort a sug gestion, eith er w h a t th e person reported might do th e mselves, or w h a t som eone
else mig ht do, w e can use a reporting cla use with a d vise, pro p ose, reco m m e n d or su g g est followed
by an -ing cl a use rath er than a t h a t -cl a use:
The lecturer reco m m e n d e d reading a num b er of books before th e exam, ( or ...
reco m m e n d e d th a t th e stu d ents sho uld read a num b er of books before th e exam.)

72
E x e rcises
Re p ort each se n t e n ce using a verb fro m t h e box and a t o -in f in i t iv e cla use . Use each verb o nce
o nly. If n ecessary, add an a p pro pria t e o b ject a f t e r t he verb. Q
a d v ise a gree ask c a ll on e x p ect hope o rd er urge vow

‘If I were yo u, I'd read the exam questions very carefully.' —>
He <xd.vi.5ed, ws to re a ct fcHe...exajm q u estio ns v e ry o tre - fw lly.
‘ O kay, I'll c o lle ct Declan from scho ol.' —> He ...
‘ Be q uiet!' —> He ...
‘Please stay for a fe w more days.' —> He ...
‘I w ill fight the ban on sm oking in public places.' —» He ...
‘I imagine I'll see O livia at th e party.' —> He ...
‘Can you lend me ten pounds?' —> He ...
8 ‘Th e g overnm ent should do more to help th e ho m eless.' —> He ...
9 ‘If I leave early, I'll avoid the h eavy traffic.' —» He ...

U jj p Re place an y incorrect verbs w it h o n es fro m t h e b oxes. (It m a y n o t be n ecessa ry t o use all t he

boxed verbs.)

e x p ect e d pro mise d re f use d In a major speech today, the Health Minister
(1) suggested to improve the country's health
care. She (2) guaranteed to reduce waiting
times for operations, and (3) intended that
this could be done without raising taxes. She
said that she (4) insisted to see significant
improvements within a year.

h o p ed ord ere d pro p ose d v o lu n t e ere d

The President of Cuwandi has (5) demanded Narian troops to

withdraw from the border area between the two countries, and said
that he (6) wanted that the Narian president would act now to prevent
war. In a separate development, the UN Secretary General has (7)
agreed to meet the leaders of both countries and has (8) offered that a
peace conference should be held in New York early next week.

C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces in an y a p pro pria t e w a y using a cla use beginning w it h t he -ing f orm of

a verb.
1 To avoid th e road works, police have advised the rriotorwaxj oi. Junction 3 .
2 To encourage people to use public transp ort th e co uncil proposed ..........................................

3 Ricard o said th e play was very e ntertainin g and he recom m end e d

4 To find my w a y around London, Reza suggested ...................

5 I'd been feelin g unw ell for a few days and my m o ther advised

6 The ca pital urg ently needs a new airp ort, and th e g overn m ent proposes

7 I've been putting on weig ht and my d octor has recom m ende d

8 It was a lovely morning and N ina suggested

Can any of t h ese se n t e n ces be re w rit t e n w it h a t o -in f in i t iv e cl a use w it h o u t an o b ject?

A d d itio n a l e xe rcise 8 (page 245)

Unit
37 Modal verbs in reporting ■

W hen there is a m o dal verb in the original sta te m e n t, sug gestion, e tc., it so m etim es chang es when we
rep ort w h a t was said or thou ght. The chang es are su m m arise d here:

modal verb in original modal verb in report

B co u ld , w o u l d , sh o uld , m ig h t, co u ld , w o uld , sh o ul d , migh t,
n e e d n't, o u g h t t o, use d t o, n ee d n't, o u g h t t o, use d t o, (i.e. no ch ange ) © - 0
co u ld have, sh o uld have, e tc. co uld have, sh o ul d have, e tc.

C w ill, can, m a y O w o uld , co uld , mi g h t © & 0

w ill, can, m a y (existing or future situatio ns and
prese n t tense verb in reporting clause) 0
w ill or w o ul d, can or co u ld , m a y or m ig h t
(existing or future situatio ns and p ast tense verb in
rep orting clause) 0

D sh a ll w o uld (talking about th e fu ture) 0

sh o uld (o ffers, re quests for advice, etc.) 0

E m ust (= n ecessity) m ust or had t o ©

m ust (= co nclu d e; see Unit 18B) m ust 0
m ust n 't m ust n 't ©

‘I co uld m e et yo u at the airp ort.’ —» He said th a t he co u ld m e et us at th e airp ort. O

Q ‘We m ig h t drop in if w e have tim e.' —>Th ey said th ey m ig h t drop in if th ey have tim e. 0
‘You sh o ul d hav e co ntacte d me earlier.' —> She said I sh o uld ha v e co ntacte d her earlier. 0

O ‘She m a y have already left.' —» He thou ght she m ig h t have already left. ©
If the situatio n we are reporting still exists or is still in the fu ture and the verb in the reporting cla use
has a prese n t tense, we use w ill, can, and m a y in th e reported cla use (see Unit 32). Co m pare:
O ‘Careful! Yo u'll fall through th e ice!' —> I w ar n e d him he w o uld fall through th e ice. 0 and
‘I'll be in Paris at Christm as.' —> She t e lls me sh e'll be in Paris at C hristm as. ©

If th e situatio n w e are reporting still exists or is still in the future and the verb in the reporting cla use
has a p ast tense, w e can use eith er w o u l d or w ill, ca n or co uld, or m a y or m ig h t in the reported
clause:
‘The problem can be solved.' —»Th e y said th e pro blem can / co u ld be solved. 0

O ‘I sh a ll (I'll) call yo u on M onday.' —»She told me she w o u l d call me on M onday. 0

‘W h ere sh a ll I put this b ox?’ —» He asked where he sh o ul d put th e box. 0

‘You m ust be hom e by 9 o'clock.' —> She said I m ust / ha d t o be hom e by 9 o'clock. ©
( h a dto is more natural in speech)
‘I didn't hear th e phone. I m ust be going deaf.' —> A lex thou ght he m ust be going d eaf. 0
‘You m ust n 't te ll my brother.' —> He warn e d me th a t I m ust n 't te ll his brother.

N ote th a t w e so m etim es use a m o dal verb in a reported sente nce when there is no m o dal verb in the
original:
O ‘You're not allowe d to sm oke here.' —> She told me th a t I m ust n 't smoke th ere.
O ‘ My advice is to look for a new jo b now.' —» She said th a t I sh o uld look for a new jo b now.

74
E x e rcises
U n d erlin e t he m ore a p pro pria t e verb. If b ot h are p ossible, u n d erlin e t h e m both,
1 The d octor says th a t he will / would see you in 20 minutes.
2 In her letter, Elizab eth revealed th a t she m ay / might be g ettin g married soon.
3 M axim tells me th at he can / cou ld co m e for dinner with us tonight after all.
4 Inge promised th at she will / would be at home by nine, so I phoned her sh ortly after th at.
5 The m echanic ad m itte d th at he ca n't / couldn't re pair the radiator and had to replace it instead.
6 O livia reckons th at she can / cou ld save enough m oney to go on holid ay to Canad a.
7 Mario explained th at he will / would be living in Austria for the next six m onths.

C o m p le t e t h e re p ort e d se n t e n ces using a t h a t - cl a u se w it h a m o d al verb,

1 'If all goes to plan, I'll stu dy m e dicine.' —> He hoped thcct he. would, stwdxj medicine- but
instead he became a vet.
2 ‘I w o n't be late.' —> She pro mised .................................................................. and she kept her word.
3 ‘Perhaps w e can go to Paris for th e weekend.' —» He suggested
............................................................................................................................................................................... but I was busy.
4 ‘I can get yo u there in good tim e.' —> She guaranteed .........................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................... but I didn't believe her.
5 ‘I'll pay for th e m e al.’ —> He insisted and I accepte d, of course.

c a C o m p le t e t his m essa g e le f t on an answ erin g m ach in e by re p ortin g w h a t Ch lo e said, using

m o d al verbs in t h e re ports.

| ‘You m ustn't forget to bring ‘I can't come to the phone at the moment.
I yo ur student discount card.' Please leave a message after the tone.'

c W here shall we m eet?’ }

‘ Hi, Mia. I’ve just spoken to Chloe and she's keen to come
VI to the pool with us to m orrow. She apologised for not
turning up last week - she said she was alw ays forgetting
,
(
^
‘I must be get-tif^g ofdr'- J
things and th at she (1) rn u s t b e getfcmg o ld.
But she promised ( 2 )..............................................................
She's m e e tin g jack for lunch, and she said she
( 3 ) ............................................................ , so I suggested meeting
at 10:30. She (4) and I said
just by the pool entrance. Hope that's okay for you.

A
rI ‘I shall be there this tim e.’ J
O h, and she said I ( 5 )..............................................................
Remember yo urs, too. See you there. Bye.'

[ J C o m p le t e t he re p orte d se n t e nces using a p pro pria t e m o d al verbs. Give alt ern a tiv e m o d al verbs
w h er e p ossible.
1 ‘It's vital th at you atten d th e meetin g.' —>
She scud, t h a t I had, to /. m ust cubtencl the. m eeting.
2 ‘If yo u w a n t to trave l with us, th at's fine.' —» She said th a t ............................................................................

3 ‘I’ m not prepared to a nsw er his q uestions.' —» She said th at

4 ‘Karl's likely to be back so on.' —» She said th a t

5 ‘There's a p ossibility th at I'll have to m ove to Milan.' —» She said th at

6 ‘I refuse to acce pt th a t Jason is dishonest.' —> She said t h a t

7 ‘ Maria is sure to be disapp ointed if you leave with o u t seeing her.' —> She said th a t ...

75
R e p o r t i n g u si n g n o u n s

W e so m etim es report people's words and thou ghts using a n ou n in the reporting clause follow e d by a
reported clause beginning with t h a t , a t o -in fin it iv e-, or w h - w o r d . M ost of th ese nouns are related to
reporting verbs (ackno wle d g e m ent - acknowle d g e, sta te m e n t - state, e tc.). N ote th a t when w e report
using n o u ns and a d je c t iv es (see C) th e exact original words are not n ecessarily re porte d. Instead we
might use our own words, or report th at so m ethin g was said w ith o u t reporting what was said.
i t Noun + t h a t-cla use
G The clai m is often mad e th at sm oking causes heart disease.
G The jury cam e to the co n clusio n that the w o m an was guilty.

Also: a ck n o w le d g e m e n t, a d vice, alle g a t io n , a n n o u n ce m e n t, a nsw e r, arg u m e n t,

c o m m e n t , d ecisio n, e x p la n a tio n , f o r ecast , g u ara n t e e, in dica tio n, o bserv a tio n, p ro m ise,
reco m m e n d a t io n , re ply, sp ec u la t io n , st a t e m e n t , su g g estio n, t h r e a t , w ar nin g

N ote th a t we d on't usually leave out t h a t in sente nces like this (see U nit 33).
Noun + t o-infinitive clause
Q I accepte d Luisa's in vit a ti o n to visit her in Rome.
He gave me every e nc o u ra g e m e n t to take up painting again.

Also: d ecisio n, inst r u ct io n , order, p ro m ise, r eco m m e n d a t io n , re f usa l, t h r e a t , w ar n in g

N ote th a t so me of th ese nouns can be followe d by a t h a t -cla use:

Th ey carried out th eir t h r e a t to dismiss w orkers on strike, ( or ... th eir t h r e a t that t h ey would
dismiss w orkers on strike.)
Noun + w h-clause A lso: e x p la n a ti o n ,
Juan raised th e q u est io n o f when the m o ney would be collecte d. d iscussi o n, pro b le m
O ur previous m eeting looked at th e issu e o f how to increase incom e.

We usually use o f a fter th ese nouns in reporting.

A fter m any o f th e nouns listed in A w e can use as t o + w h -cla use or as t o + w h - w o r d + t o -in fin it iv e
to intro duce the su bject of a qu estion or to pic discussed or th o u g ht about (see also Unit 34 F). N ote
th a t an alternative preposition can usually be used instead of as to:
She asked my a dvice as t o what su bject she should stu dy at university, ( or ... advice on ...)
There was so m e discussion as t o w h e th erth e price included tax or not. ( or ... discussion o f ...)
Before w e left w e gave th e m strict instructions as t o how to cook it. ( or ... a b o u t how to ...)

R e p o r t i n g u si n g a d j e c t i v e s
Som e a djectives used to re port a speaker's feelings or opinion are follow e d by a t h a t -cl a use:
The builders are c e r t a in that t h e y’ll be finishe d by the end of n ext week.

A lso: a d a m a n t, a gree d, an gry, a n n o y e d , g ra t e f u l, insist e n t, sure

A djectives expressing u ncertain ty are usually follow e d by a w h -cla use:

O Scie ntists are n’t su re where th e rem ains o f th e sa tellite w ill land.

Also: d o u b t f u l ( usu ally + w h e th er), u nce rt ain , n o t ce rt ain , u nsu re

Som e a djectives are usually fo llow e d by a pre position + noun phrase:
To d ay’s newsp ap ers are very cri t ica l o f th e President's decision to ap p oint Mr W alters.

Also: a p o lo g e tic, co m p li m e n t a ry , insu ltin g, t a c t f u l (+ ab o ut);

d ism issiv e, sc o rn f u l (+ of); a b usive, sy m p a t h e t ic (+ to / towards)
E x e rcises
C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces w it h t h e n o uns fro m t he box and t he n o t es in brack e ts. Use a t h a t -,
t o -in f in i t iv e or w h -cl a u se . Su g g est a l t er n a ti v es w here p ossible.

a n n o u nce m e n t d ecisio n e n c o u ra g e m e n t e x p la n a ti o n
in vit a tio n issu e o bse rv a t io n pro m ise q u est io n w ar n in g

1 The turnin g point in his life cam e when he to ok the

d e cisio n to become cm a c t o r, / ... t h d i he would. become cm a c t o r
2 He faile d to ad dress the ...
3 I was delighted to get an ...
4 I think it was A rist o tle wh o made the ...
5 A m azin gly the police accepted Rudi's ...
6 O n the w e binar th ey debated th e ...
7 The le tter from the co m pany gave a final ...
8 The g overnm ent has broken its ...
9 The p ositive reaction to my w ork gave me co nsid era ble ...
10 W aitin g passengers were angry when th ey heard th e ...
( b e co m e - a c to r )
( w h o - p a y - re p a irs- b u ild in g )
(spend the holidays - them - S cotla nd )
( no such thing - bad publicity )
( t a k e n - w a lle t - mistake )
( a ssiste dsu icid e - crim in a lo ffe n ce )
( p a y - b ill b y - e n d o f - w e e k )
(reduce - ra te - incom e tax)
( take up photogra phy - career)
( flight - ca ncelled )

C o m p le t e t he re w rit t e n se n t e nces using anoun f or m e d fro m t h e it alicise d verb + as t o and

t he n a w h - w o r d . j Q
1 At th e end th e writers suggest when it is ap pro priate to correct stu d ents' gram m ar mistakes.
The writers end with
su g g estio ns o s to wh en db is ap pro priate to c o rre c t st u d e n ts grcunmar m ist i m e s.
2 People have argued a great deal about how to define p overty.
There has been ...
3 For m o nths people have sp ecu la ted about w h e th er Presid ent Malik would stand again.
There have been m o nths ...
4 Scie ntists mig ht conclude so m ethin g ab out w h at th eir results im ply.
Scie ntists mig ht ...
5 We have still not expla ined d efinitely w h y th e dinosaurs disappeare d.
There is still ...

P H C o m p le t e each se n t e n ce using an a djectiv e fro m t h e box w it h t h a t , a w h - w o r d , or a

pre p osition.

a b usiv e adamant a gree d a n g ry a p o lo g e tic

n o t ce r t a in c o m p li m e n t a r y d ism issi v e d oub tful u nsu re

1 The clim b ers were d o u b tfu l w h e th er the cloth es would be w arm enough at high altitu d es.
2 My boss is very u nsym p ath e tic and was my co m plaints about the new
software.
3 The co m pany is th e child car seats are safe.
4 M ona tried to pick up th e rab bit, but w as .................... to hold it.
5 She was v e r y ................................................... th e win d ow had been broken.
6 Rach el is n orm ally very reliable and was extre m e ly turning up late.
7 Karim left for N ew York in Se pte m b er but he was he would return.
8 The co urt heard th a t Hughes b e c a m e a police o fficer and was arreste d.
9 Judi d oesn't n orm ally like spicy foo d, but w as quite m y fish curry.
10 All the players are the gam e should go on d espite the w eath er.

A d d itio n a l exe rcise 8 (page 245)

Unit
3 9 i Sho uld in th a t-cla uses; the present subjunctive
W e can so m etim es re port advice, ord ers, requests, sug gestions, etc. about things th at need to be done
or are d esirable using a t h a t -cl a use w ith sh o uld + b are in finitive:
Q Th ey have proposed th a t Felix sh o u l d move to th eir Munich office.
O W e advised t h a t the co m pany sh o ul d n o t raise its prices.
A fter sh o ul d we often use be + p ast p ar ticip le (passive) or be + a d ject iv e:
Q Th ey directed t h a t the building sh o uld be p u lle d down.
W e insist t h a t the m o ney sh o ul d be available to all stu d ents in financial d ifficulties.

In fo rm al co ntexts, p articularly in writte n English, we can ofte n leave out sh o ul d and use only the
base form of the verb (th at is, th e form you would look up in a d ictio nary). This form is th e prese n t
subjunctive (see U nit 85 A for th e p ast subjunctive ) and is used to describe bringing ab o ut th e situatio n
expressed in th e t h a t -cl a use:
Th ey have proposed th a t Felix O ther verbs used with the prese n t subjunctive:
m o ve to t h eir Munich office. a d vise, ask, beg, co m m a n d , d e m a n d , insist,
Th ey directed th a t the building inst r u ct, in t e n d , order, pre f er, reco m m e n d ,
be p u lle d d o w n. re q u est , re q uire, st i p u la t e , su g g est, urge, w arn

To make a ne gative form, we use n o t (not ‘do not') before th e verb:

We advised th a t th e co m pany n o t raise its prices.
In less fo rm al c o ntexts w e can use ordinary forms of th e verb instead of th e subjunctive. Co m pare:
I suggested th at he sh o uld give up golf. (n eg a tive: ... th a t hesh o u l d n 't give up ...)
I suggested th a t he give up golf, (m ore form al) (n eg a tive: ... th at he n o t give up ...)
O I suggested th a t he gives up golf, (less form al) (n eg a tive: ... th a t he d o esn't give up ...)

W e can also use t h a t -cl a uses w ith sh o ul d or th e su bjunctive after reporting cla uses w ith nouns
related to th e verbs in B (e.g. a d v ice, order, p ro p osal, w ar nin g):
The police issued an o r d er th a t all weap ons (should) be handed in im m e diately.
Q The w e ath er forecast gave a w arn in g th at people (should) prepare for heavy snow.

We can also use sh o uld or so m etim es th e subjunctive in a t h a t -cl a use after it + be + a dject iv e:
It is in a p p r o p ria t e th a t he (should ) receive th e award again, ( o r ... th a t he re c e iv e s ...)

Also: a d v isa b le, a p p allin g, a p p ro pria t e, (i n)co n ceiv a b le , cr u cia l, esse n t ia l,

im p era tiv e, im p o r t a n t, o b lig a t o ry, (u n)n ecessa ry, ur g e n t, v i t a l

We can use sh o uld in a t h a t -cl a use when we talk ab out our own reaction to so m ethin g w e are
rep orting, p articularly after be + a d ject iv e. Com pare:
l a m concern ed t h a t she sh o ul d t h in k I stole the m o ney ( or ... th a t she t h in ks ...)

A lso: a m aze d, a m use d , an xio us, ast o u n d e d, disa p p oin t e d , sh ock e d, su r p rise d , u pse t

N ote th a t when w e leave out sh o ul d in se nte nces like this (= less form al) w e use an ordinary tense,
not a su bjunctive.

W e can use sh o uld in a t h a t -cl a use to talk ab out a situatio n th a t exists now:
It's not surprising th at th ey sh o ul d be seen to g e ther - th ey're brothers,
or one th a t m ay exist in th e future:
O W e believe it is im p orta nt th a t she sh o uld ta ke th e exam next year.
If w e are talkin g ab out an inte ntio n or plan, w e can often use a subjunctive rath er than sh o ul d:
I've arranged th a t she co m e to th e first part of th e m eeting, ( or ... th a t she sh o ul d co m e ...
... th a t she c o m es ... / ... for her t o co m e ...)

78
E x e rcises
Rep ort t h ese st a t e m e n ts fro m a Sp anit En gineering Co m p a n y board m ee tin g. Use a t h a t - cl a u se
w it h sh o u l d (sh o u ld + b ar e in f in it iv e or sh o u l d + b e + p ast p a r t icip l e). C S
1 Lee said: ‘I think it's im p orta nt to expand business in South A m erica.'
Lee -felt thaJb business .in South ArYiertax. skiouLoL be expanded.
2 Lee said: ‘ Mara Bianchi would make an excelle nt exp ort manager. Let's pro m ote her.'
L ee urged ................................................................................................... ...................................................................................
3 Alice said: ‘It would be valu a ble for us to send a sales representative to South Africa.'
A lice recom m ended ....................................................................................................................................
4 A lice said: ‘The D elaware Bridge project ought to be co m plete d by August next year.'
A lice re p o rt e d ...............................................................................................................................................................................
5 Sim on said: ‘It is vital to keep to our w ork sche dules.'
Simon insisted ............................................................................................................................................................................. ..
6 Sim on said: ‘I'd like all m o nthly rep orts sent to me directly.'
Simon instructed ........................................................................................................................................................................
7 Alina said: ‘Perhaps w e could use web conferencing for meetings to save m oney on air fares.'
Alina su ggested .........................................................................................................................................................................
8 Alina said: ‘ O ur head office m ust remain in London.'
Alina decla red .............................................................................................................................................................................
9 N athan said: ‘It's okay for us to sponsor th e European chess league for th e n ext thre e years.'
N athan a greed ........... .......................................................................................
10 N athan said: ‘In future, all claims for trave l exp enses are to be made in US d ollars.'
N athan a nnounced .............................................................................................................................................................

Look a gain a t y o u r a nsw e rs f or 39.1. Can an y o f t he se n t e nces be w rit t e n w it h o u t sh o u l d and

st ill be co rrect? W rit e ‘y es' if it is p ossible and 'no' if no t. ( S 3

Expand t he n o t es using a t h a t - cl a u se w it h sh o u l d and an a djectiv e fr o m t he box t o ma ke

re p ortin g se n t e nces. M ore t han on e a djectiv e m ay be p ossible, b ut use each o nce only.

a m use d a p p allin g ast o u n d e d im p era tiv e

inconceiva ble ^ sh ock e d u pse t urg e n t

1 It is ... / she / m arry Ben.

It is mconeeLvoble ty o t she should marry Ben.
2 I am ... / Kristina / behave so badly.

3 I am ... / anyone / vo te for him.

4 It is ... / he / return hom e im m e diately.

5 I am ... / he / take his ap p earance so seriously.

6 I am ... / th ey / think I had ch eated th e m .

7 It is . . . / t h e y / allow e d to go free.

8 It is ... / w e / act now to avoid war.

79
Unit
40 Agreement between subject and verb 1
If a sente nce has a singular subject, it is follow e d by a singular verb, and if it
has a plural su bject, it is follow e d by a plural verb; th a t is, th e verb agrees
with th e su bject. Co m pare:
Sh e lives in China, a nd O M ore p e o p le live in Asia than in any o th er c o ntin ent.

W hen th e subject o f th e sentence is co m plex the followin g verb m ust agree with the main noun in the
su bject. In th e exam ples b elow th e su bject is underline d and th e main noun is circle d. N ote how the
verb, in italics, agrees with the main noun:
M any leading m e m b ers of th e op position p arty have criticise d th e delay.
Th e o nlv.excuseTh at he gave for his actio ns was th a t he was tire d.

The verb m ust agree with th e su bject when th e su bject fo llo ws th e verb (see Units 99 & 100):
Displayed on the board were t h e e x a m resu lts, {compare The exam results were displayed ...)

If th e su bject is a clause, we usually use a singular verb:

To keep th ese yo ung people in prison is inhuman.
Having overall resp onsibility for the course means th a t I have a lot of meetings.
W h o ever to ok th e m rem ains a mystery.

H owever, if w e use a w h a t -cla use as su bject (see Unit 98B), we use a sing ular verb if th e fo llowin g
main noun is singular, and either a singular or a plural verb if th e fo llowin g main noun is plural
(although a plural verb is preferred in more form al c o ntexts):
O W h a t w orries us is th e poor selection process.
W h a t is needed are a d ditio nal reso u rces, { or more colloquia lly ... needed is ...)

So m e nouns with a singular form, referring to groups of so m e kind, can be used with eith er a singular
or plural form of the verb. Th ese nouns are so m etim es calle d collective nouns:
O T h e co u ncil has (or have ) postponed a decision on th e new road.
We use a singular verb if the focus is on th e institutio n or org anisation as a wh ole unit, and a plural
verb if th e focus is on a collectio n of individ uals. O ften yo u can use eith er w ith very little difference in
m eaning, although in form al c o ntexts (such as acad e m ic writin g) it is co m m on to use a sin gular verb.

Also: ar m y, associa tio n, au die nce, class, club, colle g e, co m m issio n, co m m it t e e, co m m u nit y,
co m p any, crew, cro w d, d e p art m e n t, elect o ra t e, e n e m y, f a m ily, f e d era tio n, g e n era tio n,
g o v ern m e n t, group, inst it u t e, ju ry, op position, orch estra, p o p ulatio n, press, public, sch o o l, t ea m ,
u niversit y; t h e Bank o f Englan d, t h e BBC, IBM, Sony, t h e U nit e d N a tio ns (specific organisations)

In so m e co ntexts w e have to use a sin gular or a plural form of th e verb.

The co m m itte e usually raise th eir hands to This is so m ethin g th e individ uals do, not the
vo te ‘Yes', { not The co m m itte e usually raises co m m itte e as a w h ole.
its h a n d s...)

The scho ol is to close next year. (not The This is so m ethin g th a t w ill happen to th e
scho ol are to close ...) scho ol as a building or institutio n, not to the
individ uals in th e scho ol.

W hen nam es and titles ending in -s refer to a single unit w e use a singular verb. Exam ples include
co untries; newspapers; titles of books, films, e tc.; and quoted plural words or phrases:
A t this tim e of th e ye ar the N etherla nds is one hour ahead of the UK.
The M achine Gunners w as one of Robert W estall's m ost successful books.
'Daps' is th e word used in th e so uth -w est of th e c o u n try for sp orts sho es.

80
E x e rcises
a n t i C o rrect t e n m ist a k es in t h e it alicise d verbs in t his m use u m review.

h o uses
The Rivers Museum on the comer of Corn Street and N ew Road 1 house a
M use u ms and
hist oric sit es fascinating collection of art and other objects which begins as soon as you
Th e Rivers Museum step through the door. Among the most eye-catching pieces in the whole
O pen: 9 am - 5 pm, collection 2is the marble animal sculptures under two arches on the left
Mon - Sa t of the entrance hall. Whoever created these figures apparently 3remain a
Entrance: Free mystery, but the skill of the craftspeople who worked on them 4is obvious.
Hanging on the wall directly opposite the carvings 5/s over a hundred
swords from the 1 7th century. The narrow doorway between the arches
6let you into a series of smaller rooms where paintings from the 18th and
19th centuries 7are on display. If paintings aren't your thing, the museum's
incredible collection of seashells and fossils in the final room &are sure to
be of interest. Perhaps what is most surprising about the building itself 9are
the bell tower in the small courtyard. O nly since the restoration work was
completed in 2011 ]0have the tower been open, and climbing the 150
steps to the top to take in the view over the city 11/s well worth the effort.
Over 50 full-time staff and volunteers 12/s employed and having so many
of them available to answer questions about the collection u add to the
pleasure of this must-see museum.

C o m p le t e each se n t e n ce w it h a noun fro m t he box and an a p pro pria t e f or m of t he verb in

brack e ts (sin gular, plural or b ot h).

a u d ie nce cl ass jury o rch est r a press

4earrv t h e U n it e d N a t io ns u n iv e rsit y

1 The vo lleyb all team P ^ y ../ twice a we ek in th e su m m er, (p/ay)

2 If th e .................................. to host th e co nference, I just d on't kn ow where we w ill be able
to hold it. (refuse )
3 The w orld wid e televisio n for to m orro w's cup final exp ected to be
20 0 m illio n, (be )
4 Th e ................................. classical co ncerts thro u ghout the year, ( perform )
5 Th e W aterm an's Junior Book Prize thre e a dults and thre e children.
(include )
6 The all passed the end -of-year exam, (have)
7 Th e a picture of chaos in our scho ols, but it's just not like th a t at all.
( present )
8 ordered an investig ation into the capture of m em b ers of its p eace
keeping force in eastern A frica, (have)

If n ecessary, co rrect t he m ist a k es in t h ese se n t e nces or w ri t e / if t h e y are alrea d y co rrect.

flr a
1 The Unite d States co m e to p of th e list of c o untries ranked by eco no m ic p erform ance.
2 The people I kn ow wh o have seen th e film say th at it's really good.
3 The N ew S tra its Times re port t h a t to urism is booming in M alaysia.
4 N orthern L ights are one of Suzanne's favo urite books.
5 The stairs leading to the first flo or were steep and p oorly lit.
6 Che quers is th e co untry house of th e British Prim e Minister.
7 W h o ever made all the mess in the kitchen have to clear it up.
8 The phrase ‘men in white co ats' are used to talk about psychiatrists.
9 The public needs to be kept inform ed about progress in the peace talks.
10 M usical chairs are a party game where everyo ne dashes for a seat when th e m usic stops.

- * A d d itio n a l e xe rcise 9 (page 245)

Unit
41 Agreement between subject and verb 2
W ith a n y of, e ach of, ei t h e r of, n e it h e r of, or
n o n e o f and a p lu ra l n ou n / pro n o u n we can
use a singular or plura l verb. (W e use a singular
verb for careful writte n English.)
I d on't think a n y o f th e m knows (or know )
where th e m o ney is hidden.
N e i t h e r o f th e French athle tes has ( or have)
won this year.

W ith a / t h e m a j o ri t y of, a n u m b e r of, a lo t A n u m b er o f refugees have been turned

of, p le n t y of, a ll (of), or so m e (of) and a p lu ra l back at th e border.
no u n / pro n o u n we use a plura l verb. (W e use a T h e n u m b e r o f books in th e library has
singular verb with t h e n u m b e r of.) risen to over five millio n.

A fter o n e o f and a p lu ra l n o u n / pro n o u n we O n e o f th e reasons I to ok th e jo b was th a t I

use a singular verb. H owever, after o n e o f + could w ork from hom e.
p lu ra l nou n / pro n o u n + w h o we can often use He's o n e o f those t each ers w h o insist /
eith er a singular or plural verb. (A plural verb is insists on pupils sitting sile n tly in class.
more gra m m atical.)

W ith a n y of, n o n e of, t h e m a j o ri t y of, a G A ll th e furniture was destroye d in the fire.

lo t of, p le n t y of, a ll (of), so m e (of) and an N o n e o f th e eq uip m ent appears to be
u n co u n t a b le n ou n we use a singular verb. damaged.

W ith e v e r y or each and a sin g u la r n ou n or Ev e ry room looks over th e harbour.

co o r d in a t e d n ou n (x a n d y) w e use a singular Ev e ry boy and girl ta kes part in th e activity.
verb. (For e ach of, see above.) Each child has drawn a picture, but
The children have e ach drawn a picture.

W ith e v ery o n e, e v ery b o d y, e v e ry t h in g (and Practically e v e ry o n e thinks th a t Phil should

sim ilar words beginning any-, so m e - and no-) be given th e jo b.
we use a singular verb.

W hen a su bject has tw o or more ite ms joine d by and, w e usually use a plural verb:
Q Ingrid an d To bias are m oving back to A ustralia.
H owever, phrases connecte d by an d can also be follow e d by sing ular verbs if we think of th e m as
making up a single ite m:
O T h e lorry, its car g o and p asse n g ers weighs around 35 to nnes, (or ... weigh ...)

W h en a su bject is mad e up of tw o or more ite ms joine d by (eit her) ... o r ... or (n eit h er) ... n or ... we
use a sin gular verb if th e last item is sin gular (although a plural verb is so m etim es used in inform al
English), and a plural verb if th e last item is plural:
Eit h e r t h e st a t i o n or t h e ci n e m a is a good place to m e et, ( or ... are ... in inform al English)
O T h e Presi d e n t or his r e p r ese n t a t iv es are to atten d th e meeting.
If th e last item is sin gular and previous item plural, we can use a singular or plural verb:
Eit h e r t h e t e a c h e rs or t h e princip al is to blame for th e accid ent, ( or ... are to blam e ...)

In t h e re + be / ha v e (see U nit 95) w e use a singular verb form with sin gular and uncounta ble nouns
and a plural form with plural nouns. H owever, in inform al speech w e often use a shortened singular
form of be or h av e (= There's) w ith plural nouns:
O O ver th e last fe w years t h e re have been m any i m p ro v e m e n ts in car safety.
Th ere's been lots of good films on lately, ( or T h e re Ve been ...)

82
E x e rcises
C o m p le t e each se t o f se n t e n ces using n o u ns or p hrases fro m (i) and a p p ro pria t e p rese n t si m ple
verb f o r ms (active or p assive) fro m (ii). If sin g ular and plural verb f or ms are p ossible, w rit e
bo th.
(0 his e a rly p ain tin gs m y ch il d re n Dr Jo n es's a c q u a i n t a n ces t h e f oo d

00 re m ain re m e m b er t ast e know

1 a I'd be surprised if any of my c h ild re n remember / remembers my birthday.

b It's unlikely th a t any of ......................................................................... It se ems th a t he destroye d
m ost of the work he produced during th e 1930s.
c I d on't think any of p articularly good. In fac
restaurant is rath er disapp ointing,
d An investigation is un d erw ay to discover w h e th er any of
where he is.

(i) v e g e t a ria ns v ict i m s o t h e r m use u m s m e d icin es

00 e x ce e d ch arg e e x p ect relie ve

2 a M ainly because of recent health scares involving beef and chicken, the num b er of
to rise dra m a tically in the n ext five years.
b A num b er o f the sym p to ms of influenza, but none can cure it.
c It is estim ate d th at the num b er of of th e flooding
100 ,0 0 0 .
d You can still go into the N atio nal Museum for free, although a num b er of
........................................................... in the ca pital people for entry.

(0 p la y e r t h ese f a c t o rs t h e ca rs t h e pieces

00 last t e st in flu e n ce try

3 a The wh ole co nc ert includes tw e n ty sh ort ite ms fro m young m usicians. Each of
about five m inutes.
b The aim of th e game is quite sim ple. Each to buy as m any
pro perties on the board as possible,
c Each of for safety, fuel eco n o m y and reliability,
d There are four m ajor influ ences on exchan g e rates: price levels, tariffs, preference for importe d
goods, and pro d uctivity. H ere w e investigate how each of the
exchange rate.

C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces w it h p rese n t si m p le f o r ms o f t h e verb in brack e ts. If b ot h sin g ular and

plural verb f or ms are p ossible, w ri t e both. Q Q
1 Ple nty of jo bs available, but no one the m because th ey're so po orly
paid, (be / want )
2 The m ajority of those questioned th at th e g overn m ent's eco no mic p olicies have
faile d, although neither th e Prim e M inister nor th e Education M inister indicated
th at th ese p olicies w ill change, (think / have )
3 It's the first tim e th a t eith er o f us been to China, but everyo ne we've m et here
................... beenvery w elco m in g and helpful, ( have / have)
4 Professor Sm ith and Dr Peters th a t th e wreck of the ship and its cargo
a danger to local people fishin g near th e island, ( claim / constitute )
5 a : O h, good, sausages and chips my favo urite.
b : Sorry, all th e sausages gone, but there ple nty of chips left if you
w a n t some, (be / have / be )

-> A d d itio n a l e xe rcise 9 (page 245)

Unit
42 Agreement between subject and verb 3
Plural nouns
Som e nouns are usually plural and take a
A lso: b elo n gin gs, cl o t h es, c o n g ra t u la t io ns, g oo ds,
plural verb:
o u tsk ir ts, o v erh e a ds, p ar t icu la rs
O The co m pany's earn in gs have
(= inform atio n), p re m ises (= building), rich es, savin gs,
incre ased for th e last five years.
st a irs, surro u n d in gs, t h a n ks

N ote th a t w h e r e a b o u ts can be used with eith er a singular or plural verb, p olice and p e o p le alw ays
take a plural verb, and st a f f usually does:
Po lice believe th a t Th o m as is in Brazil, altho ugh his exact w h e r e a b o u ts are / is unkn own.
O St a f f sa y th a t th e new co m p uter syste m has led to greater levels of stress in th eir work.

Plural nouns used with singular verbs

Although the words d a t a and m e d ia (= newspaper, televisio n, etc.) are plural (sin gular d a t u m
and m e d iu m), th ey are co m m o nly used with a sin gular verb. H owever, in fo rm al c o ntexts such
as acad e m ic writin g a plural verb is preferred. N ote th a t oth er sim ilar plurals such as crit e ria and
p h e n o m e n a (singular crit e rio n and p h e n o m e n o n) are alw ays used with plural verbs. Co m pare:
A ll the d a t a is available for public insp ection, ( or ... are available ...) and
I agree th a t the crit e ria are not of equal im p ortance. (n o t ... the criteria is n o t ...)

Uncountable nouns ending in -s

So me uncounta ble nouns alw ays end in -s
Also: m e a ns (= ‘m eth o d' or ‘m o n ey'); ec o n o m ics,
and look as if th ey are plural, but when w e use
li n g u istics, m a t h e m a t ics, p h o n e tics, p hysics;
th e m as th e su bject th ey have a singular verb:
p o lit ics, st a t ist ics; a t h l e t ics, g y m n ast ics;
Th e n e ws fro m th e Middle East seems
d ia b e t es, m e asles, ra b ies
very encouraging.

H owever, co m pare:

a cadem ic su bject genera l use

O P o li tics is po pular at this university. H er p o li tics are bordering on th e fascist.

(= p olitical b elief)

S t a t ist ics was alw ays my w orst subject. St a t ist ics are able to prove anythin g you
w a n t the m to. (= nu m erical inform atio n)

Eco n o m ics has only recently been The e c o n o m ics behind th eir policies are
recognised as a scie n tific study. unreaso nable. (= th e financial syste m)

Agrement with measurements, percentages, etc.

W ith a phrase referring to a m easure m ent, a m o unt or q u a n tity w e usually prefer a singular verb:
O nly t h re e m e t res separates the runners in first and second places, (ratherth an ... se parate ...)
and a singular verb m ust be used when th e co m ple m ent is a singular noun phrase (e.g. a long tim e):
Q T h re e h o u rs seems a long tim e to take on th e ho m ework, ( not Thre e hours seem ...)

W hen th e first noun in a co m plex su bject is a p ercentag e or a fractio n th e verb agrees with th e noun
closest to the verb. Com pare:
A n in fla ti o n ra t e of only 2% m akes a difference to exp orts, (verb agrees w ith main noun) and
Ab out 50% / half of t h e h o uses n eed m ajor repairs, (verb agrees w ith closest noun)

W h ere w e use a singular noun th a t can be th o u g ht of as eith er a wh ole unit or a collectio n of

individ uals, we can use eith er a singular or plural verb:
Som e 8 0% of t h e e l e c t o r a t e is exp ecte d to vo te, ( o r ... are exp ected ...)

84
E x e rcises
^ 2 Q | | If n ecessary, co rrect t he it alicise d verbs.
1 Dr Darsee's present wh ereab o uts is unkn own.
2 Phenom ena such as sun spots have puzzled scie ntists for centuries.
3 O ver the last decade th e co m pany's overhea ds has increased dra m atically.
4 The research data was collecte d during the period 12th -29th July 2012.
5 Co n gratulatio ns goes to Ricky Branch for his excelle nt exam results.
6 The co astal surroundings of th e villag e is p articularly a ttractive.
7 He fe els t h at th e media have criticise d him unfairly.
8 Further p articulars about th e house is available from th e owner.
9 People says th e house is haunte d.

C o m p le t e t h e se n t e n ces using su it a b le p rese n t sim ple verbs, ( j )

1 M odern lin guistics often said to have begun at the start of th e 20th century.
2 I think th e Senator's p olitics extre m e ly right-wing.
3 If athletics neglected in scho ols, this w ill have a big im pact on future national teams.
4 M easles killed a large num b er of children in th e N agola region.
5 C o ntact us by w h a tever m eans m ost co nvenie nt for yo u: phone, e m ail or fax.
6 Recent sta tistics evid ence of a rapid increase in living standards in Asia.

C J £ ) C o m p le t e t h ese e x t rac ts fro m n e ws art icles wit h a sin g ular or plural f or m o f t h e verbs in
brack e ts. If bot h sin g ular and plural f o r ms are p ossible, w rit e both.
1
The outskirts of our cities......................... {have) benefited from the new out-of-town
shopping centres that (have) recently been built. Around a third of the
population regularly (shop) out of town.

2
On average, 25 litres of water (be ) used each day per household and as the
population ( expect ) higher living standards, this figure will rise.

3
Some 30% of th e office space in London (b e ) presently em pty and the
D epartm ent for E m ploym ent (b la m e ) high property prices.

4
Three centimetres (be) all that separated the first two runners in last night's
10,000 metres and the sports club (have) declared the race a dead-heat.

5
The research group now (admit) that the criteria they used (be)
not totally reliable, and that the figure of 85% (be) exaggerated.

Following last week’s m ajor art theft from the Arcon Art Gallery, the premises
(be) searched by police last night and the ow ner’s belongings
(have) been taken away for further inspection.

A survey of the opinions of stu d e nts (show) that eco no mics ....................... I
.

(be) the le ast popular university su bject. However, 90% of the eco no mics stu d ents surveyed
(believe ) that th eir c o urses are well taught.

Sufferers from diabetes (have) welcomed the launch by Federex o f a new drug to
com bat the disease. The com pany............................(say) that earnings from the d ru g ............................ (he)
to be put back into further research.

-> A d d itio n a l exe rcise 9 (page 245)

Unit
43 Compound nouns and noun phrases
In a co m pound co nsisting of n o u n + nou n, often th e second noun gives JfcUtllIffHiCJ E3 tHb
th e g eneral class of thin gs to which the co m pound belongs and th e first
noun indicates th e typ e within this class. Th e first noun usually has a
singular form:
an a d d ress b o ok (= a book for ad dresses; not an ad dresses book)

H owever, there are a num b er of exceptio ns. These include -

i f when the first noun only has a plural form:
a sa vin gs a cc o u n t a c ust o m s o f f ic e r a cl o t h es sh o p (co m pare a sh o e sh o p)
t h e a r m s t r a d e (arms = wea p ons) a g l asses case (glasses = sp ectacles. Co m pare ‘a glass
case' = a case mad e of glass) an a r ts f est i v a l (arts = m usic, dram a, film , dance, painting,
etc. Co m pare ‘an art festival'; art = painting, drawin g and sculp ture)
when we refer to an institution (an industry, department, etc.), such as
Q t h e b uildin g m a t e ria ls in d ust ry t h e p u b lica ti o ns d e p a r t m e n t
which deals with more than one kind of item or a c tivity (different typ es of building m aterial,
different forms of p u blication).

N ote t h a t to make a co m pound noun plural we usually make th e second noun plural:
co a l m in e(s) o f f ice - w o r k e r(s) t e a le a f / le a v es

So m etim es a n o u n + no u n is not ap pro priate and instead w e use no u n + -'s + n ou n (p ossessive form)
or n o u n + p re p osi tio n + nou n. In g eneral, w e prefer no u n + -'s + n ou n -
& when the first noun is the user (a person or animal) of the item in the second noun:
a b ab y's b e dro o m a li o n ’s d en a w o m e n's clin ic a girls' sch o o l birds' n ests
when the item in the second noun is produced by the thing (often an animal) in the first:
g o a t's ch e ese d uck's eg gs co w 's m ilk (but note la m b ch o ps and ch ick e n d ru m stic ks)
when we talk about parts of people or animals; but we usually use noun + noun to talk about parts of
things. Compare:
a w o m a n's f a ce a b o y's ar m but a pen t o p a c o m p u t e r k ey b o ard

W e prefer no u n + p re p osit io n + n o u n -
'Cr when we talk about some kind of container together with its contents. Compare:
a cu p o f t e a (= a cup with tea in it) and a t e a cu p (= a cup for drinking tea fro m)
when the combination of nouns does not refer to a well-known class of items. Compare:
inco m e t a x (a recognised class o f tax) a nd a t a x on ch ild re n's cl o t h es (ra ther than ‘a
children's cloth es tax')

Som e co m pound nouns are made up of verbs and pre positions or adverbs, and m ay be related to a
tw o - or thre e-word verb (see U nit 9 4). Com pare:
Mansen bro k e o u t of th e prison by dressing as a w o m an. (= escaped) and
There was a m ajor b re a k - o u t from th e prison last night. (= prisoners escaped)

Co untable com pound nouns like this have a plural form ending in -s:
re a d - o u t(s) p ush - u p(s) in t a k e(s) o u tco m e(s)
H owever, there are exceptio ns. For exam ple:
lo o k e r(s)- o n ( or o nlo o k er[s]) r u n n e r(s)- u p p asse r(s)- b y h a n g er(s)-o n

W e can form oth er kinds of hyp henate d phrases th a t are placed before nouns to say more precisely
w h a t th e noun refers to:
O a st a t e - o f - t h e - a r t (= very m o dern) ta b le t PC u p - t o - d a t e inform atio n
E x e rcises
If n ecessary, co rrect t h e it alicise d w ords.
1 Ali worked for a long tim e in (a) the parks departm ent, but a fe w years ago he retrained, and now
he's (b) a com puters progra m m er. O f course, w h a t he really w a n ts to be is (c) a film s sta r!
2 I was waitin g at (a) the bus stop this morning when a cyclist on her w ay to th e (b) girt school up
th e road got knocked off her bike. Som eo ne got out of a car w ith o u t looking and (c) the car's
door hit her. She was very lucky not to be badly hurt, although she did have (d) a he ad cut.
3 I sh o uld n't be long at (a) the corner shop. I've just got thre e things on my (b) shopping list - (c) a
milk bottle, (d) a biscuit p a cket, and (e) som e teethp aste. I'll also look for (f) som e goa t's cheese,
but I d on't think t h e y'll have any.
4 The tracks on his latest CD range from (a) love songs to (b) pollution songs.
5 M arta hated going into her gran dfather's old (a) tools shed. It was full of (b) spid erw ebs.
6 W hen Jake was cleanin g his (a) armschair, he found a lot of things th a t had slipped down the
back. There was an old (b) pen top, a piece from (c) the 500 -pieces jigsa w puzzle th a t his daughter
had been doing, and his (d) glass case w ith his sunglasses inside.

i a a U n d erlin e t h e t w o - w o r d verbs in se n t e nces 1-4, t he n co m p le t e se n t e n ces 5 - 8 w it h t h e

corresp o n din g co m p o u n d n ouns.
1 N athan tried to cover up th e fact th a t he had gambled and lost m ost of his m oney.
2 It is reported th at cholera has broken out in the refugee camp.
3 I'm flying to Sydney, but I'm sto p ping over in Singapore for a few days on the way.
4 O n th e first Friday of each m o nth, a few of us get to g ether and go ten-pin bowling.
5 The m inister was taken ill in Iceland during a sh ort on his w ay back to Canada.
6 W e didn't have a big party for Jo's 50th birthday, just a fa m ily ..................... ..
7 Alle g atio ns of a of a m ajor leak of radioactive w aste fro m th e nucle ar p ower plant
have been stron gly denied by the Energy M inistry.
8 O n ly tw o years ago there was a serious of m alaria in the t o w n.

M a tch t he halv es o f t h ese p hrases, t he n use t h e m t o co m p le t e t he se n t e n ces belo w.

Th e m eanin g of t h e co rrect p hrase is given in brack e ts. 0

day-to- dow n-to- la r g e r- t h a n - m an / w o m a n -in - t h e -

o n ce -i n -a - st e p - b y- m id d le - o f - t h e - ro u n d - t h e

cl o ck ^ lay e ar t h lif e lif e t i m e roa d st e p st r e e t

1 Although th e Managing Director of Transcom was involved in m ajor d ecisions, she left the
d jxy - to - c h xy running of the co m pany to her staff. (routine )
2 The p arty w ill never regain p ower unless it can persuade
vo ters th at it has rid itself of corruptio n, ( not politic a lly extrem e )
3 Since th e atte m p t to assassinate him last year, th e D efence M inister has been given
pro tection by th e police. (a ll day a nd a ll night )
4 The bookcase cam e with sim ple, instructio ns on how to
assem ble it. (progressing fro m one sta ge to the next )
5 W hen the co m et passes close to Earth next we ek, scie ntists w ill have a
o p p ortunity to stu dy its effects on our atm osphere, ( very rare )
6 Eleni has a refreshing, approach to m ana g e m ent. She's much
less concerned with th e ory than with g etting things done in th e m ost efficie nt w ay possible.
( practical )
7 The ................................................................ isn't intereste d in th e finer points of the g overn m ent's tax
policy. Th ey just w a n t to know if th ey are going to take home more or less pay. ( ordin ary person )
8 H er fath er was a ch aracter who was w e ll known thro u ghout
th e villag e for his ecce ntric w ay of dressing and outspoken views, ( more exa ggera ted than usual)

A d d itio n a l e xe rcise 9 (page 245)

 W e use a before nouns and noun phrases th a t begin with a co nsonant sound.
If the noun or noun phrase starts with a vo w el le tter but begins with a
co nsonant sound, we also use a:
a u n iversity (/ a ju :n ... / ) a European (/ a j u a r ... / ) a o n e -parent fa m ily (/ a WAn ... / )

W e use an before words th a t begin with a vo w el sound, including a silent le tter ‘ h':
an orange an Italian an um brella an hour an honour
and ab breviations said as individ ual letters th at begin with A, E, F, H, I, L, M, N, O , R, S or X:
an MP (/ a n e m p i:/) an FBI agent (/ a n e f b i: a i ... / ) an IO U (/ an a i a o ju : /)

But co m pare ab breviations said as words:

a N A T O g eneral (/ a n e i t a u ... /) a FIFA official (/ a fiif a ... /) but an O P E C m eeting (/ an
a o p e k ... /)
N ote t h a t we say:
a h ist o ry (book) but an (o ra ) h ist o rica l (n ovel)

I W e use a / an (n ot o n e) to talk about a p articular but unsp ecifie d person, thin g or event:
I really need a cup of coffee.
You never see a police officer in this part of t o w n, do yo u?

W e also use a / an, not o ne, in num b er and q u an tity expressio ns such as:
three tim es a ye ar half an hour a q uarter o f an hour a day or so ( = ‘ab o ut a day')
50 cents a (= each) litre (n ote we can also say ‘50 cents for one litre')
a we ek or tw o (= b etween one and tw o weeks; note w e can also say ‘one or tw o w e eks')
a few a little a huge num b er o f ...

W e use a rath er than o n e in th e p attern a ... o f ... with possessives, as in:

She's a colleague o f mine.
C Th a t's a friend o f Ga briel's.
L _ ...... „
Before a singular c o unta ble noun o n e and a / an both refer to one thing:
O W e'll be in A ustralia for o n e ye ar, (or ... a year.)
O W ait here for o n e minute, and I'll be w ith yo u. ( or ... a minute ...)
Using o n e gives a little more em p hasis to th e length of tim e, q uantity, am o unt, etc.:
He w eig hs o n e hundred and tw e n ty kilos! W ould you believe it! (using o n e em phasises th e
weight more than using a)
H owever, w e use o n e rath er than a / an if w e w a n t to em phasise th at w e are talkin g about only one
thing or person rath er than tw o or more:
O Do yo u w a n t o n e san dwich or tw o?
Are you stayin g o nly o n e night?
I just to ok o n e look at her and she starte d crying.

We use o ne, not a / an, in the pattern o n e ... o t h e r / a n o t h e r:

Close o n e eye, and then the o t he r.
Bees carry pollen fro m o n e plant to a n o t h e r.

W e also use o n e in phrases such as o n e d ay, o n e evenin g,

o n e spring, etc. to mean a particular, but unsp ecified, day,
evening, spring, etc.:
Hope to see yo u again o n e day.
O n e evenin g, while he w as w orkin g late at the office ...

88
E x e rcises
W rit e a or an in t h e sp aces.
1 unpaid bill 8.................. U-turn
2 ............. DIY shop 9................... heirlo om
3 MP3 player 10.................. N ASA space launch
4 Euro 11.... .............. U N decision
5 MiG fig hter plane 12 S O S message
6 O lym p ic m ed al 13.................. F grade
7 AG M 14.................. hero

If n ecessary, co rrect a / an or o n e in t h ese se n t e n ces, or w ri t e / . In w hich se n t e nces are a / an

and o n e bot h p ossib le?
1 I usually go to th e gym four tim es one week.
2 There's more than one w ay to solve th e pro blem.
3 I phoned th e co uncil to co m plain, but just got passed on fro m a person to another.
4 Th e rate of pay is really good here. You can earn over £20 one hour.
5 Maybe w e could go skiing one winter.
6 The apples are 90 cents one kilo.
7 Are yo u hungry? W ould you like one piece of cake?
8 Th e rules say th a t there is only one vote per mem ber.
9 You can get seven hours of recording on one disc.
10 a : W h a t would M oritz like for his birth d ay?

b : W hy d on't yo u ask Leah? She's one good friend of his and w ill have so m e ideas.

11 There's one pen on th e floor. Is it yo urs?

12 The library books are due back in one m o nth.
13 Do you w a n t so m e of my chips? There are to o m any here for a person.
14 I'm going to London for one day or tw o.
15 Eith er I'll w ork late to night or I'll co m e in early to m orro w, but th e report's got to be finished by
lunchtim e a w ay or anoth er.
16 It w ill take more than one morning to finish the d ecorating.

» W hich is m ore a p pro pria t e, a / an or o n e? If both a / an and o n e are p ossible, w rit e t he m b o th.
( E B
1 If yo u w a it second I'll get my co at and co m e too.
2 I w a n t to see th e river last tim e before I leave.
3 The Presid ent is visitin g th e city day in N ove m ber.
4 It was announce d th a t the plane would be a p proxim ately hour late.
5 I could hear th e sound of helico p ter in th e distance.
6 I'd just like to say thing before I go.
7 Misaki's baby is ................... ye ar old already.
8 Dinner should be ready in hour or so.
9 Hugo cam e over evening last week.
10 I've painted w all already and I'll do th e oth er to m orro w.
11 I'd like to make ............... point here, Carlos, if I may.
12 large num b er of people had gathered in th e square.

- * A d d itio n a l exe rcise 10 (page 246)

Unit
4 5 . A / an, t he and zero article 1
We usually use t h e when we talk ab o ut -
things which are unique; that is, there is only one of them (or one set of th em):
CSSSSE5E2EB9
t h e w o rl d t h e sk y t h e a t m osp h e re t h e su n t h e gro u nd
t h e cli m a t e t h e h oriz o n t h e h u m a n race t h e e n v ir o n m e n t
t h e t r a v e l in d ust ry t h e In t e r n e t
general geographical areas with t he as in:
O t h e b e ach the town t h e se a(sid e) t h e lan d t h e c o u n t ry(si d e)
(where ‘th e co untry' or ‘the co untrysid e' m eans ‘the area where there are no to w ns')
t h e p ast t h e p rese n t t h e f u t u re

N ote, however, th a t so m e nouns like this can be used with zero a r t icle (i.e. no article) to refer to a
co nce pt in general:
O C li m a t e is one of the m any factors involved in changing farming m etho ds, ( or Th e cli m a t e ...)
O These flo w ers grow best in san dy soil and sun. (= sunshine)
In autu m n th e t e m p erature difference b etween lan d and se a decreases, ( or ... t h e lan d and
t h e se a ...)

If we w a n t to describ e a p articular instance of these we can use a / an. Co m pare:

I could see th e plane high up in t h e sk y. and
Q W hen I woke up there was a brig h t blu e sk y.
W h a t are yo ur plans for t h e f u t u r e? a nd
She dream t of a f u t u re w h e re sh e co uld sp e n d m ore ti m e p aintin g.

W e can use t h e when we make g en eralisatio ns ab o ut classes of things using singular co unta ble nouns.
(See also Unit 47A.) Co m pare th e use of t h e and a / an in th ese sentences:
T h e c o m p u t e r has revolutionised publishing, (this refers to co m p uters in gen eral) but not
A co m puter has revolutionise d publishing, (c o m p uters in genera l have done this, not an
individ ual co m puter)
T h e c o m p u t e r is an im p ortant research to ol, and
A c o m p u t e r is an im p ortant research to ol, (this sta te m e n t is true of both th e g eneral class
and th e individual ite m)
As an altern ative to t h e + sin g u la r co u n t a b le n ou n w e can use a plural co unta ble noun to talk about
a class of things:
O C o m p u t e rs are an im p orta nt research to ol.

N ote t h a t if t h e is used with plural and uncounta ble nouns w e refer to a sp ecific thing or group:
T h e co m p u t e rs have arrived. W h ere shall I put t h e m?
O T h e m usic was w o nd erful. I could have listen ed to th e orchestra all night.
W hen we define so m ethin g or say w h a t is typ ical of a p articular class of people or things, we g en erally
use a / an rath er than t he:
A co r kscr e w is a gadget for g ettin g corks out o f b ottles.
A g ard e n is there to give yo u pleasure, not to be a co nstant w orry.

So me nouns can be used u nco unta bly when we talk about th e wh ole substa nce or idea, but co unta bly
when we talk ab o ut an instance or more than one instance of it. W hen th ese nouns are used co unta bly
w e can use a / an (and plurals). Co m pare:
I d on't drink co f f e e, a nd Q W ould yo u like a c o f f e e? (= a cup of coffee)
He sho ok with f ear, and He has a f e a r of heights.
There are m any oth er nouns like this, including co n v e rsa t io n , g ra m m ar, i m p o rt a nce, iron, p le asu re,
sh a m p o o, so u n d. Som e of th ese nouns (e.g. gr a m m ar, iron) have different meanings when th ey are
used co unta bly and uncounta bly.
E x e rcises
C o m p le t e both se n t e n ces in each pair using o ne w ord fro m t h e box. A dd t h e or a / an in an
a p pro pria t e place. ( Q
b e ach f u t u re p ast w o rl d

1 a I think the best A ustralian win e is as good as any in ....................

b As a child, Dariya would often daydream about travellin g forward in tim e to
very different from th e one she lived in.
2 a If we are electe d, we w ill build our p olicies on the sim ple b elief th a t our purpose is to create
b rig h t....................... for our children rath er than achievin g sh ort-term goals for ourselves.
b Although our current financial position is w orryin g, w e have m any new ord ers for our pro ducts
and is looking very p ositive.
3 a As I get older, I re m em b er b etter than things th a t happened recently,
b M any to urists co m e to th e villa g e looking for th at never really existed.
4 a If yo u w a n t to get aw ay from it all, yo u can take a sm all boat to d eserted on one
of th e islands.
b Dear Mum and Dad, W e’re having a great holiday. The w e ath er's w o n d erful and we're
spending m ost of our tim e o n ..............................

U n d erlin e t he co rrect or m ore lik ely answ er. If b oth a nsw e rs are p ossible, u n d erlin e t he m both.
©
1 W e get so me strang e requests in our shop. W e had the custo m er / a custo m er in th e oth er day
wh o w ante d to buy chocolate-covere d ants.
2 It often se ems th a t the individual / an individu al can have little im pact on g overnm ent policy.
3 The invention of a car / the car is n orm ally attrib ute d to th e G erm an en gine er G o ttlie b Daimler.
4 The television / A television has changed the w ay we think more than any o th er mo dern
invention.
5 The cam paign against sm oking in public places argues t h a t its harm ful effects are not confined
to the sm oker / a smoker.

fla C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces using t he n o u ns fro m t h e box. Use each noun t w ice. If n ecessa ry, insert
a / an in t h e co rrect place. Q

co n v e rsa t io n g ra m m a r iron p le asu re so u n d

a.
1 My sisters were cle arly having / serious co nv ersatio n so I didn't like to disturb th e m.
2 It now gives me great to intro duce th at m arvello us ve ntrilo q uist, Marco Lutm an.
3 As w e walked through th e rainforest we heard we w ere n't e x p e c t in g - t h e ring of a
m o bile phone.
4 The failure to teach in scho ols has affecte d people's a b ility to write w ell.
5 M ost red m eat is relatively high in ...................... ..
6 travels at different speeds, depending on th e t e m p erature of the air.
7 It's real to trave l by rail in Swed en. The trains are clean and punctual.
8 I have of English printed in 1890 on very thin paper.
9 Although he's got ....................... he never se ems to use it. His shirts are alw ays crease d.
10 As she walked into the party, ceased and everyo ne in th e crowd ed room stared at
her.

A d d itio n a l exe rcise 10 (page 246)

W e use a / an to say w h a t a person's jo b is, w as, or w ill be:
She was a co m p a n y d irect o r when she retired.
G A gainst her parents' wish es, she wa nts to be a j o u r n a list .
H owever, when w e give a person's jo b title , or th eir unique position, w e use t h e or zero a r t icle
(i.e. no article), not a / an. Co m pare:
She's been app ointed (t he) head o f t h e co m p a n y, and
O I'm a p ro d uct io n m a n a g er at Fino. (= there m ay be m ore than one pro duction manager)

A fter t h e p osit io n of, t h e p ost of, or t h e ro le o f w e use zero a r t icle before a jo b title:
Dr Sim o ns has taken on t h e p osit io n o f Head of D e p artm ent.

W e usually use zero a r t icle (i.e. no article) before th e name of an individ ual person or place. H owever,
w e use t h e -
“V when there are two people with the same name to specify which one we mean:
G That's not t h e St e p h e n Frase r I w e nt to scho ol w ith,
but co m pare ‘There w as a Ste phen Fraser in my class.' (= a person named Ste phen Fraser)
when we want to emphasise that the person we are referring to is the most famous person with that
name. Used this way, t he is stressed and pronounced / di:/:
Do th ey mean the N e il A r m str o n g , or so m eone else?
with an adjective to describe a person, or another noun which tells us their job:
O t h e la t e M ich a el Ja ckso n
(t h e) a r t ist Jose p h T u r n e r (‘th e' is so m etim es left out, p articularly in jo urnalism )
when we talk about a fa mily as a whole:
O T h e Ro binso ns are a w ay this weekend.

N ote th a t a / an, or so m etim es zero a r t icle , is used with a nam e when referring to th e p articular
excelle n t q ualities of th e person nam e d:
G Majid plays ten nis w e ll, but he'll never be (a) Ro g er Fe d erer.

W e also use a / an when we refer to an individ ual exam ple of a pro duct mad e by a p articular
m anufacturer (e.g I've just bought a Merce des) or a w ork by a p articular artist (e.g. Do yo u think it
could be a Van Gogh / a Re m bran d t?).
You can use a / an before a person's nam e if yo u d o n't know th e person yo urself. Co m pare:
Dr Lee is here for yo u. (= I kn ow Dr Lee) a nd
There's a Dr A m y Lee on the phone. (= I haven't heard of her before) Do you w a n t to talk to her?

In stories and jo kes in co nversatio n, t h is is co m m o nly used instead of a / an to intro duce a new
person or thing. Using t h is highlights th e person or thin g as the to pic of w h a t is to co m e n ext:
As I was walkin g along, t h is spid er (= a spider) landed on my head, and ...
O T h is man (= a man) goes into a ch e m ist and he says ...

W e use t h e before a superla tive a djective (t h e big g est, t h e m ost e x p e nsiv e, etc.) when th e
su p erlative a djective is follow e d by a noun or defining phrase:
H e is t h e f in est you ng p la yer around at th e m o m ent.
H owever, w e can often leave out t h e, p articularly in an inform al style, when there is no noun or
d e fin in g p h ra se a f t e r t h e s u p e rla t iv e a d je c t iv e . C o m p a r e :
O a : W hy did you decide to stay in this hotel?
b : It w as (t he) ch e a p est, and It was t h e ch e a p est I could find.
E x e rcises
If n ecessary, co rrect an y m ist a k es in t h ese se n t e n ces. If t h e y are alrea d y co rrect, w ri t e / . Q 9
1 She was d etermine d to be auth or one day.
2 She recently became the m inister in th e new g overnm ent.
3 a : W h a t make is yo ur co m p uter? b : It's Mac.
4 I found m yself talkin g to George Clo oney! N ot George Clo oney, of co urse, but so m eone with th e
sam e nam e.
5 I didn't even know Clara w as intereste d in art until I heard th at she owns Van Gogh.
6 I've been offered the position of Director of Personnel.
7 W e're going on holiday w ith N ielsens.
8 He's really keen on athle tics. He likes to think of himself as the Usain Bolt.

Put a / an, t h e or zero a r t icl e (-) in t h e sp aces. Giv e all p ossible a nsw ers. Q Q
1 I'm m arketing a dviser at U nifle et.
2 Leon's manag er of his local fo o tb all tea m.
3 She has been app ointed M inister for Industry.
4 A sp ecial award was given to novelist Ian Mc Murphy.
5 Let me intro duce yo u to Ge orgia Rossi.
6 W e m et our good friend Eliza Borg when we were in M alta.
7 W hen Lucia was young she knew Picasso.
8 Linda Green is outsid e. Do yo u w a n t to see her?

If t he it alicise d t h e can be le f t o u t o f t h ese se n t e n ces, p ut brack e ts aro un d it.

1. It's the best ice-cream I've ever taste d.
2 Rodrigo's boat w asn't the m ost ele gant in th e harb our, but it was c ertainly the biggest.
3 I thou ght th e second co m p e titor was the best, even though he didn't win a prize.
4 This is by far the m ost valu a ble painting in the co llectio n.
5 A: W hy did you ask M artina to go first? B: Because she's the oldest.
6 Sap phires occur in a varie ty of colo urs, but blue ones are the m ost valuable.
7 Th e Pacific is the biggest ocean in th e world.
8 It's supposed to be the old est post office in the co untry.

C o m p le t e t h e e m ail w it h a / an, t h e , ze ro a r t icl e or t h is. Giv e a l t ern a ti v es w here p ossible.

~ c ia k iiia
* ,r v r « .

® 1 H 7 ' t T - T j, i= H = 66 m « Plain Text C h e c k Sp e llin g

S o m e th in g v e ry stra n g e h a p p e n e d to m e th e o t h e r n ig h t. As I w as going home

(1 ) m a n c a m e up to m e. He had (2 ) u n tid y h a ir a n d ( 3 ) ............. p ain t
all o v e r his c lo t h e s. He told m e t h a t he w as (4 ) h ea d of th e local co uncil and t h a t
he w as o fferin g m e a jo b a s (5 ) road sw e e p er. He said t h a t (6 ) road
sw e e p e r e a rn s a g re a t d eal o f m o n e y and t h a t I wo uld b e c o m e v e ry rich in (7 )
f u t u re . W e ll, I j u s t said 'N o, t h a n k s' an d w a lk e d o n. W h en I lo oke d b ac k he had sto p p e d
(8 ) w o m a n . He w as te llin g h e r t h a t he w as (9 ) Pre sid e n t of th e U nite d
S t a t e s an d t h a t he w a n t e d h er to be (1 0 ) D e fe n c e S e c r e t a ry ...

- * A d d itio n a l exe rcise 10 (page 246) 93

Unit
47 A / an, t h e and zero article 3
W ith plural and uncountable nouns, zero a r t icle (i.e. no article) is used to
talk g enerally, w ith o u t d efinite people or things in mind. T h e is used when we
assum e th e listen er or reader w ill und erstand who or w h a t we are referring to,
or wh en oth er words in th e noun phrase make th e reference sp ecific. Co m pare:
The g overnm ent has pro mised not to tax b o oks. (= books generally) and
O T h e b o o ks have arrive d. (= the books yo u ordered)
M usic played an im p orta nt part in his life. (= m usic g enerally) and
I thou ght t h e m usic used in the film was th e best part. (= th a t p articular m usic)

We often use zero a r t icle with the nam es of holidays, sp ecial tim es of the year, m o nths, and days of
th e we ek including East e r, Ra m a d an, N e w Ye ar's D a y. But co m pare:
C I'll see yo u on Sa t u rd a y. (= n ext Saturday)
W e m et on Sa t u r d a y. (= last Saturday)
Th ey cam e on a Sa t u r d a y as far as I can rem em b er, (w e are only intereste d in th e day of th e
we ek, not which p articular Saturday)
O Th ey cam e on t h e Sa t u r d a y after our party, (a p articular Saturday, sp ecifyin g which one)

W ith w in t e r, su m m er, spring, a u t u m n, and N e w Ye ar (m eaning th e holid ay perio d), we can use
eith er zero a r t icle or t he:
In (the) su m m e r I try to spend as much tim e as I can in the garden.
W e use t h e when it is understoo d or w e go on to sp ecify which sum m er, spring, etc. we m ean:
O I'd like to go skiing in t h e a u t u m n. (= this year)
I first w e n t skiing in t h e sp rin g of 2002.
W e say ‘in the N e w Year' to mean near th e beginning o f n ext year:
0 I'll see yo u again in t h e N e w Year.
W hen w e w a n t to describ e th e features of a p articular holiday, season, or oth er period of tim e and say
th a t it w as so m eh ow sp ecial wh en com pare d with others, w e can use It / T h a t w as ... + a / an + nou n
+ m o di fyin g p hrase. Co m pare:
Th a t w as a w in ter I'll never forget. (= com pare d to oth er w in ters it was unforg etta ble) and
Th a t w as t h e win ter we w e n t to N orway. (= a sta te m e n t ab out a p articular win ter)

W e use zero a r t icle with tim es o f the day and night such as m i d nig h t, m id d a y, and n oo n:
If possible, I'd like it finished by mid d ay.
M id nigh t co uld n't co m e q uickly enough.
But note th a t w e can say eith er t h e d a w n or d a w n:
He got back into bed and w aite d for (t he) d a w n.
W e use t h e + m ornin g / a f t e r n o o n / ev e nin g for a day which is understo o d or already specified:
I enjoyed t h e m orning, but in t h e a f t e r n o o n th e course w as boring.
But co m pare:
M ornin g is the tim e I w ork best. (= m ornings in general; T h e m ornin g ... is also possible)
I'll be there b y (t he) m ornin g / evenin g. (b u t ... b y t h e a f t ern o o n , n o t ... by afterno o n)
I waite d a ll m ornin g. ( more usual than all th e m orning / afterno o n, etc.)
O ‘You look upset.' ‘Yes, I've had a terrible m orning.' (= com pare d to oth er mornings)

D We often use b y + zero a r t icle to talk about m eans of transp ort and co m m unicatio n. Co m pare:
I g en erally go by b us to w ork, and I g en erally take t h e b us to w ork.
llillii
-0 S
A lso : go / t r a v e l b y ca r / t a xi / b us / p la n e / tr a in / air /
0 0 sea; c o n t a c t / c o m m u n ica t e b y p ost / e m a il / p h o n e

94
E x e rcises
m s * Co m p le t e both se n t e nces in each pair using one w ord fro m t he box. A dd t h e w here n ecessary.
a g ricu l t u re child re n fire h o lid a ys isla n ds m oney p are n ts rain

1 a as young as ten are workin g in the clothin g industry.

b W hile yo u're painting th e sittin g roo m, I'll take over to th e park.
2 a As th e soil q uality d eteriorate d, so too did on which th e region
depended.
b Around 6 0% of the lab our force in the co unty is sup ported by ............................................... ..
3 a Around th e world are being thre atened by rising sea levels,
b off the east co ast o f M alaysia are b eautiful.
4 a I’ve been really busy at w ork, so I'm really looking forward to ................................ ..
b in the Brazilian rainforests are now becoming p opular with travellers.
5 a Farmers w ill be hoping for in th e next few we eks,
b Last night was torrential.
6 a I've left I owe you on y o ur desk.
b It is said th a t is th e root of all evil.
7 a w ill be able to use this so ftware to check th eir child's use of the Intern et,
b of Paul Th o m as claim ed th a t he w as at hom e at the tim e of the robbery.
8 a It isn't known how starte d.
b A nim als fear more than anythin g else.

m a t * C o m p le t e t h e dialo g u es wit h a / an, t h e or ze ro a r t icl e (-), w hich e v er is m ore likely. W he re

m ore t h an on e a nsw e r is p ossible, co nsi d er a n y dif f ere nce in meaning.
1 a : W hat's the m atter?
b : I’ve been workin g in th e garden all afterno on and my back aches.
2 a : Can yo u re m e m b er when we last saw A lex?
b : It w as Sunday in June, I think.
3 a : W hen did yo u get y o ur lapto p?
b : July 15th last year. Ire m em b er because it was also day I passed my driving test.
4 a : I haven't seen Subin for m o nths, b : He's been a w ay inSouth Africa for winter.
5 a : I've sp ent afterno on on th e phone to my m oth er, b : W h y? Is there a pro blem?
6 a : Shall w e go out walkin g on Sun d ay? b : N o, I'm busy this weekend.
7 a : Do yo u re m e m b er when M ateo did all the co oking?
b : O f course. It w as Christm as th e rest of us had flu.
8 a: I’ll see yo u again after C hristm as, b : O kay. H ave a good holiday.
9 a : That old co at of yo urs w o n't be warm enough f o r winter.
b : You're right. I need a new one.
10 a : Rem em b er when Lars and Ella had th a t terrible row?
b : H ow could I forg et? That was day I w o uld n't w a n t to go through again.

m a * C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces using t h e w ords fro m t h e box (m ore t han o nce). A dd an y o t he r

n ecessary w ords.

air ca r e m a il p ost

1 a : I got from Carla yesterd ay, b : H ow is she now?

2 The train was cancelle d so I had to c o m e ...........................................
3 Research has found th at living plants are efficie nt at absorbing p ollutants in .............................
4 The ap plication forms cam e in this m orning.
5 The exam results w ill be se nt on 24th August.
6 It's raining so I think I’ll t a k e ...........................................
7 a: Shall I send Goran a le tter? b: N o , th e quickest w ay to get in touch with him is................ .................
8 Thailand - G e ttin g t h e r e ................................... : The main internatio nal airp ort in Thailand is
Suvarnab humi Airp ort ...

- A d d itio n a l e xe rcise 10 (page 246)

Unit
48 So m e and any
So m e flSESEZESSI
Before plural and uncountable nouns w e so m etim es use so m e or zero a r t icle (i.e. no article) with very
little difference in meaning:
‘W here were yo u last w e e k?' ‘I was visitin g (so m e) friends.'
Before serving, pour (so m e) yo g hurt over th e top.
W ith both so m e and ze ro a r t icle w e are referring to p articular people or things but in an indefinite
way. W hen it is used in this way, so m e is usually pronounced /sa m / .

W e d on't use so m e to make g eneral state m e n ts about w h ole classes of things or people:
O M ach in ery can be dang erous unless used pro perly.
Ba b ies need a lot of atte n tio n.

So m e is used before a num b er to mean ‘a p proxim ately':

So m e eig hty per cent of all resid ents to ok part in th e vo te. (= a p proxim ately eig hty per cent;
beginning ‘Eighty per cent ...' suggests a more precise figure)
W hen it is used in th is w ay, so m e is usually pronounced / s a i t i /.

W h en w e ca n't say exactly which person or thing w e are talkin g about because we d on't know, ca n't
rem em b er, or w a n t to em phasise t h a t it is not im p orta nt, we can use so m e instead of a / an with a
sin gular noun. W hen it is used in this w ay, so m e is usually pronounced /sA m/.
He was interrupte d tw ic e by so m e tro u ble m aker in th e audience.

W e use th e phrase so m e (t hing) or o t h e r in a sim ilar w ay:

I bought th e m from so m e shop or o t h e r in N ew Stre et. (n o t ... from a shop or o t h e r...)

A ny
W e usually use a n y not so m e (and a n y o n e, an y t hin g, e tc. not so m e o n e, so m e t hin g, etc.) -
in non-affirmative contexts; that is, lacking positive, affirmative meaning,
to refer to non-specific, unspecified things.
For exam ple, we g en erally use a n y in sentences w ith a neg ative meaning:
O There's h ardly a n y sugar left.
I closed th e win d o ws to preve n t a n y flies gettin g in.
O It was im possible to see a n y t h in g in th e dark.
O W e got to the airp ort without a n y d ifficulty.

Also when se n te nces include: b arely, n ever, rarely , sca rce ly , se ld o m (= negative adverbs); d e ny,
f ail, f orbid, pro hibit, re f use (= ne gative verbs); r e lu c t a n t , u n a ble, u n li k e ly (= neg ative a djectives)

H owever, w e use so m e with th ese negative w ords-

w h e n so m e (p ro n o u n c e d / s A m / ) h as th e im p lic a tio n ‘ n o t a ll':
I talk to colleagues before I make so m e d ecisions, but I had to make this one on m y own.
when the basic meaning is positive:
O So m e b o d y isn't tellin g th e truth. (= There is so m e person [who isn't tellin g th e truth])
T; when we are talking about a particular but unspecified person or thing:
( J I was relu cta n t to repeat so m e t h in g so critical of Paul. (= a sp ecific criticism)

W e often use a n y in clauses th a t begin with b e f ore, and with co m parisons:

I cleared up th e mess before a n y o n e saw it. ('... before so m eone saw it' suggests t h a t I have a
p articular person in mind wh o mig ht see it)
Q The m aterial fe lt so fter than a n y t h in g she had ever to uche d before.
E x e rcises
^ £ 2 Q | If n ecessary, co rrect t h ese se n t e nces by w ritin g so m e in an a p pro pria t e place or crossin g it out.
If t h e se n t e nce is alrea d y co rrect, w ri t e . Q S mS u S I S i IS S Z B
1 If y o u ’re going to the library, could you take back books th a t I've finished reading?
2 The price of so me coffee is at an all-tim e low.
3 To ny knows more about so me jazz than anyone I've ever m et.
4 The door kept flyin g open in th e win d so I tied it up with string.
5 Sp orts are dangerous.
6 I need to get so m e bread fro m th e sup erm arket.
7 M oney can't buy yo u so me happiness.
8 Children are taller than exp ected at a given age.

^ 2 9 Re writ e t h ese n e ws hea dlin es as f u ll se n t e n ces using so m e t o m ean ‘a p p ro xim a t ely'.

1
250 p eop le ch a rg ed w ith a ssa u lt follow in g M olton riots
Some Z50 people have been charged, w'dth assa u l t following., th e Molton rrots.

3 0% O F A LL C I T Y B USES F O U N D T O BE U N S A FE
2
U n e x p lo d e d b o m b fo u n d 5 m iles from N e w h a m c e n tre

4 25% OF ELECTRICITY FROM WIND BY 2 0 2 5

200 j o b s t o b e l ost a t E n c o n s t e e l w o r k s

^29 C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces in a n y a p pro pria t e w a y using some + singular noun or some +

singular noun + or other.
1 I d o n’t kn ow where I got th e inform atio n fro m. I m ust have heard it
on some r&dxo programme (o r o t h e r).
2 I d on't know where Jakub is. He's pro bably ....................................................................................................
3 I d on't know where th e book is. Maybe I lent it .............................
4 I d on't know where Zuzanna works. I think it's in ................................................................................................
5 I d on't know w h y N ika is still at w ork. Perhaps she's g ot to ........................................................................

C o m p le t e t h ese se n t e n ces w it h some, someone, something, any, anyone or anything.

W h e re b oth some(one / thing) or any(one / thing) are p ossible, w ri t e b ot h and co nsi d er any
dif f ere nce in m eaning.
1 Elias worked hard at learning Ja panese but failed to make ..................... real progress.
2 I was unable to eat of th e food.
3 I alw ays offer to help organise scho ol co ncerts, but there is seld om for me to do.
4 Fiona Jones is I rarely see th ese days.
5 He denied th a t he had done wrong.
6 I alw ays get to w ork before .............. else.
7 The th eatre is unlikely to have tickets left for to night's p erform ance.
8 D espite rowing as hard as w e could, we had gone barely ................. distance from the shore.
9 parents never seem to have tim e to sit down and talk to th eir children.
10 W hen I last lent m y lapto p out it got damaged, so I'm reluctant to lend it to else.

* A d d itio n a l e xe rcise 10 (page 246) 97

Unit
49 No, none (of) and n o t any
W e can use no and n o n e (of) instead of n o t a or n o t a n y for p articular C S K S B B & a
e m p hasis. Com pare:
There isn't a train until to m orro w. a n dTh ere's no train until to m orro w, (m ore e m p hatic)
Sorry, there isn't a n y left, a nd Sorry, there's n o n e left.
He didn't have a n y of the usual sym p to ms, and He had n o n e o f th e usual sym p to ms.

W e use oth er pairs of neg ative words and phrases in a sim ilar w ay:
There isn't a n y o n e / a n y b o d y here, and There's no o n e / n o b o d y here, (m ore e m p hatic)
She w asn't a n y w h e r e to be seen, a nd She was n o w h ere to be seen.
W hy d o n't you e v e r call m e? a nd W h y do yo u n e v e r call me?

W e d o n't usually use n o t a / any, n o t a n y o n e, etc. in initial position in a sentence or clause, or

straig ht after and, b u t or t h a t at the beginning of a clause. Instead we use no, n o n e of, no o n e, etc.:
N o force was needed to make th e m m ove. (not N ot any force was needed ...)
M ost players are under 16 and n o n e o f th e m is over 20. (n o t ... and not any o f th e m ...)
I'm sure th at n o t hin g can go wrong. ( n o t ... th a t not anythin g can ...)

In a fo rm al or literary style w e can use n o t a in initial position or after and, b u t or t h a t (see also
Unit 100):
N o t a sound cam e from th e roo m. (less form a lly There w asn't a sound from th e roo m.)
She kept so quiet th a t n o t a soul in the house knew she was there.

A fter no, w e can often use eith er a singular or a plural noun with little difference in m eaning, althoug h
a singular noun is usually more form al:
N o a nsw e rs could be found, ( or more form a lly N o a nsw e r ...)
W e w a n t to go to the island but there are no b o a ts to take us. ( or more fo r m a lly ... th ere is
no b oa t.)
H owever, we use a singular noun in situatio ns w here w e would exp ect one of so m ethin g, and a plura l
noun where we would exp ect more than one. Com pare:
I phoned Sarah at hom e, but th ere was no a nsw e r, ( n o t ... but there were no answ ers.) and
He se ems very lo n ely at scho ol, and has no frie n ds, ( n o t ... no friend.)

W e can give special em phasis to no or n o ne o f using phrases like no a m o u n t o f with uncountable

nouns, n o t on e ... / n o t a sin gle ... with singular co untable nouns, and n o t o n e o f ... with plural nouns:
The co m pany is so badly managed th a t no a m o u n t o f investm ent w ill make it successful.
O N o t o n e person remem bere d my birth day, ( or N o t a sin g le person ...)
N o t o n e o f the fa m ilies affecte d by th e noise w a n ts to move.

So m e phrases w ith no are c o m m o nly used in inform al spoken English: N o w o n d e r (= it's not
surprising); N o idea (= I d on't know); N o c o m m e n t (= I have nothing to say); N o w a y, N o ch a nce
(= e m p hatic w ays of saying ‘no’, p articularly to express refusal to do or believe so m ethin g);
N o pro ble m , N o b o t h e r (= it isn't / w asn't difficult to do so m ethin g):
‘The co m p uter's not workin g again.'
‘ N o w o n d er. It's not plugged in!'
‘Thanks for th e lift.' ‘ N o pro b le m.
I had to go past th e statio n anyway.'

98
E x e rcises
C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces w it h a w ord or p hrase fro m (i) f ollo w e d by a w ord or p hrase fro m (ii).
Use each w ord or p hrase o nce only.
0)
no none none of no o n e n o t hi n g n o w h ere n e v er not

(ii)
a drop e lse goin g t o g e t heard t h e h o t e ls
m t h e cu p b o ard p oin t wro n g

1 W h ere are th e biscuits? There a r e hone m t h e cupboard,......

2 W e left th e house as q uie tly as possible a n d ................................................... us.
3 wasspilt as she poured th e liquid into th e f
4 She was d etermin ed to leave and I knew there was ................................................. inprotesting.
5 The door was locked and he h a d ............................................................................................................................to go.
6 I found th a t .................................................................................. in th e city centre had any ro oms left.
7 Lia m ’s so lazy. Is he a jo b?
8 The d octors reassured Em ily th a t th ey could find with her.

Look a gain a t t h e se n t e n ces in 49.1. W hich of t h e m can y o u re w rit e t o m a ke less e m p h a tic using
n o t (n't) a n y / a n y o n e, e tc.?

If n ecessa ry, co rrect t h e it alicise d p arts o f t his e m ail.

^ B O CD

Hi. Just back from a week on the island of Lumos - but I certainly wouldn’t recommend it! Their economy is in a
really bad way. A lot of people just sit around all day - there (1) is no job to be found outside the main town. I had
to hire a car because there (2) is no train or bus on the island. But it was incredibly old - it’s ages since I’ve seen a
car with (3) no seatbelt. And then when I had a puncture I discovered there (4) were no spare tyres either. It was in
the hills in the north, and as there (5) were no people around to help, I phoned the car hire company and had to wait
hours for someone to turn up. It was hot and there (6) was no shade as there (7) is no tree in that part of the island.
The hotel wasn’t much better. There (8) were no swimming pools - even though it showed one on its website! There
(9) were no televisions in my room, and on the first night there (10) was no hot water. But when I phoned down
to reception to complain, there (11) were no replies. The food was awful at the hotel, but as there (12) were no
restaurants for miles around there (13) were no choices - I had to eat there. But I don’t think I’ll be going back!
Speak soon,
Karl
: ^ | ' ____

C o m p le t e t h ese se n t e n ces in a n y a p pro pria t e w a y beginning n o t o n e (o f) or n o a m o u n t of.

1 I made lots of cakes for th e p arty but riot one o f th e c h ildre r ) U ked th e m .
2 Mr Carlson didn't w a n t to sell th e painting, and ...
3 I sent jo b ap plicatio ns to over a hundred co m panies, b u t ...
4 Sm allp ox used to be co m m on all over th e world but since 1978 ...
5 The flo or had dirty black marks all over it, and ...

g a t a Ch o ose o n e of t h e N o ... p hrases fro m sect io n F o p p osit e t o co m p le t e t h ese dialo g ues.

1 Can you give me a lift to th e sta tio n? b :
a : . I'll pick yo u up at eight.
2 I've got a hea dache.
a :
b : ......................................You've been in front of th a t co m p uter screen for hours.

3 a : D o yo u think Kim w ill pass her m aths?

b : ...................................... She just d o esn't w ork hard enough.

4 a : W here's Stefan?
b : ...................................... Last tim e I saw him he was in the kitchen.
5 a : I'm from N ews W orld, Dr Jam es. Do yo u have anythin g to say about
the accusatio n th a t yo u sto le from y o ur p atients? b : ...................................... Good bye.

99
Unit
5 0 4 Much (of), m any (of), a lo t of, lo ts (of), etc.
in a ffirm a tive sentences w e g en erally use a l o t o f and l o ts (of) rath er than
m uch (of) and m a n y (of), p articularly in inform al c o ntexts. H owever, there
are a num b er of exce ptio ns -
In formal contexts, such as academic writing, m uch (of) and m any (of) are often preferred. We can
also use phrases such as a large / co nsid era ble / su bst a n tial a m o un t of (with uncountable nouns), or
a large / co nsid era ble / grea t / su bst a n tial nu m ber of (with plural nouns):
Q M uch debate has been heard about Thornto n's new book.
Q There could be m a n y expla natio ns for this.
G M uch o f her fictio n describ es wo m en in unhap py marriages.
A larg e a m o u n t o f th e food was inedible, (or M uch o f ...)
Th e book co ntains a lar g e n u m b e r o f pictures, m any in colour, (or ... m a n y ...)
fr In formal contexts we can use much and m any as pronouns:
O There is no guarante e she w ill recover. M uch depends on how w e ll she responds to tre atm e n t.
G M any (= m any people) have argued th a t she is th e fin est poet of our g eneration.
G N ot once did I see a tig er in the jun gle, although I heard m an y, (referring back to ’tig er(s)')
We usually use many rather than a lot of or lo ts of with time expressions (days, minu tes, m onths,
w eeks, years) and nu m ber + of (e.g. t h o usan ds of v o t ers, m illio ns o f pounds):
W e used to spend m a n y hours driving to M elb ourne and back.
He was the fo und er of a co m p any now w orth m a n y millions o f pounds.

W e can use m a n y followin g t h e, m y, its, his, her, etc. and plural co unta ble nouns:
Am ong the m a n y unknowns after th e earthquake is th e exte nt of damage to th e fo un dations
of buildings.
The g allery is exhibitin g so m e of his m a n y fa m ous paintings o f ships.

W e can use the phrase m a n y a with a singular noun to talk ab out a rep eated event or a large num b er
of people or things:
M an y a pupil at the scho ol w ill be pleased th at Latin is no longer co m pulsory.

To em p hasise t h a t w e are talkin g ab o ut a large num b er we can use a g oo d / g re a t m a n y with a plural

noun:
Q She has a g oo d / g re a t m a n y friends in N ew Zealand.
To em phasise th a t we are talkin g ab o ut a large a m o unt we can use a g oo d / grea t d e al o f with a
singular or uncounta ble noun:
A g oo d / g re a t d e al o f the exhibition was devoted to her recent w ork.

We use f a r (n ot ‘m uch’ or ‘m a ny’) before t o o m a n y + a p lu ra l co u n t a b le n o u n or t o o m uch + an

u n co u n t a b le nou n:
O Far t o o m a n y students faile d th e en d -of-year m aths exam. (not Much / Many to o m any ...)
Q Far t o o m uch time is waste d fillin g in forms. (not Much / M any to o much tim e ...)

W e often use p le n t y o f instead of a lo t o f or lo ts o f with uncounta ble and plural co unta ble nouns.
H owever, p le n t y o f means ‘enough, or more than enough’ and is therefore not likely in certain
co ntexts. Co m pare:
We to ok l o ts o f / p le n t y o f food and drink on our w alk through th e hills, and
O Nina d o esn't look w ell. She's lost a l o t o f weight, (‘ple nty o f is unlikely here)

100
E x e rcises
M ake correct io ns or i m p ro ve m e n ts t o t h ese e x t rac ts fro m co n v ersa ti o ns (1-3) and fro m
aca d e m ic writin g (4 - 6).

Lola's had many problems with her

back for a lot of years. She's having A lot have claimed that Professor Dowman’s
an operation next week and she study on current attitudes to politics is flawed.
won't be back at work for a good One criticism is that much too many people
deal of weeks afterwards. questioned in the survey were under 18.

a:There's bound to be much A lot of research has been conducted on the

traffic on the way to the station. effects of diet on health, with a lot of studies
Perhaps we should leave now. focusing on the link between fat intake and
heart disease. However, a lot remains to be done.
b: No, there's plenty tim e left,
and at this tim e of day many
people w ill alrea dy be at work. . While it is true that a lot of thousands of jobs
were lost with the decline of the northern
coal and steel industries, a lot of advantages
Many think that hedgehogs are have also followed. Much too many cases of
very rare nowadays, but when I lung disease were recorded in the region, but
was in Wales I saw many. with lower levels of pollution the number has
declined. In addition, a great deal of hi-tech
companies have moved in to take advantage of
the newly available workforce.

C o m p le t e t h e se n t e nces w it h ei t h er t h e / m y / i ts / his / h e r m a n y or m a n y a / an and one

it e m fro m t h e box. ( ? )
co f f e e sh o ps e x p e d it io ns G e r m a n r e l a t i v es g olf co u rses
e m a ils ship su n n y a f t e r n o o n teacher

1 She w e n t to stay in Munich with one o f many G erm an r e la t iv e s.

2 I sp ent ...................................................... sittin g on th e t errace looking o ut over th e hills.
3 has been lost in th e dangerous w a ters off th e south
co ast of th e island.
4 Th e area is m ost fa m o us for .......................................................................... th a t a ttra ct players fro m
all over the world.
5 Since the end of last ye ar he has refused to sp eak to me on th e phone or answ er

6 O liver Svensson accom panie d Colonel Colo m b o on .....................................

to th e H im alayas and th e Andes.
7 w ill be looking forward to th e start of th e scho ol
holidays.
8 I w e nt into th e first of along N ew Stre et and ordered an
espresso.

g i n If p ossible, co m p le t e t h ese se n t e n ces using p l e n t y o f. If n ot, use a l o t o f.

1 It w ill be very hot on the jo urn ey, so make sure you bring drinking water.
2 sta ff at th e hospital have co me down with a m ysterio us illness.
3 He didn't have ........................... m oney, so he decided to catch th e bus rath er than take a taxi.
4 W e were surprised when stu d ents faile d to atten d th e lecture.
5 I'm looking forward to a relaxing holiday, and I'm takin g books to read.

101
Unit
51 A ll (of), w h o le, every, each
All (of) W H IM M
W e so m etim es use a ll after th e noun it refers to:
His songs a ll sound much th e sa m e to me. (or A ll [of] his songs sound ...)
We a ll think Kushi's workin g too hard, ( or A ll o f us think ...)

N ote th a t w e usually put a ll after th e verb be and after th e first a uxiliary verb if there is one:
Th ey are a ll going to A th ens during th e vacatio n, ( not Th ey all are going ...)
You should a ll have thre e qu estion papers, ( not You all should have however, note th a t we
can say ‘You all should have for p articular em p hasis in spoken English)

To make neg ative sentences w ith all (of) we usually use n o t a ll (of) rath er than a l l ... n o t (although
a l l ... n o t is so m etim es used in inform al spoken English):
O N o t a ll (of) th e se ats were taken, or The se ats were n o t a ll taken.

N ote th a t n o t a ll (of) and n o n e o f have a different meaning. Com pare:

N o t a ll (of) my co usins were at th e wedding. (= so m e of th e m were there) and
G N o n e o f my cousins were at th e wed ding. (= not one of th e m w as there)

All and whole

Before singular co unta ble nouns we usually use t h e w h o le rath er than a ll t he:
Th ey w ere n't able to stay for t h e w h o le co ncert, (ra ther than ... for all the co ncert.)

H owever, w e can say a ll + d a y / w e e k / nig h t / m o n t h / w in t er, etc. ( but not usually all O cto b er /
2001 / 21st May, e tc.; a ll M o n d a y / T u esd a y, etc. are o nly usually used in inform al c o ntexts); a ll t h e
tim e, a ll t h e w a y; and in inform al speech w e can use a ll t h e with things th a t we see as being made up
of parts (a ll t h e w o rl d / h o use / ci t y / c o u n t r y / d e p a r t m e n t, etc.):
A fter th e fire t h e w h o le city was covered in dust, ( or ... a ll the c ity ... in inform al speech)
N ote th at w e can use e n t ir e instead of w h o le im m e diately before a noun:
The w h o le / e n tir e building has recently been ren ovated.

Before plural nouns w e can use a ll (of) or w h o le , but th ey have different meanings. Co m pare:
A ll (of) t h e t o w ns had th eir e le ctricity cut off. (= every town in an area) and
O A fter th e storm, w h o le t o w ns were left w ith o u t ele ctricity. (= so me to w ns w ere co m ple tely
affecte d; note th at we d on't say ‘... wh ole the to w ns ...')

Every and each

O fte n we can use e v e r y or each with little difference in m eaning. H owever, w e use e v e ry -
YY with al m ost, virt ually, etc. + noun to emphasise we are talking about a group as a whole:
O A lm ost e v e r y visit or sto ppe d and stare d, ( not A lm ost each v is i t o r ...)
with a plural noun when every is followed by a number:
Q I go to th e d entist e v e r y six m o nths, ( ra therth a n ... each six m o nths.)
with abstract uncountable nouns such as chance, con fidence, hope, reason, and sy m p a t h y to show a
positive attitude to what we are saying. Here every means ‘complete' or ‘total':
O She has e v e r y ch a nce of success in her ap plication for th e jo b.
in phrases referring to regular or repeated events such as: every o t her (kilo metre), every single (day),
every so of ten, every f e w (mont hs), and every n ow and again (= occasionally).
W e use e ach -
before a noun or one to talk about both people or things in a pair:
I only had tw o suitcases, but e ach one weighed over 20 kilos,
as a pronoun:
I asked m any people and e ach gave the sam e answer, ( or ... e ach / e v e r y one gave ...)
E x e rcises
a n a Put a ll in t h e m ore a p pro pria t e sp ace in each se n t e nce.
1 Th ey were ...................sittin g around th e ta ble waitin g for me.
2 You can stay for dinner if yo u w a nt.
3 It had happened so quickly, I co uld n't re m em b er much about it.
4 We are going to be late if we d on't hurry.
5 th e children ..................... starte d to speak at once.
6 W e have been involved in th e decision.

U n d erlin e t he m ore a p pro pria t e answ er. If b oth are p ossible, u n d erlin e t h e m both.
1 A ll the process / The whole process takes only a fe w minutes.
2 A ll areas o f the country / Whole areas o f the country have been d evastate d by the flo o ds, although
others haven't had rain for m onths.
3 A ll the trip / The whole trip cost me less than $1,000.
4 The new rail n etw ork links a ll o f the towns / whole towns in th e region.
5 W hen I picked up the book I found th a t all o f the p ages / whole pages had been ripped out. There
w asn't a single one left.
6 Th e new heating syste m makes all the building / the whole building warm er.
7 A ll the room / The whole room was full of books.

C o m p le t e t h ese se n t e n ces w it h e v e r y or e ach, w hich e v er is m ore a p pro pria t e. If y o u can use

ei t h er e v e r y or e ach , w rit e t h e m b o th.
1 I had reason to believe th at she would keep my secret.
2 The ten lucky winners w ill receive £1,000.
3 W e've discussed the problem in virtu ally m eeting for th e last year.
4 Hugh sends us a postcard fr o m place he visits.
5 In a rugby league gam e side has 13 players.
6 Th ey had to take out single part of th e engine and clean it.
7 A ntibio tics w ere given to child in th e scho ol as a precaution.
8 The tw o girls walked i n , .................. one carrying a bouquet of flowers.
9 ........ household in the co untry is to be sent a b ooklet giving advice on first aid.
10 You should take tw o ta ble ts fo ur hours.

Find an y m ist a k es in t h e it alicise d p arts of t his blog p ost and su g gest correcti o ns.

(1) Each so often I like to invite (2) my entire fa m ily - my parents, six brothers and their
families - over for dinner on Saturday evening. My parents are quite old now, so I like to see
them (3) each fe w weeks. It's quite a lot of work and I usually spend (4) all Friday shopping
and cooking. Some of my family are fussy about what they eat, so I generally have to cook
different things for (5) every o f them. Fortunately, (6) all the food doesn't usually g e t eaten,
so I have plenty left for the rest of the week. (7) None o f my brothers always come, but the
ones who live locally usually do. Last Saturday (8) Neil and his family all were on holiday so
they couldn't make it. Anyway, (9) the rest o f us had all a grea t time and w e spent
(10) the whole evening talking about when w e were children.
Unit
52 Few, lit tle , less, f e w e r
We often use (a) f e w and (a) li t t l e with nouns. H owever, w e can also use
the m as pronouns:
9SSBSSSSBm
It is a part of the world visite d by f e w . (= fe w people)
Do yo u w a n t a ch oc olate? There's still a f e w left.(= a fe w ch ocolates)
O Lit t le is known about the painter's early life.
O ‘ Do yo u kn ow anythin g about car en gines?' ‘A li t tle.' (= I know a little about car engines)
N ote t h a t q uit e a f e w means ‘quite a large number':
O She's been a w ay from w ork for q uit e a f e w weeks.

W e can use t h e f e w and t h e li t t l e follow e d by a noun to suggest

‘not enough' when we talk ab o ut a group of things or people (with f e w)
or part o f a group or a m o unt (with li t t le):
It's one of t h e f e w shops in th e city centre where yo u can buy food.
O W e sho uld use t h e li t t l e tim e w e have availa ble to discuss Jon's proposal.

Instead of t h e f e w / li t t l e w e can use w h a t f e w / li t t l e to mean ‘the sm all (num b er / a m o unt)':

She gave w h a t li t t l e m o ney she had in her purse to th e man. ( or ... t h e li t t l e m o ney ...)
O W h a t f e w visitors w e have are alw ays mad e w elco m e, ( or T h e f e w visitors ...)
N ote th a t we can also say ‘She gave w h a t / t h e li t t l e she had . . . ’ and ‘W h a t / T h e f e w w e have . . . ’
when it is clear from th e c o ntext w h a t is being referred to.

W e can use f e w (but rarely lit t l e) after personal pronouns (my, her, e tc.) and t h ese and t h ose:
I learned to play g olf during m y f e w days off during th e su m m er.
T h ese f e w miles of m o torw ay have taken over ten ye ars to build.

In speech and inform al writin g, w e use n o t m a n y / m uch or o n ly / j u s t ... a f e w / li t t l e to talk about

a sm all am o unt or number, and w e often use a bit (of) instead of a li t t le:
Q Sorry I haven't finished, I h a v e n 't had m uch tim e to d ay, ( rather than ... I had little tim e ...)
I w o n't be long. I've o n ly got a f e w things to get. ( ra therth a n ... I've got few thin gs ...)
W a n t a bit of ch oc olate? ( ra therth a n ... a little ch oc olate?)

In m ore form al c o ntexts, such as aca d e m ic writin g, w e g en erally prefer f e w and li t tle:
The results take li t t l e acco unt of personal preference. (ra therth a n ... d on't take much ...)

Less (than) and few er (than)

W e use l ess with uncounta ble nouns and f e w e r w ith plural co unta ble nouns:
O You sho uld eat l ess p ast a.
There are f e w e r ca rs on th e road to day.
Less is so m etim es used with a plural co unta ble noun (e.g. ... less ca rs ...), p articularly in
co nversatio n. H owever, this is gra m m a tically incorrect.

W e use less t h a n with a noun phrase indicating an a m o unt and f e w e r t h a n w ith a noun phrase
referring to a group of things or people:
I used to earn l ess t h a n a pou n d a week when I first starte d w ork.
There were f e w e r t h a n 20 students at th e lecture, ( or inform a lly ... l ess t h a n . ..; but note th a t
so me people think this use of ‘less than' is incorrect)
W hen w e talk ab out a distance or a sum of m o ney w e use l ess t h a n, not f e w e r t ha n:
The beach is l ess t h a n a mile away.

To em p hasise th a t a num b er is surprisin gly large we can use no less t h a n or no f e w e r t h a n:

The team has had n o f e w e r t h a n ten manag ers in just five years, ( or ... no l ess t h a n ...)
N ote th a t w e prefer n o less t h a n with percentages, perio ds of tim e and quantities:
Profits have increased by no less t h a n 9 5% in th e last year, ( ra therth a n ... no few er than ...)

104
E x e rcises
S C o m p le t e t h e se n t e n ces w it h (a) few, (a) little, the few, the little, what few or what little,
giving a l t e r n a tiv es w here p ossible.
1 Th o m as w as named sp ortsperson of the year, a n d ..............................would disagree.
2 rem ains of th e old castle w alls except the Black Gate.
3 She calle d her rem aining relatives to g e ther and told the m she was leaving.
4 Sim pson is am ong foreign jo urn alists allow e d into the co untry.
5 a : Has my explanatio n helped? b : , yes.
6 belongings she had were packed into a sm all suitcase.
7 Maya hasn't been looking w e ll recently, and I’m worrie d about her.
8 a : Have there been m any a p plications for th e jo b? b : Yes, quite
9 The children w ere n't w ell so I had to take days off.
10 I d on't have much m oney, but I'm happy to lend you I have.

ta n Sug g est cha n g es t o t h e it alicise d t e x t in t h ese e x a m ples fro m co n v ersa tio ns (1-4) and fro m
aca d e m ic writ in g (5 -8).

^ A' ^ D idyo u do anything last nig htT ^ B' ^ I just watched a little TV and then w ent tombed. ^

MTake some sweets if you want, although there are few left. J

^l^^r'edt0 her'kUtthere s ^ttle more 1cancJo~3

^ See ^that old car over th ere? There's few like that left now. ^

5 The co untry hasn’t had m any fe m ale p oliticians since inde pend ence.
6 It is thou ght th a t th e tw o lead ers didn't exch a nge m any words on th eir first meeting.
7 Teachers were found to be a bit more confident after th e extra training.
8 There doesn't seem to be much prospect of ever recovering the missing m anuscript.

A survey of British u niversit y st u d e n ts w as con d ucte d in 2 0 0 0 and rece n tly repeated. So m e of t he

results are given below. C o m m e n t on t he m in se n t e nces using fewer (than) or less (than),
Prop ortio n w it h p ar t-t i m e j o bs (%) Prop ortio n w h o w al k t o le ct u res (%) |2000
69 82 N ow
55
58
48
B il

Male Female Total Male Female Total

Pro p ortio n o f m o n ey sp e n t on b oo ks (%) Tim e sp e n t o nlin e per w e e k (h o urs) |2 0 0 0

30 N ow
25

18

f t t f / ililil
Male Female To tal Male Female Total

1 Proportion w ith part-tim e jo bs (%)

F e w er stpdyy \ bs hcut a, p art-turn e Jo b un 2.00.0JtHcm n o w.
2 Proportion of m o ney sp ent on books (%)
3 Pro portion wh o w alk to lectures (%)
4 Tim e sp ent online per week (hours)

Are t here any results t h a t surprise y o u? C o m m e n t on t he m using no less than or no fewer than.
105
Unit
53 Relative pronouns
Defining and non-defining rela tive cla uses begin with a rela tive pronoun, g B S IB B H K im a
which can so m etim es be o m itte d:
W e w e nt to a beach (w hich / t h a t) Ali had recom m ended to us.
Here th e relative pronoun refers to ’a beach', and th e subject of th e relative clause is ‘Ali'. Co m pare:
I know a man w h o / t h a t ran in th e N ew York M arathon last year,
wh ere th e relative pronoun refers t o ‘a man', and th e subject of th e relative clause is also ‘a man'.
In this case, th e relative pronoun ca n't be o m itte d.

Relative pronouns are used to add inform atio n in defining rela tive cla uses as follows:

a d din g in f o r m a t io n a b o u t t hi n gs
su bje ct w hich that

o b je ct w hich that no relative pronoun

a d din g in f o r m a t io n a b o u t p e o ple

su bject who that

object who that no relative pronoun whom

When we add information about things, we can use t h a t (or no rela tive pronoun) as object in
conversation and w hich in more formal contexts:
D ecorating's a jo b (t h a t) I hate, ( ra therth a n ‘ ... which ...' in this inform al c o ntext)
When we add information about people, we generally prefer t h a t (or no rela tive pronoun) as object
in informal contexts rather than w h o or who m:
He's th e man (t ha t) I m et at Aisha's p arty (ra th erth a n ... wh o / wh o m I m et ...)
w h o m is very formal and rarely used in spoken English:
The boy w h o m Elena had shouted at smile d, ( less form a lly t h a t , no re la t iv e pro n o u n or w h o)
Yr We use t h a t as subject after: so m et hing and anything; words such as all, little, much, and none
used as pronouns; and noun phrases that include superlatives. W hich is also used as subject after
so m et hing and anything, but less commonly:
These w alls are all t h a t rem ain of th e city, ( n o t ... which remain of th e city.)
N ote that we can use t h a t (or no rela tive pronoun) as object after so m et hing / anyt hing; all, etc.;
and noun phrases with superlatives. For example:
She's one of the kindest people (t h a t) I know, ( n o t ... one of th e kind est people wh o I know.)

Relative pronouns are used to add inform atio n in non-defining rela tive cla uses
as fo llo ws:

a d din g in f o r m a t io n a b o u t t h in gs a d ding in f o r m a t io n a b o u t p e o ple

su bject w hich that su bject w ho

ob je ct w hich that object who whom

Note that we must include a relative pronoun in a non-defining relative clause.

tY We can use w h o or w h o m as object, although w ho m is very formal:
Professor Jo hnson, w h o(m ) I have long a d mire d, is to visit the university n ext we ek.
Y. When we add information about things, we can use w hich as subject or object. Th a t is sometimes
used instead of w hich, but some people think this is incorrect:
O Th e Master's course, w h ich I to ok in 2001, is no longer taug ht, ( or ... t h a t I to ok ...)
E x e rcises
Put brack e ts aroun d t h e it alicise d rela t ive pronoun if it can be o m it t e d . Q
1 W e talked ab out th e p arty which N atalia w a n ts to organise for my birthday.
2 To get to M axim's house, take the main road th at bypasses th e villag e.
3 The paintings which Mr Flowers has in his house are w orth around £ 1 00,0 00.
4 Let's go through th e main points that he made in his lecture.
5 He received a lo w mark for his essay, which was only one page long.
6 Mrs Yang, who is 42, has thre e children.
7 Dev is a friend who we staye d with in A ustralia.
8 In the shop win d o w there's a sign that says ‘10% off'.
9 The couple who live next to us have 16 grandchildren.
10 There was little that w e could do to help her.

Re writ e t h ese se n t e n ces inclu din g t h e in f or m a tio n in brack e ts as rela tiv e cla uses (d efinin g or
n on-de finin g). Giv e alt ern a ti v e rela tiv e pro no u ns if p ossible. (Use (-) t o in dica t e ‘no rela tive
pronoun'.)
1 O liver said so m ethin g. (I co uld n't hear it cle arly) O tiver sa id, something t h a t / .w hich /
- I cpulcbVt b e a r clearly .
2 Eva's fath er has just co me back from a skiing holiday, (he is over 80)

3 The pro blems face d by the co m pany are being resolve d. (I'll look at th ese in d etail in a m o m ent)

4 She was greatly influence d by her fath er, (she adored him)

5 He pointed to the stairs, (th ey led down to the cellar)

6 These drugs have been with draw n from sale, (th ey are used to tre at sto m ach ulcers)

7 The singer had to cancel her co ncert, (she was recovering from flu)

8 The m inister talked about the plans for tax reform, (he w ill reveal th e m n ext m onth)

9 I have tw o old er sisters. (I love th e m very m uch)

If n ecessary, co rrect or m ak e im p ro v e m e n ts t o t h ese se n t e nces. If t h e y are alrea d y co rrect,

w ri t e / .
1 There's so m ethin g which I should t ell yo u.
2 The d octor w h o m Ingrid w e nt to see was very thorough.
3 Yesterd ay was th e h o ttest day I can remem ber.
4 There isn't much can go wrong with the m achin e.
5 Thieves wh o m stole paintings from N otford art g allery have been arreste d in Paris.
6 It m ay be the m ost im p ortant decision which you w ill ever take.
7 The boy to ok the photograph was paid £100.
8 I heard m any different accents in th e room, but none which I could id entify as Polish.
9 He just said anythin g which cam e into his head.
10 Th ere’s this dream which I have every night about fallin g d ownstairs.

A d d itio n a l e xe rcise 11 (page 247) 107

Unit
5 4 4 O ther relative words: w hose, when, w here by, etc.
Clauses with whose
W e use a relative clause beginning w ith the relative pronoun w h ose + n o un, p articularly in writte n
English, when we talk about so m ethin g belonging to or associate d with a person, anim al or plant:
O Stevenso n is an architect w h ose d esig ns have won internatio nal praise.
Suzy was taking care of a dog w h ose e a rs were badly damaged in a fight with a cat.
W e can use w h ose in both defining and non-defining rela tive clauses.
W e g en erally avoid using w h ose to talk about so m ethin g belonging to or associate d with a thing:
Q I received a letter, and its poor spelling made me think it was writte n by a child. (more natural
than I received a letter, w h ose poor spelling made me think ...)
H owever, we so m etim es use w h ose when w e talk about to w ns, co untries, or organisations:
Q The film was made in Botswa na, w h ose w il d li f e p ar ks are larger than th ose in Kenya.
O W e need to learn fro m companies w h ose t ra d in g is h ealthier than our own.
In acad e m ic writin g w h ose is used to talk about a wid e varie ty of ‘belonging to' relatio nships:
O Stud ents have to solve proble m s w h ose solutio ns require a knowle dg e of calculus.

Clauses with when, whereby, where and why

W e can begin relative and other clauses with w h e n (referring to tim e), w h e r e b y (m eth o d or m eans;
used m ainly in fo rm al c o n texts), and w h e r e (locatio n). In form al English in particular, a phrase with
p re p osi tio n + w h ic h can often be used instead o f th ese:
The cam era records th e tim e w h e n the photo is taken, ( or ... the tim e a t w h ic h ...)
Do you know th e date w h e n w e have to hand in th e essay? ( or ... th e date on / b y w h ic h ...)
W e need to develo p a syste m w h e re b y w orkers and m ana g e m ent can co m m unicate more
effectively, ( or ... th e syste m in / b y w h ich workers ...)
O This w as th e place w h e re w e first m et. ( or ... th e place a t / in w h ic h w e ...)
In acad e m ic English, we can also use w h e r e to refer to fe atures other than locatio n, p articularly after
words such as case, co n d iti o n , e x a m p le, si t u a tio n , syst e m :
Later in this cha pter w e w ill intro duce cases w h e re co nsu m er co m plaints have resulted in
chang es in th e law. ( or m ore form a lly ... cases in w h ich ...)

W e can also use a / t h e reaso n w h y or a / t h e reaso n t h a t or just a / t h e reaso n:

I didn't g et a pay rise, but th is w asn’t t h e reaso n w h y I left, ( or ... t h e reaso n (t h a t) I left.)

Clauses with who and what; whatever, whoever and whichever

Som e clauses beginning w ith a w h - w o r d are used like a noun phrase in a se ntence. These are
so m etim es calle d nominal rela tive cla uses:
Can you give me a list of w h o's been invite d? (= th e people who have been invite d)
I didn't know w h a t I sho uld do next. (= th e thin g th a t I should do next)
N ote th a t we ca n't use w h a t in this w ay after a noun:
I managed to get all th e books t h a t you asked for. ( n o t ... all the books w h a t you asked for.)

W e use clauses beginning with w h a t e v e r (= anythin g or it d o esn't m a tter w h a t), w h o e v e r (= th e

person / group who or any person / group w h o), or w h ich e v e r (= one thing or person from a limited
num b er), to talk about things or people t h a t are ind efinite or unknown:
O I'm sure I'll enjoy eating w h a t e v e r yo u cook.
Isa O W h o e v e r wins w ill go on to play Barcelona in th e final.
W h ic h e v e r one of yo u broke th e win d o w w ill have to pay for it.

108
E x e rcises
Co m b in e a se n t e n ce fro m (i) w it h a se n t e nce fro m (ii) t o m ak e n e w se n t e n ces w it h w h ose . ^

(i) 00
1 Dr Rowan has had to do all her own typing. a Its chairp erson is Miss Jiu Kim.
2 The newsp ap er is owned by the Mears b Th eir diets contain high levels of protein,
group. c Th eir flo w ers are attractive to bees.
3 Parents are being asked to take part in the
survey. e H er first jo b w as fillin g shelves in a
4 Children do b etter in exam inatio ns. su p erm arket,
5 My aunt is now CE O of a d e p artm ent store. f Th eir children are between fo ur and six.
6 I enjoy growing plants.

1+d Dr Rowcu)., w h o s e r e s i g n e d , two weeks, cujo., Has Her own..

: j D efin e t he w o rds using w h o se (1-3) and in w h ic h (4 - 6). You m ay need t o use a dictio nary.

1 A lexico gra pher is a person wh ose job is to wrdbe d ic t i o n a ri e s.

2 A wid o w is a w o m a n .................................................................................................
3 An actu ary is a p erso n ................................................................................................

4 A furnace is a co ntain er
5 A gazebo is a sm all garden building
6 Polo i s ............................................................

t r e k C o m p le t e t h ese se n t e nces using p hrases fro m t h e box and w h e n , w h e r e b y , w h e r e or w h y . ^

t h e are a an a g r e e m e n t a co n d it io n a m ethod the m om ent t h e reaso n

1 Sunset is defined in astro n o m y as th e wh ole of th e sun's disc

disapp ears b elow the horizon.
2 In 1951, China and th e Soviet Union signed ...... China provided
uranium ore in exchange for tech nical assistance.
3 The co astlin e is th e land m eets th e sea or ocean.
4 The river is prone to sudden flo o ding which is ...............................................................th ere are no m ajor
to w ns along its banks.
5 Freeze-drying is w ater is rapidly evap orate d fro m frozen food in
order to preserve it.
6 H yp o glycae mia is the level of sugar in th e blood drops sud d enly.

^ the it alicise d w ord is co rrect, w rit e / . If not, su g gest a n o t h e r w ord.

1 I think wh a tever was resp onsible for damaging the tre es should be fined or sent to prison.
2 Do th ey really understand that th e y are doing?
3 I d on't envy w hoever buys th a t house.It'sin a terrible co ndition.
4 N ow th a t I no longer have to w e ar a scho ol uniform, I'll be able to w e ar which I w a n t.
5 I think th e g overn m ent should im prove th e health service, whichever th e cost.
6 It's a question that I've been asking for m any years.
7 The clock m akes a noise what keeps me awake at night.
8 I'm sure th a t Rashid w ill do w e ll at university, which one he goes to.

A d d itio n a l exe rcise 11 (page 247) 109

Unit
5 5 A Prepositions in relative clauses
In fo rm al styles n ou n + o f w h ich is often preferred to -
& w h ose + noun:
A huge a m o unt of oil was spilled, the e ffe cts o f w h ic h are still being felt, ( or ... w h ose e ffects
are still being felt.)
t h a t / w h ich ... o f in relative clauses:
The scho ol o f w h ich she is head is closing. (less form a lly The scho ol (t h a t / w h ic h) she is head
o f is closing.)

A fter b o t h w e can use o f w h ich and o f w h ose , but not usually w h ich or w h ose:
Lotta was able to switch b etween G erm an and
Also a fter: all, each, m an y, m ost,
Russian, b o t h o f w h ic h she spoke flu e ntly.
n ei t h er, n o n e, p art, so m e, a n u m b er
( n o t ... both which she spoke flu e ntly.)
(one, tw o, e tc.; the first, the second,
etc.; half, a third, etc.), and su p e rla t iv es
(the best, th e biggest, etc.)

In form al, m ainly w ritte n, English w h ose can co m e after a pre position in a relative clause. Putting the
preposition at th e end of th e clause is more natural in inform al and spoken English:
I now turn to Freud, fr o m w h ose w ork th e fo llo win g quotatio n is taken, ( lessform a lly ...
Freud, w h ose work th e followin g q uotatio n is taken fro m.)

W hen a pre position is needed with the relative pronouns w h ic h and w h o m w e usually put it before
th e relative pronoun in form al styles:
Th e rate a t w h ich a m aterial heats up depends on its ch e m ical co m p osition.
There are 8 0 teach ers in th e Physics D e p artm ent, a m o n g w h o m are 24 professors.

A fter a preposition w e usually use w h o m rath er than w h o in form al styles:

Is it right th a t p oliticians should make im p orta nt d ecisions with o u t co nsulting the public t o
w h o m th ey are acco u nta ble? (rather than ... the public to wh o t h e y are acco unta ble.)
and we d o n’t use t h a t or no r e la t iv e pro no u n:
The valle y in w h ich th e tow n lies is h eavily p ollute d, ( not The valle y in th a t the to w n lies is
h eavily p ollute d.; not The valle y in th e town lies is h eavily p ollute d.)

In less form al English we usually put the pre position later in the relative clause:
Th e office t h a t Juan to o k us t o was fille d with books, ( ra ther than Th e office t o w h ic h Juan
to o k us ...)
and w e prefer w h o (or t h a t) rath er than w h o m (see also U nit 26 A):
O Th e playground w asn't used by the children w h o it w as built for.

If th e verb in th e relative clause is a tw o -w ord verb (e.g. co m e acr oss, f ill in, lo o k a f t er, t a k e on) we
d on't usually put the pre position before th e relative pronoun:
The Roman coins, w h ich a local farm er ca m e acr oss in a field, are now on display in the
N atio nal M useum, ( n o t ... coins, across which the local farm er cam e, are ...)

W ith thre e-word verbs, w e o nly put th e preposition before th e relative pronoun in a very form al or
literary style, and m any people avoid this pattern:
She is one of the fe w people t o w h o m I lo o k up. ( or less form a lly ... w h o I lo o k up t o.)

110
E x e rcises
g a m Re writ e t h ese se n t e n ces so t h a t t h e y are m ore a p pro pria t e f or f o r m al w rit t e n En glish. Use
p re p osi t io n + w h ic h or p re p osi t io n + w h ose , as a p pro pria te.
1 Fle ming's discovery of p enicillin, which he was awarded th e N ob el Prize for, had a m ajor
influ ence on th e lives of people in th e 20th ce n tury Fle ming's d lsc p y e rij
w hich h e w a s a > jarcled. t h e Nobel P riz e , h cui a. mcy'or mflMen < ^ on t h e liv e s o f
people m jU o e Z O th c e n turij .....
2 He was th e uncle of Anne Boleyn, whose executio n in 1536 he lost p ower after.
3 It is her unm arrie d name which she is b etter known by.
4 Mr W ang, wh ose land th e road w ill be built across, is unhap py about th e plans.
5 The election result, which there can be no doubt ab out, is a great disa p p ointm ent.
6 The building which M arcus emerged from was little m ore than a ruin.
7 It is a m e dieval palace, whose t o w er th e king hid in during th e civil war.
8 I am grateful to A arav Basu, whose book on th e history of th e bicycle this inform atio n co m es
fro m.

C o m p le t e t h e se n t e n ces using t h e e ndin gs fro m t h e box and w h ic h or w h o m a f t er an

a p pro pria t e pre positio n.

t h e f u r n i t u re is t o be d eliv ere d . sh e w as div orce d in 2 0 0 5 . he ha d sh o w n his n o vel,

l ha d g rea t re sp ec t . it w as n a m e d. t h e p ri n t e r w as su p plie d,
m ost w o rl d t r a d e w as co n d u ct e d . y o u sh o ul d be a w are.

1 My M aths teach er, Mr Kato, w as so m eone -for whom I ha A, gre a t resp e ct.
2 U n til 1914 the pound sterlin g w as the c u rre n cy.....................................................................................................

3 Th ey have changed th e date ..........................................................................

4 Paste urisatio n was discovered by the French ch e m ist Louis Pasteur,

5 He was persuaded to stay in England by Charles Dickens,

6 There are a num b er of safe ty procedures

7 D etails are in the instructio n m anual .............................................

8 Ms Park was left th e m oney by her form er husband,

Re w rit e t he se n t e n ces fro m 55.2 in a less f o r m al w ay, p u t tin g t h e pre p ositio n a t t h e en d o f t h e

rela tiv e clause.
1 f v wh o . / r es pect f o r.

c n If n ecessary, su g g est co rrect io ns or i m p ro v e m e n ts t o t h ese se n t e n ces or w rit e / if t h e y are

alr ea d y correct.
1 The house into which th e thieves broke is owned by Cale b Cruz.
2 The scho ol has been given 20 lap to ps, half of which are brand new.
3 JKL M otorbikes sells six different m o d els, th e first which th ey starte d making in 1985.
4 The p arty, to which I’ve been looking forward all w eek, is at M axine's house.
5 The w a ter th at she fe ll into was freezing cold.
6 I have heard her on th e violin and clarin et, both which she plays extre m e ly w ell.
7 Th e film was made a tTu llo c h Castle, part which dates back to 1466.
8 The colle ge is home to 30 stu d ents from N ep al, alm ost all of wh o are stu dyin g eco no m ics.

A d d itio n a l exe rcise 11 (page 247)

 Unit O ther ways of adding information to noun phrases 1:
56 additional noun phrases, etc.
W e so m etim es add inform atio n about a person or thing referred to in one noun phrase by talkin g
ab out th e same person or thin g in a different w ay in a fo llowin g noun phrase:
A hooded cobra, one o f the world's m ost dangerous sn akes, has escaped from Du dley Zoo.
Dr A lex Parr, d irector o f the S t a te Museum, is to b eco me th e g overnm ent's arts adviser.
In writin g, th e ite ms are usually se parate d by a co m m a, and in speech th ey are often se parate d by a
pause or o th er into natio n break. H owever, when th e second item acts like a defining relative clause,
when it is usually a nam e, there is usually no p unctuation in writin g or into natio n break in speech:
M y frie n d Mia has moved to Swed en, (rather than My friend, Mia, ...)
Th e current cham pio n is exp ecte d to survive her first-ro und m atch with the Italian Silvia
Farina, ( ra therth a n ... th e Italian, Silvia Farina.)

W e can add inform atio n to a noun phrase with a co njunctio n such as and or or:
Kurt Svensson, her te ach er and well-known co n cert pia nist, thinks t h a t she has great tale n t.
.
(= her te ach er is also a w ell-kn o wn co ncert pianist)
Phonetics or the study o f speech sounds is a co m m on co m p o nent on courses in teachin g
i y i mir
. - i English as a foreign language.

Th e adverb namely and th e phrase that is are used to add d etails ab out a noun phrase:
This side effect of th e tre at m e n t, namely w eight gain, is co unteracte d with oth er drugs.
Th e main cause of glo bal warm in g, that is the burning o f fossil fu els, is to be th e focus of
ne g otiatio ns at the internatio nal co nference.

W e can also add inform atio n to a noun phrase using a participle clause beginning with an -ing, -ed or
being + -ed verb form. These are ofte n sim ilar to defining rela tive cla uses:
Th e people livin g next door co m e from Italy, (or The people wh o are living n ext d o o r...)
O Th e wea p on u se d in the m urder has now been found, ( or The weap on th at was used ...)
Th e prisoners b ein g re le a se d are all w o m en, ( o r Th e prisoners who are being released ...)
N ote t h a t -ing p articiple clauses corresp ond to defining relative clauses w ith an active verb, w hile -ed
and being + -ed clauses correspond to defining relative clauses with a passive verb.

W e can also use a to-infinitive clause, as in:

Have yo u brought a book to read?
My decision to resign fro m the company w as mad e after a great deal of th ou ght.
I th o u g ht th a t the m anag em ent's offer, to increase st a ff holidays, was a good one.

In writte n English, p articularly in newsp ap ers, -ing and -ed clauses are also used instead of non
defining rela tive cla uses. These are usually writte n b etw een co m m as or dashes (-):
The men, wearing anoraks a nd hats, made off in a stole n Volvo estate.

O Th e pro posals - exp e cte d to be a greed by ministers - are less radical than m any e m ployers had
feared.
E x e rcises
* B 1 A dd t h e in f or m a tio n in brack e ts t o t h e se n t e n ces and re w rit e t h e m in an a p pro pria t e w ay, using
t h e e x a m p les in A and B as m o d els.
1 G o fast Technolo gy has launched its new gen eration of high-speed trains. ( C ofast Technology is
p a rt o f the Maddison Enterprises Croup )
G ofost Technology , part o f the McuLUspn Enterprises Group, Has launched. dbs
new generation o f high-speed, trains.
2 I w e n t on an IT trainin g co urse w ith m y colleague. ( M y colle a gue is M a teo )
3 Rubella is still a co m m on child ho o d disease in m any co untries. ( A nother name fo r rubella is
Germ an m easles)
4 Four kilos of Beluga caviar has been ordered for th e rece ption. (Beluga caviar is among the m ost
expensive foo ds in the world )
5 O ne of the m ost popular mo dern writers for children is John Marsden. (John Marsden is Australia n )
6 Tonya's fath er w as in th e crowd to w a tch her victory. ( Tonya's f a th er has also been her tra iner fo r
the last ten ye a rs )
7 Dr Sofia Lopez has criticise d g overnm ent plans to cut health funding. (S ofia Lopez is he ad o f
Down lands H ospita l )
8 Klaus Sch m id t is running in th e Stockh olm M arathon. ( Klaus S ch m idt is the current European
ch a mpion ) ( The Germ an 10,000 m etres record holder is also the curren t European ch a mpion )

M ake se n t e n ces by m a tchin g t h e beginnings (in i) t o t h e en din gs (in ii) and a dding a p pro pria t e
in f or m a t io n (from iii) a f t e r namely or that is.
(i) (ii) (iii)

1 Leo Tolstoy's m ost a are found in 25% of households. T allin n st u d e n ts

cele brated novel, b covers over 2 millio n square ca ts, d o gs and ra b b its
2 The tw o co untries kilo m etres. tUAa/- an/7 rDn
t err cxiikj e a c t.
having land borders c sho uld have w ays of M e xico and C a n a d a
with th e USA, co m plainin g about poor Gre e n la n d
3 The thre e m ost teaching.
po pular pets in Britain, d have co m plaine d to th e
4 The ca pital of Estonia, President about the new
5 The largest island in custo ms re gulations.
th e world, e w as publtsbed4n 1869.
6 The ‘co nsum ers' of f is situate d on th e G u lf of
ed ucatio n, Finland.

1 + e Leo Tolstoy’s most celebrated, novel, namely War and, Peax^, was published.
m 18G9 .

C o m p le t e t h e se n t e n ces wit h an -ing, -ed or being + -ed f or m o f t h e verbs fro m t h e box. Then
re w rit e each se n t e n ce using a rela tiv e cl a use inst ea d o f t h e p articiple clause.

^Jrive e d u ca t e flo w in tr o d uce nee d prin t sa y t e ll off

1 Th e man d rivin g the bus is m y brother. The. m a r ) im H o ts d.r t v m g th e bus us> my

b ro th er,.....
2 I w e n t to a reunion for stu d ents ................................... in th e p hysics d e p artm ent during the
1990s.
3 As my aunt told me w h a t she th o u g ht, I felt like a scho olb oy by his
hea dteach er.
4 There is a sign on th e gate 'En try forbid den'.
5 Across th e river were so m e of th e deer into the park in the 19th century.
6 Rivers ............................. into th e Baltic Sea are much clean er now than ten years ago.
7 The b o o k le ts............................................as w e speak w ill be on sale later this afterno o n.
8 A nyone furth er inform atio n can see me in my office.
Unit O ther ways of adding information to noun phrases 2:
57 prepositional phrases, etc.
W e co m m o nly add inform atio n ab o ut a thing or person using a pre p ositio nal phrase. O ften th ese have
a meaning sim ilar to a relative clause:
W hat's th e nam e of th e man b y the w in d o w? ( or ... th e man w h o 's by th e w in d o w?)
O It's in the cupbo ard u n d er th e stairs, ( or ... th e cupboard t h a t's under th e stairs.)
She lives in the house w it h th e red door, ( or ... th e house w h ic h h as th e red door.)

In so m e cases, however, th ese pre p ositio nal phrases do not have a corresp onding relative clause:
You need to keep a careful record o f w h a t yo u spend.
There is likely to be an increase in te m p erature to m orro w.

W e often prefer a relative clause rath er than a pre positional phrase in non-defining relative clauses
with be + p re p o sitio n or with h ave as a main verb:
M r Chen, w h o w a s in th e store at th e tim e of th e robbery, was able to id entify tw o of th e men.
(,rather than ... Mr Chen, in th e store ...)
Davide G allo, w h o h as a farm near Pisa, has decided to grow o nly organic ve g eta bles, ( rather
than Davide G allo, with a farm near Pisa, has ...)

In writte n English, p articularly in aca d e m ic writin g, a series of pre p ositio nal phrases and relative
clauses is often used to add inform atio n about a previous noun phrase. N ote th a t pre p ositio nal
phrases can also be used with an adverbial function (e .g .'... taken th e drug in the last six m onths’ in the
sente nce b elow):

D octors are co ntactin g patients(with diabetes)(who have taken th e drug in th e last six months. ^

Scientists(jn Spain)(who have developed th e technique)are o p tim istic th a t it w ill be wid ely
used in lab oratories within th e n ext decade.

W e can also use participle clauses and noun phrases (see U nit 56) in a series of clauses / phrases which
add inform atio n to th e preceding noun phrase:

Th e waxwin g is the only bjn d|oijn d in Britair ^ ^ ith y e llo w and red ta il fe a th e rs)

M y3 o b J]m n ^ ,(le a d er of th e D e m o cratic Party^)(MP forThreeoaks^)

has announce d his resignation.

N ote th a t adding a series of pre p ositio nal phrases can ofte n lead to am biguity. For exam ple:
Q The pro testers were d e m o nstratin g a gainst the m istre atm e n t of a nim als on farms,
could mean eith er th a t the place th e pro testers were d e m o nstratin g w as ‘on farms' or th a t th e anim als
were ‘on farms'. W e could make th e se nte nce unam biguous w ith, for exam ple:
The protesters were d e m o nstratin g on farms against th e m istre atm e n t of a nim als, or
Th e pro testers were d e m o nstratin g against th e m istre atm e n t of anim als kept on farms.

114
E x e rcises
@ 01 M atch t h e se n t e n ce halv es (t here m a y be m ore t ha n o n e p ossible answ er), a dding an
a p pro pria t e pre positio n.
1 M aja's the g i r l ... a . green shirts.
2 She's in th e photograph ... b . the back garden.
3 I plan to cut down th e tre e ... c
4 There's a team of people ... d . the canal.
5 W e to o k th e fo otp ath ... e . the piano.
6 The children can't get over th e fence ... f . Paris to Lyons.
7 Go along the lane ... g . the houses.
8 N ico's a b o y... h . N ew Zealand.
9 Follow th e main ro a d ... i . the pool.
10 She’s a t e a c h e r... j . a quick tem p er.
1+c Mcya-’s t h e g irl with blonde h a ir.
u r n
R e w r i t e t h e s e n t e n c e s in 57.1 u si n g d e f i n i n g r e l a t i v e c l a u s e s. Q

1 M c y d s t h e g irl who ha.s blonde h o ur,.....

C o m p l e t e t h e s e n t e n c e s b y a d d i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n in b r a c k e t s. U se r e l a t i v e c l a u s e s ( U n i t 5 3),
a d d i t i o n a l n o u n p h r a s e s a n d p a r t ic i p l e c l a u s e s ( U n i t 56) a n d p r e p o si t i o n a l p h r a s e s ( U n i t 57).
1 Police are qu estionin g men ... between 2.5...a.n d 30 livin g In t h e vd la ^ e, who a re known
to h a v e a. crtmunai, re c o rd •
(The men are betw een 25 a nd 30. They live in the village. They are known to have a crimin al record.)
2 Teachers ........................................................................................................................................................................................

( The te achers work a t Q ueen's College. Q ueen's C ollege is in the city centre. The te achers w ent on
strike last week. They have a ppointed Kristina Borg as their spokesperson. S he is the he ad o f English.)
3 Marge S c o t t ...................................................................................................................................................................................

( M arge S co tt has died. She was a ged 95. S he was educa ted a t M arston College. S he was the first
woman to be e duca ted there. M arston C ollege is in south W ales.)
4 The c o n fere n c e ....................................................................................................................................................................

(The conference was held in S ingapore. It a pproved the world trade agreem ent. The agreem ent was
drawn up by European a nd Asian sta tes. The conference has now ended.)
5 A b o o k............................................................................................................................................................................................

( The book is on gardening. It is c a lled All about Plants. Anna w a nted to borrow it. It w asn't available
in the library.)
6 A p ain tin g ......................................................................................................................................................................................

( The painting was fo u n d in a second-h a nd shop. It was fo u n d by L ara Gruber. S he is an a ntique

dealer. S he is fro m Austria. The painting is thought to be by J. M. W. Turner. Turner was a British
landscape artist.)

@ 0 1 W h y are t h ese se n t e n ces a m bi g u o us? Ca n y o u re w rit e t h e m t o re m ove t he a m bi g u it y?

1 A man was talkin g with a grey su it...........................................................................................................................
2 A lorry w as stoppe d by a police o fficer carrying thousan ds of stole n cigarettes.

3 I discussed my plan to d ecorate the room with my parents.

115
W e can use p rese n t p ar ticip le (-ing) and p ast p ar ticip le (-ed) cl a uses with
an a dverbial meaning. (See also U nit 59.) Th ey often give inform atio n about
th e tim in g, causes, and results of the events described:
O pening her eyes, the baby began to cry. (= W hen she opened her eyes ...)
F a ced with a bill fo r £10,000, Ivan has taken an extra jo b. (= Because he is faced ...)
L ooked a fter carefully, the plant can live through the winter. (= If it is looked a f t e r ...)
Having fin ish ed the book, I had a holiday, (p erfect; = W h en / Because I had finishe d ...)
The fruit was exp ensive, being im ported, (sim ple passive; = ... because it was im porte d)
Having been h u n ted close to extinction, th e rhino is once again co m m on in this area, (p erfect
passive; = Although it had been hunted close to extinctio n ...)

Th e implied su bject of a participle clause (th a t is, a su bject known but not d irectly m entione d) is
usually the sam e as the su bject of th e main clause:
Arriving at th e party, we saw Ruth standing alone. (= W hen w e arrived ... w e saw ...)
H owever, so m etim es th e implied su bject is not referred to in th e main clause:
O Having w a nted to drive a train all his life, this was an o p p ortunity not to bemisse d.
In careful speech and writin g w e avoid different su bjects for the participle and main clause:
Turnin g round quickly, th e door hit me in th e face, (first im plied su bject = T ; second su bject =
'th e d o or’)
would be b etter as:
O W hen I turn e d round quickly, th e door hit me in th e face.

In fo rm al English, th e p articiple clause so m etim es has its own subject, which is often a pronoun or
includes one:
The collectio n of vases is priceless, so m e being over 2 0 0 0 ye a rs old.
H e r v o ice breaking with e motion, Vasiliki spoke ab o ut her fath er's illness.
We use th e present p articiple (-ing) clause to talk about so m ethin g hap pening at th e sam e tim e as an
event in th e main clause, or to give inform atio n ab o ut th e facts given in th e main clause.

W hen we use n o t in a participle clause it usually co m es before th e participle. H owever, it can fo llo w
th e particip le, depending on meaning:
N o t understanding th e rules, I found the cricket m atch boring. (= because I didn't understand
th e rules)
Hoping n o t to be recognised, I chose a seat in a dark corner. (= I hoped th a t I w o uld n't be
recognised)

W e use a clause beginning w ith havin g + p ast p ar ticip le rath er than a present participle if th e action
in th e main clause is th e conse quence of th e event in th e participle clause:
H avin g bro k en her leg th e last tim e she w e n t, Giorgia decided not to go on th e scho ol skiing
trip this year, (or A f t e r bre a kin g her leg ...; not Breaking her leg ...)

W e can use eith er a p rese n t p ar t icip le (-ing) clause or a havin g + p ast p ar ticip le clause with a
sim ilar m eaning when th e actio n in th e p articiple clause is co m plete before th e actio n in th e main
clause begins. Co m pare:
O Ta kin g o f f his sho es, Ram walked into th e house. ( Having taken o f f ... has a sim ilar meaning)
a nd
Ru n nin g across th e field, I fe ll and hurt my ankle. (= W hile I was running ...; ‘ H aving run ...'
would suggest th a t I fe ll a fter I had run across th e field)
E x e rcises
R e w r i t e t h e s e n t e n c e s b e g i n n i n g w i t h o n e o f t h e c l a u s e f o r m s f r o m s e c t i o n s A a n d D o p p o si t e .
irJMVl
1 W hen she saw the dog co min g tow ards her, she quickly crossed th e road. Seeing the, dog
c o m in g to w ard s V n e r,, skie u < ^ 0S3 e d L t J n r o o u d L .

2 As she was dressed all in black, she was alm ost invisible in th e starless night.
3 As I d on't have a cre dit card, I found it difficult to book an airline ticke t online.
4 A ntonio spent a lot of tim e fillin g in jo b ap plication forms because he w as unem ploye d.
5 Because I was walkin g quickly, I soon caught up with her.
6 The house w as built of wo o d, so it was cle arly a fire risk.
7 I was eager to catch th e bus in good tim e because I had been told o ff th e day before for arriving
late.
8 She did n’t kn ow wh ere th e th e atre was, so she asked for directio ns at th e hotel rece ption.
9 As she was a nurse, she knew w h a t to do after th e accid ent.
10 He had spent his childho od in O slo, so he knew th e city w ell.

If t h e i m p li e d s u b j e c t o f t h e t w o c l a u s e s is t h e s a m e w r i t e S a n d if i t is d i f f e r e n t w r i t e D. R e w r i t e
t h e D se n t e n ces t o m a k e t h e m m ore a cce p t a b le .
1 W aitin g for th e bus, a car w e n t through a puddle and splashed w a ter all over me.
2 Known m ainly as a w riter of novels, Rashid has now writte n a successful biography.
3 Keeping a careful eye on th e spider, Suzanne hurried o ut o f the bathro o m.
4 Looking down from th e hill, th e town spread out before us towards the co ast.
5 Feeling rath er sick, th e boat ploughed through th e huge waves.
6 Found only in the Andes, th e plant is used by local people to tre at skin diseases.

e t i W r i t e n o t in t h e m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e p l a c e in e a c h s e n t e n c e , { j }
1 wishin g ................. to boast,she said nothing ab o ut her success.
2 pretending to notice th a t people were staring at me, I carrie d on looking on
th e flo or for my lost co ntact lens.
3 d etermined to be beaten, she put all her energy into th e serve.
4 feelin g ................... w e ll,she w e n t hom e early.
5 ......... b o th erin g to put on his co at, he left th e house.
6 tryin g to cry, she wave d to Harun as the train pulled out.

Jo i n t h e s e s e n t e n c e s u si n g h a vin g + p ast p a r t ici p l e o r t h e -in g f o r m o f t h e f i rs t v e r b . W h ic h

se n t e n c es ca n h a v e e it h e r f o r m ?

1 I moved house recently. a I decided to cancel th e order.

2 I looked over m y shoulder. b I felt I needed to change my life.
3 I walke d through the tu nn el. c I could see Ida running after me.
4 I waite d six we eks for th e washin g m achin e to be d I d on't y e t have in tcrn ct-acc ess-.
d elivere d. e I was able t o understand m ost of
5 I suffere d fro m depression m yself as a teenag er. w h at she said.
6 I parked the car ab o ut a kilo m etre fro m th e sta dium. f I banged my head on th e lo w roof.
7 I reached my m id -thirties. g I could understand how N athan was
8 I learned so m e Swahili as a child. feeling.
h I walked th e rest of the way.
1+d H(Xvmg nnovecL House recently, I don’t ye t ha.ve internet access..
W e can use pre positions such as a f t er, b e f ore, b esid es, by, in, on, since,
t hr o u g h , w hile , w it h, and w i t h o u t in a present p articiple (-ing) clause
with an a dverbial meaning (see also U nit 58):
C W h il e u n d e rst a n d in g her pro blem, I d on't know how I can help. (= Although I understand ...)
A f t e r sp e n d in g so much m o ney on the car, I can't afford a holiday.
G Be f ore b eing ch an g e d last year, th e speed lim it w as 70 kph. (passive form)

An altern ative is a clause w ith a verb th a t can change according to tense and su bject. Co m pare:
O Sin ce m o vin g to London, we haven't had tim e t o go to th e th e atre, and
Sin ce w e m o ve d to London, w e haven't had tim e to go to the th eatre, (less form al)

by, in, on + -ing

By w or k in g hard, she passed her m aths exam. = th e -ing cla use indicates
Th ey only survive d by e a ti n g roots and berries in th e forest. ‘th e m etho d or m eans used'

O n re t u rnin g from Beijing, he wro te to the Chinese e m bassy. = the -ing cla use indicates
Josh was th e first person 1saw on le av in g hospital. ‘w h e n’

In crit icisin g the painting, 1 knew 1would offend her. = th e -ing cl a use indicates
In ch o osin g Marco, th e People's Party has moved to th e left. ‘ca use’

W e can ofte n use b y + -ing or in + -ing with a sim ilar m eaning, although b y + -ing is preferred in
inform al c o ntexts:
0 In / By w rit in g ab out Spanish culture, I cam e to und erstand th e co untry b etter. (‘In writin g
...' = th e conse quence of writin g was to understand ...; ‘By writin g ...' = th e m etho d I used to
understand th e co untry b etter was t o w rit e ...)
But co m pare:
By t ele p h o n in g every hour, she managed to speak to the d octor. ( not In telephonin g ...;
th e m etho d is th e focus here, not th e co nsequence)

with -ing; without -ing

W i t h + -ing often intro duces a reason for so m ethin g in th e main clause. This use is fairly inform al.
N ote th a t a su bject has t o co m e b etween w i t h and -ing:
W i t h Louise livin g in Spain, w e d on't see her often. (= Because Louise lives in Spain ...)
W it h and w h a t w i t h can also be used with a noun phrase to intro duce a reason:
W i t h my b ad back I w o n't be able to lift a h eavy suitcase.
W h a t w i t h the tra ffic and the he avy rain, it's no w o n d er yo u were late.

W e can use w i t h o u t + -ing to say th a t a second actio n d o esn't happen:

I w e n t to w ork w i t h o u t e a ti n g breakfast.
Th ey left w i t h o u t p ayin g.
O fte n, however, it has a sim ilar m eaning to ‘although ... not' or ‘unless':
W i t h o u t m ea nin g to, I seem to have offende d her. (= Although I didn't mean to ...)
W i t h o u t usin g th e app, I ca n't jud g e how good it is. (= Unless I use th e app ...)

A dverbial meanings can also be added by a clause beginning with a co njunctio n or a djective but with
no verb. This kind of clause has the sam e m eaning as a clause beginning w ith a co n ju ncti o n + su b je c t
+ be and is used in fairly fo rm al English (m ore inform al altern atives are given in brackets):
W h il e in Polan d, th ey w ill play tw o co ncerts in W arsaw, ( or W h il e th ey are in Poland ...)
A lt h o u g h j u st t w o f e e t a p art, th ey didn't speak, ( or A lt h o u g h th ey w ere j u s t ...)
I try to use public transp ort w h e n e v e r p ossib le, ( or ... w h e n e v e r it is possible.)
U n h a p p y w i t h t h e d ecisio n, Jo hnson sw ore at th e referee, ( or B eca use he w as unhap py ...)
E x e rcises
i a i C o m p le t e t h ese se n t e n ces using a pre p ositio n fro m (i) and t h e -in g f or m or b ein g + p ast
p a r t ici p l e f or m o f a verb fro m (ii). You m a y use t h e w ords fro m (i) m ore t ha n o nce,
(0 (ii)
after b e f ore si nce co m e in t e r v ie w le a v e overthro w
t h ro u g h w h il e se ll take w e lc o m e w o rk

1 Sin c e corning out of hospital, I have been to th e gym every day.

2 on TV last night, the m inister m entione d that she would be
retiring soon.
3 ................................................................. th e back o ff the co m puter, make sure it is unplugged.
4 .................. th e g overn m ent's new policy, I think it should have been
intro duced m o nths ago.
5 ........... ..............in a m ilitary takeover, th e king has been under house arrest.
6 with yo ung children for th e last 40 years, she has co m e to
understand th eir behaviour b etter than m ost.
7 ................................................................. to the public, m ost milk is pasteurised.
8 O xford U niversity in 1983, Painter sp ent thre e years teachin g at a
local scho ol.

Join t h e se n t e n ces, beginning t h e m w it h b y + -ing, o n + -in g, or in + -ing.

1 She returned hom e. a She soon began to lose weight.
2 She gave up sugar. b She saved over a hundred pounds a m o nth.
3 She turne d down th e jo b. c She knew th a t she mig ht offend him.
4 She moved to a sm aller fla t. d She found Dave wai tfflg-eu tskfe h er -fro nt d oor1.-
5 She entere d the classro o m. e She gave up th e p ossibility of a huge salary.
6 She criticise d her fath er. f She was surprised when all th e children stood up.
1+d On returnin g Home, s h e fo un d, D&ve wuxitng o u ts u le h er fr o n t d o or.

Re w rit e t h ese se n t e n ces beginning W i t h ... -in g or W i t h o u t ... -ing.

1 W e co uld n't go on holiday because M aryam had flu.

2 I w o n't be able to advise you unless I have more inform atio n.

3 He had solved the pro blem, although he didn't realise it.

4 I co uld n't w ait for Andrei any lon ger as tim e was running out before the train l e f t ..

Revise t his biogra phy by re placin g six m ore f ull cl a uses w it h reduce d cl a uses (as in t he
e x a m p les in sect io n D o p p osit e), and m aking an y o t he r n ecessary chan g es. Q

Although from a, poor bojdcgrouncl

A ltho u g h-she-was-from a poor baekgreund-, Paula Regis gained a place at Southam
University. She was always fascinate d by the stars and she to ok a first degree in
astro physics. O nce she was at university she also b ecam e interested in stud ent
p olitics and, b ecause she was p o pular with her fello w stud ents, was elected University
Presid ent in her second year. This didn't distract her fro m her studies, however,
and w hile she was in the final year of her degree, she won the International Young
Scie ntist of the Year award for her w ork on star classificatio n. When she was asked
w h at was the secret of her success she said, 'Just hard w ork and a little luck.' She is
d eterm in e d to co ntinue her research and she has recently beg un w ork on her PhD.

119
 Unit Reflexive pronouns: h erself, him self,
60 th e m se lves, etc.
In ad dition to th e usual reflexive pronouns ( m yse lf, y o u rse lf , etc.) so me
people use t h e m se l v es to refer to th e person wh o is the su bject of the
se nte nce, to avoid sayin g w h e th er th e su bject is m ale or fe m ale:
O The a uthor o f the le tter describ es t h e m se l v es as 'a senior g overnm ent official'.
O Who w a n ts to go through life by t h e m se lv es, w ith o u t frien ds?
O n ese l f (or less form ally y o u rse lf) is used to refer to people in general:
Q I think one has to have th e courag e to be o n ese lf and say w h atever co m es naturally. ( less
form a lly I t h in k y o u have to have the courage to be y o u rse l f ...)

W e can use reflexive pronouns for em p hasis in various w ays. W e also use reflexive pronouns to
em phasise th a t th e su bject caused a certain actio n. Co m pare
O Salm a worked hard and g o t pro m oted.
O Salm a worked hard and g o t h e rse lf pro m oted, (e m p hasises th at it was through her own

o
efforts)
Salm a encourage d me to ap ply for th e senior manag er position, but she g o t pro m o ted h e rself,
(e m phasises th a t Salm a got pro m ote d, not me)

If th e o bject of a tra nsitive verb refers to the sam e person or thin g as th e su bject, then th a t o bject
m ust be a reflexive pronoun. Co m pare:
O H e walked around the g olf co urse to f a m ilia rise
A lso: a b s e n t ... fr o m , a v a i l ... of, b usy
h im self w i t h it. a nd
... w it h, co n ce r n ... w it h, occu p y ... by
W e walke d around to f a m ilia rise the children
/ w it h, pride ... on, t e a r ... a w a y fro m,
w i t h th eir new surro undings.
t r o u b le ... a b o u t / w it h

W ith so me verbs we can use a reflexive pronoun or leave it out with little difference in meaning:
O W e are co nfid ent th at both se ts of fans w ill
A lso: a ccli m a t ise , a d a p t, (u n)d ress,
b eh a v e (t h e m se lv es) at th e m atch.
hide, m o ve, pre p are, sh a v e, w ash

W e include th e reflexive pronoun if we w a n t to em phasise t h a t the person or thing referred to in th e

subject is affecte d by the actio n:
Althoug h she helped o th er a thle tes in th eir pre parations for co m p etin g at high altitu d es, she
found it d ifficult to a ccli m a t ise he rself.

W h en th e su bject and o bject after a pre position refer to th e sam e person or thing we use a reflexive
pronoun after th e pre position:
H e was pleased with hi mself . (n o t ... pleased with him.)

i p i If th e verb has a direct o bject w e use a p ersonal pronoun, not a reflexive pronoun:
I re m e m b er closing the door behind me. (n o t ... closing th e door behind m yself.)
H owever, if w e need to make it clear th a t th e su bject and pre p ositio nal phrase refer to th e same
person or thing, w e use a reflexive pronoun after th e pre position:
She bought the bra celet fo r h e rself. (‘ ... for her' sug gests it was bought for so m eone else)

M yse lf is so m etim es used after an d and or rath er than *1' or ‘me', although so m e people consid er this
use incorrect and avoid it:
I believe th a t Lizi and m yse l f have done a pre tty good jo b.
W h en yo u've finished th e jo b can you send th e bill eith er to Mrs Petrov or m yse lf?

Using m yse l f reduces focus on the speaker or writer and so sounds less forceful or more p olite.
E x e rcises
i M t i C o m p le t e each se n t e n ce w it h a su it a b le f or m o f a verb fro m t h e box f ollo w e d by a re fle xive
pro no un and, if n ecessary, a pre positio n. If t he re fle xive pronoun can be o m it t e d , put brack e ts
aro un d it. t j jfr

a bse n t adapt co n c e r n d ress occu p y pre p are prid e t r o u b le

1 She works for a ch arity which co ncerns i t s e l f with the w elfare of children.
2 She ................................... for th e intervie w by reading th e jo b d escription again.
3 It is a to wn th a t ............... being w elco m in g to visitors.
4 W hile I was workin g, the children playing co m p uter games.
5 It w ill take yo u so m e tim e to to the pace of life in Tokyo.
6 Jack just exp ects to be given a jo b w ith o u t making any effort. He w o n't even
........................................... fillin g inany ap plication forms.
7 W hen Jade broke her arm she co uld n't pro perly, so I had to go round
each morning to help.
8 Peter arranged to th e co m pany for the first tim e in his life so th at he
.

could spend tim e with his fa th er in hospital.

U n d erlin e t he co rrect o p tio n. If b ot h o p tio ns are p ossible, n o t e t h e dif f ere nce in m eaning.
1 Can you post this le tter for m yse lf / me, please?
2 A ll my friends were away, I w as bored, and I just didn't kn ow w h a t to do with m yself / me.
3 W e put th e voice record er on th e ta ble b etween ourselves / us.
4 Th ey dragged th e tree behind themselves / them all th e w ay to th e trailer.
5 N ow th a t y o u ’re a fa m ous actor, yo u m ust hear a lot about y o u rse lf / y o u in th e media.
6 He ought to be asham ed of h im se lf / him, being rude to his parents like th at.
7 She should take care of h e rse lf / her b etter. She's looking re ally ill.
8 I opened th e win d o w in fro nt of m yse lf / me and to ok a deep breath of fresh air.

If n ecessary, co rrect t h e it alicise d p arts o f t his e m ail or w rit e / . Giv e a lt ern a tiv es w here
p ossible. G O

Hi D a n a,

Y e s , J a n 's a lo t b e t t e r, t h a n k s . W e ( 1 ) g o t v a c c i n a t e d o u r s e l v e s a g a i n s t h e p a t i t is
b e f o r e w e w e n t t o W e s t A f r i c a , so J a n w a s j u s t u n l u c k y t o g e t it . H e w e n t in t o w o r k
a f t e r w e g o t b a c k a lt h o u g h h e w a s f e e li n g b a d , a n d s o m e o f h is c o ll e a g u e s w e r e
w o rr i e d a b o u t ( 2 ) g e t t i n g i t t h e m s e l v e s . I k n o w t h a t s o m e o f t h e m ( 3 ) h a d c h e c k e d
t h e m s e l v e s b y t h e i r d o c t o rs . B y c o i n c i d e n c e , h is b o ss s a i d t h a t ( 4 ) h e 'd c a u g h t
h i m s e l f h e p a t i t is w h e n h e w a s in A fr ic a a f e w y e a r s a g o . W h e n h e 's c o m p l e t e ly
r e c o v e r e d , ( 5 ) J a n a n d m y s e l f a r e o f f t o P a r is f o r a f e w d a y s - if I c a n g e t J a n
( 6 ) t o t e a r h i m a w a y fr o m h is o f f ic e ! - a n d ( 7 ) w e 'r e g o i n g t o o c c u p y u s w it h
l o o k in g a t t h e g a ll e r i e s a n d h a v in g a r e s t .

M u s t g o n o w . T h e c h il d r e n h a v e j u s t s h o u t e d t h a t t h e y w a n t s o m e j u i c e a n d
( 8 ) t h e y c a n 't r e a c h i t t h e m s e l f .

W ill b e in t o u c h , N ik a fr|
4 r....... _ „ Ml, ni, a,. L _ ...........................i, M , ..

121
Unit
61 O ne and ones
W e can use o n e instead of rep eating a sin gular co untable noun and o n es instead of repeating a plural
noun when it is clear from th e c o ntext w h a t w e are talkin g about:
O 'Can I get yo u a drink?' ‘It ’s okay, I’ve alrea dy got one.' (= a drink)
I think his best poems are his e arly o n es. (= poems)

W e d on't use o n e / o n es instead of an uncounta ble noun:

If yo u need any more paper, I'll bring yo u so m e. (n o t ... I’ll bring yo u o n e / o n e s.)
I asked him to get apple juice, but he got orange. ( n o t ... but he got orange one / on es.)

W e ca n't use o n es w ith o u t defining precisely which group of things w e are talkin g ab out. Instead, w e
use so m e. Co m pare:
O ‘W e need new curtains.' ‘O kay, let's buy green o n es this tim e. I ... o n es with flo w ers on / ...
those o nes.' and
‘W e need new curtains.' ‘O kay, let's buy so m e.' (not O kay, let's buy ones.)

W e d o n't use o n e / o n es after nouns used as adjectives:

I th o u g ht m y m e m ory stick w as in my tro user pocket, but it w as in my c o a t pocket.
( n o t ... my co at one.)
Instead of using o n e / o n es after possessive d eterm in ers (my, y o u r, her, etc.) w e prefer m in e, y o u rs,
hers, etc. H owever, a possessive d e term in er + o n e / o n es is often heard in inform al speech:
I'd really like a sm artp h o n e like y o u rs, ( o r '... like yo ur one' in inform al speech)

W e usually use o n es to refer to things rath er than people:

O We need tw o people to help. W e could ask those men over th ere, ( n o t ... ask those ones ...)
H owever, o n es is more likely to be used in co m parative sentences to refer to groups of people:
O ld er stu d ents seem to w ork hard er than yo un g er o n es, ( or ... than yo un g er stu d ents.)
N ote also th a t w e use o n es to refer to people in t h e li t t l e o n es (= sm all children), (yo ur) lo ve d o n es
(= usually close fa m ily), (on e of) t h e lu ck y o nes.

W e can leave out o n e / o n es -

i f after which:
W hen w e buy m e dicines, we have no w ay of knowing which (on es) co ntain sugar.
iT after superlatives:
Look at t h a t pumpkin! It's th e biggest (one) I've seen this year.
after t h is, t h a t , t h ese, and t h ose:
The last test I did w as quite easy, but so m e parts of this (one) are re ally d ifficult.
Q Help yo urse lf to grapes. These (on es) are th e sw e e test, but those (o nes) taste best.
(N o te t h a t so m e people think ‘th ose / these ones' is incorrect, p articularly in fo rm al English.)
after either, n either, an ot her, each, t h e first / seco nd / last, (etc.):
Karl pointed to th e paintings and said I could take eith er (one), ( or ... eith er of th e m .)
She cleared a w ay th e cups, washe d each (one) th orou ghly, and put th e m on th e shelf.

W e d on't leave out o n e / o n es -

after the, t he only, t he main, and every:
W hen you co ok clams yo u sh o uld n't eat the o n es th a t have broken shells.
A fter I got the glasses hom e, I found th a t every o n e was broken.
it after adjectives:
My shoes w ere so unco m fortable t h a t I had to go out to d ay and buy so me new o n es.
H owever, after colo ur a djectives w e can often leave out o n e / o n es in answers:
‘ H ave yo u decided which ju m p er to buy?' ‘Yes, I think I'll take th e blue (one).'

122
E x e rcises
{ ^ | If n ecessary, co rrect t h ese se n t e nces. If t h e y are alr e a d y co rrect, w rit e ©
1. Bilal brought in th e wo od and put ones on th e fire.
2 N orm ally I d on't like wearin g a scarf, but it was so cold I put one on.
3 a : W e've run out of p otato es, b : I'll get ones when I go to th e shops.
4 W e haven't got lemon tea, but yo u could have m int one instead.
5 Those aren't yo ur gloves. You m ust have picked up th e wrong ones.
6 a : W h a t kind of cakes do you like b est? b : O n es with cream inside.
7 I co uld n't fit all the boxes in th e car, so I had to leave ones behind and pick it up later.
8 M ost of the tre es in our garden are less than ten y ears old but ones are much old er than th at.

£ £ ) If a p pro pria t e, re place t h e it alicise d w or ds or p hrases w it h o n e or o n es. If it is n o t p ossible or

u nlik ely, w rit e ‘ N o' a f t e r t h e se n t e n ce. Q 2 0
1 I answered m ost of the questions, but had to miss out so m e very d ifficult questions.
2 Th e fe m ale violinists in th e orchestra o utnu m b er the m ale violinists by about thre e to one.
3 He used to w ork for a finance co m pany, but he's moved to an insurance company.
4 The issue discussed at th e m e eting was an extre m e ly co m plicate d issue.
5 M any people are happy about th e new road being b uilt, but there are so me angry people, too.
6 a : W as it th ese earrings yo u w a n te d? b : N o, th e earrings on th e left of those, please.
7 Diana is really good at takin g photos of old buildings. There's an excelle nt photo of a local church
in her office.
8 a : Are yo u picking Jo up at the train statio n? b : N o, she's arriving at th e bus sta tion.
9 O n one channel was a w ar film and on th e oth er was a horror film , so I turned the TV off.
10 There are lots of gloves here. Are th ese yo ur gloves?

If t he it alicise d o n e or o n es can be o m it t e d in t h ese se n t e nces, put b rack e ts aro un d it. If not,

w ri t e y .
1 The children had eaten all the pizza and were still hungry so I had to make th e m a no th er ( one).
2 I drove around th e houses, looking for th e ones with ‘For Sale' notices outsid e. S
3 I’m not keen on those ones w ith th e ch erry on top. I think I'll have a ch ocolate biscuit instead.
4 I like both of these jack e ts. I d on't know which one to choose.
5 The vases are all hand made and every one looks different.
6 Each w in ter seemed to be cold er than the last one.
7 There are m any excelle nt food m arkets in town but th e main one is near th e port.
8 She trie d on lots of pairs of sho es and fin ally chose th e purple ones.
9 The books w ere so disorganised th a t I soon lost track of which ones I had already counte d.
10 Can you re m e m b er where yo u bought this one? I'd like to get one myself.

r m C o m p le t e t h ese se n t e n ces w it h o n e or o n es f o llo w e d by an endin g of y o u r o w n. c m

1 Carm en drove to th e restaurant because she was the only ...

2 To help keep fit, go to shops yo u can w alk or cycle to rath er than ...

3 A num b er of causes of clim ate change have been suggested, but th e main ...

4 Cam era trip o ds co m e in a varie ty of sizes and m aterials, but th e m ost c o n v e n ie n t.

 ; '
I •* ' V
Unit - r "
% 7&m f
62 , So and not as substitutes for clauses, etc. * &'-1 :t s

W e can use so instead of rep eating an a djective, adverb, or a w h ole clause:

O The w orkers were angry and th ey had every right to be so. (= angry)
Joe to ok th e w ork serio usly and Petra perhaps even m ore so. (= to ok th e work serio usly)
Usm an's giving us a lift. A t least I presum e so. (= th a t he's giving us a lift)

W e often use so instead of a clause after verbs concerned with thinking

and speaking:
‘Is Lewis going back to Scotlan d to see
Also: be afraid (expressing regret), a p p ear /
his parents this su m m er?' ‘I've no idea,
se e m (after ‘it'), assu m e, b elieve, e x p ect,
but I'd i m a gin e so. He goes m ost years.'
g u ess, hope, presu m e, su p p ose, susp ec t,
C I found it ridiculous, and said so. / ...
t hin k
and t o ld t h e m so. (= th a t I found it ridiculous)
N ote th a t after 't ell' we include an indirect o bject.

W e d o n't use so after certain oth er verbs:

O ‘W ill Stefan know how to mend it?'
Also: acce p t, a d m it, a gree, be ce rt ain ,
‘I d o u b t it. / I d o u b t (th at) he w ill.'
hear, k n o w, p ro m ise, su g g est, be su re
( not I doubt so.)
N ote th a t in inform al English, p articularly in an argum ent, w e can use ‘I k n o w so'.

In neg ative se nte nces, w e use n o t or n o t ... so:

O Is th e So cialist Party offering anythin g new in its sta te m e n t? It w ould appear no t.
O Th ey w a n t to buy the house, although th ey d id n't say so directly.
We can use either n o t or n o t ... so with a p p ear, se e m , su p p ose:
‘I d on't suppose th ere'll be any seats left.' ‘ N o, I d o n't suppose so.'( o r ... I suppose not.)

We prefer n o t ... so with b elie ve, e x p ect , i m a gin e, t hin k. W ith th ese verbs, n o t is rath er form al:
‘W ill we need to sho w our passp orts?' ‘I d o n't think so.' (rather than I think not.)

We use n o t with be afraid (expressin g re gret), assu m e, g u ess (in th e phrase ‘I guess ...', = ‘I think ...'),
hope, presu m e, susp ect:
O ‘You'd b etter do it yo urself. Eva w o n't help.’ ‘ N o, I g u ess not.' ( not N o, I d on't guess so.)

Co m pare th e use of n o t (to) and n o t ... so with say:

O ‘ Do we have to do all ten questio ns?' ‘The teach er sa id not.' (= th e teach er said th a t we did n't
have to) or ‘The te ach er sa id n o t to.' (= th e teach er said th at w e sh o uld n't)
‘ Do we have to do all ten q u estio ns?' ‘The t e ach er d id n't say so.' (= th e teach er did n't say th a t
w e should do all ten, but perhaps w e should)

W e can use so in a sh ort answer, instead of a short answ er w ith ‘Yes, ...', wh en we w a n t to say th a t we
can see th a t so m ethin g is true now th a t we have been told, p articularly if w e are surprised. In answers
like this w e use so + pro n o u n + a u x ilia r y v er b ( be, can, etc.):
‘Lisa and Sara are here.' ‘So t h e y are.' ( or Yes, t h e y are.) (= I can now see t h a t, to o)
H owever, if we alrea dy kn ow so m ethin g w e use ‘Yes, ...', not ‘So ...'. Co m pare:
‘Your bike's been m ove d.’ ‘So it has. / Yes, it has. I w o nd er who did it.' (= I didn't know before
yo u told me) and
‘Your bike's been m ove d.' ‘Yes, it has. Philip borrowed it this m ornin g.’ (= I knew before yo u
told me; not So it has.)

W e can use so in a sim ilar w ay in sh ort answers w ith verbs such as a p p e ar (after ‘it'), b elieve, g a t her,
hear, sa y, se e m , t e ll (e.g. So she tells m e.), u n d e rst a n d . H ow ever, with th ese verbs, th e pattern
im plies ‘I knew before yo u told me':
C 1 ‘I found th a t lecture re ally boring.' ‘So I g a t h e r (= I knew th a t). I saw yo u sleeping.'

124
E x e rcises
If p ossible, co m p le t e t he dialo g u es w it h so. If not, use an a p p ro pria t e t h a t - cl a u se . o
1 a: Is Zak ill again? b: W ell, he hasn't co m e to w ork, so I assum e S.Q-
2 a: W ill we need to pay to get in ? b: I doubt w e w ill .....
3 a : W ill yo u be able to co m e over this weekend? b: I hope
4 a: Can y o u g iv e m e a lif t t o w o rk ? b: I su p p o se .......................................
5 a: Is this one by Van Gogh, to o? b: I think
.............................
6a : A p p arently Carol's g etting marrie d again, b: Yes, I h e a r......................................
7a : The w eath er's awful, so w e'll need to take a taxi, b : I guess
8 a : W ill the d ecorator be finished this w e ek? b : He says ......................................
9 a : You w ill re m e m b er to pick me up at one, w o n't yo u? b : I promise
10 a : I hope I'll be able to get a ticke t, b : I'm sure.......................................

U n d erlin e all t he co rrect B resp o nses. Q Q B

1 a: W ith th e children being ill I haven't had tim e to do much housework.
b: N o, I suppose not / don't suppose / don't suppose so.
2 a: Did I leave m y handbag in y o ur car yesterd ay?
b: I don't think / don't think so / think not.
3 a : I'm sure th e bank has charged me to o much. W ill th ey refund th e m o ney?

b: I don't suspect / suspect not / don't suspect so.

4 a : Didn't Alice hear yo u? b : It doesn't appear so / a p p e a rs n o t / d o esn 't appear.
5 a : W h a t did yo u think of Sadia's work?
b: W ell, I th o u g ht it was pre tty aw ful, althoug h I didn't sa y so / sa id not / sa id so.

C o m p le t e B's resp o nses w it h sh o rt

a nsw e rs beginning Yes, ... . If p ossible,
give an alt er n a tiv e resp o nse
w it h So ....

1 a: That horse is walkin g w ith a limp.

b: vt v s. / So v t vs . Perhaps w e should t e ll th e owner.
2 a : The children from n ext door are takin g the apples from our trees.
b: ................................I said th ey could co m e round and get th e m.
3 a : The DVD player's gone again, b : . Dr A dams has probably borrowed it.
4 a: I told you I'd be late for w ork to day.
b: . I agree. But yo u didn't say how l a t e - it's nearly tw o.

Ch o ose an y a p p ro pria t e sh o rt a nsw e r beginning So ... t o resp ond t o A's co m m e n ts belo w,

t o sa y t h a t B alrea d y k n e w w h a t is being said. Use t h e verbs in E o p p osit e.
1 a: My car w o n't start again, b: So. I h e a r.
2 a: Maria's not very w ell, b : .........................................................
3 a: The class has been cancelled again, b : ...........................................
4 a : I see incom e tax is going up. b :
5 a : Fred's m oving to Berlin, b : ......................................

A d d itio n a l exe rcise 12 (page 248) 125

Unit
63 Do so; such
D o so

We use do so (or d o es so, did so, d oin g so, e tc.) instead of rep eating a verb phrase (a verb and w h at
follows it to co m plete its m eaning) when th e c o n text m akes clear w h at we are talkin g ab out:
G She won in 2012 and se e ms likely to d o so (= win) again this year.
Dr Lawson said, ‘Sit d own.' Katia did so (= sat d own), and explained her pro blem.
The clim b ers w ill try again to d ay to reach th e su m m it of th e m o untain. Th eir chances of d oing
so (= reaching th e su m m it of th e m o untain) are b etter than th ey were last w eek. (In very
form al English w e can also use so doing.)
W h en he was asked to check th e figures, he claim e d th a t he ha d alrea dy d o n e so. (= checked
th e figures)

D o so is m ost often used in fo rm al spoken and writte n English. In inform al English w e can use do it or
do t h a t instead:
Mrs Chen waved as she walked past. She d o es so / it / t h a t every morning.
C Ricard o told me to put in a new b attery. I did so / it / t h a t, but the radio still d o esn't work.

W e can also use d o alone ra th e rth a n do so in less form al English, esp ecially after m o dals or perfect
tenses (see also B):
Q ‘W ill this program w ork on y o ur c o m p uter?' ‘It should d o.’
I told you th a t I'd finish th e w ork by to day, and I have d o ne, (‘have’ is stressed here)

W e can use do so instead of verbs th a t d escrib e a ctions, but w e avoid do so w ith verbs th a t describe
sta tes and habitu al actions. Co m pare:
6 5% of th e m em b ers vo te d for Katie Brown this tim e, wh ereas 8 4% did so last year.
Kenyon co nfessed to th e murder, although he o nly did so after a num b er of witn esses had
identified him as th e killer.
I gave her th e m e dicine, and I take full resp o nsib ility for doin g so. and
Lars d o esn't like Facebook but Em ma d oes.
O He earned a lot more than I did.
O I d on't have tim e to go swim m in g every day, but I usually do.

Such
W e can use su ch + (a / an) + n o u n to refer back to so m ethin g m entione d before, with th e meaning
‘of this / th a t kind'. W e use such + n o u n when the noun is uncounta ble or plural, and su ch + a / an +
n ou n when th e noun is co unta ble and singular. Such is used in this w ay m ainly in form al speech and
writin g:
The stu d ents refer to teach ers by th eir first nam es and w ill often criticise th e m for badly
prepared lessons. Such b e h a vio u r is unaccepta ble in m ost scho ols, ( more inform a lly
Behaviour like this ...)
W hen asked ab o ut rum o urs t h a t the co m pany is preparing to lose more than 200 jo bs, a
sp okeswo m an said: ‘I know of no su ch plans.' ( more inform a lly ... no plans of this kind.)
Th ey needed so m eone wh o w as both an excelle nt a d m inistrator and manager. Su ch a p erso n
was not easy to find, ( more inform a lly A person like this ...)
O W e allo w both men and w o m en to have tim e off w ork t o look after children. W e were th e first
d e p artm ent to intro duce su ch a sc h e m e, ( more inform a lly ... a sche m e like this.)
E x e rcises
Join each pair o f se n t e n ces w it h ei t h er an d or b u t, re placin g t he re p ea t e d verb + o b ject /
co m p le m e n t w it h a f or m of d o f o llo w e d by so. Q
1 Jo hnson never won an O ly m p ic m ed al. He tw ice cam e close to winnin g an O lym p ic medal.
Johnson never won. o’jnv Ol^rnpco rr>edLoX> bw.t Loe. o^crne- cLose. to so ....
2 She was asked to teach more classes. She w as hap py to teach more classes.

3 My French hosts gave me snails to eat. I ate th e m very reluctantly.

4 The co m pany w ante d to build a new dam on th e site. Th ey were prevented from building the
dam by local op p osition.

5 All EU co untries agreed to im ple m ent th e new re gulations on recyclin g plastic. So far only
Finland and A ustria have im ple m ente d th e new regulations.

6 The w a ter freezes in th e cracks in rocks. As it freezes, it expands.

C o m p le t e t h ese se n t e nces w it h a f or m o f d o (+ so if p ossible). { ? )

1 If yo u have not alrea dy handed in the form, then please w ith o u t delay.
2 O lav drives much faster than y o u ..............................
3 He jum p e d down fro m the win d ow, but i n ......................... twiste d his ankle.
4 I kn ow th a t m any people d on't enjoy Felipe's blog, but I ...............................
5 A nyone crossing th e railw ay at th eir own risk.
6 I th o u g ht Julie was jo kin g when she said th ese applessm ell like oranges. But th ey !
7 W hen we play tennis Leyla usually wins, and she gets upset if I
8 She pointed to the old box, her hand shaking as s h e ...............

C o m p le t e t h e se n t e n ces w it h su ch or su ch a / an f o llo w e d by a w ord fro m t he box in t h e

sin g ular or plural. e

clai m d est r u ct i o n d e vice p ro je ct rese arch t a c t ic

1 M anufacturers often claim th a t th eir washin g m achin es have built-in co m puters, but is there
really a co m p uter in swcki a. d e v ic e ?
2 A fter Professor Sharm a spoke ab out her work on clim ate change, she calle d on th e g overnm ent
to put more m o ney in t o ...............................
3 Television is so m etim es said to harm children's social d evelo p m ent, y e t th e evidence for
................................ is often lacking.
4 Building a new p ower statio n would und ou bte dly create new jo bs, but has the e nviro n m ental
im pact of been considered fully?
5 The earth quake d em olishe d thousan ds of buildings. The c o untry has rarely seen
.......................................... before.
6 Unite d played very d efe nsively in th e second half, but were criticise d by the
te am's sup p orters.

Re writ e t h e se n t e n ces in 6 3.3 t o m a ke t h e m less f or m al.

1 ... .but >s th e re r e a lly <k ..c o w | ^ ..... . L ik e t h a t?

-> A d d itio n a l exe rcise 12 (page 248) 12 7

To avoid rep eating words from a previous clause or sentence we use an a uxiliary verb (be, have, can,
w ill, w o ul d , etc.) instead of a w h ole verb group or instead of a verb and w h a t follo ws it:
She says she's finished, but I d on't think she has. ( i n st e a d o f ... has finished.)
‘W ould any of yo u like to go t o Paris?' ‘I w o uld.' ( in ste a d o f I would like to go to Paris.)

If there is more than one a uxiliary verb in the previous clause or se nte nce, we leave out all th e auxiliary
verbs exce p t th e first instead of repeating the main verb. A ltern atively, w e can use tw o (or more)
a uxiliary verbs:
‘Th ey co uld hav e b een d elaye d by the sn ow.' ‘Yes, th e y could.' ( or ... co uld ha v e (been).)

If there is no a uxiliary verb in th e previous clause or sentence, or if th e a uxiliary is a form of do, w e can
use a form of do instead of rep eating th e main verb. W e use do when th e main verb is a present sim ple
form and did when it is a past sim ple form:
C Mona p la ys g olf on Saturd ays, and I do too. ( in st e a d o f... and I play g olf on Saturd ays to o.;
'... and so do I' is also possible)
‘I di d n't st e a l th e m oney.' ‘ N o one thinks t h a t yo u did.' ( in st e a d o f ... thinks th a t yo u stole it.;
‘ N o one thinks so' is also possible.)

If be is th e main verb in th e previous clause or se nte nce, w e re peat a form of th e verb be:
‘The children are noisy again.' ‘Th ey alw ays are.'

If h av e or hav e g o t is th e main verb in th e previous clause or sentence, w e can usually use a form of
eith er do or have:
‘ Do yo u think I hav e a chance of winnin g?' ‘Yes, I think yo u have.' ( or ... you do.; ‘Yes, I think
so' is also possible.)
Even if he h asn't g o t a map himself, he m ay kn ow so m e one wh o has. ( or ... wh o d o es.)
H owever, if w e use ha v e + n ou n in th e previous clause or sentence to talk ab o ut actio ns (h ave a
sh o w e r, ha v e a sh a v e, hav e a g oo d t i m e, e tc.) w e prefer do:
I w asn't exp ectin g to have a good time at th e party, but I did.

N ote t h a t so m etim es w e can use eith er do, be or hav e with a sim ilar m eaning (see also C):
I asked Clara to tid y her roo m, and she has / did. (‘has' replaces ‘has tidied her roo m'; 'did'
replaces ‘tidied her roo m'.)

If w e use hav e as an a uxiliary verb, w e can often fo llo w it w ith d o n e instead of rep eating the main
verb. This hap pens p articularly in spoken English:
‘She's never made a mistake before.' ‘W ell, she has (done) this tim e.'
H owever, this is usually not possible when th e verb being substitute d is intransitive:
‘Th ey've already gone.' ‘I d on't think Daniel has.' ( n o t ... Daniel has done.)

Sim ilarly, after a modal a uxiliary verb (can, co uld, m ay, mig h t, m ust, o u g h t t o, sh a ll, sh o uld , w ill,
w o uld ) we can use do, p articularly in spoken English:
‘W ill yo u be seeing David t o d a y?’ ‘I mi g h t (do).'

So m etim es we can use be instead of do with a sim ilar meaning (see also D):
‘W ill yo u be seeing Felix t o d a y?’ ‘I m ig h t (do / be).' (‘do' replaces ‘see Felix t o d a y’; ‘ be’
replaces ‘be seeing Felix to d ay'.)

If w e use be as an auxiliary verb in th e previous clause or sentence, we can use be after a m o dal:
G ‘Is Ella stayin g for lunch?' ‘Yes, I think she w ill (be).' ( or ... she w ill do.)
H owever, if be is used as a main verb in the previous clause or se nte nce, or as an a uxiliary verb within a
passive, w e can usually leave out be after a m o dal in inform al c o ntexts only. Co m pare:
‘Lina's late again.' ‘I th o u g ht she m ig h t (be).' and
It has been found th a t th e co m et is made entirely of gas, as it w as pre dicted it w o u l d be.
E x e rcises
M ake B's re plies sh o rt e r by crossin g o u t so m e o f t h e w ords in it alics. Giv e alt e r n a t iv es if
p ossible. Q
1 a Have you ever played squash before? b: Yes, I have pla yed sq uash b e fo r e
:
2 a I sup pose we should have booked tickets, b : Yes, w e should have booked tickets.
:
3 a : W ill you be stayin g in Brazil p erm an ently? b: Yes, we will be staying in Brazil perm a nently.
4 a : All the parking places w ill pro bably have been taken by now.

b: Yes, I'm sure t h ey will have been taken by now.

5 a : Have you had dinner y e t? b: N o, I h aven't had din n eryet.
6 a : Are you going to Katalin's p arty? b: Yes, I am going to Katalin's p arty.
7 a : If Diane hadn't given you a lift, yo u would have misse d th e train.

b: Yes, I would have m issed the train.

8 a : Can yo u see Joe a nywhere? b: No, I ca n't see him anywhere.
9 a : Did you see th at cyclist go through th e red lig ht? He co uld n’t have been looking.

b: N o, he couldn't have been looking.

* rr% C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces w it h an a p pro pria t e f or m o f d o, be or h a v e (plus any alt ern a ti v es). Put
b rack e ts aro un d t h e w ord if it can be o m it t e d, and w ri t e (d o n e) a f t er f or ms o f h a v e w here t his
m igh t be added.
1 I haven't finished doing the translatio n y e t, but I w ill h a v e (d o n e) by to m orro w morning.
2 As a child I alw ays enjoyed watchin g carto ons on TV, and I still ...........................
3 a : Has th e post arrived y e t? b: N o, I d on't think it ..........................
4 Have a sh o wer if yo u w a nt, but take a to w el from th e cupboard when you .......................
5 a : It costs a fortun e to rent a fla t in th e city centre, b: I'm sure it m ust ............. ......
6 I was hoping Ryan had an ele ctric drill th at I could borrow, but he
7 I'm not a m e m b er of th e tennis club m yself, but I know so m eone wh o................ ...............
8 I told th e class th a t th ey had to hand in th eir books by nine and th ey all
9 a : H ave you got a co py o f Gre a t Expect a tions? b: Yes, I think I
10 a : I've got £100 with me. W ill th a t be enough? b : It should ...............

C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces w it h m ig h t, sh o u l d , w ill or w o u l d , (plus a n y alt ern a ti v es). If

n ecessary, w ri t e be af t er t h e m o d al, or (be) if it is p ossible t o o m it it.
1 It's not sn owing at th e m o m ent, but th ey say it wUT / (b e) .......
2 Chris w as cleanin g the house when I got hom e, as I hoped he
3 a : Are t h ey stayin g for lunch? B:Th e y .I'l l ask th e m.
4 a : Are you revising a lot for th e exams? b : N ot as much as I ..............
5 The co m pany has not been as successful as it was claim e d it
6 N atalie says sh e’s very s o rr y - a s she...................... ..................... ..
7 The book is a b estseller, as w e hoped it ...........................
8 a : My photo graph was awarded first prize, b: I thoug ht i t ........................................... ..

- A d d itio n a l exe rcise 12 (page 2 4 8) 129

 Unit
65 Leaving out t o-infinitives
We can so m etim es use t o instead of a clause beginning w ith a t o -in f in it iv e when it is clear from th e
co ntext w h a t w e are talkin g ab out:
I wante d to co m e w ith yo u, but I w o n't be able t o. ( i n st e a d o f... to co m e with yo u.)
O It might have been b etter if Rosa had asked for my help, but she chose n o t t o. ( in st e a d o f...
chose not to ask for my help.)

H owever, when we use th e verb be in th e previous se nte nce or clause th e t o -in f in it iv e form of be is
repeated in the next clause or se nte nce:
Leon w as frightened - or mayb e he just pretended t o be. ( n o t ... just pretended to.)

A fter m ost nouns and a djectives th a t can be followe d by a t o -in f in it iv e cla use , w e can leave out th e
t o -in f in it iv e cl a use or use t o:
I'm not going to write an o th er book - at least
Also: ch a n ce, id ea, o p p o r t u n it y,
-vvv.- I d o n't have any p la ns (t o), ( o r ... plans to
-•V-- ;v" p ro m ise, su g g estio n; afraid,
•
w rite a no th er book.)
d elig h t e d , d e t e r m in e d
‘Could you and To m help me m ove house?'
11$^
J l i l l §*_ ‘W ell, I'm w illi n g (t o), and I'll ask To m.'

W e can also leave out a t o -in f in it iv e or use t o w ith so me verbs:

^Sj W
d>;>
syvv-p-- i
?P H B Alex w ill co llect us by 10 o'clock. He p ro m ise d (t o).
‘You were supposed to buy so m e sugar.' ‘Sorry, I
A lso : a gree, ask, begin, re f use,
» P B st a r t , t r y
f o r g o t (t o ).’
-
A fter verbs which m ust have a co m ple m ent (i.e. a phrase which co m pletes th e m eaning o f th e verb)
w e ca n't leave out t o:
I a d m it t h a t I to o k her w a tch, but I didn't m ea n t o. .. ,, , , , , 7
. . . A lso : a f f o rd , be a ble, ch o ose,
H ave you th o u g ht ab out g ettin g vaccinate d a gainst , . , ,
1 . r 5 . , .m - • 1 j • * d eserv e, e x p ect, f ail, ha t e,
,svsv?v>&mn "v cholera before going th ere? I d c ertainly a d vise you t o. , . . . . .
• J J h o p e, in t e n d, lo ve, n ee d, pre f er
^§SS>>.<<*-'

A fter w a n t and w o u l d lik e in if -cla uses and w h -cla uses we can often leave out a t o -in f in it iv e or use
t o:
' M,'^SS ~SX'
5# §s§ 5fS»5 You're w elc o m e to dance / /yo u'd lik e (to).
*itf§ -
sl' !. Ifts
fS P ^ O You can do w h a teveryou w o u l d lik e (to).
Call me Ben i f you w a n t (to).
Co m e and see us when yo u w a n t (to).
In oth er clauses (n o t if- and w h -cl a uses) we include to:
I was planning to see yo u to m orro w, and I w o u l d still lik e t o.
I offered to clean y o ur car because I really w a n t t o , not because I hope to be paid.

In if -cla uses and w h -cla uses w e usually leave out t o after like. Co m pare:
G You can have one if yo u like, a nd You can have one if yo u'd lik e (to).
Leave w h en ever yo u like, a nd Leave w h e n ever yo u'd lik e (to).
H owever, we include t o with neg ative forms of w a n t, w o u l d like, and like, including in if -cla uses and
w h -cla uses:
‘Shall w e go and visit Laura?' ‘I d o n't really w a n t to.'
O I should have phoned Jo last night, but it w as so late when I got hom e I di d n't lik e to.
C ‘ He w o n't mind yo u asking him for a loan.' ‘ O h, no, I w o u l d n 't lik e to.'

Hty I

130
E x e rcises
Re writ e t h e it alicise d p art o f each se n t e n ce so t h a t it has a si m ilar m eaning. Use a verb fro m t he
box (use each verb t w ice) f o llo w e d by t o or t o be.

cl ai m e d e x p ect e d p re t e n d e d used

1 W as she really as good at tennis as she sa id she w as? cla im ed, to be

2 She occupies a much less im p orta nt role in th e co m pany than she did before.

3 Lucia was frightened - or m ayb e she just a cte d as i f she was.

4 Dan has lost a lot of weig ht. He's much thinn er than he was before.

5 The last g overnm ent did n't re present th e m ajority of people, although it sa id th a t it did.

6 My fa m ily enjoye d my singing, or at least th ey made believe that they did.

7 The Pantheon in Rome w asn't anythin g like I im agined it.

8 I did n’t get an interview for the jo b although I thought that I would.

A C o m p le t e t he se n t e nces. W rit e t o if it is n ecessary; w ri t e (t o) if it can be inclu d ed or o mit t e d.

1 I've alw ays wante d to go w h ite -w a ter raftin g, but I’ve never had th e o p p ortunity
before.
2 Luka had to a d m it th a t he'd faile d, even though he o bvio usly hated
3 W hen th e police o fficer told th e crowd to leave th e square th ey refused
4 I d on't have t o w alk to w ork. I do it because I choose ....................
5 W e did n't w a n t Alina to leave colle g e, but she was d etermin e d ............................
6 Spain won 3 - 0 , and deserved , after a fine p erform ance.
7 a : Shall we ask Dad before we borrow the car? b: Yes, it mig ht be a good idea ........................
8 a : W ould yo u present the prizes for th e co m p e titio n? b: I'd be delighted ............................
9 a : W ould yo u like to travel first class? b: W ell, yes, I'd c ertainly p re fe r...............................
10 I was hoping to go to Russia this year, but I ca n't afford

If n ecessary, co rrect B's resp o nses. If t h e y are alr ea d y co rrect, w ri t e *2. f Q

1 a : Can I have a biscuit? b: Take more than one if you like to.
2 a : W hen shall w e start playing the m usic? b: W h e n ever you'd like.
3 a : W ill Sara be able to play? b: I asked her, but she says she d o esn't w a n t.
4 a : I ca n't co m e out tonight, I'm seeing Em ma, b: She can join us, ifshe'd like to.
5 a : W h ere are yo u going to in N orw ay? b: I haven't decided ye t. I'll just go where I w a n t.
6 a : I d on't think I'll go after all. b: That's okay. You d on't have to if yo u d on’t w a nt.
7 a : Can th e children co m e t o o? b: Yes, of course, if th ey w a n t.
8 a : Shall w e go out walkin g t o m orro w? b: Yes, I'd like very much.
9 a : Could I ask yo u a p ersonal qu estio n? b: O f course. Ask anythin g yo u like to.
10 a : Did you ask Dr Mori to help yo u? b: N o, he w as very busy, so I didn't like.

A d d itio n a l exe rcise 12 (page 248)

Unit
66 Position of adjectives
M any a djectives can be used eith er before th e noun th ey describ e, or follo win g linking verbs such as
a p p ear, be, b eco m e, f e el, ge t, and se e m (see U nit 21). Co m pare:
O Th e high price surprised him. a nd G Th e price se e m e d high.
Som e a djectives are seld om or never used before th e noun th e y describ e. These include -

o
some 'a-' adjectives:
The horse was alo n e in the field.
Also: afraid, alik e, alive, asha m e d, asle e p, a w a k e, a w are
( but not The alone horse ...)
Som e have relate d a djectives t h a t can be used before a noun or after a linking verb. Co m pare:
O The anim al was alive, a nd A livin g anim al.
Also: afrai d - frig h t e n e d , alik e - si m ilar,
(or A live a nim al. / The anim al w as living.)
a lo n e - lo n e, asle e p - sle e p in g

some adjectives used to describe health and feelings:

My son f e lt u n w e ll, ( but not M y u nw ell son ...)
These are so m etim es used b etw een an adverb
and noun e.g. ‘a term in ally ill p atient'.
Also: c o n t e n t , fin e, gla d, ill (b ut ‘ill
h e alth'), so rry, (u n)su re , u pse t (but ‘an
upset sto m ach'), w e ll (but ‘ He's really
not a w e ll m an')

Emphasising a djectives are used to em phasise y o ur fe elin gs ab o ut so m ethin g. Co m pare:

O I felt a fo ol, a nd I fe lt a c o m p le t e fo ol, (for em phasis)
Som e em p hasising a djectives (such as co m p le t e, and also a bso lu t e , e n tire, m ere, sh eer, t o t a l,
u t t er) are seld o m or never used after a linking verb:
It w as a t o t a l failure, ( but not usu a lly The failure w as t o tal.)

Classifying a djectives are used to say th a t so m ethin g is o f a p articular typ e. Like e m phasising
a djectives, classifyin g a djectives are seld om or never used after a linking verb:
O a n u cle a r explosion ( but not usually
A lso: a t o m ic, ch e m ical, di git al, d o m est ic,
‘The explosion was nuclear', unless we
e n vir o n m e n t al, m e d ical; g e n eral, occasi o n al,
p articularly w a n t to em p hasise a
n o r t h ern (e tc.), m a xi m u m , m inim u m , u n d erlyin g
co ntrast w ith o th er kinds of explosion)
Q u a lita tive a djectives are used to give th e q uality t h a t a thin g or person has. W e use th e m eith er
directly before a noun or a fter a linking verb. Co m pare:
O a b e a u tif u l sunset C The sunset w as b ea u tif ul.
N ote t h a t so m e classifyin g a djectives can also be used with different m eanings as q ualitative
a djectives and placed after a linking verb. Co m pare:
Also: aca d e m ic, co nscio us,
G The co untry's ec o n o m ic reforms, and
e d u ca t io n a l, (il)le g a l, scie n t if ic
Q The process isn't eco n o m ic. (= not profita ble)
Many a djectives can be used im m e d iately after a noun, at th e beginning of a reduced relative clause
(see U nit 69B). For exam ple -
adjectives before a t o-infinitive, or a prepositional phrase as part of the adjective phrase:
It was a speech ca lc u la t e d to appea l to th e unions.
O He is a m a nager ca p a b le o f m aking d ifficult decisions.
some -ible and -a ble adjectives such as available, imaginable, possible, suita ble. However, we use
these adjectives im mediately after a noun only when the noun follows t h e or when the noun is made
definite by what follows in a relative clause:
This w as the m ost d ifficult decision im a gina ble.
It is a tre a tm ent su it a b le fo r a ll children with asthm a.
the adjectives co ncerned, involved, opposite, present, proper, resp onsible. These words have
different meanings when they are used before a noun and immediately after it. Compare:
All the people p rese n t (= w h o w ere th ere) approved of th e d ecision, a nd
G I w as asked for my p rese n t address. (= my ad dress now)
132
E x e rcises
If n ecessary, co rrect t h ese se n t e nces, or w rit e S if t h e y are alrea d y co rrect, ( j j )
1 A fter the accid e nt I tried to co m fort th e upset driver of th e car.
A-ffcer the a ccu i & n t I t r i e d to c o m fort the d riv e r o f t h e c ^ , who w as w p se t,....
2 In th e dista nce I could see an alone figure walkin g tow ards me.
3 It w asn’t a great surprise wh en Rahim died as he hadn't been a w e ll man for years.
4 I re m e m b er her as a glad person wh o w as alw ays smiling.
5 He stood at the bedroom door, looking at his aslee p daughter.
6 The fire on th e ship is under co ntrol, but there are still m any afraid passengers on board.
7 She sp ent m ost of her life nursing serio usly ill children in the hospital.
8 The tw o children were of an alike age.
9 W e were unsure which w ay to go.
10 The sorry girls apologised to th eir te ach er for th eir behaviour.

C o m p le t e each pair of se n t e n ces using o n e pair o f a d ject iv es fro m t h e box. If an a djectiv e

can be used in b o th se n t e nces, w ri t e it in b o th; if no t, w ri t e it o n ly in one. (Use a dict io n ary if
n ecessary.)

d o m est ic - u nsa f e e d u ca t io n a l - e n t e rt ain in g

in e v it a b le - u t t e r l e g a l -s t u p i d se rio us - u n d erlyin g

1 a The exp erim ent was a / an failure,

b A fter Dr O w en left th e project, its failure w as.............................. ................
2 a N one of th e equip m ent in th e wareh o use is ..................................
b The shop d o esn’t sell e quip m ent.
3 a Th e trip to th e wild life park was a / an exp erience,
b Th e toys were and th e children played with th e m for hours.
4 a The co m p uter fa ult was enough to disrupt all th e w ork in th e office,
b T h e ............................ problem has not y e t been solved.
5 a He was involved in a argum ent w ith his neighbour over a tree in the
garden.
b It's c o m ple tely to charge a fee for e ntry into th e museum.

W rit e t h e w ord in brack e ts in on e of t h e sp aces in each se n t e n ce, ei t h er b ef ore or a f t e r t he

n oun (or b ot h if p ossible). (Use a dict io n ary if n ecessa ry.)
1 The party was excelle nt, and I'd like to thank all the people
( concerned )
2 As the m inister for th e health service, I think he should resign.
(responsible )
3 The new m achin ery was intende d to increase o utp ut, but it se ems to have had the
effect . ( opposite )
4 Children are o nly a d m itte d when acco m panie d by a / an ad ult
(responsible )
5 It's th e only room in th e h otel th a t night, ( available )
6 The pond on th e villag e green was fille d in with the approval of local
resid ents. (a pp arent )
7 Cars drive to o fast past th e scho ol and parents have co m plaine d to
th e police, ( concerned )
8 For those w h o need it, there is financial advice . ( ava ilable )

- A d d itio n a l e xe rcise 13 (page 248) 133

Unit
67 Gradable and non-gradable adjectives 1
Gradable a djectives can be used with grading adverbs such as v e r y or e x t r e m e ly to say th a t a thing or
person has more or less of a p articular quality. H ere are so me exam ples of a djectives used as gradable
in th eir m ost co m m on meanings:

angry, big, b usy, clever, co m m o n,

Grading a bit, d re a d f u lly, e x t re m ely , Gradable
dif f ere n t, fast, frie n d ly, hap py,
adverbs h u g ely, i m m e nse ly , in t e nsely , a djectives
i m p or t a n t, lo w, p o pular, quie t,
ra t h er, re aso n a b ly, sli g h t ly, v e ry
rich, stro ng, w ea k, y o u n g

She was extre m ely rich. The people there are reason ably f rie n d ly.
It’s hugely p o p ular. Th ey're sligh tly dif f ere n t.

N on-gradable a djectives are not used with adverbs such as v e r y or e x t r e m e ly because these
a djectives do not refer to q ualities which have different degrees. W ith non-gradable a djectives we
can use non-grading adverbs which em p hasise th eir extre m e or a bsolute nature, such as a bso lu t e ly ,
co m p le t e ly , etc. M any classifyin g a djectives (see U nit 66) are usually non-gradable. Adverbs such as
a l m ost, e x clusiv e ly , e tc., which indicate the exte n t of th e q uality, are c o m m o nly used w ith classifyin g
a djectives. Here are so m e exam ples of non-grada ble a djectives in th eir m ost co m m on meanings:

a bso lu t e ly , c o m p le t e ly , e n t ir ely, a w f u l, e x ce lle n t , huge,

N on p e r f ect ly, p ra c t ica lly , si m p ly, im p ossib le, su p erb, t errib le, N on-
grading t o t a lly , u t t e rly , v ir t u a lly; u niq ue, u n k n o w n, wron g; gradable
adverbs a lm ost, e x clusiv e ly , f u lly, d o m estic, e n v ir o n m e n t a l, a djectives
la rg ely, m ain ly, n e arly , p ri m arily a g ricu l t u r a l (see Unit 66 C)

She's co m p le te ly wro n g. It w as a bsolutely su p erb.

He w as pra ctic a lly u n k n o w n to Th e region is largely a g ricu l t u ra l.
th e public.
Gradable a djectives are so m etim es used with non-grading adverbs, and non-gradable a djectives with
grading adverbs to give sp ecial em phasis or to be hum orous:
Q W h a t yo u're asking isn't just d ifficult - it's extre m ely im p ossi b le! {grading adverb +
non-gradable a djective )
You've won a hundred pounds? W ow, yo u're virtu a lly rich! { non-grading adverb + gradable
a djective )
N ote th a t not all th e adverbs can go with all the a djectives given in each of th e ta bles above. For
exam ple, we can say ‘a bsolutely huge', but we w o uld n't usually say ‘c o m ple tely huge' unless it was for
p articular em p hasis or for hum our.

The adverbs f a irly (= to quite a large degree, but usually less than ‘very'), r e a ll y (= ‘very [m uch]’) and
p re t t y (= sim ilar to ‘fairly'; used in inform al co ntexts) are co m m o nly used with both gradable and
non-gradable a djectives:
O She's fa irly p o p ular at scho ol. It w as a fa irly a w f u l film .
I'm re a lly b usy at the m o m ent. The flo o ding was re a lly t e rrib le.
It's a pre tty i m p o r t a n t exam. The bill was pre tty huge.
H owever, note th a t w e d on't g en erally use f a irly (or v er y) with gradable a djectives which indicate
th a t so m ethin g is very good or n ecessary:
Experience is re a lly / p re t ty esse n t ia l for th e jo b. (n o t ... fairly essential ...)
Th e w e ath er was re a lly / p re tty p erf ect , { n o t ... fairly p erfect.)

A lso : in v alu a b le, su p er b, t r e m e n d o us, w o n d e r f u l

 I
E x e rcises
H D C o m p le t e t he f o ur se n t e nces w hich co n t ain gra d a ble a d ject iv es using v e r y. C o m p le t e t he
re m ainin g se n t e n ces w it h t h e a d v erbs fro m t he box. Try t o use a dif f ere n t on e each tim e. Q
a b so lu t e ly a l m ost c o m p le t e ly e x clusi v e ly m a in ly p ra c t ica lly

1 The bridge is now co m plete.

2 The m aterial is co tto n.
3 The food was excelle nt.
4 H er explanation was .......................... clear.
5 Th eir actio ns were illegal.
6 The new restaurant is popular.
7 I was in a / an p erm anent state of suspense.
8 I th o u g ht she was a ttractive.
9 U ntil last ye ar th e club was male.
10 Sm all black cars are not visible.

A nsw e r t h e q u est io ns using an a dverb + a djectiv e. H o w w o uld y o u f ee l if ...

1 ... a friend said s/ he had just w on a millio n pounds? ^ a bso lu te ly d e lig h te d ,.
2 ... y o ur best friend told you s/ he was emigrating to A ustralia?
3 ... so m eone broke a win d o w in yo ur house or fla t?
4 ... a co m plete strang er told you th at yo u were very b eautiful / han dso m e?
5 ... yo u lost so m e airline ticke ts yo u had just bought?

If n ecessary, co rrect t he it alicise d p arts of t his e m ail. If t h e y are alr e a d y co rrect, w ri t e / . O

Dear Nathan,
I’m writing this email in my new flat in Stratford. It’s in an (1) absolutely old building which was (2) totally
renovated last year. Fortunately, I didn’t have to do much decorating when I moved in. As you know, I’m
(3) hugely use less at DIY so I was (4) absolutely h a ppy about that. Th e building is (5) reason ably unique
in this part of Stratford, as most others around are (6) rather modern, and the view across the river from
my sitting room is (7) simply su perb. The flat’s (8) simply small, but (9) completely comfortable for me.
My neighbours are (10) very friendly and usually (11) fully quiet. Th e only problem is that the woman
upstairs plays the trumpet and I find it (12) a bit im possible to read when sh e’s playing. I get (13) slightly
angry about this, but she doesn’t play for long each time, so it’s not an (14) extremely terrible problem.
I know that the weather has been (15) dreadfully awful recently, so it’s been difficult for you to get here, but
you must come over one evening. Th ere’s an (16) absolutely marvellous restaurant nearby that we could
goto.
Hope all is well,
Lea

Cr oss o u t any inco rrec t or u nlik ely alt ern a tiv es. O
1 H er advice was fa irly / re a lly invaluable.
2 O ur neighbours are re a lly / fa irly friendly.
3 I thou ght his p erform ance as H am let was fa irly / re a lly tre m en d ous.
4 The children kept pre tty / very q uiet during th e co ncert.
5 The vie w fro m the win d ow was v e ry / p re t t y w o nd erful.
6 Th eir co o p eration is pre tty / very essential if we w ant th e project to go ahead.
7 The w e a th er was re a lly / fa irly p erfect for a long walk.
8 In this photograph she looked re a lly / very young.
9 The w orkm anship in the furniture was pre tty / very superb.
10 The disease is fa irly / p re tty co m m on in this part of th e co untry.

135
 Som e a djectives have both gradable and non-gradable senses.

(i) Som e a djectives have different senses when th ey are grada ble and non-gradable. Co m pare:
O Sm ith is a very co m m o n nam e. (= fre q u ently found; gradable) a nd
0 We have a lot of co m m o n interests. (= share d; non-gradable; not very)
0 The house is very old. (= existe d m any years; grada ble) and
Q I m et my old p olitics professor th e oth er day. (= form er; non-gradable; not very)

A lso : civil, cle a n , crit ic a l, e l e c t ric (= ‘excitin g’ when grad able),

e m p t y, f a lse , la t e, od d, origin al, p ar tic u la r, st ra ig h t

(ii) Som e a djectives have sim ilar meanings wh en th ey are gradable and non-grada ble. H owever,
when th ey are gradable w e talk about th e q uality t h a t a person or thing has (i.e. th e y are qu a litative
a djectives and therefore can be used with an adverb), and wh en th ey are non-gradable we talk about
th e cate g ory or typ e th ey belong to (i.e. th ey are classifying a djectives). Co m pare:
I d o n't know where he cam e fro m, but he sounded slightly f oreig n. (= not from this co untry;
grada ble) and
She is now advising on th e g overnm ent's f oreig n p olicy. (= concernin g o th er co untries; non-
gradable)
Th ey had a very p u blic argum ent. (= seen / heard by a lot of people; gradable) and
He w as forced to resign by p u blic pressure. (= fro m m any people in th e co m m u nity; non-
gradable)

A lso : aca d e m ic, a d u lt , ave ra g e, d i p lo m a tic, g e n uin e, g uil t y, h u m an, in d ivid ual,
in n oce n t, m o b ile, p riv a t e, p ro f essio n al, scie n t if ic, t e c h n ica l, t r u e, w ild
W
In spoken English in particular, we can use g oo d and ..., l o v e ly an d ..., and nice an d ... followe d by
ano th er gradable a djective in order to em p hasise th e second a djective. Possible p atterns include -
goo d and re a d y and more co llo q uially g oo d and pro p er / rela x e d / st r o n g (but not usually good
and b eautiful / rich / tall):
O If yo u're all feelin g g oo d and rela x e d after th e break, le t’s get on with the meeting,
lo v e ly and d ry / so f t / su n n y / w ar m (but not usually lovely and d ecent / e m p ty / sh ort):
0 It's lo v e ly and w a r m in here. Freezing outsid e, though.
nice and brig h t / cle a n / col d / co m f o r t a b le / e a rly / fresh / q u ie t / sim p le / so f t / t i d y /
w a r m ( but not usually nice and interestin g / han dsom e / excitin g):
O ‘Shall w e get so m e straw b erries?' ‘Yes, th ey look nice and f r esh .’
W e can also link co m parative a djectives (see U nit 72) with an d to talk about an increasing degree of
th e q uality described in the a djective. W e use m ore and m o re + a d je ct iv e in a sim ilar way:
As she got m ore an d m ore e xcit e d, her voice got hig her and hi g h er and lo u d er and lo ud er.
Th e taxi driver just drove f ast e r and f ast e r and f ast e r until I told him to sto p, and I got out.
E x e rcises
C o m p le t e t h e se n t e n ces using each of t h e a d ject iv es fro m t h e box t w ice, o nce w it h a gra d a ble
se nse (ad ding v e r y) and o nce w it h a n o n-gra d a ble se nse. (Use a d icti o n ary if n ecessary.) G>
cri t ic a l f a lse la t e orig in al straig h t

1The novel was praised by th e ju d g es for its very origin a l use of language.
2 The train is again. I w o n d er if th e bad w e ath er has d elaye d it.
3 The report was of th e police officers involved in th e investigation.
4 I had a / a n ch oice b etween workin g for m y fath er and having no jo b at all.
5 She w as accused of giving inform atio n during th e trial.
6 The driver of th e overturned lorry w as in a / a n co ndition in hospital last night.
7 I was given the oil painting by m y uncle Sim on.
8 Th e fire places had been removed and replaced by m ore mo dern ones.
9 The path to th e su m m it of th e hill w as and steep.
10 M any of th e people I m et were quite sincere, but so me see med , so th a t I could
never be sure if th ey m eant w h a t th ey said.

^ 2 2 ^ C o m p le t e each pair of se n t e n ces using t h e a d verb + a dject iv e pairs fro m t h e box. Use t h e
a d ject iv e in b ot h se n t e nces, bu t inclu d e t h e a d verb in o nly one.

(lar g ely) aca d e m ic ^ fairly ) a v e r a g e (e x t re m e ly ) d i p lo m a tic

(v er y) h u m an (i n t e nse l y) p riv a t e (h ig hly) t e c h n ic a l

1 a T h e ctvem ge te m p erature on th e island is a ple asant 23.4 °C.

b Brecston is a / -an- to w n in the south of England.
2 a The instructio ns were and cle arly m eant for an exp ert.
b Fiona got a jo b providing support for people having co m p uter problems.
3 a Being frig htened in this situatio n is a response and nothing to be
asham e d of.
b N ear the to p of th e m o untain there were signs of habitatio n, perhaps
centuries old.
4 a I found it d ifficult to und erstand the talk th a t Professor D owns gave,
b The standards at th e scho ol are very high.
5 a He worked hard to afford a ed ucatio n for his thre e children,
b She was a / an ....................................... person and had few close friends.
6 a A fter Mara left u niversity she worked in th e service for a num b er of
ye ars.
b W hen he was asked to co m m e nt on th e French President's decision he gave a / an
answer, not wantin g to ap p ear critical.

C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces w it h p hrases beginning w it h g oo d / l o v e l y / n ice + an d + an

a p pro pria t e a djective.
1 N ow th a t th e room is painted yello w, it looks lovely and, brig ht.
2 I've put yo u in th e spare room at the back of th e house, so it'll be ............
3 a : H ave yo u felt th e m aterial my new co at's made of? b : O h, it's .......................
4 The oranges looked quite old, but when I cut into th e m th ey were ...................
5 There's no p oint in tryin g to persuade G ustavo. He w o n't make up his mind until he's
Unit
69 Participle adjectives and compound adjectives
P a r t ic i p l e a d j e c t i v e s

Som e -ing f o r m s (present participles) and -ed f o r m s (p ast p articip les) of verbs can be used as
adjectives. M ost of th es e p articiple a djectives can be used before the noun th ey describ e or followin g
linking verbs (see Unit 21):
The hotel had a w elc o m in g atmosphere.
I found this bro k e n p la te in th e kitchen cupboard.
The stu d e n ts’ tests results were pleasin g.
0 My m o ther see m ed d elig h t e d with th e present.

We can use m any p articiple a djectives im m edia tely a fter nouns when th ey id entify or d efine the noun.
This use is sim ilar to defining rela tive cla uses and th e y are often calle d 'reduced relatives':
W e had to pay for the rooms used, ( o r ... th e rooms t h a t w e re used.)

Som e of th ese are rarely used before th e noun:

Also: a p plyin g, cause d, f o un d, includ e d, provided
My w atch was am ong th e things t a k e n.
( but n o t ... th e taken t h in g s.)
O th ers can be used before or im m e d iately after nouns:
A lso: a f f ect e d , alle g e d , a ll o ca t e d , bro k en,
The crow d w a tch in g grew restless, or
ch ose n , id e n t ifie d, in f ect e d , in t e rest e d ,
The w a tch in g crow d grew restless.
re m ainin g, resu lt in g , st o le n

In form al English, t h a t and t h ose can be used as pronouns before a p articiple

a djective:
The flo ur is of a higher q u ality than t h a t pro d uce d by o th er varieties of w h e at. (= th e flour
which is produced)
Th e to uchscre ens p erform less w e ll than t h ose m a n u f act u re d elsewhere. (= th e to uchscre ens
which are m anufacture d elsewhere)
H ere is so m e advice for t h ose (= people) p re p arin g to go on holiday.

C o m p o u n d a d je ctiv es

M any com pound a djectives include a participle a djective. Co m m on p atterns are:

adverb + -ed p articiple
adverb + -ing p articiple
a djective + -ed p articiple
a djective + -ing p articiple
noun + -ed p articiple
noun + -ing p articiple
-ed p articiple + p article
Th ey are w ell- b e h a v e d children.
Social n etw orkin g is a f ast- g r o w in g activity.
She se ems to live on r e a d y - m a d e m eals.
He's th e lo n g est -se rv in g em ployee in th e co m pany.
The public square was tr e e-li n e d .
I hope it w ill be a m o n e y - m a k in g enterprise.
Did it really happen, or was it a m a d e-u p story? (from tw o-w ord verbs)

W e can use so m e participle a djectives

Also: N e w Yor k -b ase d, Paris- b o rn, brick- b uilt,
o n ly in adjective co m pounds. For exam ple,
easy - g o in g, p e ace -k ee pi n g , l o n g -lasti n g , g oo d-
w e ca n't say ’... behaved children' or *... a
lo o kin g, h o m e - m a d e, h air-raisin g, f ar-reachin g,
making enterprise' as th e sense is
w ell-r eso u rce d , sw e e t -sm e llin g , st ra n g e-so u n d in g ,
inco m plete w ith o u t th e adverb or noun.
so f t -sp o k e n , so u r- t ast in g , n e rv e - w rack in g

N ote t h a t m any o th er com pound a djectives do not include participle a djectives:

Th e problem is sh o r t - t e r m . O It w as ju st a sm a ll-sc a l e project.
Exercises
^j£Q| fro
Re place t h e it alicise d p arts o f t h ese se n t e n ces w it h prese n t or p ast p articiple a d ject iv es f or m e d
m t h e verbs in t h e box. Giv e alt ern a tiv e p ositio ns f or t h e a dject iv e if p ossible.

-cause id e n ti f y incl u d e in t e r est pro vide re m ain r esu l t

I offered to pay for any damage th at was the result, c a u se d (not ... any caused damage.)
Steps are being taken by tele phone engineers to solve th e pro blems which have been noticed.
Visitors who w ant to fin d ou t more can buy a bo oklet with furth er inform atio n.
Please a nsw er the questions on the sheet that has been given to you.
The holiday cost £1,200, with flights which were p art o f the total.
I did n’t w a n t to be on TV but th e p u blicity th a t was the consequ ence was good for business.
Just before serving the pasta, sprinkle over any cheese that is le fto v e r.

W rit e a se n t e nce t o d escrib e each se t o f in f or m a tio n using ei t h er t h a t or t h o se f ollo w e d by one

o f t he p articiple a d ject iv es fro m t he box.
e arn e d found gro w n m a n u f ac t u re d reco r d e d

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Ju n e a n d J u l y Z O O Z. (or ... in t h e corresponding months in Z.O OZ. ).
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Mr’fiite chocfwte £" 'S

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S averag e * president:
salary x2 5
( jr /W r l\
C o m p le t e each seco n d se n t e n ce using a co m p o u n d a djectiv e fro m D t o re place t he it alicise d
in f or m a tio n in each first se n t e nce.
1 The co m p any is organised fro m N ew York. It is a New Y o rk - b a s e d co m pany....
2 The scho ol has all the things it needs, with sufficie nt books and co m puters. The scho ol is
...................................................................... , with sufficie nt books and co m puters.
3 I found th a t th e wh ole exp erience m ade me tense and worried. I found th e wh ole exp erience

4 The proposed changes w ill have a m a jor influence on a large num ber o f people. The proposed
changes w ill be .................................................................

M a tch t h e w ords t o f or m co m p o u n d a d ject iv es and use t h e m t o re w rit e t he it alicise d p arts of

t h ese se n t e nces. 1 5 }
cl e a n ey e 411 w id e ca tc hin g e q uip p e d ran ging sh a v e n

1 A t th e age of 16 children do not have the ability or experience to take on th e role of parents.
ore ill-equipped.....
2 The discussions de a lt with a gre a t variety o f topics.
3 W hen I last saw him he had a beard, but now he has no be ard .............................................
4 The a dvertise m ents for the new car are very notice a ble .............................................

-> A d d itio n a l exe rcise 13 (page 248) 139

 Unit Adjective + t o-infinitive, -ing, t h a t-cla use,
70 w h-cla use
W hen an a djective co m es after a linking verb (e.g. a p p ear, be, b eco m e, se e m ; see U nit 21) w e can use
a num b er of p atterns after th e a djective including a t o -in fin it iv e, -ing, t h a t -cl a use , and w h -cla use .
(For It + lin kin g v er b + a d ject iv e, see B.)

a djective + exa m ple a djectives used in this p a ttern

i t o -in fin it iv e (un)able, care f ul, crazy, curio us, dif ficult, easy,
Yo u’re fr ee to leave at any tim e f o olish, free, good, hard, im p ossible, incline d, mad,
you w a nt. nice, pre pared, read y, st upid, w elc o m e, w illin g

ii -ing b usy, cra zy, f o o lish, m ad, st u p id; (after th e verb

H e w as b usy doing his ho m ework. f eel) a w f u l, a w k w ar d , bad, good, g u il t y, t e rrib l e

iii t h a t -cl a use afraid, alar m e d, a m aze d, angry, an n o ye d, asha m e d,

H e became w o rrie d ( that ) she ast o nish e d , a w are, co ncern e d, disa p p oin t e d, glad,
" $SL .
-;>
might fall d own. (un)hap py, please d, sh ock e d, sorry, u pse t, w orrie d;
\v
....
.'"-.v. -
cert ain, co n fid e n t, p ositive, sure

iv w h -cla use afraid, n o t a w a re / u n a w are, n o t ce r t a in /

’•>>S:*Vj;$$‘* W
. I’m not ce r t a in (of / a b o ut) why u nce rt ain , d o u b t f ul, n o t su re / u nsure, w o rrie d
he w a n ts to borrow the m oney

V t o -in f in it iv e or t h a t -cl a use th e a djectives in (iii) above, except a w are, co n fid e n t

She w as a fraid to sa y anythin g. and p osit iv e
1was afrai d that 1would be late.

vi t o -in f in it iv e or -ing cra zy, f o olish, m ad, st u pid

He'd be st u p id to leave now.
He'd be st u p id giving up th e jo b.

vii -ing or t h a t -cl a use (after th e verb f ee l) a w f u l, a w k w ar d , bad, good,

.
U• '• • *<!& She felt a w f u l leaving him with all g uil t y, t e rri b l e
th e clearing up.
She felt a w f u l that she was late.

It + linking verb + adjective

W e can so m etim es use it + lin kin g verb + a d je ct iv e + t o -in f in it iv e as an altern ative t o su b je c t +
lin kin g ver b + a d je ct iv e + t o -in f in it iv e (see also U nits 96 and 97):
Th e firew orks w ere a m azin g to w atch, or
Also: a n n o yin g, a w k w ar d , e asy , goo d,
It w as a m a zin g to w atch th e firew orks.
in t erestin g , lo v ely, si m p le , t e rrif ic, w o n d e r f u l

In inform al speech we can use an -ing form instead o f a t o -in fin it iv e:

It is e asy understanding her. It w as a m azin g watching th e fireworks.
W e can use a sim ilar p attern with a d je ct iv e + w h - or t h a t -cl a use (see U nit 96 A):
It is not cl e a r why he did it. O It was o d d th a t she le ft so sud denly.

A fter certain a djectives w e often include o f + su b je c t b etween th e a djective and a t o -in fin it iv e:
.vii*
O It w as rude (o f t h e m ) to criticise her. or
Also: brave, g e n er o us, kind, m ean,
Th ey were rude to criticise her.
t h o u g h t f u l, u n p r o f essio n al, u n re aso n a b le

W hen w e talk ab o ut how so m e b o dy reacts to a situatio n we can use it + m a k e with an a djective and
t o -in fin it iv e, -ing or t h a t -cl a use:
It m a d e m e a n g ry (to discover ) that so
Also: ash a m e d , f u rio us, gla d, hap py,
much m o ney w as waste d, (or It m a d e
'e m ise ra b le , n erv o us, sa d, t ire d , u n co m f o r t a b le
m e a n g ry discovering t h a t ... or I was
angry to discover t h a t ...)
140
E x e rcises
C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces w it h a t o -in f in i t iv e or an -ing f or m o f t h e ver bs in t h e box.
Giv e alt e r n a t iv es w here p ossible.

ch e a t know le a v e o p en p anic r e d uce

resig n talk t u rn u n d e rest i m a t e

1 I'm afraid I ca n't afford th a t m uch. W ould yo u be prepared th e price if I pay cash?
2 Kenzo was stupid in th e exam. He was bound to get caught.
3 He fe lt good th a t he had helped solve th e problem.
4 D o n't feel th a t yo u need to sta y to th e very end. You're free at a ny tim e.
5 Anyo ne tryin g to clim b th e m o untain would be fo olish th e challeng e facing th e m .
6 People said I was crazy a shop in th e villa g e, but it's been a success so far.
7 She was to o busy on th e phone to notice th a t Roya had co m e into th e room.
8 It's so d ifficult to get a jo b at th e m o m ent you'd be mad ................... ..
9 So m e people would be inclined if th ey sm e lt smoke in th e house.
10 I fe lt aw ful people a w ay from th e co ncert, but there just w asn't any more room.

6 9 C o rrect an y m ist a k es in t h e it alicise d p arts of t h is e m ail a b o u t a h o li d ay in Th aila n d. Q

CD

. . . After a couple of days Mark announced that he was going walking in the hills near the hotel. I
thought he was (1) stupid that he would go alone and th at i t was dangerous. But he said th at he was
(2) confident not to get lost. We ended up arguing and finally he stormed off, saying he (3) wasn't
sure when he'd be back. I went into town, but I fe lt a bit (4) guilty to shop all day. On the bus on the
way back to the hotel I got talking to a local woman and (5) was concerned learning that it got very
cold in the hills at night. I started (6) to get worried that he might be in danger, but I (7) wasn't
certain what to do. But when I got back to the hotel, there was Mark (8) busy to drink orange juice
by the pool. He'd decided not to go walking after all! He said he (9) was sorry upsetting me. At first
I was angry and said he was stubborn and that he ju st (10) wasn't prepared admitting th at I'd been
right. But really I was ju st (11) pleased th at he was safe . . .

Re writ e t h ese se n t e n ces using It + b e + a d je c t iv e . If p ossible, use o f + a p e rso n a l pro n o u n

a f t e r t h e a djective.
1 She w as brave t o spend th e night in th e old house alone. It w as...b rave of. h er to sp en d
t h e nigh t in t h e o l d H o use alone..
2 Such a m ag nificent p erform ance was w o n d erful to hear.
3 You were mean to eat all the cake and not leave any for me.
4 Th ey w ere unreaso nable to co m plain ab o ut th e exam results.
5 The to p of th e jar w as awkward to get off.
6 The sh elves were sim ple to put up.
7 He was unpro fessio nal to criticise the hea dteacher in front of th e staff.
8 You were kind to give birth d ay presents to the children.

6 El C o m p le t e t h ese se n t e n ces w it h It m a d e m e + an y a p pro pria t e a djectiv e, ( j }

1 It m a d e me a n gry to hear how she had been insulte d.
2 .................................. listenin g to his lies.
3 th a t w e w o uld n't be workin g to g e ther again.
4 to learn how badly we treate d im m igrants in the 1950s.
5 hearing th e d entist's drill as I sat in the w aitin g roo m.

141
Unit
71 Adjectives and adverbs
So me adverbs o f m ann er (sayin g how so m ethin g is done) are form ed from an
a d je ct iv e + -ly: su d d e n —> su d d e n ly , ha p p y —> ha p pily, etc. W hen an a djective
already ends in -ly (e.g. co w a r d ly , e l d e rly , f rie n d ly, kin dly, liv ely, lo n ely, lo v ely) w e d on't add -ly
to it to make an adverb. Instead w e can use a pre positional phrase with fashio n, m an n er, or w ay:
He smiled at me in a f rie n d ly w ay.
She wave d her hands around in a li v e ly fashio n.
M ost participle a djectives ending in -ed (see Unit 69) d on't have an adverb form and so w e use a
pre p ositio nal phrase instea d:
O Th ey rose to greet me in a su b d u e d m an n er. (n o t ... su b duedly.)
or w e use a pre position and a related noun if th ere is one:
She looked at me in a m a z e m e n t. (n o t ... am aze dly.)
H owever, so me do have an adverb form with -ly. Co m pare:
The storm w as u n e x p ect e d , a nd A7 ~ ... I j , .. , ,,
,r .. Also: a g it a t e d ly , all e g e d ly , d ese r v e d ly,
The w e a th er turned u n e x p e ct e d ly , . . „ ,. . . .. ....
r d e t e r m in e d ly , d isa p p o in t e d ly , e x cit e d ly ,
storm y. h u rrie d ly, p o in t e d ly, re p e a t e d ly , re p o rt e d ly ,
re p u t e d ly, su p p ose d ly, w o rrie d ly

Some adverbs have tw o forms, one ending in -ly and the other not. We can so m etim es use either form
with o ut changing the meaning, although the form ending in -ly is gram m atically correct and more formal:
She ran q uick / q u ic k ly to w ards th e door,
A lso: c h e a p (ly), cl e a n (ly), cl e a r(ly),
and m ust be used if th e adverb co m es im m e diately
fin e(ly), lo u d (ly), t h i n (ly ), sl o w (l y)
before th e verb:
She q u ic k ly ran tow ards the door. ( not She quick ran ...)

Som e adverbs have different m eanings with and with o u t -ly. Co m pare:
She gave her tim e free. (= for no m o ney) a nd She gave her tim e f r e ely. (= willin g ly)
I arrived la t e for th e co ncert. (= not on tim e) a nd I haven't seen A m y la t e ly. (= recently)

Co m pare also:

O He wand ere d dee p into th e forest and got He felt d e e p ly hurt by her criticisms. (= very)
lost. (= a long w ay) They loved each oth er dee ply. (= very much)

You d o n’t have to change trains. You can go I'll be w ith you d irect ly . (= very soon)
direct. (= w ith o u t sto pping) He saw Hassan d ire c t ly ahead. (= straig ht)

It sounded aw ful - one of th e choir This tim e 1f l a t l y refused to lend him any
m e m b ers w as singing fla t. m oney. (= d efinitely; co m pletely)

He kicked th e ball high over th e goal. Everyo ne thinks hi g hly of her teachin g.
(= th ey think her teachin g is very good)

'Is Em il here y e t?' ‘ He's j u st arrive d.' You can be j u s t l y proud of yo ur m usical
She looks j u s t like her m other. achieve m ents. (= rig htly; justifia b ly)

W hich of th ese cheeses do yo u like m ost? H er novels are now m ost ly out of print.
(= m ost o f th e m)
W e m o st ly go on holiday to France.
(= usually)

Th ey cut sh o r t th eir holiday when The speaker w ill be arrivin g sh o r t ly

Lina fe ll ill. (= w e n t hom e early) (= so on). Please take y o ur seats.

The door was w id e open so 1just w e nt You w o n't have any problems getting the
straig ht in. (= co m ple tely) book. It's w id ely available. (= in many places)

.. . sp jgj
142
E x e rcises
( B P Re writ e t h e it alicise d w ords using a - l y f or m o f t he p articip les in t h e box. If a - l y f or m isn't
p ossible, use a pre p osit io n al p hrase or a pre positio n + rela t e d noun. O

a g it a t e d a n t ici p a t e d d esp aire d d e t e r m in e d disa p p oin t e d

or g anise d rela x e d re p e a t e d re p u t e d sa tisfie d

1 I warn e d him again a nd again of th e dangers on the m o untain, but he insiste d on going on.
2 The class w as out of co ntrol and he put his head in his hands fe elin g th a t he cou ld do nothing.
3 As his m o ther took th e roast chicken out of th e oven, Rod licked his lips beca use he was looking
forw a rd to eating it.
4 It is sa id to be, a lthough no one knows fo r certa in, the sm allest post office in th e co untry.
5 ‘Still no news from Paul,' she said in a sa d way.
6 He ran th e co m p any in a calm way and rarely let anything annoy him.
7 She shook her head as i f she had m ade a firm decision.
8 W hen he had finished th e painting, he looked at it in a w ay th a t show ed he was happy.
9 V icky runs th e office ca refully a nd tidily, so I d o n’t think w e should change things now.
10 Sofia paced about in an a nxious way as she waite d to go into the interview.

C o m p le t e t h e se n t e n ces w it h sui t a b le p airs of a d v erbs fro m C. Use t h e f orm w it h - l y in one

se n t e n ce and t h e f orm w it h o u t - l y in t h e o ther.
1 a W h a t she hate d was having to get up at 5:30 every m orning,
b W e don't go out much in th e evening. W e w atch televisio n.
2 a The firm paid co m p ensatio n, but stopped of a d m ittin g th ey were to blam e,
b The book is due to be published .........
3 a I'm not in my o ffice at th e m o m ent, but if yo u leave yo ur name and num b er I'll get back to
you . [ M essa ge on a telephone answering m achine ]
b I used to have t o change in A msterd a m to get to M oscow, but now I can fly
4 a I got very little sleep on th e flig ht, but I felt a wake when I arrived in Tokyo.
.

b French is spoken in N orth Africa.

5 a She is one of the m o s t ......................... regarded researchers in the university.
b W e could just see the plane flying overhea d.

C o rr ect an y m ist a k es in t h ese se n t e nces. If t h ere are no m ist a k es, w ri t e S .

1 The rise in car crim e in th e area is d ee ply w orrying.

2 She wave d frie n d lily to me.

3 C u t th e onions up fin ely and fry th e m with garlic.
4 I asked the boys to move th eir bicycles off th e fo otb all pitch but th ey fla t refused.
5 I co uld n't understand w h at he w as saying. He didn't sp eak very clearly.
6 He was accused of behaving co w ard lily in th e b attle.
7 Pierre Evene m anufacture d th e glass for which th e to w n became just renowned.
8 I calle d Elena and she slo w turned to face me.
9 Spread so me butter on th e bread as thin as possible.
10 The prim e m inister was loud applauded by her audience.
Unit Adjectives and adverbs: comparative and
72 superlative forms
C o m p a r a t i v e s: - e r v s m o r e / l e ss ... t h a n

W e usually add - e r to o n e-sylla ble a djectives and adverbs to make th eir co m parative form.
H owever, w e use m ore + a d je ct iv e -
with one-syllable past participle adjectives (see Unit 69) such as bored, crease d, pleased, worn:
A fter I'd ironed my shirt it looked m ore cre ase d than before. (n o t ... cre ase d e r...)
with fun, real, right and wrong:
C I exp ected th e film to be rath er dull, but I co uld n't have been m or e wro n g, ( n o t ... wrong er.)
when we are comparing two qualities:
‘W asn't he brave to swim across?' ‘I think he was m ore m a d than brave.'
Althoug h th e paint was calle d ‘Sky Blue', I th o u g ht it w as m ore gree n than blue.
W e can also use '... he w asn't so m uch brave as m ad' and '... it was blue r a t h e r t h a n green'.

As < W e can so m etim es use m ore as an altern ative to the -er form to em phasise the co m parison:
Q You might think it's dark here but it's m ore d ark in th e cellar, ( or ... d ar k er ...)

A lso: cle ar, cold, dee p, fair, rough, so f t, tru e.

Som e a djectives w ith tw o sylla bles are m ost c o m m o nly used with m o re / less, p articularly:
O p ar ticip le a d je ct iv es (e.g. w o rrie d , boring)
a d je ct iv es e n din g in - f u l and -less (e.g. care f u l, ca re less)
O afraid, ale r t, alik e, alo n e, ash a m e d, a w a re
O so m e oth er a djectives, including act iv e, ca u t io us, ce r t a in , co m p le x , direct, ea g er, e x act ,
f o r m al, fre q u e n t, m o d ern, sp ecial, rece n t
M ost tw o -sylla b le a djectives ending -y, -o w, -er and -u re can take eith er an -er or th e m or e +
a d je ct iv e form, although th e - e r form is more fre q u ently used.
Som e a djectives (e.g. co m p le t e, e q ual, f a v o u rit e, id eal, p erf ect , u niqu e) have a co m p arative or
su p erlative m eaning so are not often used with - er / m ore / l ess or - e s t / m ost / le ast. H owever, we
can use co m parative or su p erlative forms for sp ecial em phasis:
O Th e w e a th er to d ay w as good, but l ess p e r f ect than yesterd ay.

Su p e rla tiv es
W e usually use t h e, a possessive form (w ith -'s), or a possessive pronoun before a su p erlative a djective
or adverb. In inform al c o ntexts w e so m etim es leave out t h e before an - est or m ost + a d je ct iv e
su p erla tive after a linking verb, p articularly at th e end of a se nte nce:
‘W h y did yo u go by bus?' ‘It was (t he) ch ea p est.'
O W hich was (the) m ost e x p e nsiv e?
H owever, w e ca n't leave out t h e when w e go on t o say w h a t group of thin gs is being co m pared:
‘W h y did yo u buy these orang es?' ‘Th ey were t h e ch e a p est ones I cou ld find.' ( not Th ey were
chea p est ones ...)
W hen m ost + a d je ct iv e / a d v er b is used w ith o u t t h e, m ost means so m ethin g like ‘very':
I checked th e form m ost ca r e f u lly (= very carefully) but did n't notice th e mistake.

A fter a su p erlative w e use o f + a p lu ra l n o u n p h rase to nam e th e o bjects being com pare d:

O A dam's the oldest o f m y t h r e e bro t h ers.
N ote t h a t w e can put th e o f - p h rase at th e beginning to em phasise it:
O f m y t h r e e b ro t h ers, A dam's the oldest.
W hen w e give th e locatio n or c o ntext w ithin which th e co m parison is made w e usually use in + a
sin g u la r n o u n p hrase:
C It was the t a llest tree in t h e f o rest , ( n o t ... th e ta llest tree of th e forest.)

144
E x e rcises
* a * C o m p le t e t h e se n t e n ces w it h a co m p ara tiv e a dject iv e fro m t h e box, using an - e r or m o re +
a d je c t iv e f or m. Use b o th if p ossible. Q
d ee p hard lo n g n a u g h t y p re t t y scar e d st r o n g t ru e

1 It was alm ost as if th e w o lf was of us than we were of it.

2 The river was than I exp ecte d so I decided to turn back.
3 I think I’d describe her as than b eautiful.
4 I bought this tennis racket because i t 's ........................................... ..
5 Sam isn't a bad boy really. He's than dishonest.
6 The exam was than I th ou ght it would be.
7 W e need to take resp o nsib ility for eld erly neighbours, and in a cold w in ter like this it is
.......................................... than ever.
8 W e to ok th e path up th e hill as the oth er one was very steep.

If n ecessa ry, co rrect or im prove t h e co m p ara tiv e a d jectives.

1 I m ay not be much of a cook, but N ina is even uselesser in th e kitchen than I am.
wore useless ....
2 W hen I to ok th e washing out of th e m achin e it looked dirtier than wh en it w e n t in.
3 a : The painting is from the 17th century.
b : Really? It lo oks re ce n ter than th at.

4 The film starts slo wly, but gets excitin ger after th e first half hour.
5 Louis is already rich, but his aim in life se ems to be to become even more wealthy.
6 All of us are unique, but so m e of us are more unique than oth ers.
7 M ost research in this area uses sim ple interviews, but w e used a co m plexer m eth o dolo gy.
8 I didn't do w ell at scho ol, and my fe llo w stu d ents all se em ed cleverer than me.
9 For an extra $500 yo u could buy a much pow erfu ler m otorbike.
10 Curio usly, m any people say th ey fe el m e n tally a lerter if th ey eat very little for a day.

Put b rack e ts aro u nd t h e if it can be o m it t e d in t h ese se n t e nces.

1 It w as th e sw e e test orange I'd eaten for ages.
2 Anna, Beth and Clara were all excelle n t m usicians, but Clara was the m ost creative.
3 He's th e fastest runner in his class.
4 W e get lots of birds in our garden, but blackbirds are th e m ost co m m on.
5 a : Shall w e go by train, bus or car?

b : W ell, going by bus is actu ally the easiest.

C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces w it h in or of. ( ^ 1
1 The building is said to be th e highest Europe.
2 The D e m ocrats are th e sm allest th e fo ur main p olitical parties.
3 Parm esan is perhaps th e m ost fam o us all Italian cheeses.
4 For m any people, it is the m ost im p orta nt day th e wh ole year.
5 She's with o u t d oubt th e best sw im m er my scho ol.

145
W e use as + a d je ct iv e / a d v er b + as to say th at so m ethin g or so m eone is like so m ethin g or so m eone
else, or th a t one situatio n is like another:
W as th e film as f u n n y as his last one? I cam e round as q u ic k ly as I could.

N e gative forms of sente nces like this can use eith er n o t as or n o t so. In fo rm al speech and writin g it is
more co m m on to use l ess + a d je ct iv e + t h a n:
Th e gap b etween th e sides is n o t as / so w id e as it was. ( or ... is l ess w id e t h a n it was.)

If we put a singular co unta ble noun b etween an a djective and th e second as, w e use a / an in front of
th e noun:
Despite his disa bility, he trie d to lead as n o r m a l a lif e as possible. (n o t ... as n orm al life as ...)

The neg ative form of sentences like this can use eith er n o t as or so m etim es n o t such:
It's n o t as q u ie t a p la ce ( o r ... n o t su ch a q u ie t p la ce ...) as it used to be.
N ote th a t we use n o t as + a d je ct iv e + a / an + n ou n but n o t su ch a / an + a d je ct iv e + noun.

We can use so, t o o and h o w fo llow e d by an adjective in a sim ilar w ay:

Q It's not quite so st ra ig h t f o r w a r d a p ro b le m as it might at first se em.
‘Co nspiracy' is perhaps t o o st r o n g a w o rd. H o w big a p iece do yo u w a n t?

W e also use as m uch / m a n y as or as li t t l e / f e w as to say th a t a q u an tity or a m o unt is larger or

sm aller than exp ecte d. M an y and f e w are preferred before num b ers; m uch and li t t l e are preferred
w ith a m o u nts (e.g. $5, 2 0%) and distances (e.g. 3 m etres):
There are a sm all num b er of people involve d, p ossibly as f e w as tw e n ty.
Prices have increased by as m uch as 3 0 0% .

W e can use n o t + a d je ct iv e / a d v er b + e n o u g h + t o -in f in it iv e to mean th a t there isn't as much as is

necessary to do so m ething:
I'm not t a ll e n o u g h to reach. He didn't sp eak lo u d ly e n o u g h to be heard.

W e can use su f f icie n t ly before a djectives to express a sim ilar m eaning to e no u g h. Su f f icie n t ly is
ofte n preferred in m ore form al co ntexts:
G She did n’t play su f f icie n t ly w e ll to q ualify, ( or ... w e ll e n o u g h to qualify.)

W e can use t o o + a d je ct iv e / a d v er b + t o -in f in it iv e t o mean ‘more than necessary, possible, etc.' to

do so m ething:
Th ey arrived t o o la t e to g e t seats. It moved t o o f ast to see it clearly.
Th e suitcase w as t o o sm a ll (f or him) t o g e t all his clo th es in.
In rath er form al English we can use t o o + a d je ct iv e + a / an + noun:
C I hope yo u haven't had t o o tirin g a d ay. ( n o t ... a to o tirin g day.)
(In a less form al style w e mig ht say ‘I hope yo ur d ay hasn't been to o tirin g.')

W e can use so + a d je ct iv e / a d v er b + t h a t -cl a use to say t h a t so m ethin g existe d or happened to such

a degree th a t a specifie d result occurred (see also Unit 81):
It's so si m p le that even I can do it. G He cam e in so q u ie t ly that I didn't hear him.

Less often w e use so + a d je ct iv e / a d v er b + as + t o -in f in it iv e with a sim ilar m eaning. Co m pare:

The difference was so s m a ll that it w asn't w orth arguing ab out, and
The difference was so s m a ll as to not be w orth arguing ab out. (= Because th e difference w as
so sm all, it w asn't w orth arguing about)
W e can use go so / as f a r as + t o -in f in it iv e to talk about actio ns th at are surprising or extre m e:
O n e furio us wo m an w e n t so / as f a r as to throw to m ato es at th e minister.
E x e rcises J
C o m p le t e t h ese se n t e nces w it h as ... as or n o t as / su ch ... as (or b ot h if p ossible). Use t he
w ords in brack e ts and add a n y o t h e r n ecessary w ords,
1 It's n ot su c h a. polluted, c d y now cls / not cis p o llu te d a. ctty^ now as it was
ten ye ars ago. ( not / p ollu ted / city now )
2 Th e D o wntown H o tel is ............................................................................................................................. Strand H otel.
( not / ple asa nt / p la ce to stay )
3 The President's ad dress to th e natio n i s ................................................................................................................
he is ever likely to make in his career. (im porta nt / speech )
4 It w a s .......................................................................... ....................................................................................................
I first thou ght. (not / big / proble m )
5 Theresa's dog is ............................................................................................................................................................................
I've ever seen, [ ferocious / animal)
6 S h e 's..................................................................................................................................................................................................
she claims to be. ( n o t / flu e n t / Greek spea ker)

C o m p le t e t h ese se n t e n ces w it h as m u ch as, as m a n y as, as li t t l e as, or as f e w as.

1 W hen it was re ally hot I was having fo ur showers a day.
2 The ele phant p o pulation m ay soon fall to 1,000 from 5,0 0 0 ten ye ars ago.
3 A t th e end of the 200- m e tre race there was 50 m etres between th e first
and second runners.
4 5,0 0 0 people phoned in to co m plain ab out last night's TV pro gram m e.
5 Lit co ntinu o usly, th e life of a light bulb varies fro m tw o weeks to thre e
m o nths.
6 Som e days there w ere thre e or fo ur stu d ents at his lectures.
7 W e d on't use much electricity. So m etim es our bill is £40 a m o nth.
8 The co untry spends 25% o f its incom e on defence.

g n Join t h e se n t e n ces using so + a d je c t iv e + as + t o -in f in i t iv e.

1 The noise fro m th e factory was loud. a It was n early ille gible.
2 H er han dwritin g w as untidy. b It was insig nificant.
3 The bookcase w as heavy. c It was unplayable.
4 The CD was badly scratche d. d It prevented me sleeping.
5 The plot of th e novel was co m plicate d. e It was alm ost im possible to move it.
6 The difference b etween the results was sm all. f It was co m ple tely incom prehensible.
1+ d T h e nopse frorri t h e f a c t o ry w as so lo u d a s to preve n t me slee pin g.

C o rrect an y m ist a k es in t h e it alicise d p arts of t h is in t erv ie w w it h a f o o t b all m ana ger. CS9

In t e rv ie w e r:
M a n a g e r:
In t e rv i e w e r:
(1) H ow serious injury is it? Is it (2) so serious as has been claim e d in t h e n e wsp a p ers?
Som e people are saying Franz Kahn w ill never play internatio nal fo otb all again.
W ell, it's c ertainly (3) enough b ad to keep him out of fo o tb all for at least six m onths.
He's o bvio usly (4) not so f i t as he used to be and even he would a d m it t h a t he's (5)
not such good p la yer as he was in his tw e n ties. But I w o uld n't (6) go so f a r to sa y th at
he'll never play for th e natio nal t eam again. I kn ow him (7) su fficie n tly well enough
t o say th at he w ill consid er his future carefully before making any m ajor decisions.
W ell, w e all wish him (8) as speedy recovery as possible ...

147
 74 Position of adverbs 1
There are thre e main positions for adverbs which m o dify a verb: end, fro n t and mid p osition -

In end position, th e adverb co m es after the Th ey pla yed q u ie t ly all day.

verb - eith er im m e d iately after it or later in He tried to leave q u ie tly.
th e clause. He sa t in th e corn er q u ie tly.
In fro n t position the adverb co m es before Fin a lly he could stand the noise no longer.
th e su bject. S o m e t i m e s/ fe e l like leaving.
: :. ;.
--V .
In mid position the adverb co mes between H e usu a lly pla ys b etter than this.
'
th e subject and verb, im m e diately after be as
...v ft" .v, \ "
She is usu a lly here by ten.
a main verb, or after the first a uxiliary verb. Th ey would usu a lly com e by car.

Many adverbs can go in any o f th ese p ositions, depending on c o ntext or style. For exam ple:
O He turne d round sl o w ly . ( end ) Sl o w ly he turned round, ( front )
Q He sl o w l y turned round, ( mid)

En d p o si t i o n

In end p osition, we usually put an adverb a fter an o bject rath er than im m e diately after th e verb:
W e considered the proble m brie fly, (not W e considered briefly th e pro blem.)
H owever, if an o bject is very long oth er positions are possible:
We considered b rie f ly the long-term solution to the proble m , (or W e b rie f ly considered ...)

W e avoid putting an adverb b etween a main verb and a fo llowin g -ing form or t o -in fin it iv e:
He began running q uick ly, or He q u ic k ly began running, ( not He began q uickly running.)
She trie d to leave q u ie tly, or She q u ie t ly trie d to leave, ( not She trie d q uie tly to leave.)
The position of th e adverb can change the meaning o f th e sentence (see U nit 75A). Co m pare:
I recall tellin g him cl e a rl y th a t he had wo n. (= I told him cle arly; ‘cle arly' m o difies ‘tellin g
him') and
I cl e a rl y recall tellin g him th a t he had wo n. (= I cle arly recall it; 'cle arly' m o difies ‘recall'.)

‘I recall cl e a rl y tellin g him th a t he had w o n' is also possible, but is am biguous; it can have eith er of
th e tw o m eanings given ab ove. In speech, th e meaning intended is usually signalle d by into natio n.

W hen there is more than one adverbial in end p osition, the usual order in writte n English is a d v er b ial
o f m a n n e r (= saying how so m ethin g is done), place, and then tim e:
In th e accid ent she w as thro wn v i o le n t ly f o r w ar ds. (= m anner + place)
Q W e arrived here on Sa t u r d a y. (= place + tim e)
For sp ecial em p hasis w e can m ove an a dverbial to th e end:
In th e accid e nt she w as thro wn f o r w ar ds, v i o le n t ly .

If one a dverbial is much longer than ano th er then it is usually placed last:
Th ey left a t t h r e e w it h a g re a t d e al o f n oise. (= tim e + manner)
An adverb usually co m es before a pre p ositio nal phrase when th ese have th e sa m e functio n (i.e. when
th ey both describe manner, or place, or tim e):
C She w e nt d o w nst a irs t o t h e ce llar. (= place + place)

End position is usual for m any adverbials of place, d e fin it e f re q u e n cy, and d e fin it e t i m e:
J Th ey live u p st a irs, (not Th ey upstairs live.)
She goes w e e k ly , ( not She w e e kly g oes.)
H ave yo u heard th e good n ews? Eva had a baby in M ay. ( not Eva in M ay had a baby.)
H owever, adverbs of ind efinite tim e usually go in mid position (see U nit 75).
N ote t h a t in jo urnalism , oth er adverbs of tim e are often used in mid p osition, where w e would
n orm ally place th e m in end (or fro nt) position:
O Th e g overnm ent y est e r d a y announce d an increase in educatio n spending.
148
E x e rcises
Put t he a d verb in b rack e ts in an a p p ro pria t e p ositio n in each se n t e nce . In so m e cases both
p ositio ns are p ossible.
1 I ............................ exp ect C atalina to win th e.r a c e ......................... (easily )
2 H e .............................. regretted missing th e c o n c e rt................................. ( gre a tly )
3 I hated playing the piano , although my parents thou ght I loved it.
(secretly )
4 H e ........................starte d to w a l k ............................ across th e bridge over th e gorge, (calm ly )
5 S h e .............................. offered to do th e w o r k ................................ (kindly )
6 Bruno finished speakin g and sat d own, ( hurriedly )
7 I d o n't re m e m b er putting it d o w n .................................. (simply)
8 W e .............................. look forward to hearing fro m y o u ............................. (soon )
9 T h e y ..............................tried to ignore m e ............................ ( delibera tely )
10 I d on't pretend to understand th e instru c tio ns..................................(co m ple tely)

C o m p le t e t his e m ail using t he w ords and p hrases fro m t h e box b elo w in t h e co rrect order.

We had a g re a t tim e d rivin g (1 ) &TQWh.4?...S w it z & U tf \ ( t m .. J u l y . We fle w into Z u ric h an d hire d

( 2 ) ......................................................................................................... W e d ro ve ( 3 ) .......................................................................................................,
an d st a y e d (4 ) ............................................................................................................................................................................ E v e ry m ornin g
w e g o t up ( 5 ) ......................................................................................................................................................................... an d w e n t do wn
to th e n e a rb y la k e f o r a sw im - fre e z in g , b ut w o n d erfu l! T h e n e x t w e e k w e d ro ve e a s t an d sta y e d
( 6 ) .............................................................................................................................................................................. It's in a s p e c t a c u la r p art
o f th e c o u n try, b ut w e had to d riv e ( 7 ) ........................................................................................................................................................ ..
F in a lly, w e d ro v e b ack to Z u ric h an d c a u g h t ( 8 ) .......................................................................................................................................
We e njo y e d ( 9 ) ...............................................................................................................................................an d w e're lo oking fo rw ard to
II
g oin g b ack ( 1 0 ) ............................................................................................................................................ .

1 Hvf uly / aro t m d S w i t z e rla n d 2 a ca r / a t t h e air p o r t

3 t o w a r d s t h e la k es / so u t h
4 in a b e a u ti f u l co t t a g e b elo n gin g t o so m e frie n ds o f Ki m's m o t h e r / f o r a w e e k
5 e a rly / a t a b o u t si x o 'clo ck
6 in t h e v illa g e w h e r e Kim had sp e n t so m e t im e w h e n sh e w as a st u d e n t / b rie f ly
7 c a r e f u lly / on t h e n a rr o w w in din g ro a ds 8 h o m e / t h e tr ain
9 in Sw i t z e rla n d / e n o r m o usly / o u rse lv es 10 b e f ore t o o lo n g / t h e re

If n ecessa ry, re w rit e t h ese se n t e n ces p u t tin g t h e it alicise d w ord or p hrase in a m ore a p pro pria t e
p ositio n. If t he se n t e nce is alrea d y correct, w rit e S .
1 I try to visit every week m y p arents I fr y to v is i t my p are n ts e v ery ...... /
E v e ry week I t ry to vis i t roq p are n t s .
2 N ext, beat the eggs vigorously in a sm all bowl.
3 I th ou ght I'd locked securely th e luggage.
4 I stoppe d regularly playing te nnis after I broke my wrist.
5 Lee was e asily beaten in th e final.
6 M atias never eats in the ca nte en at w ork. He alw ays brings fro m home san dwiches.
7 a : D o the Patel fa m ily still live n ext d oor? b : N o , th ey moved last ye ar away.
8 The local resid ents w elco m e d th e decision to intro duce a new bus service from th eir villag e into
th e nearby to w n warmly.
9 W e have to hand th e ho m ework in on Tuesday.

A d d itio n a l exe rcise 13 (page 24 8)

Unit
75 Position of adverbs 2
Front position
M ost typ es of adverb c o m m o nly go in fro nt position in a clause (see Unit 74A). In p articular -

connecting adverbs, which make immediately O The valu e of th e yen has falle n. As a resu lt,
clear the logical relation to the previous Japan faces a crisis.
sentence.

'fr time and pla ce adverbs, which give more The last few days have been hot. T o m o rr o w
information about a previous reference to a th e w e ath er w ill be much co oler.
tim e or place.

comment and viewpoint adverbs, which She has just heard th a t her sister is ill.
highlight the speaker’s attitude to what they Presu m a b ly , she w ill w a n t to go home.
are about to say (see Unit 78).

N ote, however, th a t o th er p ositions are possible for th ese adverbs.

So me words can be used both as co m m e nt adverbs or adverbs of manner. As co m m e nt adverbs th ey

usually go in fro nt position (b ut can go in o th er p ositions) and relate to th e wh ole of th e clause; as
adverbs of m ann er th ey usually go in end position and m o dify th e verb. Co m pare:
N a t u r a lly , I'll do all I can to help, a nd ~ , ~. G , ,
.. . ... A lso: cl e a rly, cu rio usly , f ra n k ly ,
Th e radio active gas occurs n a t u r a ll y in m any areas. , . ... . . . . .
° h o n est ly , o d d ly, p lainly, se ri o usly

N ote th a t for sp ecial em phasis or focus, adverbs th a t usually go in mid p osition (see B) and end
position (see also U nits 74 and 76) can so m etim es be put in front position:
In M ay, M axine had a baby. Re g ularly, H elena w orks on several paintings at once.

Mid position
The followin g typ es of adverb usually go in mid position (see Unit 74A) -
degree adverbs (e.g. alm ost, hardly, n early, quit e, rat her, scarcely):
O Th e stre et lighting was so bad th a t we a l m o st missed th e turnin g.
altho ug h so me (e.g. c o m p le t e ly , e n o r m o usly , e n t ir ely, g re a tl y, sli g h t ly) can go in end position:
G I admire y o ur w ork g re a tly, ( or I g r e a t l y admire y o ur w ork.)
N ote th a t so m e degree adverbs are not usually used in mid position with so m e verbs. For
exam ple, e n o r m o usly is not usually used in mid position with d evelo p, dif f er, go up or v ary;
g r e a t ly is not n orm ally used in mid position with care or su f f er.
adverbs which indicate the order o f events, such as first, last and next. These can also go in end
position, but if there is a phrase giving the time of an event they usually go before this:
I f irst m et her in 1997. (or I m e t her f irst in 1997.)
W e d on't usually put th ese in fro nt position, exce p t to list actio ns (see also Unit 76B):
O N e x t , add thre e teasp o o ns of sugar.
adverbs o f frequency which say in an indefinite way how often something happens, including hardly ever,
often, rarely, regularly, seld o m (see also Unit 76B); and also the frequency adverbs alw ays and never:
W e h ar d ly e v e r see Kasp ar n owadays, he’s so busy at th e office.
N ote, however, th a t a dverbial phrases of ind efinite fre q uency (e.g. as a rule, on m a n y occasio ns,
fr o m t i m e t o t i m e, e v e r y so o f t e n) usually go in fro nt or end p osition:
As a rule, I go every six m o nths, ( or ... every six m o nths, as a rule; not I as a rule go ...)

We rarely put long adverbials (includin g clauses; see Units 58 and 59), and pre p ositio nal and noun
phrases in mid p osition. Usually th ey go in end position or fro nt position for em p hasis:
She phoned hom e, a n x io us f o r n e ws, (or A n x io us f o r n e ws, she phoned hom e.)
He picked up th e vase w i t h g re a t care, ( or W i t h g re a t ca re he picked up th e vase.)
Q I'd seen Tarik t h e d a y b e f ore, ( or T h e d a y b e f ore, I'd seen Tarik.)
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E x e rcises
C o m p le t e each p air o f se n t e n c es usin g one a dverb fro m th e b ox. Put th e a d verb in fro n t
p ositio n (as a c o m m e n t a d verb) in one se n te n c e, and in end p ositio n (as an a dverb o f m a n n er)
in th e o th er. Q
cl e a rl y c u r io usl y f r a n k ly h o n est ly p la in ly se ri o usl y

1 a C u rio usly , the house has tw o chim n eys , although there's o nly one
fireplace.
b , Esth er looked at him c u rio u sly .... f tryin g to w ork out w h e th er he was being
serious or not.
2 a , I was brought up to earn m o ney , not to ste al it from others,
b , I'm p erfectly capable of putting up th e sh elf m yself .................
3 a , she a d m it t e d .................. th at she felt she w asn't doing a good jo b.
b , I w e nt to sleep during....................................his lecture .., it w as so boring.
4 a a : Thanks for looking after th e children for me.

b : That's okay.
a: , I d on't kn ow w h a t I'd have done if yo u hadn't been around
to help.
b , I trie d to sp eak to him ab o ut his bad behaviour, but he kept
making me laugh.
5 a The chief executive of Eclo m has phoned me every day this w e ek to ask w h e th er I've made my
mind up. ,he w a n ts me to take the j o b ............
b , I'd had very little sleep and was having d ifficulty thinkin g ..........................
6 a Lucas fid geted in his seat and kept looking nervo usly at the door. , he was
feelin g ill at e a s e ..............................
b ..................... she alw ays dressed at w ork in a white blouse and grey skirt.

Cross o ut a ny a dverbs or a d verbials t h a t are inc orrect / u n lik e ly in th ese se nte nc es. c o m
1 Asth m a rates in cities do not enorm ously / significa ntly differ from those in rural areas.
2 N ow th a t Lorna has moved to Kuala Lumpur, I from time to time / rarely see her.
3 I could see th e m e asily / sc a rcely in th e bright sunshine.
4 It was sn owing and I was a lm ost / b y an hour late for th e interview.
5 Carm en had often / on m any occasions spoken at m eetings before, so it was no surprise when she
sto od up.
6 I play chess with Lorenzo h ardly ever / every week.
7 Although he had to lift heavy boxes in th e factory, he gre a tly / rarely suffere d from backache.
8 I forg ot about th e m eeting ne arly / e ntirely and my boss was re ally angry with me.

W h ic h o f th e p ositio ns [1], [2] or [3] can t h e a d verb or a d v erb ia l in b ra ck e ts go in?

1 ^ He moved to N ew Zealand ( the follow ing ye ar )
2 M The children ^ walked along the road (in single file )
3 ^ We ^ see Alex any more, (seldom )
4 ^ He I2' co m plaine d to his p hysics te ach er ^ . ( unhappy with the result )
5 ^ I agree with you l3l ( entirely )
6 M I ^ m e et ^ Em m a at scho ol, ( often )

A d d itio n a l e xe rcise 13 (page 24 8)

Unit Adverbs of place, direction, indefinite frequency,
76 and time
A dverbs of p la ce and d irect io n (or a dverbials, p articularly pre positional phrases) usually go in end
p osition, but we can put th e m in fro nt position to em phasise th e locatio n. The effect m ay also be to
highlight w h a t co m es at the end (e.g. 'a body' in th e exam ple b elow). This ord er is found m ainly in
fo rm al d escriptive writin g and re ports. Co m pare:
G Th e m o ney was e ve n tu ally found u n d e r t h e f lo o r b o ar ds. (= end) and
Th e police searched th e house. U n d e r t h e f lo o r b o ar ds th ey found a body. (= fro nt)

If w e put an adverb of place in fro nt position w e put the subject a fter th e verb be (see also Unit 99 A):
O N e x t t o t h e b o o ksh elf was a fireplace, (or less form a lly N e x t t o t h e b o o ksh elf there was a
fire place; not N ext to th e b o okshelf a fireplace w as.)
W e can also put th e su bject after th e verb with intransitive verbs (exce p t w ith a pronoun su bject) used
to indicate being in a position or m ove m ent to a position:
Q Beyond th e houses la y open fields, but
Also: hang, live, sit, st a n d; co m e, fly,
Beyond th e houses they lay. (n o t ... lay th ey)
go, m arch, ro ll, ru n, sw i m , w al k
N ote t h a t *... open fields lay' mig ht be used in
a literary style.

H owever, w e d o n’t usually put the su bject after th e verb when w e talk ab o ut actio ns: if one of th ese
intransitive verbs is followe d by an adverb of manner; with oth er intransitive verbs; or w ith transitive
verbs:
O Through th e waves th e boy sw a m pow erfully. (ra therth a n ... swam th e boy p owerfully.)
O utsid e the church th e choir san g. (ra therth a n ... sang the choir.)
In th e garden N ik b u ilt a pla y house for th e children. (n ot In th e garden b uilt N ik ...)

W hen we put certain adverbs of tim e in fro nt position the subject m ust co m e a fter an a uxiliary verb or
a m ain verb be (see also U nit 100):
A t no t i m e would he a d m it th a t his team playe d badly. (not A t no tim e he would a d m it ...)
O N o t o nce was she at home when I phoned. (not N ot once she was ...)
If th e main verb is not be and there is no auxiliary, we use do, although inversion is not necessary in
this case:
Q O n l y la t e r did she realise how much damage had been caused, ( or O n ly later she realised ...)
Adverbs like this include neg ative tim e adverbials such as a t no t im e, h a r d ly ever, n o t o nce, o n ly
la t e r, rarely , and seld o m . N ote also th a t w e can put first , n e x t, n o w and t h e n in fro nt position with
th e verb co m e to intro duce a new event, when th e su bject fo llo ws th e verb. But if a co m m a (or an
into natio n break in sp eech) is used after f irst (e tc.) th e verb fo llo ws th e su bject. Co m pare:
A t first there w as silence. T h e n ca m e a voice t h a t I knew, ( not Then a voice cam e ...) and
O A t first there w as silence. T h e n, a voice ca m e th a t I knew.

A dverbs of t i m e which indicate a d efinite point or period in tim e or a d efinite fre quency usually go in
end position, or fro nt position for e m p hasis, but not in mid position. N ote th a t when th ese adverbs are
in fro nt position there is no inversion of subject and verb:
I w e n t to Paris y est e r d a y , ( or Y est e r d a y I w e n t t o Paris.)
W e m e et for lunch o nce a w e e k , ( or O n c e a w e e k w e m eet for lunch.)

The adverbs d aily, h o urly, m o n t h ly , w e e k ly , a n n u ally , q u a r t e rly (= fo ur tim es a y e ar), etc. o nly go
in end p osition:
G I pay my subscription a n n u ally , ( not A nn u ally I pay ...; n ot I a n n u ally pay ...)

152
E x e rcises
Re writ e t h e se n t e n ces p u ttin g t h e it alicise d a d verbs o f place or directio n a t t h e fro n t o f t he
clause. If p ossible, in v ert t he ord er of su b ject and verb.
1 A dark wo od was a t the botto m o f the garden.
A t tioe bottom o f t h e g a rd e n w a s a. d a rk wood.
2 Th e car stopped su d d enly and Daniel ju m p e d out.
3 Two sm all children stood outside the door.
4 Th e boys were playing cricket in the park, despite th e m ud dy co nditions.
5 A ja d e n ecklace hung around her neck.
6 Th e man released the m onkey and it clim b e d up the tree.
7 The do or burst open and a d eleg ation fro m th e striking w orkers m arched in.
8 W hile Marko was looking around for his net the fish swam away.
9 M ost of th e furniture was m o d ern, but a very old gran dfath er clock was in the corner.
10 Lea found it d ifficult to c o nc entrate in the office, but she worked m ore e fficie n tly a t home.

If p ossible, re w rit e t h e it alicise d p arts o f t h ese se n t e nces p u ttin g t he ti m e a d v er bial in fro n t

p ositio n. W h ere y o u can, in vert su b ject and verb, and m a k e an y o t he r n ecessary chan ges.
CEB
1 I truste d Dan c o m pletely, and I re a lised only la ter th a t he h ad tricked me.
I tru st e d ,, por\ cowpbete L j, and., or\L^J^ ± er d id , I re xxJlsz t h a d h e hod. trick e d , me.
2 A fter working so hard all su m m er, I had a holiday last week.
3 Professor Co ulson was to give th e initial paper at th e co nference, but a welcom ing address ca me
first by the he ad o f the organising team.
4 The area was cleared before th e explosio n, and members o f the public were in da nger a t no time.
5 I've got high blood pressure and I have to take ta blets daily for it.
6 W hen it b ecame clear th a t he was in danger of losing th e electio n, a politicia n can seldom have
ch a nged his views so quickly as Beck ett.
7 A fter a fe w days of relative calm , a blizzard ca me next, preventing us fro m leaving the hut.
8 It's hard to imagine th at w e'll be in Japa n by next Friday.
9 You w o n’t have long to w a it as trains fo r R ome leave hourly.
10 My gran dfath er was a g entle man, and I h ardly ever he ard him raise his voice in anger.

If n ecessary, co rrect t he w ord or d er in t h ese se n t e nces. £ 2 8 3

1 I w alk to work for th e exercise, and I twice a we ek play squash.
2 If yo u take th e jo b, m o nthly y o ur salary w ill be paid into y o ur bank acco unt.
3 Down th e hill th e horse ran quickly.
4 Through th e win d o w Megan watch e d sadly.
5 Around th e to w n drove she for hours looking for th e gallery, until she sp otted in a side stre et the
place.
6 I trip ped over th e cat, dropped th e tray, and across the room flew it.

153
 Unit
77 Degree adverbs and focus adverbs
D egree adverbs can be used before a djectives, verbs, or oth er adverbs to give inform atio n about th e
exte n t or level of so m ethin g:
Th ey're e x t r e m e ly happy. I r e a lly h a te coffee. He a l m ost alw ays arrived late.
Som e degree adverbs, such as a l m ost, la r g ely, r e a lly and v ir t u a lly , are usually used before th e main
verb, and oth ers, such as alt o g e t h e r, e n o r m o usly , so m e w h a t , and t r e m e n d o usly , are usually used
after th e main verb. Degree adverbs are rarely used in fro nt position (see U nit 75B).

Focus adverbs draw attentio n to th e m ost im p orta nt part of w h a t we are talkin g about. Som e
(e.g. esp e cia lly , eve n, m ain ly, m ost ly , p a r t ic u la rly , sp ecif ica lly) make w h a t w e say m ore sp ecific:
There is likely to be sno w to d ay, p a r t ic u la rly in th e north,
and others (e.g. alo n e, j u st , o nly, si m p ly , so le ly ) lim it w h a t we say to one thing or person:
M any people offered to help me invest th e m oney, but I o n ly truste d Rick.

M uch an d v e ry m u ch

In a ffirm a tive sentences in form al co ntexts, m uch can be used as a degree adverb before th e verbs
a d mire, a p p recia t e, e njo y, p re f er and re g re t to em phasise how w e fe el ab o ut things:
I m uch e njoyed having yo u stay with us. O Th eir m usic is m uch admired.

M uch is used in this w ay p articularly after I and w e. N ote th a t we d on’t usually use this pattern in
questio ns (e.g. n ot Did yo u much enjoy ...? ).
W e can use v e ry m uch in a sim ilar w ay before the verbs above and also before a gree, d o u b t, f ear,
hope, like and w a n t. N ote, however, th a t w e d on't use m uch before this last group o f verbs. Com pare:
I m uch pre fer seeing films at th e cinem a than on DVD. ( or I v e r y m uch p re f e r...) and
W e v e ry m uch agree w ith th e decision, (or W e agree very much b u t n o t ... much agree ...)
W e can also use m uch or v e r y m uch before a past participle which is part of a passive:
The new by-pass was (very) m uch needed.
W e d on't use m uch but can use v e r y m uch before past particip le a djectives (see Unit 69 A):
I was v e ry m uch surprised by her news, ( or I was su rprise d ...; but not I was much surprised ...)
and we d on't use eith er m uch or v e r y m uch before present participle a djectives:
The hotel w as (very) welcom ing, ( but not The hotel w as (very) much w elco m in g.)

In neg ative se nte nces in inform al c o ntexts w e can use (very) m uch before verbs such as a p p recia t e,
e njo y, like, and lo o k f o r w ar d t o to em p hasise a neg ative feelin g ab out so m ething:
I did n't (very) m uch enjoy th e film.

V e ry and to o
iv^N
S' Before an a djective or ano th er adverb w e use v e ry when w e mean ‘to a high degree', and t o o when we
s ---v’
mean ‘more than enough' or ‘more than is wante d or needed'. Com pare:
The w e a th er was v e r y hot in M ajorca - p erfect for swim m in g, ( n o t ... to o h o t ...) a nd
It’s t o o hot to stay in this room - let's find so m ewhere co oler, ( n o t ... very h o t ...)

In neg ative sentences in inform al spoken English w e can use n o t t o o to mean ‘not very':
C I’m n o t t o o bothered ab o ut wh o wins, (or I'm n o t v e r y bothered ...)

Eve n and o n ly
Eve n and o n ly usually go in mid position (see U nit 75), but if th ey refer to the su bject th e y usually
co m e before it. Co m pare:
My m o ther has o n ly brought so m e food. (= She hasn't brought anythin g else) and
O n l y my m o ther has brought so m e food. (= My m o ther and no bo dy else)
Aya can eve n speak French. (= in ad dition to everythin g else she can do) and
Eve n Aya can speak French. (= yo u mig ht not exp ect her to) (ra th erth a n Aya even ...)

154
E x e rcises
Cr oss o u t an y inco rrec t answ ers,
1 W e very / much / very much hope th a t th e striking workers w ill now resume ne g otiatio ns.
2 Thanks for organising th e quiz night. Your help was very / much / very much ap preciate d.
3 I felt very / much / very much intim id ate d by so me of the questions in th e interview.
4 I had alw ays very / much / very m uch admired her work, and it was great to m eet her.
5 As a child, I very / much / very much wante d to be an artist.
6 I would very / much / very much prefer to be rem em bere d as kind rath er than w e althy.
7 It was very / much / very m uch thrillin g to get Marie's news.
8 W hen I was travellin g in India I b ecame very / much / very much intereste d in regional foods.
9 Kristof says t h a t he wa nts to go into p olitics, but I very / much / very much doubt th at he's
serious.
10 I very / much / very much regret not being able to hear Dr Greco when she gave her lecture.

W rit e v e r y , t o o, or v e r y / t o o if eit h er is p ossible.

1 Leo was in a w h e elch air as he was still w eak to w alk far.
2 Ellie has agreed to start w ork earlier, but she's not enthusiastic about it.
3 The instructio ns are .......... easy. Yo u'll have no trou ble und erstanding the m.
4 It was alarm in g to learn th a t one of th e plane's engines had stop ped.
5 W e'll be at th e cinem a w e ll before the film starts. It w o n't take long to get there.
6 It was sn owing h eavily for us to clim b furth er up th e m o untain.
7 He revised hard and did w e ll in his exams.
8 The old bridge in town was narrow for th e coach to drive across, so we had to go an
extra 50 miles to th e new one.

Put e v e n or o n l y in t h e m ost a p pr o pria t e place in each se n t e nce.

1 Ben offered to let me stay w ith him w hile I was in Glasg ow, and he offered
to pick me up from the statio n.
2 I w ill be in m y o ffice on M onday n ext week as I'm going to Poland for a
business m eeting on Tuesday.
3 Every penny th e ch arity raises helps the ho m eless, and th e sm allest donation
................... can make a vital difference.
4 Jan se ems to have invite d everyo ne to th e p arty...................... he has asked Ann, and
th ey haven't spoken to each oth er for years.
5 Louis knew where th e keys were kept, and nobo dy else.
6 I d on't get hom e from work u ntil late, so I co ok at th e we ekend.

155
 Unit
78 t Comment adverbs and viewpoint adverbs
W e use so me adverbs to make a com m ent on w h a t w e are saying.

som e com m ent adverbs: exa m ples

indicate how likely we think a p p a r e n t ly , ce r t a in l y, cl e a rly, d e f in it ely, o b vio usly,
so m ethin g is p resu m a b ly, pro b a bly, u n d o u b t e d ly

it indicate our a ttitu d e to or ast o n ish in g ly , f ra n k ly , g e n e ra lly, h o n est ly , in t e restin g ly ,

opinion of w h a t is said lu ck ily , n a t u ra lly, sa d ly, se rio usly, su r p risin g ly, u n b eli e v a b ly
i i ..i a i sh o w our jud g e m ent of b ra v ely, ca r e lessly , f o o lish ly , g e n er o usly, kin dly, rig h tly,
so m eone's actio ns st u p id ly, w isely , w r o n g ly

C o m m e nt adverbs often ap ply to th e w h ole sentence and are m ost fre q u e ntly used in fro nt position
(see U nit 75A), although th ey can also be used at th e end of th e sentence and in oth er positions.
At th e beginning and end of sentences we usually se parate th e m from th e rest of th e sentence by a
co m m a in writin g or by into nation in speech:
O Presu m a b ly , he didn't hear me when I calle d.
The book was based on his exp erience in China, a p p are n tly.
O If you practise co ntinu o usly, yo u w ill u n d o u b t e d ly get better.

C o m m e nt adverbs which sho w ju d g e m ent usually fo llo w th e subject, altho ugh th ey can be put in
fro nt position for em p hasis:
He k in dly offered to give me a lift, ( or Kin dly, he offered ... to emphasise 'Kin dly')

If c o m m e n t adverbs ap ply to o nly part of th e se nte nce th ey can be used in o th er positions. Co m pare:
A st o n ish in g ly , she did w e ll in th e exam. (= I was surprised th a t she did w ell) a nd
ss& ; O She did ast o n ish in g ly w e ll in th e exam. (= she did extre m e ly w ell)
\
;r . You've had a m ajor o p eratio n. O b v io usly , it w ill be very painful for a w hile. (= I exp ect yo u to
M ' H know this already) and
Q W h en he sto od up it was o b vio usly very painful. (= th e pain was clear to see)

Som e adverbs are used to make clear w h a t viewpoint w e are speaking fro m; th a t is, id entifyin g w h a t
fe atures of so m ethin g are being talke d ab out:
Fin a ncia lly, th e accid ent has been a disaster for the owners of th e tunnel.
| | ' x“' a O The bro th ers m ay be alike p h ysic a lly , but th ey have very different p ersonalities.
t i
A lso: b io lo g ically , e n v ir o n m e n t a lly , f in a n cia ll y, id e o lo g ically, in d ust ria ll y, lo g ically, m e d ica lly,
» » » » * <
m o rally , o u t w ar d ly, p o li t ic ally , t e c h n ic a lly , v isu a lly

A num b er of phrases are used in a sim ilar w ay:

P o li t ica lly / In p o li t ic al t e r m s, this su m m er is a crucial tim e for th e g overn m ent.

A lso: p olitically sp ea kin g, in t e r m s o f p olitics, fro m a p olitical p oin t o f vie w , as f a r as p olitics is /

are co ncern e d

Som e adverbs or phrases are used to say whose view p oint w e are expressing:
Th e head of N atio nal Bank is to receive, acco rd in g t o re p orts, a £1 millio n bonus.
In m y vie w , th e foreign m inister should resign im m e dia tely.

Also: t o m y / his / her (e tc.) k n o w le d g e, fr o m m y / his / h e r (e tc.) p ersp ect iv e, p erso n a lly,
in m y / his / her (etc.) o pinion
E x e rcises

••
Re writ e t h e it alicise d w ords using an a dverb fro m t h e box. Ch o ose t he m ost lik ely p osition f or
t h e a dverb. Q
ast o n ish in g ly b ra v ely c a r e l essly g e n e r o usly
in t e rest in g ly o b vio usly p resu m a b ly rig h t ly

1 It was very surprising indeed that no paintings were destroyed by the fire in the gallery.
Astonishingly, no poxntongs were destroyed by the fire in the goltory.....
2 As you drive off th e ferry, there are lots of different flags flying by the side of th e road.
It seems likely that the idea is to w elco m e visitors from oth er co untries.
3 Acting more kindly than they n eeded to, th e builders agreed to plant new tre es to replace th e ones
th ey had dug up.
4 M ost people believe in a correct w ay th a t th e prisoners should be released.
5 It was easy to see that she knew more about the rob bery than she told the police.
6 He broke the win d o w when he was painting beca use he w asn't paying a ttention to what he was
doing.
7 She picked up th e spider and put it outsid e, showing no fe a r.
8 I fo u n d it stra nge that the road didn't ap pear on th e SATN AV.

C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces w it h an a p p ro pria t e vie w p o in t a d verb fro m (i) and an endin g fro m (ii).

(i) (ii)
e n v ir o n m e n t a lly f in a n cia lly we'd be m uch b e t t e r o f f if w e m o ve d t h e re .
in d ust ria lly m e d iea U y t h e p e r f o r m a n ce w as st u n nin g.
o u t w ardly p o li t ica lly it is r e la t iv e ly u n d e ve lo p e d.
t e c h n ic a lly v isu a lly sh e lo o k e d r e m a r k a b ly calm .
sh e co uld be se n t t o priso n.

... it is no lo n g er t h e pro b le m it o nce w as.

... he cl a i m s t o be a so cia list .

1 Th o m as says t h a t he is still gettin g severe hea daches, although ...

m e d ic a lly to & d o c to rs c W t -fwd, anythin g wrong,
2 As she stepped onto the stage she fe lt t errifie d, b u t ...
3 N ow th a t lead is no longer added to m ost petrol, ...
4 The co untry earns m ost of its incom e from agriculture and ...
5 The band didn't play terrib ly w e ll, and th e singing was aw ful, but ...
6 The cost of living is much lo w er in th e north, so ...
7 Hansen is one of the richest men in th e co untry, although ...
8 Julie is likely to be fined for failin g to pay her gas bill, although ...

^ 2 0 1 C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces using t h e p hrases fro m B ei t h er w it h t he w ords fro m t h e box (or

a d ject iv es or a d verbs f or m e d fro m t he m ) or y o ur o wn w o rds. ^
a rc h i t e c t u r e d e m o cr a cy g e o lo g y g ra m m a r h ist o r y

1 H csto n oxlly sp eakm g , in w h a t w ays has disease affecte d the d evelo p m ent of W estern
civilisatio n?
2 lim esto n e is a relatively new rock.
3 The building is sim ilar to th e opera house in Milan .............................................................................................

th e essay was w e ll writte n, but its style was inappro priate.

Th e election was cle arly rigged and th e result is a severe blow to the co untry

157
As, when and while Reminder M1 & M8

W e can often use as, w h e n or w h ile to mean 'during the tim e that', to talk ab out so m ethin g th at
hap pens when so m ethin g else takes place:
As / W h e n / W h il e Miguel w as eating, th e d o orbell rang.

W e use w h e n (not as or w hile) to intro duce a clause which talks about -

an event that takes place at the same time as some longer event (in the main clause):
O Th ey w ere playing in th e garden w h e n th ey heard a scream.
the circumstances in which the event in the main clause happens:
O W h e n th ey are fully grown th ese snakes can be over tw o m etres long.

W e also use w h e n to mean ‘every tim e', and we prefer w h e n to talk about past periods of our lives:
I still feel tire d w h e n I wake up in th e morning. (= ‘every tim e')
His m o ther called him Robbie w h e n he w as a baby. (= a past period)

W e prefer w h e n if one event hap pens im m e diately after anoth er, p articularly if one causes the oth er:
Yo u'll see my house on th e right w h e n yo u cross th e bridge.
W h e n th e lights w e n t out, I lit so me candles.
In th e first se ntence, ‘as' or ‘w h ile ’ would sugg est ‘during the tim e t h at' and th e co ntinuous would be
more likely (‘ ... as / w hile yo u are crossing ...'). In th e second se ntence ‘as’ or ‘w h ile ’ would be very
unlikely because lights usually go out instantan e o usly.

W e prefer as to say th a t when one thing chang es, a no th er thin g changes at th e sa m e tim e:
O As th e cheese m atures, its flavo ur im proves, ( ra th erth a n W hen the cheese ...)
W e can also use ‘W hile ...', p articularly with a co ntinuous tense: ‘W hile th e cheese is m aturin g ...'.

W e prefer w h ile or as (rath er than w h e n) to talk about tw o longer actio ns th a t go on at th e same

tim e, althoug h w h ile is more co m m on than as in inform al speech:
I w e n t shop ping w h ile Liam cleaned the house, ( or ... as Liam cleaned ...)

W e use w h ile or w h e n (rath er than as) to avoid a m big uity where ‘as' could mean ‘ because':
O W h il e yo u were playing golf, I w e nt to the cine m a. (As you were playing ... = Because ...)

Before, after and until

W e use b e f ore or a f t e r to talk ab o ut an event happening earlier or later than a no th er event:
I put on my co at b e f ore I w e n t out.
O The message arrived a f t e r I'd left.
W e can often use eith er u n til or b e f ore when a situatio n co ntinu es to happen up to a tim e indicated
in th e adverbial clause:
I had to w a it six we eks u n til / b e f o re th e parcel arrive d.
H owever, w e use u n til to talk about an actio n th at co ntinu es to a p articular tim e and then sto ps:
Th ey sat on th e beach u n t il th e sun sank b elow the horizon, and then th ey w e n t home,
and when th e a dverbial clause describ es the result of an actio n in the main clause:
He cleaned his shoes u n t il th e y shone, (‘shining' is th e result of ‘cleanin g’.)

Hardly, no sooner, scarcely

W hen we say th a t one event happened im m e d iately after a no th er we can use sente nces w ith hardly,
no so o n er, and sc a rc e ly (see also Unit 100). A fter h a r d ly and sc a rc e l y th e second clause begins with
w h e n or b e f ore; after no so o n e r it begins w ith t h a n or w h e n:
O The co ncert had h ar d ly begun before all th e lights w e n t out.
I had no so o n e r lit th e barbecue than / when it starte d to rain.
W e often use a past p erfect in th e clause with h a r d ly (e tc.), n o so o n e r or sc a rc e ly and a past sim ple
in th e other.
E x e rcises
C o m p le t e t h ese se n t e n ces w it h as, w h e n or w h ile . If p ossible, give a l t ern a tiv e a nsw e rs and
n o tice a n y dif f ere nces in meaning.
1 She fe ll over ...................she kicked the ball.
2 we were young er our parents had to pay for our music lessons.
3 I sp eak Spanish, I talk slo w ly to help people understand me.
4 I packed all the books away, Lana made a note of th eir titles on her laptop.
5 She staye d at home w atchin g televisio n her bro ther was at scho ol.
6 W h ere did you live yo u got m arrie d?
7 the results starte d to co m e in, it became clear th a t President Co m o had lost the
electio n.
8 The h u m id ity starte d to increase th e day w ore on.
9 The sno w was g etting d eep er and deeper w e w aite d for th e train to arrive.
10 the paint dries it chang es colo ur from a light to a deep red.

If n ecessary, co rrect or i m pro ve t h ese se n t e n ces. m

1 As I'm old er I'd love to be a dancer.
2 W hen th e boy watch e d in fascinatio n, th e ants picked up th e dead b eetle and carrie d it off to
th eir nest.
3 Th e disk drive m akes a buzzing sound w hile I switch my PlayStatio n on.
4 As th e car w e n t by, so m eone waved to me fro m th e back seat.
5 W hile Kasem had finishe d, he tidied up th e room and left.
6 I was in th e sh o w er as the phone rang.

C o m p le t e t his t a lk a b o u t t h e life and w ork o f a pro f esso r w it h b e f ore or u n til or b oth if

p ossible.
1 He co ntinued to w ork at London U niversity he retired in 2007.
2 he left his native co untry, he learned English by listening to th e radio.
3 It w asn't long he was app ointed Professor of Ch e m istry.
4 He marrie d M artha he moved to England in 1960.
5 he cam e to England he worked in his fath er's grocery shop.
6 He applied for research positions ........................... he was app ointed to a post at London University.
7 He w as alm ost unknown outsid e his field he was awarded th e N ob el Prize.
8 He would w ork in his lab for days at a tim e he had co m plete d an exp erim ent.

C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces in an y a p pro pria t e w ay.

1 The paint on the sittin g room w a ll had scarcely dried ...
b efore my ( L a ughter p u t h er cUrty H a n ds a l l over i i .

2 M artin had no so oner recovered fro m a broken ankle ...

3 He had hardly put down th e phone ...

4 W e had no so oner eaten ...

5 Lisa had hardly finished speaking ...

6 I had scarcely driven to the end of th e stre et

- A d d itio n a l exe rcise 14 (page 249) 159

Unit r ;
80 Giving reasons: as, because, etc.; f or and wit h
W e can begin a clause with as, b eca use , se ein g t h a t , se ein g as, or sin ce to give a reason for a
p articular situatio n:
As it was getting l a te , I decided I should go home.
O W e m ust be near the beach, b eca use I ca n he ar the waves.
Since he was going to be away on his birthday, we cele brated before he left.
W e could go and visit N atalia, se ein g t h a t we have to drive p ast her house anyway.

N ote t h a t -
it is common and acceptable for b ecause to begin a sentence, as in:
O B eca use everything looked differen t, I had no idea wh ere to go.
to give reasons in spoken English, we most often use because. So is also comm only used to express a
similar meaning (see also Unit 81). Compare:
B eca use my m other's ill, I w o n't be able to co m e, (‘ because' intro duces the reason) and
M y m other's ill, so I w o n't be able to co m e, (‘so' intro duces the result.)
when it means ‘because’, since is rather formal. It is uncommon in conversation, but is frequently used
in this way in academic writing:
I had to go outsid e b eca use I was feeling awful, ('since' is unlikely in an inform al c o ntext)
The results of this a nalysis can be easily co m pared to future o bservatio ns sin ce satellite
coverage w ill remain co ntinuous, (m ore likely than ‘b ecause' in this form al c o n text.)
seeing t h a t is used in informal English. Some people also use seeing as in informal speech:
Jo el just had to apolo gise, se ein g t h a t / as he knew he'd made a mistake.

In form al or literary writte n English w e can also intro duce a reason in a clause beginning f or, in t h a t,
or, less co m m o nly, in asm u ch as. For is a form al altern ative to ‘b ecause’; in t h a t and in asm u ch as
intro duce clauses w hich clarify w h a t has been said by adding d etail:
W e m ust begin planning now, f o r the fu ture m ay bring u n expected ch anges. (not For the
future ..., w e m u s t ...)
Th e film is unusual in t h a t it fe a tures only fo u r a ctors, ( or In t h a t ..., t h e film is ...)
Clara and I have quite an easy life, in asm uch as neither o f us has to work too hard but we earn
quite a lo t o f money, ( or In asm uch as ..., Clara and I ...)

The pre positions b eca use of, d u e t o, and o win g t o can also be used before a noun or noun phrase to
give a reason for so m ething:
W e w ere d elayed b eca use o f an accid ent.
C She was unable to run o w in g t o / d u e t o a leg injury. (= because of a leg injury.)
O W e have less m o ney to spend o w in g t o / d u e t o budget cuts. (= because of budget cuts.)
N ote t h a t w e d on't use b eca use alone before a noun or noun phrase:
W e were delaye d b eca use there w as an accid e nt, ( n o t ... because an accid e nt.)

In current English w e usually avoid o w in g t o directly after a form of be:

The co m pany's success is d u e t o th e new director, ( n o t ... is owing to ...)
H owever, o w in g t o is used after be + a d e gree a d v er b such as e n t ir e ly, la r g ely, m ain ly, p ar tly:
Q The low electio n turn o ut was p a rtly du e t o / o w in g t o th e bad w eath er.

We can often use eith er it w as d u e t o ... t h a t or it w as o w in g t o ... t h a t:

It was o w in g t o his enco ura g e m ent that she applied for th e jo b. ( or It was d u e t o ... th at)

W e can use f o r and w i t h follow e d by a noun phrase to give a reason (co m pare B ab ove):
She was looking all th e b etter f o r her stay in hospital. (= ‘as a result of')
W i t h so m any people ill, th e m eetin g was cancelle d. (= ‘as a result of there being')

160
E x e rcises
C o m p le t e t h e se n t e n ces by p u t tin g an it e m fro m (i) and on e fro m (ii), in t h e co rrect order.

(i) 00
1 -passengefs w ere given a full refund- a it's y o ur birth day
2 Andrea agreed to book ticke ts for us all b it w as her idea to go t o th e th eatre
3 I'll buy you lunch c Dr G o m ez spoke ab o ut his research instead
4 I've given up dairy pro ducts d a new co py w ould be very exp ensive
5 w e were recom m end ed to buy the e I suggested w e all go on holiday to g ether
textb o o k second-hand f Th e train was d elaye d for m ore than arr-fooue
6 the guest lecturer was late g it's supposed to be unlucky
7 w e get on so w ell h I’ m tryin g to lose w eig ht
8 you should never w alk under a ladder

1 + f Since t h e traxn wcls d e l a y e d f o r more thtui cm h o ur, p asse n g ers were given ol
f u l l r e f u n d , ....
2 ................................................................... a s ...............................................................
3 See in g as ............................................................................................................................................
4 B e c a u se ...............................................................................................................................................
5 ....................................................................since.............................................................
6 As......................................................................................................................................
7 ....................................................................... se ein g t h a t .................................................................
8 .......................................................................... b eca use ....................................................................

C o m p le t e t h e se n t e n ces using d u e t o or o w in g t o w it h o n e o f t h e p hrases fro m t he box. If b oth

d u e t o and o w in g t o are p ossible, w ri t e b o th. ( 3
lack o f in t e rest st r ess a t w o r k h e a v y cl o u d its ce n t ra l lo ca ti o n h u m an err or

1 She claims her illness is e n tire ly d u e to / owing to s t r e ss a t work......

2 The cancellatio n of th e co m p e titio n is ............................................................................................................................
3 The p o p ularity of th e restaurant is la rg e ly....................................................................................................................
4 It's likely th a t th e mistake w a s ............................................................................................................................................
5 W e co uld n’t see last nig ht’s eclipse of th e m o o n .......................................................................................................

N o w co m p le t e t h ese se n t e n ces using b e ca use or b e ca use o f + a p hrase fro m t h e box.

his a g e his m o b ile w as sw i t ch e d o f f l o ca l o p p ositi o n

t h e brig h t su n li g h t t h e r e w as a f l y in it

6 I had to drive in dark g la ss e s....................................................................................................................................

7 I co uld n't sp eak to Jaco b ..................................................................................................................................
8 The co uncil had to w ith dra w its plan to close th e swim m in g pool .................................................
9 My gran dfath er c o uld n't do a sponsored p arachute j u m p ........................................................................
10 He se nt the soup b a c k .................................................................................................................................................

m Re writ e t h ese se n t e nces using f o r or w i t h inst ea d o f b e ca use (o f). Giv e a l t ern a tiv es w here
p ossible.
1 I got a jo b as a stre et swe e p er because my m o ney was running out.
W ilh my money running out* I got a j ob j l s a, street sweeper. / I got a,job a s c l
street sweeper, with my money running out.
2 I co uld n't hear w h a t Isabella was saying because of th e noise.
3 O livia w e nt to stay with her aunt because her fath er w as in hospital.
4 I felt a lot fitt er because of all th e exercise I was doing.
5 Because the train drivers are on strike to m orro w, I d o n't think I'll go to town after all.

A d d itio n a l e xe rcise 14 (page 249)

Unit
8 1 a Purposes and results: in order to, so as to, etc.
In order / so as + to-infinitive
To talk about the purpose of an actio n w e can use in or d er / so as + t o -in fin it iv e:
G He took the course in or d er t o g e t a b etter jo b.
Q Trees are being planted by th e roadside so as t o re d uce traffic noise.
In spoken English in p articular it is much m ore co m m on sim ply to use a t o -in f in it iv e w ith o u t 'in order'
or ‘so as' to express th e sam e meaning:
He to ok th e co urse t o g e t a b etter jo b.

W e rarely use just n o t + t o -in fin it iv e, but instead use so as n o t t o or in o rd er n o t t o:

O He kept th e speech vague in o r d er n o t to com m it himself to one side or the other.
( n o t ... vague not to co m m it h i m s e lf...)
I wro te down her name so as n o t t o forg e t it. (n o t ... name not to f o r g e t...)
H owever, in co ntrastive sentences w e can use n o t + t o -in fin it iv e, b u t + t o -in f in it iv e as in:
O I cam e to see yo u n o t (in order / so as) t o co m p lain , b u t (in order / so as) t o a p o lo gise.
N ote th a t we can put in o r d er / so as before the t o -in f in it iv es in sentences like this.

In order th a t and so th a t
W e also use in o rd er t h a t and so t h a t to talk about a purpose. Co m pare:
She staye d at w ork late in o r d er / so as to co m plete th e report, and
She staye d at work late in or d er t h a t / so t h a t she could co m plete th e report, ( not ... i n order
th a t / so th a t to co m plete th e re p ort.)
So t h a t is more co m m on than in o rd er t h a t, and is used in less form al situatio ns. N ote th a t
inform ally we can leave out t h a t after so, but we alw ays include it after in order.

A present tense verb in th e main clause is usually follow e d by a present tense verb (or a m o dal with
present or future reference - can, w ill, etc.) in th e clause beginning in o rd er t h a t / so t h a t. A past
te nse verb in th e main clause is usually follow e d by a past tense verb (or a m o dal w ith past reference
- co uld , w o uld , e tc.) in the clause beginning in or d er t h a t / so t h a t. M odal verbs are very often used
after in o r d er t h a t / so t h a t:
Q Regular ch ecks are m ade in o rd er t h a t safe ty sta n dards are m aintained.
J A dvice is given in o rd er t h a t stu d ents can choose th e best course.
O Did you give up yo ur jo b so t h a t you could take care of yo ur m o ther?
O I hid th e presents so t h a t M arianna wouldn't find th e m .

Such th a t and in such a way th a t / as to; such ... th a t

In form al co ntexts, such as acad e m ic writin g, we can use su ch t h a t to intro duce a result:
Th e mo del w as designed such t h a t th e valu e of x could be calculate d. (= ‘in a w ay th a t has the
result th a t ...'; or ... in or d er t h a t ...; or ... so t h a t ...)
Less form ally w e can also use in su ch a w a y t h a t or in such a w a y as + t o -in f in it iv e with a sim ilar
meaning:
Q The a dvertise m ent is printed in su ch a w a y t h a t tw o very different pictures can be seen
depending on how yo u look at it.
O ur business is managed in such a w a y as t o m in i m ise its e nviro n m ental im pact.

W e can also use su ch + no u n p hrase + t h a t to intro duce a result:

It is such a popular pla y t h a t all th e p erform ances were sold out after th e first day.
(For so + a d je ct iv e / a d v er b + t h a t, see Unit 73.)

162
E x e rcises

••
a m i Co m b in e t he t w o se n t e n ces in t h e m ost a p pro pria t e w a y using in o r d e r (n o t) + t o -in f in i t iv e or
so as (n o t) + t o -in f in i t iv e . ( Q |
1 I had to borrow m o ney from th e bank. a This was done to encourage people to use
2 He packed his suitcase with th e books at public transp ort.
th e b otto m. b W e wante d to prevent people walkin g across
3 Bus fares in the city were being cut. th e grass.
4 W e crep t q uie tly tow ards th e deer. c I didn't w a n t to damag e th e growing crops.
5 I walked around th e outside of th e field. d 4-drd-this t o set-up th e b usin ess
6 W e put up a fence. e Th ey didn't w a n t to disrupt traffic to o much.
7 She looked down at the book in front of f W e didn't w a n t to frig hten th e m away,
her. g She wante d to avoid his gaze.
8 The roadworks were carrie d out at night. h He didn't w a n t to crush his clothes.
1 +d I hod. to borrow money -from t h e bonk In o rd er to s e t up t h e b u sin e ss.
[ or .....so a s to s e t up ... )

Look a gain a t t h e se n t e n ces y o u w ro t e in 81.1. Is it also p ossible t o use o n ly a t o -in f in i t iv e ,

w it h o u t in o r d e r or so as? W rit e / or X.
1 1 had. to borrow money from t h e bonk to s e t up t h e b u sin e ss, /

f f l i C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces wit h t h e co rrect v ersi o ns of t h e p hrases fro m t he box. O

it will / w oul d receive t he n e w ch a n n e ls
it won't / wouldn't t a k e up a lo t o f co m p u t er m e m ory
m osq uit o es ca n’t / couldn't g e t in n o b o d y will / w o u l d k n o w it w as t here
p e o p le can / could w alk aro u nd t h e g arde ns w e can / could se e t h e vie w o ver t h e ci t y

1 Th ey have an open day at th eir house each ye ar so th a t people c a n w alk around, t h e

g a r d e n s,.....
2 I put a rug over th e stain on th e carp et so that
3 There were scre ens on all th e win d o ws so t h a t .....................................................................................
4 The so ftware is designed so th a t ...........................................................................................................................
5 W e w e n t up to the to p flo or so th a t ......................................................................................................
6 The TV needs to be retune d so t h a t ............................................................................................................................

Re writ e each se n t e n ce less f o r m ally in t w o w ays; o nce using in su ch a w a y t h a t and o nce using
in su ch a w a y as t o . 8
1 The factory d e m olitio n was planned such th at any risk to th e public was avoided.
The -factory dernollfcton was planned, in such a way. t h a t any risk bo the public
was avoided,. / The factory d ^ o litio n was planned, m such a way as to avoid.
any risk to the public.................

2 The m eeting room is designed such th a t everyo n e’s voice can be heard w ith o u t the use of
m icro p h o n es..............................................................................................................................................................
3 The we bsite is organised such th at it is easy to navig ate........................................................................
4 If the dial is rotate d such th a t th e num b er 1 is at th e to p, th e valve opens.

- > A d d itio n a l exe rcise 14 (page 249) 163

Unit Contrasts: althou g h and though; even though / if;
82 w hile, w h ilst and w hereas
Although and though
W e use alt h o u g h or (less form ally) t h o u g h t o say th a t there is a surprising co ntrast b etween w h at
happened in th e main cla use and w h a t happened in the adverbial cla use:
O A lt h o u g h / Th o u g h Reid faile d to score himself, he helped Jones to score tw o goals.
W ith a sim ilar meaning, we can use d esp it e t h e f a c t t h a t / in sp it e o f t h e f a c t t h a t (e.g. D esp it e t h e
f a c t t h a t / In sp it e o f t h e f a c t t h a t Reid faile d to score ...), d esp it e / in sp it e o f + -ing (e.g. D esp it e
/ In sp it e o f Reid failin g to score ...), or d esp it e / in sp it e o f his / her + no u n (e.g. D esp it e / In sp it e
o f his f a il u re to score ...).

N ote th a t we can use t h o u g h, but not alt h o u g h, at the end of a clause:

I e at m ost d airy pro ducts. I'm not keen on yo g urt, t h o u g h.
W e can give sp ecial em phasis to an a djective by puttin g it before t h o u g h in th e pattern a d je cti v e
+ t h o u g h + n ou n / pro n o u n + ve rb (usually a linking verb such as a p p ear, be, b eco m e, f e el, loo k,
se e m , so u n d, prove, e tc.). As (but not alt h o u g h) can be used instead of t h o u g h. Co m pare:
H o t t h o u g h ( or as) t h e ni g h t air w as, th ey sle p t soundly, and
C A lt h o u g h / Th o u g h th e night air w as hot, th ey sle pt soundly.

Even though and even if

We can use eve n t h o u g h ( but not ‘even altho ug h') to mean ‘despite th e fact t h at' and ev e n if to mean
‘w h e th er or not'. Co m pare:

Eve n t h o u g h M att d o esn't speak = Despite th e fact th at i.e. th e speaker knows

Spanish, 1think he should still visit he d o esn't speak Spanish th a t M att d o esn't speak
Madrid. Spanish

Eve n if M att d o esn't speak Spanish, = W h e th er or not he i.e. th e speaker doesn't

1think he should still visit M adrid. speaks Spanish know d efinitely w h e th er
M att speaks Spanish or not

While, w hilst and w hereas

In form al c o ntexts w e can use w h ile or w h ilst with a meaning sim ilar to ‘alth o u g h’ to intro duce
so m ethin g t h a t q ualifies w h a t is said in th e main clause or so m ethin g th a t m ay se em to c o nflict with
it. In this case, the w h ile / w h ilst clause co m es before or within th e main clause, but not after it:
W h il e / W h ilst there is no evid ence t h a t Rob cheate d, w e were all astonishe d th a t he passed
th e exam, ( not W e were all asto nished th a t he passed the exam, w hile ...)
G The diesel m o d el of th e car, w h ile / w h ilst more exp ensive, is b etter valu e for mo ney.
N ote t h a t w h ilst is a rath er literary word and so me people avoid using it.

W e can use w h ile or w h e r e as (or less often w h ilst) to say t h a t so m ethin g co ntrasts w ith so m ethin g
in th e main clause. The w h ile / w h e r e as clause m ay co m e before or after th e main clause:
Juan gets lots of ho m ew ork from scho ol, w h ile / w h e r e as Mia gets very little.
W h il e / W h e r e as I alw ays felt I would pass the exam, I never th o u g ht I would get an A grade.
-• : :•

W e d on't use w h e r e as if w h a t is said in th e sub ordinate clause makes w h a t is said in th e main clause
unexp ecte d:
A lt h o u g h / W h il e Sophie's fath er is from Spain, she d o esn't speak Spanish, ( not W h ereas ...)
W e can use -ing and p ast p ar t icip le (-ed) clauses after a lt h o u g h, t h o u g h, w h ile and w h ilst , and also
clauses w ith th e su bject and verb le ft out (see U nit 59 D).

164
E x e rcises
Join t h e se n t e nce halv es and give sp ecia l e m p hasis t o t h e a djectiv e by m ovin g it t o t he fro n t o f
t h e se n t e nce. Use ei t h er t h o u g h or as. Q
1 it m ay se em amazing a t h e y w e re v e ry use fu l w h e n I lo oke d a t t h e m in
2 she was frightened d e ta il
3 food b ecame scarce b sh e force d h e rse lf to pick up t h e sn ake
4 th e clim b ers were experience d c t h e y had n e v er face d such severe c o n d itio ns b efore
5 th e instructio ns first appeared d t h e c o m p a n y is st ill in fin a n c ia l d iffic u lties
confusing e t h e y a lw a ys fo un d e n o u g h t o sh are w it h m e
6 it looked disgusting f sh e k n e w th e e xa m in a tio n w o u ld n o t be e asy
7 she fe lt co nfid ent
8 th eir new pro ducts have proved h it w as a c t u a lly q uit e t a st y
successful
1 + g Awoztng though tfc rmuj seem, wnj brother Johan Hits . won the- tottery.
(or Amoving <j l s i t wcuj seem ... )

Ex pand t h e n o t es in brack e ts and re w rit e t h e se n t e nces using In sp i t e o f + -ing in 1-3 and In

sp i t e o f his / h e r + n o u n in 4 - 6 . m
1 Although she has to cope w ith thre e sm all children, ... ( t a k in g -p a rt- tim e MBA course )
In sp ir e o£...havtng t o.co p e;..wlth t h r ^ ^
MBA c o u rse .....
2 Although he was much yo un g er than th e oth ers, ... (was - m ost outsta nding rider - team )
3 Although he ate a big lunch, ... ( had - th re e - co u rse meal - evening )
4 Although he was frig htened, ... ( a llo w e d - h u g e sp id e r - p l a c e d in his hands)
5 Although she is o bvio usly intellig ent, ... (finds - it d ifficu lt - express - ideas in writing)
6 Although she was ill, ... ( w ent - w a lk in g holiday - N epal )

N o w re w rit e t h e se n t e n ces y o u have w rit t e n beginning D esp i t e t h e f a c t t h a t ...

1 Despite th e -fact th oJo s he has to cope w&h three s mall children, sh e is taking
a. p a r t - t i m e MBA co u rse .

U n d erlin e t h e co rrect p hrase.

1 The driver stopped to let on more passengers even though / even i f th e bus was alrea dy full.
2 I w o uld n't te ll yo u where M ariam lives even though / even i f I knew.
3 Even though / Even i f I only play one m atch for my co untry, I'll be happy.
4 Even though / Even i f he had just had lunch, Th o m as bought a hamburger.
5 He plays for France even though / even i f he w as born in Alg eria.
6 You w o n't see all the anim als in th e zoo even though / even / /you stay for the wh ole day.
7 Even though / Ev e n i f I’ m quite old, I still miss my parents.
8 I still co uld n't afford to go to Taipei, even though / even i f I to o k th e chea p est route.

Re writ e t h ese se n t e nces w it h a si m il ar m eaning. Begin t h e se n t e n ce w it h W h e r e as if p ossible

and W h il e if not.
1 H orse riding is an exp ensive p astim e, but more and more people are taking it up.
W hile h o rse riding Is an ex pe nsive p ast im e, rriore and. more people a r e taJcmg db up.
( W hereas . 1*?....n ot p ossible J
2 A decade ago o nly 5% of stu d ents dropped out of colle g e, but the figure to d ay is
25%.
3 The te m p erature is b elow freezing, but it actu ally fe els quite warm when the sun is out.
4 The cost of rail travel has increase d, but th e num b er o f train passengers has grown.
5 I've alw ays w ante d to visit A ustralia, but I've never had any wish to go to Canada.

A d d itio n a l exe rcise 14 (page 249)

R e a l c o n d i t i o n a ls g iU B M J g H a

In real co n ditio nals w e usually use a present tense verb in th e if -cla use to talk about th e future:
If yo u le a v e now, yo u'll be able to catch th e 5 o'clock train, ( or If y o u're le avin g now ...)
H owever, in co nversation we can use be goin g t o instead of a present tense verb:
If I'm goin g t o catch th e train, I'll have to leave now.
W e'll need more chairs if w e're g oing t o invite so m any people to the p erform ance.

W hen w e make offers, and give instructio ns or advice w e can use an im p erative in the main clause:
G Ta k e a no th er san dwich if yo u're hungry.
O If yo u have a mo bile phone, ch ec k th at it is turned off.

W e can use if -cla uses with a present tense verb to intro duce certain co nditio ns under which
so m ethin g is true. In this case, 'if' has a meaning sim ilar to 'when':
The video pauses if yo u click on this b utton.
O If age-relate d chang es are taken into acco unt, th e co nclusion rem ains the sam e.

W e can talk about possible future events with a present p erfect verb in th e if -cla use and a fu ture form
(w ill, present co ntinuous, or be g oing t o) in th e main clause. So m etim es present p erfect or present
sim ple can be used with a sim ilar meaning:
I'// lend yo u War a nd Pe a ce if I've f inish e d it before yo u g o o n holiday, ( or ... if I fin ish ...)
If yo u h a v e n 't paid th e bill by Friday, w e're taking th e carp ets back, ( or If you d o n't p a y ...)
H owever, to focus on th e future conse quences of a past event, we use th e present p erfect. Co m pare:
If I've f aile d m y exam again, I'm giving up th e course, (sug gests I have alrea dy taken the
exam; I d on't kn ow th e result) and
If I f a il m y exam again, I’m giving up th e course. (I m ay or m ay not have taken the exam)

U n r e a l c o n d i t i o n a ls

In unreal co nditio nals w e can use if ... w e r e + t o -in f in it iv e rath er than if + p ast si m p le to talk about
im aginary future situatio ns, p articularly when it is unlikely t h a t the situatio n in the i f -cla use w ill
happen (see also Unit 14):
If th e techn olo gy w e re t o b eco m e available, we would be able to expand th e business.
H owever, note th a t w e d on't usually use this pattern with verbs such as b elo n g, d o u b t, e njo y, k n o w,
lik e, re m e m b er, and u n d e rst a n d when th ey describ e a state:
If I k n e w th ey were honest, I'd gladly lend th e m th e m oney, ( not If I were to know ...)

W e so m etim es use t his pattern to make a sug gestion sound more polite:
O W ould it be to o e arly for yo u if w e w e re t o m eet at 5:30?

W e use if it w as n o t f o r + n o u n p hrase (or more form ally if it w ere n o t f o r + n ou n p h rase) to say

th a t one situatio n is de pendent on a no th er situatio n or on a person (see also U nit 85 A). W h en we talk
ab out th e past w e can also use if it ha d n o t b ee n f o r + n o u n p hrase:
If it w asn 't / w e re n 't f o r Nina, th e co nference w o uld n't be going ahead.
If it ha d n't b ee n f o r Dad, I w o uld n't have gone to colle ge, ( or If it w asn 't / w e r e n 't f o r ...)
In form al language w e can also use W ere it n o t f o r ... and H ad it n o t b ee n f o r ... (see U nit 84 A):
W ere it n o t f o r Nina ...
H a d it n o t b ee n f o r D a d ...
W e can use b u t f o r + n ou n w ith a sim ilar m eaning, p articularly in form al co ntexts:
The villa g e scho ol would have been closed ye ars ago b u t f o r the determin a tion of teach ers
and parents to keep it open. (= ... if it hadn't been for th e d eterm in atio n ...)
E x e rcises

••
C o m p le t e t h ese se n t e n ces w it h an im p era tive (1-3) or an i f -cla use (4 - 6). 0 1
1 There have been a lot of th e fts from cars in the city centre. If you leave yo ur car there,
make sure ( ^ ’5 lode:e<i, / don’t Lectve any valuables In it.
2 If yo u have any more pro blems with th e co m puter,
3 If yo u see Ned to day, ...................................
4 .......................................................................................................................................................................................
keep w e ll aw ay from th e m.
5 .................................... _ _ ..............................................................................
d on't h esitate to get in touch with me again.
6 .............................................................................................................................................................................................
get o ff at th e sto p near th e library.

r t r» C o m p le t e t h e se n t e n ces using t h e verb pairs fro m t he box. Use t h e prese n t sim p le or prese n t
p erf ect in t h e i f -cla use , and give alt er n a tiv es. N o tice an y dif f ere nces in m eaning.

n o t fill in - n ee d not h e lp - g o le a v e - m e e t
n o t arriv e - give st u d y - kno w brea k - hav e t o

1 If you Ha-ve s t u d i e d / s t u d y M a cbeth, y o u ’ll know th e scene with th e witch es.

2 If yo u hom e before I get there, I'll yo u at the airp ort.
3 If yo u ..................... th e win d o w, y o u ’ll pay for it.
4 If the taxi by 10 o'clock, I'll you a lift to the statio n.
5 If yo u an ap plication form, yo u w ill to do so before yo u can
be considered for th e jo b.
6 If the a ntibio tics by th e end of the we ek, I'll back to the
doctor.

^ ££2 ^ If n ecessary, co rrect t he it alicise d p art o f t h e se n t e n ce using a p ast sim ple f orm of t h e sa m e
verb.Q
1 I'd sell the house im m e diately if it were to belong to me.
2 If th ey were to hold an election now, th e D e m ocrats would un d oubte dly win.
3 I'd go back to the restaurant if I were to like sushi more.
4 If I were to doubt his honesty, I w o uld n’t e m ploy him.
5 There would be no cinem a in th e town if th e O de on were to close.
6 If I were to understa nd Chinese, I'd do th e translatio n myself.

C o m p le t e t h ese re w rit t e n se n t e n ces w it h si m il ar m eanin gs. O

1 The w e a th er was terrible. O th erwise, we would have gone walkin g this weekend. I f it had ...
not been j ^ e terriJble w e a ik ie r, we w o uld H ave gone w alkin g tkics w e e k e n d .
2 His happiness would have been co m plete except for his a nxie ty over Carla. If it were

3 The strike would pro bably still be going on if th e g overn m ent hadn't intervene d. Were it

4 The fight could have got out of hand if th e police hadn't arrived. H ad it

5 Everything w as quiet exce p t for th e sound of birds singing. But fo r

6 There would have been far more wars in th e last 50 ye ars w ith o u t th e Unite d N ations. If it was

7 W e would have been here tw o hours ago except for th e roadworks. If it h ad

167
 Unit
84 If 2
W hen the first verb in a co n ditio nal if -cla use is sh o u ld , w ere, or ha d we
can leave out if and put the verb at the start of th e clause (see Units 99
and 100 for more on inversio n). W e do this p articularly in fo rm al or literary English, and only in
hyp o th e tical co n ditio nals (a typ e o f unreal co n ditio nal which answers th e question ‘W h a t would
happen i f ...? '):
Sh o u ld any of this c o st yo u anythin g, send me th e bill. (= If any o f this should c o st ...)
It would be em barrassing, w e r e she t o find o u t th e truth. (= ... if she were to fin d o u t ...)
H a d th ey n o t rush e d Jo to hospital, she would have died. (= If th ey ha d n't rush e d Jo ...)

W e d on't usually use if ... w ill in co n ditio nal clauses. H owever, we can use if ... w ill -
f t when we talk about a result of something in the main clause. Compare:
O p en a win d o w if it w ill help yo u to sleep, (or ... if it h elps yo u to sleep; ‘ H elping yo u to
slee p' is th e result of opening the win d ow) and
I w ill be angry if it t u r ns o u t th a t yo u are wrong. (n o t ... if it w ill turn o u t ...; ‘Turnin g out that
yo u are wrong' is n o t th e result of being angry)
in requests or with the meaning ‘if you are willing to' (or if ... w o uld to be more polite):
If yo u w i ll / w o u ld take y o ur seats, ladies and g entle m en, we can begin th e m eeting.
in real conditionals when we want to show that we disapprove of something. In this case, w ill is
stressed in speech (see also Unit 16B):
Q a: I'm tire d. b: W ell, if yo u w ill go to bed so late, I'm not surprised.

N ote th a t w e can use if ... w o n't when we talk about a refusal to do so m ethin g:
Q There's no point in tryin g to teach th e class if th ey w o n 't pay atte ntio n.
In a re a l co nditio nal sentence, w e use if ... ha p p e n t o, if ... sh o uld , or
if ... sh o u l d ha p p e n t o to talk about so m ethin g which m ay be possible,
but is not very likely. If ... ha p p e n t o is m ost co m m on in spoken English:
If you ha p p e n t o be in our area, drop in and see us. ( or If yo u sh o ul d [hap pe n t o] be ...)

N ote t h a t w e d on't usually use this p attern in unreal co n ditio nals talkin g ab o ut states or events in the
if -cla use which th e speaker perceives as highly unlikely or im possible:
O If th e N orth Sea fr o ze in winter, yo u could w alk from London to O slo. (but prob a bly not If th e
N orth Sea happened to freeze / should (happen to) freeze in w i n t e r ...)

In comparison cla uses w e can use as if followe d by a n o un p hrase, -ing clause, p ast p ar t icip le (-ed)
clause, or t o -in f in it iv e to intro duce a co m parison w ith a situatio n described in th e main clause. W e do
this to give an explanatio n or to say th a t so m ethin g ap pears to be the case but is not:
Q Magnus walke d in as if nothing had hap pened.
W m His hands mad e a circular m o tio n, as if steering a bus through a sharp bend.
O W hen he caught th e ball, Lee fell to th e flo or as if hit by a bullet.
O As if to convince h erself th a t Luis was re ally th ere, she g ently touche d his cheek.

N ote th a t we can use as t h o u g h instead of as if, and in inform al speech so m e people use lik e w ith th e
sa m e meaning:
■
. - '..:'XSS-^ • :
•-■'•' .« ii

O The crowd reacte d as t h o u g h th ey w ere w atchin g a boxing m atch, ( or ... as if ...)

Q He walke d into the room lik e nothin g had hap pened, ( or ... as if ...)
E x e rcises

••
Re writ e t h ese se n t e n ces w it h sim ilar m eanings. Begin w it h t h e w ord given,
1 C o nsult y o ur d octor again if th e sym p to ms remain 72 hours after startin g th e co urse of
m e dicin e. S h o u ld the- s y n ptoros re m a in 7Z hou rs <fcfter s t a rt in g t h e cou rs e of ....
rneAicinzy your doctor again.
2 You would know w h a t yo u have to do for ho m ework, if yo u had not been a bsent fro m scho ol on
Friday. H a d ....................................................................................................................................................................................

3 Clare would have been able to stay w ith her friends if th e y were still living in Brussels. W e re ...

4 The fact ory would not have had to shut down if th e workers were prepared to acce pt a wage cut.
W ere .................................................................................................................................................................................................
5 W e shall have to reduce the num b er of e m ployees if the financial p erform ance of the co m pany
d o esn't im prove in th e near future. S h o u ld ... ............................................................................................................

6 I mig ht have considered takin g th e jo b if th e salary had been higher. H a d ...

If n ecessary, co rrect t he it alicise d p arts o f t h ese se n t e nces.

1 I f I will press this button, w ill it start to record?
2 You’re w elco m e to borrow my old bike, i f y o u think it will be o f any use to you.
3 If he won't resign, the Prim e M inister should sack him.
4 If the disease will be untrea ted, it can lead to brain damag e.
5 I f y o u 'll te ll me where the vacuum cle a ner is, I'll do so m e cleaning.
6 I f y o u 'll compla in a bout me, I'll get into trouble with my teacher.
7 If i t ’ll save money, I'm willin g to go by public transp ort.

If p ossible, re w rit e t h e it alicise d p arts o f t h ese se n t e nces w it h happen to. If it is u nlik ely, w rit e
X a f t e r t h e se n t e nce.
1 If I see Georgia when I'm in R om e, I'll send her yo ur regards.

2 If a UFO la nded in the ce n tre o f N ew York, there would be m ass panic.

3 The plan for a new airp ort to be built outsid e London is bad news i f y o u live nearby.

4 If I was the President, I would ord er our nucle ar weap ons to be destroye d.

5 If yo u are in the south o f Spain n ext week, there is a good chance of seeing a t o tal eclipse of th e
sun.

< ! i i l C o m p le t e t h e se n t e n ces using y o u r o w n w ords or t h e n o t es if y o u prefer.

(a gre e - e v e ry t h in g Julia said) (I— sa y - sh e d w t g )- (it - r e v e rse - w a ll)

(t r y - i m a gin e - co n t a in e d) (o v erco m e - g re a t w e a ri n ess)

1 My fath er raised his eyebrows as if I hcut s a i d something sh o ckin g.

2 He folded his arms on th e ta ble and laid his head on th e m , as i f ...
3 She stared hard at the parcel as if ...
4 He nodded his head slo w ly as i f ...
5 The back of th e car looked as i f ...

169
Unit
85 If I w ere you imagine he w ere t o win
In unreal co n ditio nal sentences w e can use w e re after any su bject Reminder -* M13-M17
in th e if -cla use, including singular first and third person su bjects
(e.g. I / sh e / he / it). This use of w e re is so m etim es calle d th e p ast subjunctive, and is g en erally
preferred only in form al co ntexts. N ote th a t although th e verb has a past form, reference is to the
imagined present or future:
O If y o u r m o t h e r w e r e here, I’m sure she w o uld n't let you eat all those chocolates.
O My jo b would not exist if it w e re n o t f o r g overn m ent funding.
W as can be used instead of w e re with the same m eaning (‘If y o ur m o ther was here etc.).
H owever, we prefer w e r e rath er than w as when w e give advice w ith If I w e r e y o u
If I w ere y o u, I'd take it back to th e shop. It's got a hole in it. ( ra therth a n If I was yo u ...)

W ere is used in this w ay in oth er patterns when w e talk ab o ut im aginary situ ations -

(i) when w e use w e re + su b jec t + t o -in f in it iv e or w e re + su b jec t as a m ore fo rm al altern ative to if +

su b je c t + w as / w e re (see also U nit 84 A ):
O W ere t h e e l ect i o n t o be held to day, the Liberals would win easily, ( or If t h e e lect i o n w as /
w e re held to d ay ...)
W e re I n o t in my seventies and rath er unfit, I might consid er takin g up squash, ( or If I w asn't
/ w e r e n 't in my seventies and rath er u n f i t ...)

(ii) after w ish:

I enjoy my jo b enorm o usly, but I wish it w e re closer to home, ( or ... I wish it w as ...)
O f course I'm pleased th a t Jan has been given th e award. I only wish he w e re n 't so b oastful
ab out it. ( or ... I only wish he w a s n ' t ...)
(iii) after if o n ly when w e express our regret th a t a situatio n isn't different:
‘If y o ur jo b is so bad, w h y d o n't you leave?' 7/on/y it w e re th a t sim ple.' ( or If only it w as ...)
I'd really like to do accountin g. If only I w e re n 't so poor at m aths, ( or If only I w a s n ' t ...)

( iv ) after w o uld ('d) r a t h e r and w o u l d ('d) so o n e r when we talk about preferences:

I fe el em barrasse d ab out w h a t happened and would ra ther t h e e v e n t w e re forg otten.
( o r ... w as forg otten.)
‘I've arranged a m eeting for th e end of July.' Y d sooner it w e re earlier, if possible, ( or ... it w as
earlier.)
( v) in sentences or clauses beginning with su p p ose, su p p osin g and im a gine:
Q S uppose I w e r e to low er th e price by £100. W ould yo u consid er buying the car th en?
( or S u pp ose I w as to l o w e r...)
I know it looks rath er d irty now, but imagine t h e h o use w e re (to be) repainte d. It would look
a lot more a ttractive, ( or ... im agine t h e h o use w as (to be) re painte d.)

And in comparisons w e can use w e re -

(vi ) after as if and as t h o u g h (see U nit 84 D ) and e v e n if:
I re m em b er stepping off th e boat in N ew York as i f it w e r e yesterd ay.
D espite losing the electio n, she co ntinu es to act as though sh e w e r e prim e minister.
It's to o late to start th e w ork this ye ar even i f it w e r e possible to find th e m o ney for it.
Exercises
M a tch an it e m fro m (i) w it h an e n din g fro m (ii) t o f or m a se n t e n ce. Begin W e r e ... (n o t).

(i) (0
1 ... found g uilty of li b e l... a th e glass would certainly break
2 ... g overnm ent to increase university fees ... b yo u would be horrified
3 ... anyone to lean against the w in d o w ... c I would gladly accept yo ur invitatio n
4 ... not alrea dy busy in A u g u st... d there would be an o u tcry from stu d ents
5 ... to see th e co nditions in which th e refugees e th e newspap er would-fac-e huge legal cost;
are living ...
1 +e W ere I t to be fo u n d. g u ilty o f l i b e l , t h e ...n ^ sj > a$ > er.w ould-...fa ^ ^ ....

m i Expand t h e n o t es t o w ri t e a se n t e n ce t o go b ef ore each q u estio n belo w. Use Su p p ose ,

Su p p osin g , or Im a gin e, f o llo w e d by a pro nou n, noun or noun p hrase and t he n w e r e.
1 (m iss / last t r a i n ) Supposing we w ere to miss....the l a s t t r a m H ow would w e get hom e?
2 (inh erit / millio n d o lla rs).......................................................................................................................................................
H ow would it change y o ur life?
3 (p a re n ts / t e ll yo u / e migrating to Canada) .......................................................................................................
H ow do yo u think yo u would react?
4 (Spain / win / W orld C u p ).....................................................................................................................................................
H ow would you cele brate?
5 (p o pulation of Britain / all Bu d d h ist)..............................................................................................................................
H ow would its so cie ty be different?

C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces w it h ei t h er as if or e v e n if f o llo w e d by an a p pro pria t e pro noun and

then w ere. Q )
1 M uller spoke slo w ly o^> I f it., w ere a great physical effort.
2 Every day Mrs D e m ir would w alk around th e p ark............................................ snowing.
3 She knew she w o uld n't be able to eat rabbit m eat starvin g.
4 The o co m ple tely ignored me not standing n ext to him.
5 He picked N atasha up .................................................... no heavier than a tw o -year-old.
6 I d o n't think I would have got th e j o b ................................................ b etter qualifie d.
7 W hen M artina saw th a t I w as stuck she laughed out loud a joke.
8 I w o uld n't acce p t th e jo b ...................................................... to offer it to me.

C o m p le t e t h e se n t e nces using o n e of t he p hrases in (i) w it h e x p an d ed n o t es fro m (ii). Q Q Q

(i)
4f 4t w e r e n o t f o r
w ish he w e re
'd r a t h e r it w e r e
(ii)
if I w e r e y o u f o r g o t t e n ... cl assm a t es g oing ... frie n ds
if o n ly it w e r e n o t so c r i t i c a l ... e m p lo y e es
'd so o n e r sh e w e r e lo n g ni g h ts ... w in t e r as e asy ... t h a t
b re a k f ast b e f ore ... le ave

1 I would be happy to live in th e north of Sw e d e n I f ...it w ere not f o r t h e Long nujkits in

w in ter
2 I'm not happy about Jess going to Thailand alone. I ...............................................................................................
3 a : If yo u're unhap py w ith y o ur new car, w hy d on't yo u ask for yo ur m o ney back?
b : W e ll,......................................................................................................................................... .....................................
4 I kn ow yo u haven't got much tim e, b u t .......................................................................................................................
5 W earing odd shoes to scho ol was em barrassin g and I .....................................................................................
6 I'm very fond of Paul, but I ..................................................................................................................................................

171
Unit
86 If ... n o t and unless; if and w h e th er; etc.
If ... not and unless
U n less is used in co n ditio nal sentences with the m eaning ‘exce p t i f :
You ca n't travel on this train u n less y o u have a reservatio n.
W ith u n less we use present te nses w hen we talk about th e future:
U n less it rains, I'll pick yo u up at six. (not Unless it w ill rain ...)

In real co n ditio nal sentences, w e can often use eith er u n less or if ... n o t with a sim ilar meaning:
O U n less th e th eatre is able to raise £ 1 0 0,0 00, it w ill have to close, [ or If th e th eatre isn't able
to ...; im plies ‘it w ill have to close only i f it can't raise th e m o ney')

H owever, we use if ... n o t but not u n less -

0 when we say in the main clause that an event or action in the if-clause is unexpected:
I’ll be amazed if C hristie d o esn't win.
usually in questions:
O If yo u d o n't pass th e test, w h a t w ill yo u do?
when the ‘only if' implication does not apply:
If it w asn't th e best p erform ance of H a m let I've seen, it was c ertainly th e strang est.

W e usually use if ... n o t rath er than u n less in unreal co n ditio nal se nte nces:
If I w ere n't so tire d, I'd give you a hand.
H owever, u n less can be used in unreal co n ditio nal sentences when th e main clause is negative:
She w o uld n't have gone to university u n less her parents had insiste d.

If and w hether
W e can use if or w h e t h e r to say th a t tw o p ossibilities have been talked or th o u g ht ab o ut, or to say
th a t people are not sure about so m ething:
Th ey co uld n't decide if / w h e t h e r it was w orth resittin g the exam.
O Do yo u kn ow if / w h e t h e r Ben's at hom e?

W h e t h e r can usually be follow e d im m e d iately by or n o t. Co m pare:

I didn't kn ow if Aya w as co ming or not. (n o t ... if or not Aya w as co min g.) and
I didn't know w h e t h e r or n o t Aya was coming, (or ... w h e t h e r Tom w as co ming o r n o t ...)

W e use w h e t h e r rath er than if -

0 after a preposition (although if is sometimes used informally) and before a t o-infinitive:
W e argued about w h e t h e r b utter or m argarine w as b etter for yo u. (inform a lly ... if ...)
I co uld n't decide w h e t h e r to buy apples or bananas,
in the pattern noun / a djective + as t o w he t h er to mean ‘about’ or ‘concerning':
There was so me disa greem ent as t o w h e t h e r he was eligible to play for France.

A lso : co n f lict, co n f usi o n, d e b a t e, d iscussio n, d o u b t, q u est io n, sp ecu la t io n , u nce r t a in t y;

co ncern e d, in di f f er e n t, u nce rt ain, u n d ecid e d, u nsu re

and we prefer w h e t h e r rath er than if -

after the verbs advise, ch oose, consider, depend on, discuss, t alk about, and t hink about:
You should consider w h e t h e r th e car you are intereste d in is good valu e.
in a c la use a c tin g as a su b je c t o r c o m p le m e n t:
W h e t h e r t h e m in ist e r w ill q u it o v er t h e issu e rem ains to be seen.
The first issue is w h e t h e r he k n e w he w as c o m m it t in g a crim e.
E x e rcises
M a tch t h e se n t e n ce halv es and w ri t e a n e w se n t e nce w it h t h e sa m e m eaning, beginning each
on e w it h U n l e ss ... . ( Q |
1 W e'll never get to th e meeting ... a ... or th e farm ers w ill lose th eir cro ps.
2 Altern ative sources of funding m ust be b if -th e tra m-deesfYb4eave wit h in f ive -m inutes.
found ... c I’m sure I'll be able to find my w ay there,
3 If th e roads haven't changed in th a t part of d or the research w ill not be able to co ntinue.
town ... e I think I'll buy th a t painting.
4 The w e a th er m ust start im proving soon ... f if yo u have been unem ploye d for six m onths.
5 If it isn't ridiculo usly exp ensive ...
6 You are only entitle d to state b e n e fit...
1+ b U n less th e tr a m l e a v e s m i n u t e s > w e l l n ever g et to t h e m eetin g,

If n ecessary, co rrect t he it alicise d p hrase using if ... not. Q

1 Unless she h ad gone to university, she would have gone into th e arm y, i f sh e h a d n ’t gone
2 Unless the infection is tre a ted urg ently, there is a real danger t h a t she w ill die.
3 Unless he was so clu msy, he'd be th e best person to do the work.
4 You w o n't be allowe d into th e co untry u n lessyou have a visa.
5 It'll be surprising unless Anya passes her piano exam.
6 U nlessyou g e t a loan from the bank, how w ill yo u pay for th e house?
7 Th e y'll go on strike unless they g e t a pay rise.
8 W h ere w ill you stay unless Louise is a t hom e?
9 The police ca n't prosecute me unless they can prove I intende d to ste al th e ring.
10 She'd be a really good teach er un/ess s/7e was so disorganised.

W rit e w h e t h e r or if / w h e t h e r (if b oth are p ossible) in t h ese se n t e nces. Q Q Q |

1 I was wo nd ering you'd had y o ur exam results ye t.
2 She was undecided as to to fly or go by train.
3 Police have refused to co nfirm or not th ey have arrested anyone for th e th e ft.
4 It is uncle ar th e new re gulations w ill affe ct all buildings or just new ones.
5 a : H o w m u c h w ill t h e la p t o p c o s t?
b : Th a t
depends on .......................... I get one w ith a 15 or 17-inch screen.
6 Danny said th at he was leaving hom e, but I didn't know to believe him.
7 H ave you any idea Steve w ill be at the m eetin g?
8 Can yo u re m e m b er th e do or was open or closed when you got to th e house?
9 There was co nsid era ble debate as to chess was a game or a sport.
10 I d on't know Andrea's going to w ait for us or not.
11 The g overn m ent is co nsid ering to hold an en quiry into the accid ent.
12 Everyo ne in th e villa g e was very frien dly. It didn't m a tter you'd lived there for a
sh ort or a long tim e.
Unit Connecting ideas in a sentence and
87 between sentences
Som e w ords and phrases (se n te nce con nectors) are used to co nn ect one sentence w ith a previous
se nte nce or se nte nces. O ften (but not alw ays) th ese go at th e beginning of the se ntence:
There w as no heating in th e building. As a resu lt , th e w orkers had to be se nt hom e.
O th er words and phrases (conjunctions) are used to co nn ect clauses within a single se nte nce:
W h il e I was w aitin g, I read a magazine.
O I stood up so t h a t I could see b etter.
type of connection sentence connectors conjunctions
co m p arin g, c o ntrastin g, a ft er all, all th e sam e, altern a tive ly, anyw ay, by alth o u g h, even th o ug h,
and indicating t h a t a c o n trast, even so, h o w ever (butsee C ), in any case, th o ug h, w h ere as, w hile,
situa tio n (in th e m ain in c o n trast, instead, n everth eless, on th e c o ntrary, yet
clause) is unexp ecte d on th e o th er hand

reasons and results as a co nse q uence, as a result, co nse q u en tly, for one as, b ecause, for, in th a t,
thin g, so; hence, in co nse q u ence, th erefore, th us since, inso far as, so, so
( the last four are rather formal) th a t

ad ding inform atio n ab ove all, a ft er all, also, besid es, furth erm ore,
in a d ditio n, like wise, m ore over, sim ilarly, w hat's
m ore; as w ell, to o (the last two are not used at the
beginning o f a sentence)
co nditio n if n ot, if so, o th erwise as long as, assu m in g
(t h a t), if, on conditio n
th a t, provided (t h a t), so
long as, sup p osin g (t h a t),
unless

tim e: one event at th e at th a t tim e, at th e sam e tim e, m eanw hile as, w h e n, w h e n ever, w hile
sam e tim e as a n o th er

tim e: one eve nt before or aft er, a ft er th a t, afterw ards, b efore, before th a t, after, as so on as, before,
aft er an o th er earlier, later, previo usly, so on, su bse q u e ntly, then since, u ntil

N ote th a t af t er, b e f o re and so can be both co nn ectors and co njunctio ns.

W e ca n't use a sente nce co nn ector on its own with a co m m a to co nnect clauses within one sente nce
(e.g. not I exp ect to be pro m ote d, if not I'll leave).
H owever, a se nte nce co nn ector can be used to co nnect tw o clauses in one sentence if th e clauses are
joine d with and, but, or, so, or a se m i-c o lo n (;), co l o n (:), or d ash (-):
G The building was extre m e ly w e ll co nstructe d and, as a resu lt , d ifficult to d em olish.
O You could fly via Singapore; h o w e v er, this isn't th e only way.

Eve n t h o u g h is a co njunction used to say th a t a fact d o esn't make th e rest of th e se nte nce untrue
(see also Unit 82B). It co nnects ideas within a se nte nce:
Eve n t h o u g h it was mid day, I put on th e light.
Eve n so is a sentence co nn ector used to intro duce a fact th a t is surprising in th e co ntext of w h a t was
just said. It co nnects ideas betw een sente nces:
It w as mid day. Eve n so, I put on the light.

H o w e v e r is o ft e n use d as a s e n t e n c e c o n n e c t o r, b u t it c a n a ls o b e use d -
as an adverb when it is followed by an adjective, adverb, or much / many:
O W e just d on't have the m o ney to do th e w ork, h o w e v e r n e c essa r y yo u think it is.
as a conjunction when it means ‘in whatever way':
O H o w e v e r she held th e mirror, she co uld n't see th e back of her neck.
E x e rcises
( 3 ) Ch o ose it e ms fro m (i) and fro m (ii) t o co m p le t e t h ese t e x ts in an a p pro pria t e w ay. N o t e t he
p u nct ua tio n a t t h e e n ds of t h e se n t e n ces and p hrases alrea d y given. C E O
(0 (ii)

as lo n g as y o u co u ld p oison t h e m
f o r o n e t hi n g his f ace se e m e d f a m ilia r
m e a n w h ile it's t o o e x p e nsiv e
o t h e r w ise t h e re n t w as paid on t im e
that t h e st r e e t w as d ese r t e d
w h il e t h e v o lca n o co n t in u es t o er u p t
yet w e w e r e on h o li d a y

1 Mara cut th e cake carefully into slices so th at everybody had.. \ h iu r -four sh are....
2 A sm all boy was kicking a ball a gainst a w a ll;......................................................................................................
3 I co uld n't re m e m b er m eeting him before, ...........................................................................................................
4 A mass evacuatio n of island ers is takin g place.....................................................................................................

5 a: W hy d on't yo u like th at new French restaurant?

b: ..................................................................................................................................
6 Ingrid cam e down with f l u .............................................................
7 My lan dlady didn't mind me having parties in my room

8 O ne w ay o f g ettin g rid of we e ds is to dig the m out.

U n d e r li n e t h e c o r r e c t o p t i o n . C S
1 Your essay is badly organised and full of sp elling mistakes. Though / N evertheless, it co ntains
so me very interestin g ideas.
2 To th e east th e tre es were left standing, while / in co n trast to th e w est th ey were cut d own.
3 I fe lt g uilty ab o ut leaving th e co m pany even so / even though I knew it w as th e right decision.
4 Th e course ta u g ht me a lot about astro n o m y. Even though / Even so, there is still a lo t to learn.
5 I expected my m o ther to be happy with th e news. Inste a d / A lthough she starte d to cry.
6 H erbs are usually grown in te m p erate clim ates, whereas / on the oth er h a nd spices are m ainly
from tro pic al areas.
7 W e w ere very sh ort of m o ney so / a s a consequence we had to spend th e night on a park bench.
8 I turne d th e ignition, but th e car w o uld n't start. As / Me a nwhile th e lio ns w ere gettin g ever closer.
9 She wro te th e questio ns on th e white b o ard while / a t the sa me time th e stu d ents copied th em
into th eir books.
10 Previously / Before I w e n t to A ustralia, I'd never seen a koala.
11 I'll have to buy so m e ladd ers unless / i f not I can borrow a pair from H arry.
12 I first m et Co nnor in the 1970s. A t that time / When he had long hair and a beard.

r s e i U se y o u r o w n i d e a s t o c o m p l e t e t h e s e n t e n c e s. B e g i n however + adjective / adverb / many /

much.
1 She is d etermin ed to be a successful artist, however d i f f i c u l t i i mig ht be to a c h ie v e .
2 , it is difficult
to lose weig ht w ith o u t cuttin g down on the a m o unt yo u eat.
3 , it is im p orta nt to spend so m e tim e apart.
4 Professor M alcolm is alw ays hap py to spend tim e with his stu d ents, ............................................................

5 it never fails to im press me.

6 Som e people never seem c o n t e n t ,...................................................................................................................................

A d d itio n a l exe rcise 14 (page 249)

Unit
88 Prepositions of position and movement
Across, over
W e can use a cr oss or o v er to talk about a position on th e oth er side of, or moving to the oth er side of
a road, bridge, border, river, etc.:
Anto nio lives in th e house a cr oss / o v er the roa d from ours.
O O nce she was a cr oss / o v er the border, she knew she would be safe.
W e use o v er rather than a cr oss when we talk ab o ut reaching th e o th er side of so m ethin g th a t is high,
or higher than it is wid e. Co m pare:
O He jum p e d o v e r the fe n c e into th e garden, a nd
He jum p e d a cr oss the strea m.

W hen w e are talkin g ab out so m ethin g we think of as a fla t surface, or an area such as a c o u n try or sea,
we prefer a cr oss ra t h e rth a n o ver:
O He su d d enly saw Eva a cr oss the room.
The pro gram m e was bro adcast a cr oss Canada.

W e prefer a ll o v er rath er than a ll a cr oss to mean ‘to or in m any different parts of an area'. H owever,
w e co m m o nly use acr oss, or ri g h t acr oss for em phasis:
O Th e disease has now spread a ll o v er th e w orld, (or ... (rig ht) acr oss th e w orld.)

Along, through
W hen we t alk about fo llowin g a line of so m e kind (a road, a river, etc.), we use alon g:
O Th ey walked alo n g th e fo otp ath until th ey cam e to a sm all bridge.
We use t h ro u g h to em p hasise th a t w e are talkin g about m ove m ent in a thre e dim ensional space, with
things all around, rath er than a tw o dim ensio nal space, a fla t surface or area:
O He pushed his w a y t h r o u g h th e crowd of people t o get to her.
Th ro u g h often suggests m ove m ent from one side or end of th e space to th e other. Co m pare:
She walked t h r o u g h th e forest to get to her gran d m other's house, and
She sp ent a lot of her free tim e walkin g in th e forest.

Above, over; below, under; beneath, underneath

W e can use either a b o ve or o v er when we say th a t one thing is at a higher level than another:
O A b o ve / O v e r th e door was a sign saying, ‘ Mind y o ur head'.
H owever, w e prefer a b o ve, when one thin g is not directly over th e other. Co m pare:
Th ey lived in a villa g e in th e m o untains a b o ve th e lake, (n ot directly over) and
The bird hovered just a few m etres a b o ve / o v er th e lake, (d ire ctly over)

W e use o ver, not a b o v e, when so m ethin g covers so m ethin g else and to uch es it:
Q She put a q uilt o v er th e bed.
and usually when we are talkin g about horizontal m ove m ent at a higher level than so m ething:
I saw th e helico pter fly o ut o v er th e w ater, near th e fishin g boat.
• :
. ;• ---:. v*
••sv.-v; -:. x.S-c-S.N^v.

B e lo w is th e op posite of a b o ve; u n d er is th e op posite of o ver. The differences in th e uses of b elo w

and u n d e r are sim ilar to those b etween a b o ve and o v er (see above):
It's hard to believe th a t there is a railw ay line b elo w / u n d e r th e building, (at a lo w er level)
Q H er head w as b e lo w th e level of th e ta ble so nob ody noticed her. (n ot directly under)
Q She hid th e presents u n d e r a blanket, (the blanket covers and to uch es th e presents)
O Zara ran u n d er th e bridge, (h orizo ntal m ove m ent at a lo w er level)
W e can use u n d e rn e a t h as an altern ative to u n d e r as a pre position of place. Be n e a t h is so m etim es
used as a more fo rm al altern ative to u n d e r or b elo w .
E x e rcises
C o m p le t e t h e se n t e n ces w it h across or over, w hich e v er is co rrect or m ore likely. If b oth are
p ossible, w ri t e across / over.
1 A fter I'd finished w ork I walked th e car park to where Mona was waitin g.
2 Th ey own a house .......................... th e river in th e old to w n.
3 The gate w as locked so w e had to clim b th e w all.
4 You're not allow e d to w alk th e railw ay line. You have to use th e bridge.
5 Julie W afa ei w as the first w o m an to row alone the A tlan tic.
6 N ucle ar w aste is transp orte d th e co untry, despite o bjections fro m cam paig ners.
7 The traffic w as busy on the main road so w e walke d th e p ed estrian crossing.
8 She leaned out the balco ny rail and looked for O m ar in th e square below.

U n d erlin e t he co rrect or m ost a p pro pria t e o p tio n(s) in each se n t e n ce.

1 It to ok several m inutes to w alk a cross / o v e r / a lo n g / th ro u g h the corrid or to th e exit.
2 Across / O ver / A long / Through th e ta ble I could see O liver looking at his w atch.
3 He fe ll across / over / along / through th e flo or into th e cellar below.
4 I could see Lisa a cross / over / along / through th e other side of the river.
5 He cycles thousan ds of miles each ye ar all a cross / over / along / through the co untry.
6 H otels have been b uilt a cross / o v e r / along / through th e beach for about 25 kilo m etres.

n n C o rr ect t he pre p ositio ns (above, over, below, under) if n ecessary, or w ri t e *4.

1 He sle pt with his w a lle t b elow his pillow.
2 He broke his leg just b elow his knee.
3 The town sto od at the to p of th e hill, and stretchin g into th e distance under it were green fields.
4 She thre w a co at above her sh o uld ers and stepped out into the cold.
5 He lived in a first-flo or fla t above a greengrocer's in Leyto n.
6 W hen th e police got to the car th ey found the driver slum ped above the ste ering w heel.
7 He alw ays wore a vest b elow his shirt, even in sum m er.
8 I could hear the plane flying high over the clouds.

A n u m b er o f co m m o n idio ms inclu d e t h e pre p ositio ns in t his unit. M a tch t h e idio ms in it alics to

t h eir m eanin gs below.
1 a W h a t’s wrong?
:
b: I'm just feelin g rath er under the weather.
2 a : Yo u never arrive on tim e. You'd be late for y o ur own fun eral, you would!
b: That's a bit below the b elt, isn't it?'
3 She already has 18 books on gardening under her b elt and she is now w orking on num b er 19.
4 He had never played w ell for the club and left under a cloud.
5 She lost her te m p er and w e n t co m ple tely over the top, accusing him of cheating.
6 Th ey received a bonus in D ece m b er over and above th eir m o nthly salary.

a in ad dition to
b successfully co m plete d
c ill
d cruel or unfair
e with so me people's disapproval
f extre m e behaviour; indicating disapproval
Unit
89 Be tw e e n and am ong
As pre positions of p la ce we use b e t w e e n with tw o or more people or thin gs t h a t we see as individ ual
or se parate, and w e use a m o n g when w e see the people or thin gs as part of a group or mass. A m o n g
is only used with thre e or m ore people or things:
j She held th e diam ond b e t w e e n her thu m b and forefinger.
Zim ba bwe is situate d b e t w e e n Zam bia to th e north, M ozam bique to th e east, Bo tswana to
th e w est, and South A frica to th e so uth.
He stood a m o n g all his friends at th e p arty and felt very happy.
Q She eve n tu ally found her passp ort a m o n g th e cloth es in th e drawer.

N ote th a t a m o n gst is so m etim es used instead of a m o n g, but in more literary c o ntexts.

B e t w e e n and a m o n g are not o nly used as pre positions of place. For exam ple, w e can use eith er to talk
about so m ethin g divide d or shared b etween people:
The m o ney is to be divided b e t w e e n / a m o n g th e t o w ns in th e area.
O The prize w ill be shared b e t w e e n / a m o n g th e first six finishers in th e race.

W e also use b e t w e e n -
to talk about comparisons and relationships:
There should be a b etter b ala nce on the c o m m itte e b e t w e e n th e vario us e thnic groups.
O Th ey are wrong to claim th a t there is a link b e t w e e n un e m plo ym ent and crim e.

Also: asso cia t io n , co m p ariso n, co n n ectio n, c o n t rast, co rrela ti o n ,

d if f ere nce, d istinct io n, rela t io nsh ip

to talk about choices:

I have to choose b e t w e e n th e universities of Leeds, York and M anchester.
G He fe lt torn b e t w e e n his fa m ily and his friends.
to talk about discussions or the results of discussions when we specify the two or more people or
groups involved:
Q There w as a disagre em ent b e t w e e n Em m a, Jade and Zoe.
The tre a ty w as signed b e t w e e n Gre at Britain and France.
to say that people or things share an amount of something:
G B e t w e e n th e m , W ill and A lice m ust earn ab o ut € 1 0 0,0 0 0 a year.
O Last ye ar th e thre e co m panies b uilt 3 0 ,0 0 0 houses b e t w e e n th e m .

W e also use a m o n g -
when we mean 'existing or happening in a particular group’:
Q Th e disease has now broken out a m o n g th e hill trib es.
O Th eir m usic is still very p opular a m o n g te enag ers,
when we mean 'included in a particular group’:
O Th ey are a m o n g th e best hockey players in th e world.
A m o n g th e ca pital cities of South A m erica, Q uito is th e second highest.

There are a num b er of co m m on expressions using b e t w e e n and a m o n g:

The co ncert fe atures, a m o n g o t h e rs, Karl Frisk and the Jo hnsons. (= o th er singers / groups are
fe ature d, to o)
I later found o ut th a t he had been a carp enter and a plum ber, a m o n g o t h e r t hi n gs. (= he had
had other jo bs, to o)
B e t w e e n o u rse lv es / B e t w e e n y o u an d m e (= keep this a se cret), I d on’t think Jack is as
honest as he should be.
E x e rcises

••
U n d erlin e t he co rrect o p tion.
1 For a couple of days I've had a pain betw een / a mong my sh o uld er blades.
2 He co uld n't find a micro phone betw een / among all th e recording e quip m ent he had with him.
3 It would be easier to read if yo u put a line space betw een / a mong the paragraphs.
4 In th e photo graph Anna is standing between / a mong her parents.
5 The lost m anuscrip t w as discovered betw een Ja m o n g the th ousan ds of books in th e cellar.
6 The buffet is to w ards the mid dle of the train betw een / a mong th e first and second class sectio ns.
7 She carried trays of drinks and food betw een / a mong th e crowd of guests in th e roo m.
8 I co uld n't see Robbie betw een / a mong th e audience, although he said he would be there.
9 Rebecca co m m utes betw een / a m o ng her fla t in Paris and her office in Brussels.

C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces w it h b e t w e e n or a m o n g and t h e m ost lik ely w ords or p hrases fro m t he

box. If y o u can use eit her, w ri t e b e t w e e n / a m o ng.

am ateur its clie n ts m y cl o sest frie n ds co o kin g

in t a k e o f re fin e d su g ar t h e p u pils his re m ain in g r ela t iv es
t h e st rik in g d ock ers t e e n a g e rs

1 I w asn't feeling very hungry, so Daniel and I shared a b owl of noodles between u s . ...
2 I bought fo ur bars of ch ocolate and divide d th e m in the class.
3 The distinctio n and professional athle tes is becoming less clear.
4 It has b eco me fa sh io n a b le .......................................................... to dye th eir hair in various colours.
5 W hen Malik died, his daughter inherited the house and th e rest of his m o ney was split

6 The advertisin g co m pany is very successful, num bering m ost of th e big banks

7 Researchers have found a striking c o rre la tio n .......................................................................... and arthritis.

8 Given a c h o ic e ....................................................................... and washin g up, I know which I'd prefer to do.
9 Luka and Ivan a r e , so I'll invite th e m to the wed ding, of course.
10 Late last night the talks ............................................................................ and th eir e m ployers broke d own.

C o m p le t e t h is e m a il w it h b e t w e e n or a m o n g.

Se nd S a v e N ow D isc a rd

B 1 H T~ tT- Tgjj| £> " e^> |E ;E 28 E l ii W 9 31 « Plain Text Check Spellin g

Hi Mum and Dad!

Rome must be (1) the most fascinating cities in the world. Yesterday we visited,
(2) other places, the Foro Romano - the centre of ancient Rome - and the
Vatican. There is such an incredible contrast (3) the old parts of the city built
up to 2,000 years ago and the more recent parts. In the Vatican we climbed the long stairs
to the top of St Peter’s church. Th e view from the top must be (4) the most
incredible over any city in the world. But (5) you and me, I’m a bit scared of
heights and was glad to get back to ground level. Later we went to the Pantheon, an ancient
Roman temple, which is (6) the Vatican and the Foro Romano. The Italian king
Umberto I and the artist Raphael are (7) the people buried there. In the evening
there w as a bit of an argument (8) us over where we should eat - Jo wanted
pizza, but I wanted to try some of the special local food. Eventually we found a place that did
excellent pasta, (9) other things. The only problem then was choosing
(10) the many different types!
Will be in touch again when I can.
Love, Keira

179
Unit
90 Prepositions of time
D u ri n g , in, o v e r, t h r o u g h o u t

W e use d urin g or in to talk about a period of tim e within which an event or a c tivity occurs. The
a c tivity m ay co ntinue for th e wh ole of the period of tim e:
I stayed at home durin g th e sum m er, ( or ... in th e sum m er.)
G The p o pulation of th e city has actu ally fallen durin g th e last decade, (or ... in th e l a s t ...)
or the event m ay happen at so m e tim e, or be repeated a num b er of tim es, in th e period of tim e:
W e w e n t to Turkey d urin g th e sum m er, ( or ... in th e sum m er.)
He suffered a num b er of injuries d urin g his care er as a jockey, ( or ... in his c a r e e r...)

W e use during, ra th e rth a n in, to mean ‘at so me tim e in th e period of' before nouns such as illn ess,
h o li d ay, m eal, st a y, t r e a t m e n t , and visit, when w e refer to an event which lasts so me tim e:
O The President made th e speech d urin g a visit to Madrid,
and also with th e phrase t h e w h o le (of), e m phasising d uration of an entire period:
N o one was allowe d to leave th e ship d urin g the whole o f its tim e in port.

We can use t h r o u g h o u t to em p hasise th a t so m ethin g hap pens over th e w h ole of a period of tim e:
W e had enough firewo o d to keep us w arm t h r o u g h o u t th e winter, ( or ... w arm d urin g /
t h r o u g h th e winter.)

We can use o v er or d urin g when w e talk about so m ethin g th a t goes on for a length of tim e within a
p eriod o f time, eith er for so m e of th a t period or for th e wh ole of it:
W eath er co nditio ns have been im proving o v er / d urin g the p ast fe w days.
I hit my head and ca n't re m e m b er anythin g th a t happened o v er / d urin g the n ext hour or so.

H owever, if we talk ab out a sh ort event th a t hap pens within a period of tim e, w e prefer during:
S he sneezed d urin g th e p erform ance. (= once or a fe w tim es; n o t ... over th e p erform ance.)
D urin g a pause in th e co nversatio n, she le ft the room, ( not O ver a pause ...)

U n t il, b y, u p t o
There are a num b er of w ays of sayin g when so m ethin g t h a t has co ntinued for so me tim e sto ps -
We use u n til (or informally till) to say that something continued or w ill continue to a particular time,
and by to say that something happened or will happen either before a particular tim e or at that tim e at
the latest. Compare:
W e have to be at hom e u n til 2:30. (W e m ust not leave hom e before 2:30) a nd
W e have to be at hom e b y 2:30. (W e m ust arrive home eith er before or a t 2:30)
: In informal contexts we can use up t o or up till instead of until. We co mm only use up t o / t ill with
n ow and with the n:
I've just bought a ta b le t co m puter. I've alw ays used a laptop up t o now. ( or ... up t ill now ...)
We can use u n til no w to talk about a situation that will not continue beyond now:
Sup erm arkets say th a t u n til n o w there has been little co nsu m er interest in buying organic
produce. (The situatio n has changed or is going to change)
N ote, however, th a t w e d on't use u n til n o w for a situatio n th a t w ill or m ay co ntinu e into th e
future. Instead we can use so f a r or, in form al co ntexts, t o d a t e:
It w as c ertainly th e best m atch of the fo otb all season so far.
W hen th e c o ntract is signed it w ill be th e building co m pany's biggest order t o d a t e.

180
E x e rcises
g rm In w hich o f t h e se n t e n ces can t h e w ord in brack e ts re place d u rin g? W rit e / if it can re place it
and X if it can't.
1 I'm going to get a cup of coffee during th e break, (in)
2 She lost more than 15 kilos during her illn ess and she was o ff w ork for tw o m o nths, (in )
3 He twiste d his ankle during the m atch and had to retire injured, (over)
4 The w e ath er w as terrible here during Dece m ber, (in)
5 The m eeting w ill be so m e tim e during January, (over)
6 People no longer exp ect to be em ploye d in th e sam e place during th e wh ole of th eir working
lives, (in )
7 Do yo u think standards of nu m eracy have fallen during th e last 20 y e ars? ( over)
8 She sang in a choir during her child ho o d, ( throughout )
9 The town was rebuilt during th e e arly 16th century, ( over)
10 It was im possible to buy bananas during th e war. (in)
11 Karl had a phone call during th e m eal and had to leave early, (in)
12 My sto m ach ache got ste a d ily w orse during th e evening, (over)

g n u C o m p le t e t he p airs o f se n t e n ces w it h b y and u n til. Use b y in on e se n t e n ce and u n t il in t h e

o ther,
1 a I was feeling really h u n g ry..............................th e tim e dinner was served.
b W e sat around th e fire talkin g the tim e dinner was served.
2 a Sorry I'm late. I've been in a m eetin g now.
b I th oug ht Lars would have been here now.
3 a I've got to pay th e m o ney back th e end of th e m o nth,
b I've got th e end of th e m onth to pay th e m o ney back.
4 a I put on an extra pair of socks. then my fe e t were freezing cold.
b I stood outsid e the cinem a for an hour. then my fe et were freezing cold.
5 a She was alrea dy a leading eco n o m ist her early tw e n ties.
b She studied eco n o m ics .................... her early tw e n ties and then moved into law.
6 a I hope to finish th e d ecoratin g th e weekend.
b It w ill take me th e weekend to finish th e decorating.

U n d erlin e t he co rrect or m ore lik ely o p tion (or b ot h if p ossible) in t h is e m ail. Q Q

________________________

So n d Save Now discard

B I U J- tT- T> ivj ® jE i= <1 1 W S I I X « Plain Text C h ec k Spelling ▼

Hi Pete
(1) O v e r / D uring the last three weeks we’ve covered thousands of kilometres by train.
(2) S o fa r I Until n o w we’ve been to Stockholm, Berlin and Rome, and now we’re in
Amsterdam. (3) S o fa r / Until n o w I thought Rome was the best city we’d been to, but I think I
love Amsterdam even more. We’ve been here for three days, and have been very impressed
with what we’ve seen (4) so fa r / until n o w . We spent the first two days in galleries, looking
particularly at Van Gogh’s paintings. I didn’t know much about his work (5) s o fa r / until
n o w . Incidentally, we bumped into your friend Eleni (6) in / d u rin g our visit to the Van Gogh
museum. We’re staying here (7) until / b y Saturday and then we’re going to Paris. Must go
now. We’re off to Th e Hague for the day and have to be at the station (8) until / b y 9:30.
Hope all is well with you.
Love, Keira
L m m m m tm K m m tm rn m m m im m m m tm m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m im m m m m tm m m m m m m K m m m m m m iu in i. I

181
Unit
9 1 4 Talking about exceptions
W e use e x ce p t (f or) to intro duce th e only thin g(s) or person / people th a t a sta te m e n t does not
include:
Th e price of th e holiday includ es all m eals e x ce p t (for) lunch.
Everyo ne seemed to have been invite d e x ce p t (for) Mrs W oodford and me.
I had no m o ney to give him e x ce p t (for) th e few coins in my pocket.

We use e xce p t, not e x ce p t f or, with t o -in fin it iv es, and t h a t -cla uses:
I rarely need to go into th e city centre e x ce p t to do so m e shopping.
Th ey look just like th e real thing, e x ce p t th a t th ey're mad e of plastic.

W e usually use e x ce p t before p re p osi tio ns, b are in f ini tiv es, and t h a t -cl a uses including those
where th e word th a t is left out (see U nit 53). H owever, inform ally e x ce p t f o r is so m etim es also used,
although this is gra m m a tically incorrect:
There is likely to be rain everywh ere to d ay e x ce p t in W ales.
Th ere is nothing more th e d octor can do e x ce p t keep an eye on him.
Th ey look just like th e real thing, e x ce p t { th at) th ey're made of plastic.

W e can use e x ce p t f or, but not e xce p t, w ith th e meaning ‘but for' (see C b elow).

W e use e x ce p t (for) to mean th a t so m ethin g is not included in a p articular state m e n t, but w e use
b esid es to mean ‘as w e ll as' or ‘in ad dition to'. Co m pare:
I d on't enjoy w atchin g any sp orts e x ce p t (for) cricket. (= I enjoy o nly cricket) and
B esi d es cricket, I enjoy w atchin g fo o tb all and basketball. (= I enjoy thre e sp orts)
U I haven't read anythin g by her, e x ce p t (for) one of her sh ort stories, and
B esi d es her novels and poe ms, she published a num b er of sh ort stories.

A p a r t fr o m can be used with the sam e m eanings as both e x ce p t (for) and b esid es:
I d on't enjoy w atchin g any sp orts a p a r t fr o m cricket. (= except for)
A p ar t fro m cricket, I enjoy w atchin g fo o tb all and b asketb all. (= besides; as w ell as)

W e can use b u t w ith a sim ilar m eaning to e x ce p t (f or), p articularly after neg ative w ords such as no,
n o b o d y, and n o thing:
A fter th e op eration he could see nothing b u t / e x ce p t (for) / a p a r t fr o m vague shad ows.
There w as no w a y o ut b u t / e x ce p t / a p a r t fr o m upwards, to w ards th e light.

Bu t f o r has a different m eaning from e x ce p t for. W e use it to say w h a t w ould or mig ht have
happened if th e thin g intro duced by b u t f o r had not happened:
Th e c o untry would now be self-sufficie nt in food b u t f o r th e drought last year. (= if th ere
hadn't been th e d ro u g h t...)
Bu t f o r th e leg injury he suffered last year, he would pro bably have been picked for th e
natio nal tea m by now. (= if he hadn't injured his leg ...)
H owever, so m e people use e x ce p t f o r in th e sam e w a y as b u t f or, p articularly in inform al spoken
English:
I'd have got there on tim e e x ce p t f o r th e taxi being late, (or ... b u t f o r the taxi being late.)
Exce p t f o r th e pro blems w ith my co m puter, I would have got th e book finishe d weeks ago.
[ or Bu t f o r th e pro blems with my c o m p u t e r...)
N ote t h a t w e can use e xce p t e d, a p a r t or asid e after m entioning a person or thing to say th a t th ey are
not included in th e sta te m e n t w e make:
It has been, 1984 e x ce p t e d / a p a r t / asid e, th e h o ttest July for th e last 100 years.
E x e rcises
C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces w it h e x c e p t or e x c e p t f or. In dica t e w here b ot h are p ossible.
1 He was dressed very sm artly th a t his shoes w ere dirty.
2 I liked everything in th e m eal th e cabbage.
3 I had nothing to do ..................... sit by th e pool and relax.
4 W e would have gone walkin g last w e ek th e terrible weath er.
5 She had no ch oice to w ait for th e next train.
6 There are very fe w w olves left in th e co untry in the northern forests.
7 All the puddings on the menu cost €6 th e ice cream, which was €4.
8 I'm in th e office all the tim e at lunchtim es.
9 She might have won th e race .................. hittin g th e last fence.
10 The plant is found on every co ntin e nt Africa.
11 He gave no excuse for turnin g up late th a t he was tire d.
12 I drove all th e w ay w ith o u t sto p ping to buy petrol.

f l u If n ecessary, co rrect t h ese se n t e n ces w it h b esi d es or e x c e p t (f o r). If t h e se n t e nce is alrea d y

co rrect, w rit e / . f ? )
1 She had never been out of th e c o untry besides a week in Ireland as a child.
2 Besides being sm all, D en m ark is very fla t, with villa g es linked by c o untry roads.
3 The new road w ill increase tra ffic in the area except for damaging an area of wo o dland.
4 Except for his novels, Cam p b ell wro te a num b er of biographies.
5 There was nothin g in th e fridge besides a rath er m o uldy piece of cheese.
6 He was unhurt in th e crash exce p t for a bruise on his forehead.

M a tch p airs of se n t e n ces and re w rit e t h e m as sin gle se n t e nces beginning Bu t f o r t h e ... . G
Katerina gave me excelle nt directio ns. a If it hadn't, the building would have been
The bad w e a th er caused interru ptions. co m plete d by now.
The ch arity supplied food and m e dicines. b W ith o u t this, human rights would not have
The tre es provided shelter. improved in th e co untry,
Th e EU threaten e d sanctio ns. c O th erw ise, m any more people would have
Th e bank gave me a loan. died in th e fa mine,
d If it hadn't, I would not have been able to set
up my business,
e W ith o u t th ese, I would have got t o ta lly lost.
f O th erw ise, th e wind would have caused even
more damag e to the house.
1+e B u t f o r t h e e xc e lle n t cUrectxons Ka terin a, g ave me, I would. H ave got t o t a lly l o st.
Unit
92 Prepositions after verbs
So me verbs are fre q u ently fo llow e d by p articular pre positions:

a bout fo r of on with

agree / / /

argue / / /

ask / / /

care / /

know / /

learn / /

talk / / / /

a bout usually m eans ‘co ncernin g a p articular thing':

Q Th ey began to le arn a b o u t nutritio n when th ey w ere at prim ary scho ol.
We use care a b o u t to talk about so m ethin g w e are (not) co ncerned about:
He d o esn't seem to care a b o u t th e effe ct a poor diet has on him.

fo r is used with ask to t alk about w h a t people w a nt:

C He finished th e drink quickly and ask e d f o r another,
with arg u e when we talk ab o ut giving reasons w hy so m ethin g is true or right:
Many people are arg uin g f o r a big tax cut.
and with care to talk about doing th e necessary things for so m eone or so m ethin g in order to keep
th e m in good health or co ndition:
O Jo ca re d f o r her disabled m o th er u ntil her death last year, [ or Jo t o o k ca re o f ...)
or to mean ‘like', p articularly in neg ative se ntences, and to mean ‘w a n t' in offers. Both of th ese uses of
care f o r are rath er form al:
Q I d on't care f o r th e th e atre much.
W ould yo u care f o r a cup of coffe e?
o f is used w ith t a lk , k n o w, and le arn to talk ab out discussing, having or g ettin g inform atio n:
Q Mira w e n t rece ntly to Laos and can t a l k o f nothing else, ( or less form a lly ... t a l k a b o u t ...)
The w h ole c o u n try k n e w o f C h urchill's love of cigars, ( or less form a lly ... k n e w a b o u t ...)
I have just le a r n t o f th e d eath of Dr Ramirez, ( or less form a lly ... le a r n t a b o u t ...)
We use ask o f when we make or talk ab o ut requests:
C I have a favo ur to ask o f yo u and yo ur sister.
on is used with t a l k and a gree to mean ‘concerned with a p articular to p ic’:
G I w as asked to t a l k on m y research, ( or ... to t a l k a b o u t ...)
W e a gree d on a tim e to m eet, (usually there has been previous discussion or disa gre e m ent.)
N ote t h a t w e use a gree t o to say th a t so m eone allo ws so m ethin g to happen:
O O nce the g overnm ent a gree d t o th e sche m e it w e n t ahead w ith o u t d elay.

with is used with arg u e and t a l k when w e go on to m ention th e person involve d:

Q I used to arg u e / t a l k w i t h Pedro for hours.
W e use a gree w it h to say th a t tw o people have the sam e o pinion:
A dam thin ks w e should acce p t th e offer, and I a gree w it h him.
and to say th a t we approve of a p articular idea or actio n:
I a gree w i t h lettin g children cho ose th e clo th es th ey w ear, ( or I a gree a b o u t / on ...)
or to say th a t tw o d escriptio ns are th e sam e:
Stefan's st ory a gree d w i t h th a t of his son.
E x e rcises
Cr oss o u t an y inco rrec t pre positio ns.
1 I only advertise d th e car for sale on W ednesday, but by th e end of th e w e ek ten people had
phoned to ask o f / fo r / a bout it.
2 W e can learn a great deal a fter / a bout / fo r th e oceans by studyin g even a sm all piece of coral.
3 I didn’t agree about / fo r / with a word of w h a t she said.
4 Professor O w en is giving a talk o f / with / on the Romans in Lecture H all 1.
5 I had to care fo r / a fter / a bout my eld erly parents when th ey both became ill.
6 For m any ye ars we have been arguing fo r / o n / with chang es in th e w ay th e college is managed.
7 She didn't kn ow o f / a bout / on her ste p brother's existence until her m o ther died.

C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces using t h e co rrect or m ost a p p ro pria t e pre p ositio n fro m secti o n A.

So m e tim es t w o a nsw e rs are p ossible.
1 O n the we bsite th ey ask yo ur e m ail ad dress.
2 I first learnt his decision to resign on th e radio last night.
3 W e're going to talk the co uncil about planting so m e new trees in th e park.
4 i d on't care pop m usic at all. I much prefer classical music.
5 The t e ach er says w e've got to do the test, so there's no point in arguing it.
6 Scie ntists do not agree th e origin of the universe.
7 If yo u know any reasons w h y yo u should not be given m e dical insurance, you m ust
d eclare th e m here.
8 a : Josh can be really stupid so m etim es.

b: You sh o uld n't talk yo ur bro th er like th at.

9 She's alw ays arguing her parents about w h a t to w atch on televisio n.
10 I kn ow it's a lot to a s k ..................... yo u, but would you look after th e children w hile I'm in Japan on
business?
11 Th e course was brilliant. W e learnt using the Intern et in teachin g writing.
12 a : Dan said h e'll try to fix m y car.

b: W h a t does he know cars?

13 I d on't think th e g overnm ent cares enough nursery e ducation to fund it properly.
14 A fter days of discussion, th e c o m m itte e agreed th e a m o unt of m o ney to d onate.

T h ese p airs o f se n t e n ces inclu d e m ore verbs t h a t are co m m o n ly f ollo w e d by t h e pre p ositio ns
in A. Ca n y o u e x plain t h e dif f ere nce in m ean in g? Use a dict io n ary if n ecessary.
1 a The police a cted on th e inform atio n very quickly,
b I co uld n't be at the m eetin g, so my so licitor a cte d fo r me.
2 a I've been thinking a lot a bout y o ur idea, and I've decided I'd like to sup p ort yo u.
b W h a t do yo u think o f th e colo ur in th e bedro om?
3 a D octors have ca lled on th e H ealth M inister to resign,
b Cam paigners have ca lled fo r a referendum on the issue.
4 a Th ey say he worked fo r th e CIA in th e 1980s.
b She works with co m puters.
5 a W e ’re counting on Julia to sup ply the food for th e party,
b Playing exciting basketb all counts fo r little if th e tea m isn't winnin g.

^ A d d itio n a l e xe rcise 15 (page 249) 185

 Unit
9 3 A Prepositions after nouns
M any nouns are follow e d by the sam e pre positions as th eir related a djective or verb. Co m pare:
C Are yo u sa t isf ie d with th e w ay th a t th e business is being run? and
O Th e share hold ers have expressed sa t isf a c t i o n with th e w ay the business is being run.
A fe w nouns are followe d by d ifferent pre positions. Co m pare:
O Th ey became f o n d o f each oth er at scho ol, and
Also: prou d o f / pride in,
Th eir f o n d n ess fo r each oth er grew and m any years
ash a m e d o f / sh a m e a b o u t / a t
la ter th e y marrie d.

So m e nouns take a pre position wh ere th eir relate d verb does not. Com pare:
O I r esp ec t Louis en orm o usly, and
Also: a d m ir a ti o n f or, b an on, d iscussi o n a b o u t /
O I have en orm o us r esp ec t f o r Louis.
o n, im p ro v e m e n t in, in flu e nce on, in t e rv ie w
w it h , la ck of, resp ect f or

N ote t h a t m any o th er nouns are c o m m o nly follow e d by o f phrases which indicate possession,
a pro perty, or classify the noun by describing w h a t it relates to. Com pare:
He d escrib e d th e co n d uctor as moving his arms like a win d m ill, and
His d escrip ti o n o f th e co nd uctor w as very funny.

Som e nouns can be followe d by o f + -ing but not usually t o -in fin it iv e:
He's got into th e ha b it o f biting his nails
Also: cost , e f f e ct , f e ar, lik elih o o d , p ossib ili t y,
wh en he's nervous.
pro b a bilit y, pro b le m , p rosp ect, risk, sign

Som e nouns can be follow e d by a t o -in f in it iv e but not usually o f + -ing:

His unhap py childho od explains his
Also: a b ilit y, a t t e m p t , co ncern, d ecisio n, d esire,
r e lu c t a n c e to talk ab o ut his parents.
d e t e r m in a t io n , f ailu re, in a b ili t y, p er m issi o n,
N ote th a t m any o f th ese nouns can also be
pro p osal, reaso n, re f usa l, (u n) w illi n g n ess
used w ith o th er pre positions + -ing
(e.g. a t t e m p t a t -ing, reaso n f o r -ing, etc.).

So me nouns can so m etim es be follow e d eith er by o f + -ing or a t o -in f in it iv e with a sim ilar meaning,
usually after t he:
Do sta ff have the o p p o r t u n it y o f taking unpaid Also: a m bi tio n, idea, o p tio n, plan.
^ " leave? ( or ... the o p p o r t u n it y to ta ke ...)
•• .•••• .?• The aim o f providing clean drinking w a ter has been achieve d. ( orThe ai m to provide ...)
H owever, so me nouns, such as ch a nce, se nse and w a y, have m ore than one m eaning and are
follow e d either by o f + -ing or a t o -in f in it iv e depending on which m eaning is used. Co m pare:
W hat's the ch a n ce o f getting five heads wh en yo u toss a coin five tim es? (= likelih o o d; n o t ...
chance to get ...) and
W ill yo u get th e ch a n ce to visit Miki in Ja p an? (= o p p ortunity; n o t ... of visitin g ...)
He didn’t have the se nse to move a w ay fro m th e puddle of w a ter as th e bus w e n t past.
(= good ju d g e m ent; n o t ... sense of moving ...) and
Everyone w as very frien dly and she had a se nse o f belonging within a few days of moving to
her new scho ol. (= feelin g; n o t ... sense to belong ...)
I've got a new w a y to cook rice. (= m eth o d; or ... w a y o f cooking ...) and
She has a really funny w a y o f speaking. (= m anner; n o t ... w ay to speak)
N ote also th at o f + -ing usually fo llo ws no / e v e r y / t h e so le / t h e sli g h t est / (not) a n y / w it h t h e +
in t e n ti o n, but t h a t we can use eith er o f + -ing or a t o -in f in it iv e in m ost oth er cases. Co m pare:
I have no in t e n t i o n o f lending Dan any more m oney. (n o t ... no inte ntio n to lend ...) and
He announced his in t e n ti o n to sta nd in th e electio n, ( or ... in t e n ti o n o f standing ...)

186 a
E x e rcises
Re writ e t h e it alicise d w ords w it h a si m ilar m eanin g using a noun rela t e d t o t h e u n derlin e d verb.
A dd an a p pro pria t e pre p ositio n a f t er t h e noun. Q
1 I gre a tly admire people wh o work full tim e and also stu dy for a university degree.
h ouye. greoM a A w ira fip n fa r
2 Yase min is still in hospital but over th e last couple of days her condition has im proved.
3 Rashid is very pro u d o f his cooking, and is alw ays eager to talk about his recipes.
4 The w e bsite advises on how to lose weight.
5 I hate it when p eople are cru el to anim als, and would su p p ort a ban on hunting.
6 W e discussed th e relative m erits of CDs and records fo r a long time.
7 I had to be v a ccin a ted against typhoid before entering th e co untry.
8 Benny C arter significa ntly influ enced th e d evelo p m ent o f British jazz.
9 The city lacks a fford a ble housing and m any people are hom eless.
10 There is wid espread su p p ort for firew orks to be banned.

C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces w it h a noun fro m (i) and ei t h er o f + -in g or t h e t o -in f in i t iv e f or m of a

verb fro m (ii).
(0 (ii)
a b ili t y cost d ecisio n ack n o w le d g e a ll o w b uy
f ail u re fear^ p ossib ilit y f^ get p ro t e ct
reaso n risk sign re m e m b er st o p t r a nsm i t
u n w illi n g n ess w o rr y

1 My m o ther recently overcam e her fe ^ T o f -ftyuag and had a holiday in South Africa.
2 The sno w has been fallin g now for tw o days and sh ows no .................................................................
3 The g overnm ent has defended its co al mining in the natio nal park.
4 Your blood pressure is a little high, but there is no ............................................................ ab o ut it.
5 She w as kept in isolation to reduce the th e virus to oth er people
in the hospital.
6 The exercise t ests children's a rand om sequence of num bers.
7 The g overnm ent has been criticise d for i t s ............................................................... th e region from
flooding.
8 The ............................................................... a new car in Europe is exp ecte d to fall in th e next year.
9 I knew th a t there was little the jo b with so m any a p plicants.
10 It’s hard to w ork w ith N ik because of his th a t he ever makes
mistakes.

C o m p le t e t h e se n t e n ces w it h an a p pro pria t e verb using ei t h er o f + -in g or a t o -in f in i t iv e. Give

b o t h f or ms if b ot h are p ossible.
1 Although Mia said she would think ab o ut it, she never had th e slig htest inte ntion
P f ...........................my sug gestion.
2 It's going to be clo u dy to nig ht so there is only a fifty - fifty chance ..........................................
th e eclipse of the m oon.
3 It's pouring w ith rain. I hope David had the sense an um brella
with him.
4 The head of th e co m pany rep eated his intentio n on his 65th
birthday.
5 W hen th e H istory D e p artm ent closed she was given th e option ..............................................................
a no th er jo b.
6 Katrin had a very unusual w a y ............................................................ , keeping her fe et firm ly on th e
flo or and wavin g her arms around her head.

A d d itio n a l e xercise 15 (page 249) 187

Unit
9 4 . Two- and three-word verbs: word order
The m eaning of so m e verbs c o m m o nly used with a p articular preposition or adverb (or p article ) is
often d ifferent fro m th e meaning of th eir se parate parts. W e can call th ese tw o-w ord verbs:
I'll quickly go o v er th e main points of the re port again. (= su m m arise)
Q She had to le t her dress o u t because sh e’d put on w eig ht. (= make it larger)

O th er three-word verbs are co m m o nly used with an adverb + preposition.

0 Do you think h e’s really likely to go t h r o u g h w it h his thre at? (= do it)
Th e tea m has faile d to live up t o earlier exp ectatio ns. (= achieve w h a t w as exp ecte d)

These tw o - and thre e-word verbs are so m etim es also calle d phrasa l verbs.

M any tw o -w ord verbs are usually intransitive:

He g re w up on a farm. W h en she ca m e t o she found h erself in hospital.

Also: cro p up, f a ll t hro u g h , g e t up, m o ve of f, sh o p aro u n d, sp lash o u t

H owever, so m e tw o -w ord verbs can be used tra nsitively or in tra nsitively with th e sa m e meaning:
I'll c a ll b ack later. J I'll c a ll y o u b ack when I get home.

Also: a nsw e r b ack, cl e a r a w a y, co v er up, help o u t, t a k e o ver, t i d y up, w ash up

and oth er tw o -w ord verbs can be used tra nsitively or intra nsitively w ith a d ifferent meaning:
Q The engine c u t o u t and th e car cam e t o a sto p. I cu t the picture o u t and kept it.

A lso: bre a k in, h old o u t, lo o k o u t, lo o k up, pick up, sp li t up, t u rn in, win d up

W ith m any tra nsitive tw o -w ord verbs, th e o bject can co m e before or a fter th e adverb:
I w a n t to t r y o u t the loca l food, or Q I w a n t to t r y the loca l fo o d out.
Also: bring a b o u t, cl e a n up, co u n t o u t, drink up, g a t h er up, g e t d o w n, le av e o u t,
m a k e up, m ess up, sh o o t d o w n, so r t o u t, t h r o w a w a y, use up

H owever, if th e o bject is a pronoun it m ust co m e b etween th e verb and the adverb:

0 I w o n’t be able to go to th e party. Yo u'll have to c o u n t me o u t. (n o t ... co unt out m e.)
and w e prefer to put th e o bject after the adverb when th e o bject is long. Co m pare:
She had to cl e a n the kitchen up. ( o r ... cle a n up the kitchen.) and
She had to cle a n up the mess in the kitchen, ( ra therth a n ... clean th e mess in th e kitchen up.)

W ith so me transitive tw o -w ord verbs, th e o bject co m es b etw een th e verb and th e adverb:
0 I just co uld n’t t e l l the twins a p art, ( n o t ... t e ll a part th e twins)

Also: ca t c h o u t, he ar o u t, or d er a b o u t, p u ll t o, p ush t o, sh u t up (= to silence), st a n d up

W ith so m e transitive tw o -w ord verbs, th e o bject follo ws th e pre position:

She t a k es a f t e r her m other. O I flick e d t h ro u g h a magazine w hile I w as waitin g.
A lso: a cc o u n t for, a ct o n, a p pr o ve of, c a ll o n, ch ec k int o, lo o k af t er, pro vid e for, r esu l t fro m,
run in t o, t a k e a g ainst

W ith m ost thre e-word verbs, th e o bject goes after th e Also: co m e in for, co m e up a g ainst,
pre position: cu t b ack on, lo o k d o w n on, p u t up w it h
He really l o o ks up t o his older brother.
H owever, a few thre e-word verbs usually have th e o bject im m e d iately after th e verb. A second noun
or noun phrase goes after the pre position:
Also: do o u t of, help on w it h, le t in on,
188 O She trie d to t a l k me o u t o f the pla n.
p u t d o w n as, p u t up t o, t a k e up on
E x e rcises
If p ossible or n ecessa ry, add an a p pro pria t e noun or pron ou n in t h e sp ace. O
1 The sam e problem kept cropping up, even though I thou ght I'd fixed it.
2 I'm not sure how yo u sp ell it. I'll look up in th e dictio nary.
3 I'm busy at th e m o m ent, but I can help out this evening.
4 If yo u tid y up, I'll do th e cleaning.
5 The deal fell through because w e co uld n't agree a price.

Sh o w w here t h e w ord or p hrase in brack e ts sh o uld go in each se n t e n ce w it h a . If it is p ossible

t o p ut it in m ore t h an on e place, m ark t h ese t w o p ossibilities.
1 The house is untidy, but I haven't got tim e to sort o ut now. (it)
2 W e've intro duced a trainin g sche m e to bring ab out. (som e im provem ent )
3 The strike by airlin e pilots messed up. ( the holiday I'd sp e n t months pla nning )
4 I decided to try out for a co uple of m o nths, ( the diet )
5 I used up to buy th e car. ( a ll m y savings)
6 a : I m ust get my shoes repaired again.
b : But th ey're so old - w h y d o n’t yo u just thro w a w ay ? ( them )

C o m p le t e each se n t e nce using a t w o - w o r d verb fro m (i) and a noun p hrase fro m (ii). If t w o
w ord ord ers are p ossible, give both.
(0 (ii)
get dow n le a v e o u t m a k e up t h e g e n e ra l id eas me m y mind
p ush t o hear out sh u t up he r na m e t h e t hi n g tLihIpt YVfiT\jv/VV
\A/irr/dA\A/

1 It's freezing in here. C&n you push t h e wrndpw to?

2 W hen she fille d th e form in s h e ................................................................................................................. , so th ey
sent it back to her.
3 The alarm starte d when I opened the car door, and now I can't

4 Th ere w ere so m any d esserts on th e m enu, I co uld n't ........................................................................................

5 I .................................................................................................................. , but th e le cturer spoke so q uickly I

co uld n't fo llo w th e d etails.
6 I know you susp ect me of cheatin g, but yo u've got to give me a chance to explain myself. At
least ..................................................................................................................before makin g up y o ur mind.

^ £ 2 ^ If n ecessary, co rr ect t h e w ord ord er or give a m ore lik ely w ord ord er in t h ese se n t e nces. If t h e y
are alrea d y co rrect, w ri t e Y . f S E E B
1 He was alw ays ord ering ab out everyo ne, g ettin g th e m to do his w ork for him.
2 It is assumed th a t parents w ill provide t h eir children for u ntil th ey are 18.
3 She w o uld n't let in me on the secret, how ever hard I trie d to persuade her.
4 The sno w was so h eavy th a t the police calle d m o torists on to avoid unnecessary jo urn eys.
5 I checked into the hotel at ab out four.
6 I to ok up Emre on his offer and stayed in his fla t w hile I was in A nkara.
7 The g overnm ent has co m e in for a lot of criticism over its decision to increase spending on
defence.
8 My parents didn't approve of our engage m ent.
9 I had alw ays looked Mr Gao up to, so I was shocked to discover w h a t he had done.

•+ A d d itio n a l exe rcise 15 (page 249) 189

Unit
95 i Th ere is, th ere w as, etc.
W hen we intro duce a new person or thin g - to say th a t this person or thing exists, happens, or is found
in a p articular place - w e can use a se nte nce beginning T h e re + be:
O T h e r e w as a loud bang fro m upstairs. (not A loud bang w as fro m upstairs.)
T h er e's nothing to eat. (not N othing is to eat.)

W e invert this pattern in questions to ask about th e existe nce etc. of people and things:
Q Is t h e re anyb o dy in here?

W e can also use t h e re with a uxiliary and m o dal verbs with be (e.g. h as been, ca n be):
T h e r e m ust be so m e w ay of co ntactin g her.
with v er b + t o be (e.g. use d t o be, is su p p ose d t o be, t e n ds t o be, a p p e ars t o be, se e m s t o be):
T h e r e appears to be a m ajor disagre em ent b etween th e tw o presidents,
and so m e oth er verbs th a t indicate existence (e.g. arise, e m er g e, e x ist, re m ain):
During th e 1990s t h e re arose a demand for organic food.

Because we use t h e re in this w a y to introduce to pics, the noun after t h e r e + be often has an ind efinite
or non-sp ecific meaning. So w e often use a / an, zero a r t icle , a n y(o n e) (+ noun), or so m e(t hin g),
n o(b o d y), etc. rath er than t h e, t h is, m y, y o u r (+ noun), or a na m e, which give the noun a more
d efinite or sp ecific meaning. Co m pare:
T h er e's nobody here.
Q T h e r e w as som ething strang e ab o ut her. and
The ca t was in the kitchen. ( more usual than There was th e cat in th e kitchen.; but com pare
T h e r e w as a ca t in th e kitch en.)
Ja n is w aitin g for me outsid e. (more usual than There is Jan waitin g for me outsid e.)
W hen w e use t h e re + be + t he, this is often done to sho w a change of to pic. Cho osing t h e, t h a t, etc.
+ n ou n in dicates th a t w e think the to p ic is alrea dy known to th e listen er or reader:
... And then t h e re is t h e qu estion of who is going to pay.

The verb be should agree with th e noun th a t co m es after it:

O T h er e is a very good reason for my d ecision.
O T h e re w e re to o m any p eople tryin g to get into th e fo o tb all sta dium.
H owever, in inform al speech w e so m etim es use t h e re's before a plural noun:
‘Anythin g to e a t?' ‘W ell, t h e re's som e a pples on th e ta ble.'
If th e noun phrase co nsists of tw o or more nouns in a list, w e use a singular verb if th e first noun is
singular or uncounta ble, and a plural verb if th e first noun is plural:
W hen I opened th e fridge t h e r e w as o nly a b ottle o f milk, so me eggs, and butter.
W hen I opened th e frid ge t h e r e w e re only som e eggs, a b ottle of milk, and butter.

T h ere + be is also used with nouns follow e d by a t h a t -, w h-, t o -in f in it iv e or -ing clause:
Is t h e re a ch a nce ( th at) Kim could arrive this afterno o n?
T h e r e is no reason (why) I ca n't see yo u to m orro w.
T h e re is a sm all stre a m which / th a t runs at th e b otto m of th e garden.
T h e re w as an a tte m pt to resolve th e dispute at th e factory.
( T h e r e w as a taxi waiting outsid e the hotel.
W e d on't usually leave out a rela tive pronoun when it is the su bject of th e fo llowin g finite verb, but
can leave it out wh en it is th e ob je ct (see U nit 53).

In fo rm al English w e can use a clause with t h e re b eing to intro duce a reason for so m ethin g:
T h e r e b eing no evid ence a gainst him, he w as release d. (= Because there was no evid ence).
T h e r e b eing no rep orts of adverse reactions, th e drug is to be sold m ore wid ely.
E x e rcises
Re writ e t h ese se n t e n ces using t h e r e only if t h e a nsw e r is likely. C o nsi d er w h y so m e a nsw e rs
are n ot likely. Q
1 C offe e w as spilt on th e ta ble. Th ere wfl-s c o ff e e s p lit on t h e tai > le.....
2 Your dinner is in th e oven. (A se nte nce, with T h e re is u n lik e ly . ) ....
3 Is so m ethin g bothering yo u?
4 A barrier was across the road.
5 The d octor is free to see yo u now.
6 The problem of w h a t to do with nucle ar w aste rem ains.
7 My son is at university.
8 A video is supposed to be on th e w e bsite, but it d o esn't w ork.
9 N o p etrol w as available anywhere in th e city.
10 Can anyone help me?
11 You can fo llo w so m e g en eral rules.
12 An art g allery used to be around here.

a n Th e se n t e nces b elo w are all t a k e n fro m w ri t t e n English. W hich is co rrect or m ore lik ely in t he
sp ace - is or a r e?
1 There tw o pubs and a church on th e villa g e green.
2 There oth er possible lo catio ns for the car park, but the ce ntral one is preferred.
3 There no direct rail link b etween th e cities.
4 There furth er rain and strong win ds forecast for th e n ext thre e days.
5 There ch ocolate bars, crisps, and a b ottle of cola in the bag if yo u get hungry.
6 There su bstantial evid ence to suggest th a t th e Robinsons lied to th e police.
7 There no easy answ ers to th e problem of clim a te chang e.
8 T h e re .................... a shower, televisio n, and tw o single beds in each room.

Join t h e m a tch in g se n t e nce halv es using an a p pro pria t e rela tiv e pro nou n (t h a t , w h ich , or w h o ).
W rit e t h e rela tiv e pronoun in b rack e ts if it can be le f t o u t. G H E E S )
1 There were a lot of people at the p arty a an electio n w ill be held next m o nth.
2 There's a cake in th e kitch en b are hard er-working than Kristin.
3 There was never any d oubt c I've made esp ecially for y o ur birth day.
4 There have been sug gestions d I could do to prevent him falling.
5 There aren't m any people alive to d ay e hadn't been in vite d -
6 There are still so m e old houses in th e villag e f haven't w atch e d TV.
7 There was a bsolutely nothing g d on’t have electricity.
8 There are fe w people in th e co m p any h Bruno w o uld get th e jo b.
1+ e T h e re w ere a. Lot o f people oJt t h e p arty who / t h a t h a rln ’t been in vited..

C T I W rit e n e w se n t e n ces w it h si m il ar m eanin gs beginning T h e r e b ein g ... . 0

1 As there was no food in th e house, th ey w e n t to a local restaurant.
T h e re being no fo o d in the- H o use, th e y w e n t to a. l o c a l res t a u r a n t .
2 There was no furth er business, so the m eetin g closed at 12:30.

3 The patients w ere sent home because there was no d octor available.

4 Because the facilities were inad e quate at the hotel, th e co nference w as relocate d to a nearby
university.
Unit
96 it ... 1
W e can use an intro ductory it at the beginning of a sente nce -
t o place long or gra m m a tically co m plex se ntence ele m ents at the end (the usual place for the m in
English). Co m pare:
To drive without a licence is ille gal, and
It is ille g a l to drive w ith o u t a licence.
to focus attentio n on so m ethin g by putting it at the end (the usual place for new or im p ortant
inform atio n in English). Co m pare:
That she w asn't hurt is a m iracle, and
It's a m ir a cle th a t she w asn't hurt.

Intro d uctory it is co m m o nly used when the su bject is a t o -in f in it iv e or t h a t -cl a use (as in the
exam ples above), and also wh en th e su bject is a w h - or -ing cla use (see also U nit 25):
It is cl e a r why Diego decided to leave Spain.
It is use l ess asking Sophie to help.

W e often use intro ductory it with be + a d je cti v e / n ou n (as in th e exam ples above), but o th er
patterns with an intro ductory it are possible. Here are so m e co m m on exa m p les-
it + verb + t o -in fin it iv e
‘I've got a terrible headache.' ‘It h elps to lie down.'
Also: h u r t, p ay (= give an advantage
If yo u w a n t so m eone to help yo u, it d o esn't do to
or b en efit)
annoy th e m just before yo u ask. (‘[not] do' =
(n ot) a dvisable, acce ptable or enough)

it + v er b + o b je ct + t o -in f in it iv e Also: a m aze , an n o y , ast o nish , co ncern ,

It sh ock e d him to see her looking so ill.
c o s t , frigh t en , h u r t , sc a r e , su r p rise ,
It m e a ns a lo t to g e t a place at university. u p se t , w o rry (m ost are to do with feelings)
A fter th ese verbs th e o bject usually refers to a person.
W e can also use it + t a k e + o b je ct + t o -in fin it iv e when w e say w h a t is or was needed in a p articular
a ctivity; for exam ple, tim e, reso urces or ch aracteristics needed. Co m pare:
It t a k es a lo t o f e ffort to p la y th e flute, and To play th e flute takes a lot of effort.

it + verb + t h a t-cla use

Also: a p p ear, co m e a b o u t, f o llo w ,
It se e m s that she has lost her m em ory.
ha p p e n, t ra nsp ir e
It e m erg e d th a t he alrea dy had a crim in al record.

it + verb + o bject + t ha t-clause

Also: d a w n on, n o t b o t her, st rik e (= occur to),
It su d d enly hit me th a t Sara wante d to
t u rn o u t, and the highlighted verbs above
borrow m oney, (less likely is Th a t Sara
wante d to borrow m o ney su d d enly hit m e.)
The o bject in this p attern usually refers to a person.

We d on't usually use an i t ... p attern as an altern ative to a n o u n as su bject:

T h e ir su cc ess was unexp ecte d. (not It was unexp ecte d th eir success.)

H owever, in inform al co ntexts, p articularly in speech, this is quite co m m on in order to give sp ecial
em phasis to the inform atio n im m e d iately followin g i t ...:
It t ast e s r e a lly goo d, this new ice cream,
and also to place a longer noun phrase at th e end in order to focus attentio n on it:
It's ri d icu lo us, all the b ureaucracy involved in running a scho ol th ese days.

192
E x e rcises
Re writ e t h ese se n t e nces beginning I t ... bu t o nly if t h e y w o uld be co rrect w rit t e n En glish;
o t h e rw ise w ri t e / and co nsi d e r w h y an I t ... se n t e nce w o ul d be ina p pro pria te. ( J j g Q
1 Th a t w e co ntinue to m o nitor th e situatio n is im p ortant.
It i s w e co n ^ w e to monitor the situation....
2 H ow he stare d straig ht at me was unsettlin g.
3 Francesco's excelle nt exam result was surprising.
4 To be a qualifie d driver is an advanta g e in the jo b.
5 H er prop osal is quite radical.
6 To put carp et on w alls is highly unusual.
7 Robin's new car is a Ferrari.
8 Finding a good plum b er is hard these days.

Q g } C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces using i t ... f ollo w e d by a verb fro m (i) and an e x p an d ed f or m of t he

n o t es in (ii). Inclu d e an a p pro pria t e o b ject w here n ecessary. o
(i) (ii)
ap pear ast o n ish p e d al / bicycle
not b o ther co ncern se e / carryi n g k nives plan y o u r jo u r n e y ahea d
hurt n o t do crit icise / t o o m uch ha d n't eve n t o ld / w he n / going a w a y
pay st rik e ev ery o n e / see in disco v er / also / su ccessf u l n o velist
u pse t scar e h e / je a lo us hear/ offended

1 W hen Laura fe ll h eavily and lay co m ple tely still,

it appeared,. thaJb sh e houl sm owsly i^ure<i her bock
2 I knew t h a t Lotta was a jo urn alist for th e local paper, b u t ...
3 Since I broke my ankle last year, ...
4 I told Peter th a t I had invited Hugo, to o. W hen he became angry ...
5 My co m m ent about Ben's baldness was only m eant as a joke and ...
6 There were no curtains in his house, but ...
7 I didn't mind A m y not asking me to go on holiday with her, b u t ...
8 Children need a lot of praise and ...
9 Th e boys walked tow ards me in a threatenin g way, and ...
10 You can save m o ney by booking ticke ts in advance, so ...

a a a W h a t p erso n al or p hysical ch a rac t e rist ics are n ee d ed t o ...? Use It t a k es ... in y o u r a nsw ers. ( ? )
1 play a m usical instru m ent w ell
It tak es <
k Lot o f cLeterrrimatton to pUuj (k mwsuu^L Instrument well.
2 build yo ur own house

3 make a speech in front of a group of strang ers

4 explain th e rules of cricket to so m eone who d oesn't kn ow th e game

N o w su g g est co m p le t io ns f or t h ese se n t e nces.

5 It takes bravery ...

6 It takes a lot of organisation to ...

7 It takes a great deal of tim e

Unit
97 i t ... 2
W e can use a pattern with it as th e o bject of a verb where it refers forward to a clause. It can
so m etim es be follow e d directly by a t h a t -, if- or w h e n -cla use after ca n't b ear, h a t e, lik e, love,
r ese n t and ca n't st a n d, and by an if- or w h e n -cla use after dislik e, e njo y, p re f er and u n d e rst a n d:
I ha te it that yo u can swim so w ell and I can't. (n ot I hate t h a t yo u can swim ...)
Q W e alw ays e njoy it when th ey stay w ith us. (not We alw ays enjoy when th ey ...)

Som e verbs can be fo llow e d by it and a t h a t -cla use , p articularly in spoken English, or d irectly by a
t h a t -cl a use w ith o u t it:
Q You've just got to a cce p t (it) th a t Emil's gone
A lso : a d m it, d e ny, g u ara n t e e, m e n ti o n
and w o n't be coming back.

M any o th er verbs th a t can be follow e d by a t h a t -cl a use or w h -cl a use are not used with it in this way:
I can't re m e m b e r when I last saw her.
A lso: arg u e, disco ver, e m p h asise, n o tice, p re d ict
( n o t ... re m e m b er it when ...)

W ith oth er verbs used to indicate how we see a p articular event or situatio n, it is follow ed first by an
adjective or noun phrase and then a t h a t -cla use , t o -in f in it iv e cla use, or clause beginning w he n:
Q O fficials said th ey b elie ve it u n li k ely that any
Also: co nsid er, f e el, fin d (= discover
lasting damage to the enviro n m ent has been
so m ethin g fro m exp erience), t h in k
done, ( o r ... th ey b elie ve it is u n li k ely t h a t ...;
n o t ... th ey believe unlikely t h a t ...)
W hen we use le a v e and o w e (= have a resp onsibility to) with it w e can use t o so m e b o d y + t o -
in fin itive after it:
D on't b oth er to arrange anythin g. Just le a v e it t o m e t o so r t ou t.
She o w e d it t o her p are n ts t o do w e ll at colle ge.

W ith th e verbs acce p t, regard, see, t a k e (= interpret so m ethin g in a p articular w ay), or v ie w we use it
+ as + n o u n (or a d je ctiv e) + cla use:
Q W e se e it as an insu lt to have rece ived no reply to our letter.
I t a k e it as e nco u ra g in g when students a ttend all my lectures.

I t is / w a s n o . .. v s T h e r e is / w a s n o ...
H ere are so m e co m m on expressio ns including It is / w as no ... and T h ere is / w as no ...:

It's no se cr e t th at he w a n ts a new jo b. T h ere's no d e n yin g th a t he's intellig ent.

It's no su r p rise th a t his latest film has
been so successful.
O It's no use tellin g me now. I needed to
kn ow a week ago.
It's no g oo d g ettin g angry. Th a t w o n't
help solve the problem.
It's no co incid e nce ( or accid e n t) th a t
th ey left the p arty at th e sa m e tim e.
It's no lo n g er necessary to have a visa to
visit th e co untry.
I'm afraid t h e re's no a lt e r n a t iv e ( or
ch oice) but to ask her to leave.
T h er e's no h o pe of g ettin g more mo ney.
C T h ere's no n ee d to explain how it w orks;
I'll read th e m anual.
O T h ere's no p oin t in buying an ice-cream
m aker unless you plan to use it a lot.
T h ere's no q u est io n of agreeing to his
de mands.
T h ere's no reaso n to be p essim istic.
T h ere's no ch a n ce of finding a cure if we
d on't fund more research.

The sentences w ith It is / w as no ... have altern atives in which th e t h a t -, -ing or t o -in f in it iv e clause
is placed at th e fro nt, but th e sentences with T h ere is / w as no ... do not. Co m pare:
It's n o se cr e t th a t he w a n ts a new jo b. ( or Th a t he w a n ts a new jo b is no secret.) a nd
T h er e's no d e nyin g th a t he's intellig ent, ( but not Th a t he's intellig ent is no denying.)

194
Exercises
« s h i C o m p le t e each se n t e nce w it h an a p pro pria t e f or m o f a verb fro m t h e box. If n ecessary, add it.

carte b ea ^ co nsid e r d isco v e r e n jo y find

Leave owe p re dict p re f er re m e m b er

1 She c a n 't be ar i t when people criticise her w ork, and she gets very upset.
2 I hard to und erstand w hy the film was made in black and white and not colour.
3 If yo u ........................ th at you ca n't get to th e m eeting on th e 16th I'll try to rearrange it.
4 We to our sup p orters to play to th e best of our a b ility in the m atch.
5 I th at the cam era w as on th e ta ble when I left the house.
6 I really when the w eath er's hot like this. I'd hate to live in a cold clim ate.
7 I ca n't sto p you dism antlin g yo ur m otorbike in the kitchen, but I'd if yo u did n't.
8 I think w e should to th e children to do th e washin g up.
9 I th a t Randa w ill w ith dra w from th e course within a m o nth.
10 I a privile ge to have known Mark Jennings.

H ere are so m e n o t es a m ana gin g direct o r m a de f or his first sp eech t o t h e board o f direct o rs. In
t h e sp eech he e x p an d ed t h e n o t es beginning I + (v er b) + it as ..., using t h e ver bs in brack e ts.
W rit e w h a t he said.

great honour - asked to become - managing director - p.e*co s (t a k e)

I t a k e i t a s a. g re a t ...Honour to be a s k e d bo b e ^ rrie d ire c to r o f. Rexc o .

part of m'f role - significant^ reduce P-e^co's carbon footprint - netf 5 'fears

3 necessaq evil - some people - ma'f redundant - in netf 'fear ( a ccept )

4 important for relations with workforce - make available information - (view )

managers salaries

5 unacceptable - modern company - exclude workforce - major decision-making (re9 ard )

6 fundamental principle of company - suppliers of raw m aterials ( ta ke )

- given fair price for products

C o m p le t e t he se n t e n ces w it h an a p pro pria t e i t ... or t h e r e ... p hrase fro m secti o n D o p p osite.

Su g g est alt e r n a t iv es w here p ossible.
1 .!.ts no co in cid e n ce th a t Karlsbad has won the ice hockey to urn a m e nt for th e last thre e
years. It is a very rich club and its trainin g facilities are excelle nt.
2 My co ntact lens m ust have falle n out in th e snow, so of finding it.
3 th a t Julia and Jakub have split up. Everyo ne in the office knows.
4 I kn ow yo ur exam result w asn't good, but ................................................gettin g depressed about it.
5 Your broken arm w ill take so m e tim e to mend, but w hy you
sh o uld n't be playing tennis again by th e su m m er.
6 As th e car ferry isn't running because of the high win ds, but to drive
100 kilo m etres around th e lake.
7 possible to buy tickets at the th e atre. You have to buy th e m online.
8 Bungee jum pin g mig ht be dangerous, but th a t it's very excitin g.

195
Unit |
98 Focusing: it-cla uses and w h a t -cla uses
Focusing with it-clauses
W e can use an i t -cl a use w ith be to focus atte ntio n on th e inform atio n th a t im m e d iately follows
it + (be). A sentence like this is so m etim es calle d a cle ft se n te n ce. The clause after th e i t -cl a use
(usually a t h a t -cl a use) co ntains inform atio n th a t is already known or considered to be less im p ortant:
‘Lea bought the car fro m O lav.' ‘ N o, it w as O l a v th at bought th e car from Lea.'
I d on't mind her criticisin g me, but it's h o w sh e d o es it th a t I o bject to.
O It w as t o sh o w h o w m uch I ca re d f o r her th at I bought her the necklace.

W e so m etim es use w h ic h or w h o instead of t h a t; w h e n and w h e r e can also be used, but usually o nly
in inform al English; and note th a t h o w or w h y ca n't replace t h a t:
Karl w as alw ays there to help her, and it w as t o him th at / who she now turned for sup port.
O ‘Ida's serio usly ill in hospital.' ‘But it w as o n ly last Su n d a y when / t h a t I was playing tennis
w ith her.'
It w as in W a rsa w where / th a t th e film was made.
Q ‘W as it by cuttin g sta ff th a t he managed to save th e firm ?' ‘ N o, it w as by im pro vin g
d ist ri b u ti o n that he mad e it profita ble.' (n o t ... how he made it pro fita ble.)

Focusing with w hat-clauses

We can also use a w h a t -cla use fo llow e d by be to focus atte ntio n on certain inform atio n in a
sentence (= a no th er form of cle ft se n te n ce ) . This pattern is p articularly co m m on in co nversatio n. The
inform atio n we w a n t to focus atte ntio n on is outsid e th e w h a t -cla use . Co m pare:
G W e gave th e m so m e ho m e-m ad e cake, and
W h a t w e g ave t h e m was so m e ho m e-m ad e cake.
W e often do this if w e w a n t to intro duce a new to pic; to give a reason, instructio n or expla natio n; or to
correct so m ethin g th a t has been said or done. In th e fo llowin g exam ples, th e inform atio n in focus is in
italics:
C W h a t I'd lik e y o u t o w o r k on is the revision exercise on the website.
Isa arrived tw o hours late: w h a t ha d ha p p e n e d w as th a t his b icycle chain had broken.
‘W e've o nly g ot this sm all bookcase - w ill t h a t d o?' ‘ N o, w h a t I w as lo o kin g f o r w as
som ething much bigger a nd stronger.'
W e can often put the w h a t -cl a use eith er at the beginning or th e end of th e sentence:
O W h a t u pse t m e m ost w as his rudeness, or
O His rudeness was w h a t u pse t m e m ost.
To focus attentio n on an action p erformed by so m eone, we use a sentence with w h a t + su b jec t + do
+ be + t o -in f in it iv e clause. W e ca n't use an it -cla use to do t his (see A):
G Luis lost his jo b and was sh ort of money, so w h a t he did w as (to) se ll his fla t and m ove in
w ith his brother. (n o t ... so it w as (to) sell his fla t th a t he did.)

The pattern in B is o nly usually used w ith w h a t -cla uses. Instead of placing other w h -cla uses
(beginning ho w, w h e n , w here, w h o , w h y) at the beginning of the sentence w e prefer to use a noun
which has a m eaning related to the w h - w o r d (e.g. re aso n rath er than w h y; p la ce rath er than w h ere)
follow e d by a t h a t - or w h -cla use . Here are so m e exam ples:
O T h e only re aso n (w h y / t h a t) I left th e p arty e arly w as th a t I w as feelin g unwell. (ra therth a n
W h y I left th e p arty early w as ...)
T h e p lace (w he re / t h a t) yo u should play fo o tb all is th e playground, not the classro o m.
Q So m e b o d y (w h o / t h a t) I enjoy reading is Peter Carey.
O T h e t i m e (w he n / t h a t) I w ork best is e arly morning.
E x e rcises
C o m p le t e t h e re w rit t e n se n t e n ces t o f ocus a t t e n ti o n on t h e u n derlin e d in f or m a tio n. St a rt wit h
it + be and use an a p pro pria t e w h - w o r d or t h a t . O
1 Mark's known for ages th a t his parents are coming to stay w ith us t his weekend, but he only told
me yesterd ay. M ark’s known fo r a g es th a t his p arents are coming to sta y with us this weekend,
b u t ... w as only y e s t e r d a y , t iia f c . / when He t o l d ro e,....
2 H elena has been feelin g a bit depressed for so m e tim e, so I booked a holiday in A msterd am to
ch e er her up. H elena has been fe elin g a bit depressed fo r som e time, s o ...
3 It's not th a t I d on't w a n t to have dinner w ith you to night; I ca n't co m e because I've got so much
w ork to d o. It's not that I don’t w ant to have dinner with yo u to n ig h t;...
4 I had my w alle t when I w e n t into th e sp orts hall, so I lost it so m ewhere in th ere. I h ad my w a llet
when I went into the sports hall, s o ...
5 She d oesn't find learning languages very easy, and she improved her Spanish only by studying
very hard. S he doesn't fin d learning languages very easy, a n d . . .
6 I have had a great deal of help from my parents and tw o bro th ers in m y research, and I de dicate
this thesis to my fa m ily. I have had a gre a t deal o f help fro m m y p arents a nd two brothers in doing
my research, a n d ...

W rit e B's resp o nses beginning N o , w h a t correctin g w h a t w as said in A's q u estio n. Use t he
n o t es in brack e ts.
1 a : Did yo u say th a t Rudi was going to live in A ustria? ( holiday / Austria )
b: H o , w hat I said, wets t h a t he was gouag on holiday to... Austria..
2 a : D o you hope to sell y o ur Picasso paintings? (be p u t into / public art ga llery )
b: ............................................................................................................................................................................................................
3 a : Did it annoy yo u th a t Carla cam e so late? ( not apologise )
b: ............................................................................................................................................................................................................
4 a : Did yo u mean to give Ella y o ur bike? ( could borrow it / until needed again )
b: ................................................................................................................................................................

N o w give si m il ar resp o nses w hich f ocus on t h e actio n.

5 a : Did you w atch th e fo o tb all on TV last night? ( get broth er / record it / w atch tonight )
b: N o, wH&fc I d i d yogs ( bo ) geb my br o th e r to r e c o rd it <u r\d. I’l l wftfceh i t to nig h t,
6 a :This steak tastes d elicio us. Did you fry it? ( put oil a nd soy sa uce on / grill)
b :......................................................................................................................................................................................................
7 aDid you buy Megan th e co at she wa nte d? (give / m oney tow ards it)
:
b: ........................................................................................................................................................................................
8 a : Did you fly from Syd ney to Brisbane, ( hire a ca r / drive all the way)
b: .............................................................................................................................................................................................

C o m p le t e B's resp o nses using o ne o f t h e p hrases fro m sect io n C o p p osit e and t he in f or m a tio n
in brack e ts. Put t h e in f or m a tio n in t he right ord er and add an a p pro pria t e f orm o f be.
1 a : I suppose Paul got the jo b because of his q ualificatio ns, ( uncle owns company )

b:Well, actu ally, I think . . . t h e re aso n why / t h a t P a u l got t h e Job wets t h a t h is

u n c le owns t h e com p ony.
2 a: Do yo u kn ow anyone wh o could mend m y c o m p uter? ( might be able / help / Petra )
b: I don't know i f sh e ’s fre e, but ......................................................................................................................................

3 a : You grew up in this villa g e, didn't yo u? ( between this village and next )
b: In f a c t .................................................................................................................................

4 a : In w h a t period of y o ur life do yo u think yo u were hap piest? ( livedA ustra lia )

b: Isu p p o se ..........................................................................................................................................
 Inversion 1
In sta te m e n ts it is usual for th e verb t o fo llo w the su bject, but so m etim es this word order is reversed.
W e can refer to this as inversion. There are tw o main ty p es of inversion: when th e verb co m es before
th e su bject (inversion is often o p tio nal), and when the a uxiliary co m es before th e su bject and the rest
of the verb phrase follo ws the su bject (inversion is usually n ecessary):
A lex st o o d in the d o orway. —» In the d o orway st o o d A lex. ( or ... A lex sto o d.)
O I had rarely se e n such a view. —> Rarely ha d I se e n such a view. (not Rarely I had seen ...)
Inversion brings ab o ut fron ting, th e re-ordering of inform atio n in a se nte nce to give e m p hasis in a
p articular place. O fte n this causes an ele m ent to be postponed until later in th e sentence, focusing
attentio n on it.

In co nversation we use H ere co m es + n ou n and T h e re g o es + nou n, with inversion of verb and

su bject, to talk ab o ut thin gs and people moving towards or a w ay from th e speaker:
H ere co m es th e bus.
O T h e r e g o es Per Alvin, th e conductor.
H ere co m es ... is also used to say th a t so m ethin g is going to happen so on, and T h e re g o es ... is used
to talk ab o ut things (p articularly m o ney) being lost and to say th a t so m ethin g (such as a phone or
door bell) is ringing:
H er e co m es lunch.
My bike's been stolen! T h e r e g o es £100!
T h e re g o es th e phone. Can yo u a nsw er it?

W e also put th e verb before the su bject when we use adverbs expressing directio n of m ove m ent, such
as alo n g, a w a y, b ack, d o w n, in, of f, o u t, up with verbs such as co m e, fly , go. This pattern is found
p articularly in narrative, to m ark a change in events:
Th e door opened and in ca m e th e doctor. (less form a lly ... and the d octor cam e in.)
As soon as I let go of th e string, up w e n t t h e b allo o n, high into th e sky. (less form a lly ... the
balloon w e n t up ...)
For more on inversion after adverbs of place and directio n, see U nit 76A.

W e can use clauses w ith inversion instead of certain kinds of if -cla use (see Unit 83). Co m pare:

It w ould be a serious setb ack, if the talks It would be a serious setback, w e re the talks
w e re t o fail. t o fail.

If yo u should n ee d more inform atio n, please Sh o u ld yo u n ee d more inform atio n, please

tele phone our main office. telephone our main office.

If A ndy had ask e d, I would have been able H a d A ndy ask e d, I wo uld have been able to
to help. help.

The sentences with inversion are rath er more fo rm al than those with ‘i f . N ote t h a t in ne gative clauses
with inversion, we d on't use co ntracte d forms:
H a d the pla ne n o t b ee n d iv ert e d, th ey would have arrived early, ( not H adn't the plane ...)

In form al writte n language we co m m o nly use inversion after as and t h a n in co m parisons:

Paper was invented in China, as was t h e p r o cess o f prin ting.
O M ost young people did not vo te in the electio n, as was t h e case in 2010.
I believe d, as did m y co lle a g u es, th a t the plan would work.
Research sh o ws th at parents w atch more televisio n t h a n do t h e ir ch ildre n.

N ote th a t w e d on't invert su bject and verb after as or t h a n when th e subject is a pronoun:
W e now kn ow a lot more ab o ut th e universe t h a n we did ten ye ars ago. ( n o t ... than did we
P HpJPl
ten y ears ago.)

198
Exercises
H 2i C o m p le t e th e se n t e n c es w it h an a p pro pria te a dverb and a fo rm o f e it h e r c o m e or g o.
1 We'd just got to th e top of th e hill when th e rain and we got soaked.
2 Just when y o u ’ve bought a co m puter th at yo u think w ill last a lif e t im e ,..................................... some
new so ftware th a t needs an even bigger hard drive.
3 W h en ever I ask th e class a q u estio n , th eir hands and th ey sit p atie n tly until I
choose one of th e m to answer.
4 I asked Ryan to get thre e kilos of p otatoes from th e su p erm arket and he only bought one kilo, so
he to get so me more.
5 A fter I'd been waitin g for an hour, th e door opened and th e nurse, wh o said the
d entist would be able to see me now.
6 I'd lost hope of gettin g the cat out of th e tree, when a man with a ladder.
7 As soon as I'd given Daisy so m e pocket money, she to buy sw e ets.

M atch th e se nte nc e halves and w rit e n e w se nte nc es beginning W ere Sh o u ld or H a d . . . .

1 If Kahn had not resigned as p arty leader, ... it would cut th e jo urn e y tim e from N ew York
2 If yo u do not wish to receive furth er to Tokyo by fo ur hours,
inform atio n about our pro ducts, ... there are less exp ensive m o dels in th e range.
3 If the plane were ever to be b uilt, ... he w o uld have been-sacked.
4 If th e ice hockey tea m wins again to d ay, ... I would have no hesitatio n in acce pting,
5 If I were offered th e jo b, ... he would be writin g novels ab o ut the
6 If a car had been coming the oth er w ay, ... ho m eless in London.
7 If there had been a referendum on th e issue, it is unlikely th a t the electorate would have
8 If yo u are not able to afford th e SXL3, ... sup ported th e g overn m ent,
9 If Charles Dickens were alive t o d a y,... it w ill be th eir te nth co nsecutive victory,
click on th e box below.
I mig ht have been serio usly injured.
1+c Haui KflJin nob resigned as party leader > he would, have been socked,.
r? n Re p ort th e in fo rm a tio n in th e t a b le . W rit e t hre e se n t e n c es using se n te n c e fra m e (i) and thre e
usin g se n te nc e fra m e (ii).
H ousehold exp en diture (% of to tal incom e)

Housing Food and drink Clo thin g Transp ort Recreation

Europe 1970 22 12 3 8 10
A m erica 1970 15 14 2 6 12
Europe To day 17 8 5 12 9
A m erica To day 16 15 3 7 13

(i) Europe a ns / A m ericans sp e n d / spen t m o re / le ss of th eir incom e on ... to d a y / in 1970 than

do / did Europeans / A mericans
1 A m ericans spend, more o f th e ir income pn..ifopd,...<^dL. drin k t o d ay t h a n d^ Euro p e a ns.
(ii) Europe a ns/ A m ericans sp e n d / spen t m o re / le ss of th eir incom e on ... than on ... toda y / in
1970, as is / w a s th e case toda y / in 1970.

Re w rit e t h ese se n t e n c es w it h a sim ila r m e anin g using as or t h a n + b e or d o.

1 I was opposed to the new road. Everyo ne else in the villag e was opposed to it, to o.
opposed,. t o ..th e ..n e w . r o a d , a s w as everyo ne e ls e In t h e vilU t g e,
2 Kam al w e n t to O xford U niversity. His sister w e n t there, to o. Ka m al w e n t...
3 Com pared with people in developed nations, people in poorer co untries co nsum e a far sm aller
pro portion of th e earth's resources. People in poorer co u n tries...
4 Com pared to five years ago, he is a much b etter te acher. H e i s ...
5 Dan is a keen golfer. His wife is a keen golfer, too. Dan i s ...

A d d itio n a l exe rcise 16 (page 250) 199

Unit
100 Inversion 2
Inversion after negative adverbials
In form al and literary language in particular, we use ne gative adverbials at the beginning of a clause.
The subject and first a uxiliary are inverte d, and do is used with a sim ple tense verb after -
tV the tim e adverbials n ever (before), rarely, seldo m; b arely / hardly / scarce ly ... w hen / before; no
so o n er ... than:
C Seld o m do we hav e goods returned to us because th ey are faulty.
O H a r d ly ha d everybody t a k e n th eir seats when Dr Lee began her lecture.
o nly + a ti m e ex pression, as in o nly af ter, o nly la ter, o nly if, o nly once, o nly t he n, o nly when:
O She bought a newsp ap er and so m e milk at th e shop on th e corner. O n l y la t e r did she re alise
th a t she'd been given the wrong change.
O n l y w h e n sh e a p o lo g ises w ill / sp e a k to her again.
o nly + other prepositional phrases beginning o nly by ..., o nly in ..., o nly wit h ..., etc.:
O n l y b y ch a n ce ha d C arl d isco v ere d where th e birds were nesting.
Maria had to w ork in th e evenings. O n l y in t h is w a y w as she a b le t o c o m p le t e th e report.
expressions such as a t no ti me, in no w ay, on no acco un t, u nder / in no circu mst ances:
O A t n o t i m e did they a ctu ally brea k th e rules of th e game.
Q U n d er no circ u m st a n c es are passengers p er m it t e d to open th e doors th e mselves.
expressions with n o t ..., such as n ot only, not until, not since, not f or one m o m e n t and also not a +
noun:
O N o t u n til A u g ust did the govern m ent o rd er an inquiry into the accid ent.
G N o t a w o rd ha d she w ri t t e n since the exam had starte d.
li t tle with a negative meaning:
Lit t le do they k n o w how lucky th ey are to live in such a w o n d erful house. (= ‘th e y d on't
know' or ‘t h ey d on't kn ow su fficie n tly')

N ote th a t inversion can occur after a clause beginning o n ly a f t e r / if / w h e n or n o t u ntil:

O n l y w h e n t h e fa m in e g e ts w o rse w ill world govern m ents begin to act.
O N o t u n til t h e t ra in p u lle d in t o t h e st a t i o n did Miguel find th a t his co at had gone.

Inversion after so + adjective ... th at; such + be ... th at; neither ... / nor ...
W e can use so + a d je ct iv e at th e beginning of a clause t o em p hasise th e a djective. W h en w e do this,
th e su bject and first a uxiliary are inverte d, and do is used w ith a sim ple tense verb:
G So su cc essf u l was he r b usin ess, t h a t Lana w as able to retire at th e age of 50.
So d a n g er o us did w e a t h e r co n d it io ns becom e, th a t all m o untain roads were closed.
W e can use such + be at th e beginning of a clause to em p hasise th e exte n t or degree of so m ethin g:
O Such is t h e p o p u la rit y of th e play t h a t th e th eatre is lik ely to be full every night.

W e use inversion after n eit h e r and n or when th ese words begin a clause to intro duce a negative
addition to a previous ne gative clause or se ntence:
G For so me tim e after th e explosion Jack co uld n't hear, and n e it h e r could he see.
Th e co uncil never wante d the new su p erm arket to be b uilt, n or did l o c a l resid e n ts.

N ote th a t w e also use inversion in N e i t h e r / N o r do I, N e i t h e r / N or d o es D ia n e (e tc.) and in So do I,

So d o es M aya (e tc.).
E x e rcises
Re writ e t h e se n t e n ces w it h a si m ilar m eanin g beginning w it h a w ord / p hrase fro m t he box. ©
o n ly if b ar ely o n ly w i t h r a r e ly a t no t i m e li t t l e

1 A new film has not often before produced such p ositive reviews.
R a re ly Ha.s (K new film pro duced, su c h p ositive re vie w s .
2 The public w as never in any danger.
3 He only felt en tirely relaxed with close friends and fa m ily.
4 The m atch w o n't be cancelle d unless th e pitch is frozen.
5 I didn't kn ow then th at Carm en and i would be marrie d one day.
6 He had only just entered the w a ter when it becam e clear he co uld n't swim.

N o w do t h e sa m e using t h ese w ords and p hrases. Q

o n ly o nce o n ly in on no acc o u n t h ar d ly n o t o n ly not for one m o m ent

7 You m ust not light the fire if yo u are alone in the house.
8 There w as never a ny rivalry b etween th e thre e brothers.
9 I w asn't only w e t through, I w as freezing cold.
10 I had o nly ever clim b ed this high once before.
11 The audience had only just taken th eir seats when the co n d uctor stepped onto th e stage.
12 He has only been acknowled g ed to be a great a uth or in th e last few years.

ewf%C o m p le t e t h ese se n t e n ces in a n y a p pro pria t e w a y using t h e w ords fro m t h e b ox.

alik e b orin g c o m p lica t e d d o m in a nce in t e r est str e n g t h

1 S u c h is. t h e i n t e r e st ir> p r Lowe’s t a lk th a t it w ill be held in a bigger lecture th eatre.

2 Such .............................................................................................................. th a t fe w buildings were left standing.
3 Such th a t she h asn't lost a m atch for over thre e years.
4 S o ................................................................................................. th a t even th eir parents co uld n't te ll th e m a part.
5 So th a t it even to o k a co m p uter thre e days to solve it.
6 So ....................................................................................................... th a t m ost of th e stu d ents w e n t to sleep.

C o rr ect a n y m ist a k es in t h is n e ws art icle. C B E S E 3 0 E E I

NEWS

TOWN EVACUATED AS FOREST FIRES APPROACH

The people of Sawston were evacuated yesterday as forest fires headed towards the town. Such the
heat was of the oncoming inferno that trees more than 100 metres ahead began to smoulder. Only once
in recent years, during 2004, a town of this size has had to be evacuated because of forest fires. A fleet
of coaches and lorries arrived in the town in the early morning. Into these vehicles the sick and elderly
climbed, before they headed off to safety across the river. Residents with cars left by mid morning, as
all non-essential police officers did.
Hardly the evacuation had been completed when the wind changed direction and it became clear that
the fire would leave Sawston untouched. Soon after that were heard complaints from some residents.
‘At no time the fires posed a real threat,’ said one local man. ‘I didn’t want to leave my home, and nor
most of my neighbours did.’ So upset some elderly residents are that they are threatening to complain
to their MR But Chief Fire Officer Jo n es replied, ‘Hadn’t we taken this action, lives would have been put
at risk. Only when the fires have moved well away from the town residents will be allowed to return to
their hom es.’

A d d itio n a l e xe rcise 16 (page 25 0) 201

 Appendix 1
Irregular verbs
bare infinitive past simple past participle bare infinitive past simple past participle
( -ed form ) ( -ed form )
a rise arose arisen fin d found found
awake awoke awoken fit1 fit fit
be was / were been fl e e fled fled
b ea r bore borne flin g flung flung
beat beat beaten fly flew flown
b eco m e became become f or bi d forbade2 forbidden
b egin began begun f o r e c a st 1 forecast forecast
bend bent bent forg et forgot forgotten
bet bet bet f o r g iv e forgave forgiven
bind bound bound fr e e z e froze frozen
b it e bit bitten get got got
blee d bled bled give gave given
blo w blew blown go went gone
bre a k broke broken gro w grew grown
brin g brought brought hang1 hung hung
b r o a d cast broadcast broadcast h a ve had had
b uild built built hear heard heard
b urn1 burnt burnt hid e hid hidden
b u rst burst burst hit hit hit
buy bought bought h old held held
c ast cast cast hurt hurt hurt
ca tch caught caught k ee p kept kept
c h o ose chose chosen k n e e l1 knelt knelt
clin g clung clung k nit1 knit knit
co m e came come know knew known
c o st cost cost la y laid laid
cr e e p crept crept le a d led led
cut cut cut le a n1 leant leant
d eal dealt dealt le a p1 leapt leapt
dig dug dug le a r n 1 learnt learnt
div e dived dived le a v e left left
do did done le n d lent lent
draw drew drawn le t let let
drea m 1 dreamt dreamt lie 4 lay lain
d rin k drank drunk li g h t 1 lit lit
driv e drove driven l ose lost lost
d w e ll1 dwelt dwelt make made made
eat ate eaten mean meant meant
f a ll fell fallen meet met met
feed fed fed mow3 mowed mown
feel felt felt pay paid paid
fi g h t fought fought pro v e proved proven

202
 Appendix 1

bare infinitive past simple past participle bare infinitive past simple past participle
( -ed form ) ( -edform )
put put put sp in spun spun / span
q u it quit quit sp it spat spat
rea d read5 read5 sp li t split split
rid e rode ridden sp o il1 spoilt spoilt
ring rang rung sp re a d spread spread
rise rose risen sp rin g sprang sprung
ru n ran run st a n d stood stood
sa w 3 sawed sawn st e al stole stolen
sa y said said st ic k stuck stuck
se e saw seen stin g stung stung
se e k sought sought sti n k stank stunk
se ll sold sold st ri k e struck struck
se n d sent sent st ri v e strove striven
se t set set sw e ar swore sworn
se w 3 sewed sewn sw e e p swept swept
sh a k e shook shaken s w e ll3 swelled swollen
sh e a r 3 sheared shorn sw i m swam swum
sh e d shed shed sw in g swung swung
sh in e shone shone take took taken

sh o o t shot shot te ach taught taught

sh o w showed shown tear tore torn

sh rin k shrank shrunk t e ll told told

sh u t shut shut t h in k thought thought

sing sang sung thro w threw thrown

si n k sank sunk t h r u st thrust thrust

si t sat sat trea d trod trodden

sl e e p slept slept u n d e rst a n d understood understood

slid e slid slid w ak e1 woke woken

slin g slung slung w ear wore worn

s m e ll1 sm elt sm elt w eave1 wove woven

so w 3 sowed sown weep wept wept

sp e a k spoke spoken w e t1 w et wet

sp e e d 1 sped sped w in won won

s p e ll1 spelt spelt w in d wound wound

sp e n d spent spent w rin g wrung wrung

s p ill1 spilt spilt w ri t e wrote writte n

1These verbs have tw o past sim ple and tw o past participle forms, both th e ones given and regular forms
(e.g. burn; burnt / burned; burnt / burned).
2 'forbad' is also so m etim es used, but is old fashioned.
3 These verbs have tw o past participle forms, th e one given and a regular form (e.g. m ow; m owe d; m own /
m ow e d).
4 W hen lie m eans ‘d elib erately to say so m ethin g untrue' it is regular (‘lie / lied / lie d').
5 Pronounce d /red / .

203
 Appendix 2
Passive verb forms
If an agent is m entione d, it goes in a pre p ositio nal phrase with by after the verb (see also U nit 24).
Present simple
A ctive: t e ll(s) John t e lls me th a t y o u ’re thinkin g o f leaving.
Passive: a m / is / are t o ld I'm t o ld (by John) th a t yo u're thinkin g of leaving.
Past simple
A ctive: t o ld John t o ld me th at you were leaving.
Passive: w as / w e re t o ld 1 w as t o ld (by John) th a t yo u were leaving.
Present p erfe ct
A ctive: have / has t old John has t o ld me th a t yo u are leaving.
Passive: have / has b ee n t o ld 1 hav e b ee n t o ld (by Jo hn) th at yo u are leaving.
Past p erfe ct
A ctive: ha d t o ld John ha d already t o ld me th a t yo u were leaving.
Passive: had b ee n t o ld 1 ha d already b ee n t o ld (by John) th a t yo u were leaving.
Present continuous
A ctive: a m / is / are t elli n g John is alw ays t e llin g me th a t yo u are leaving.
Passive: a m / is / are being t o ld 1a m alw ays being t o ld (by John) th a t yo u are leaving.
Past continuous
A ctive: w as / w e re t e lli n g John w as alw ays t e llin g me th a t yo u were leaving.
Passive: w as / w e re b eing t o ld 1w as alw ays b eing t o ld (by Jo hn) th a t yo u were leaving.
Future simple
A ctive: w ill t e ll 1w ill t e ll John th a t yo u are leaving.
Passive: w ill be t o ld John w ill be t o ld (by me) th a t yo u are leaving.
Future p erfe ct
A ctive: w ill hav e t o ld By t o m orro w 1w ill ha v e t o ld John th a t you are leaving.
Passive: w ill hav e b ee n t o ld By t o m orro w John w ill ha v e b ee n t o ld (by me) th a t yo u are
leaving.
Present p erfe ct continuous (rare in the passive )
A ctive: has / ha v e b ee n t e lli n g John has b een t elli n g me for ages th a t yo u are leaving.
Passive: h as / ha v e b ee n being t o ld 1 hav e b ee n b eing t o ld (by Jo hn) for ages th a t yo u are leaving.

M o d al v er bs w it h p assi v es
A ctive: sh o uld / co uld / m ig h t / o u g h t t o (etc.) t e ll You sh o ul d t e ll John.
Passive: sh o uld / co u ld / mi g h t / o u g h t t o (etc.) be t o ld John sh o uld be t old.
A ctive: sh o ul d / co uld / m ig h t / o u g h t t o (etc.) hav e t o ld You sh o uld ha v e t o ld Jo hn.
Passive: sh o ul d / co uld / m ig h t / o u g h t t o (etc.) hav e b ee n t old John sh o uld ha v e b ee n t old .
A ctive: sh o uld / co uld / m i g h t / o u g h t t o (etc.) have You sh o ul d hav e b een
b ee n t ellin g t ellin g John w hile 1was outsid e.
Passive: sh o uld / co uld / m ig h t / o u g h t t o (e tc.) have been John sh o ul d hav e b ee n being
being t o ld t o ld w hile 1w as outsid e.
O th er passive verb forms are very rare.

204
 Glossary
act iv e
In an active clause or active se nte nce, the gra m m atical subject is th e person or thing th at p erforms the
actio n given in th e verb (e.g. Dan wrote th e book). Co m pare p a s s i v e .
a d je ctiv e
A word th a t describ es a noun (e.g. an interesting book) or a pronoun (e.g. a re d o n e). G r a d a b l e a d je ct iv es
can be used to say th at a person or thin g has more or less of this q uality (e.g. She's very happy ) , w hile n on-
g ra d a b le a d je c t iv es ca n't (e.g. It's im possible. W e ca n't say ‘It's very im p ossible'). C l assif y in g a d je ct iv es
say th a t so m ethin g is of a p articular typ e (e.g. a tom ic, initial) . Em p h asisin g a d je ct iv es stress how stron gly
w e fe el ab o ut so m ethin g (e.g. co m plete nonsense). Q u a li t a t iv e a d je ct iv es say w h a t qualities a person or
thing has (e.g. big, rich ) . See also gra din g a d v e r b s and n o n-gra din g a d v e r b s .
a d je ct iv e p hrase
A group of words wh ere the main word is an adjective (e.g. it's extre m ely important ] it wasn't strong enough ).
a d v er b
A word th at describ es or gives more inform atio n (when, how, wh ere, etc.) about a verb (e.g. He ran quickly ) ,
adjective (e.g. an extre m ely exp ensive car), ano th er adverb (e.g. She did it very e asily), or phrase (e.g. They
live ju st across th e road.). Typ es of adverb include: a d v er bs o f m a n n e r (e.g. slow ly, violently ) which we
use to say how so m ethin g is done; co n n ecti n g a d v er bs (e.g. conseguently, similarly )] t im e a d v er bs (e.g.
tom orrow, already)] p lace a d v er bs (e.g. upstairs, outside )] dire ct io n a d v er bs (e.g. backwards, through)]
c o m m e n t a d v er bs (e.g. a pparently, person a lly ) which we use to make a co m m e nt on w h at we are saying;
v ie w p o in t a d v er bs (e.g. fin a ncia lly, politica lly ) which we use to make clear from w h a t point of vie w w e are
speaking; a d v er bs o f in d e fin it e f r e q u e n cy (e.g. always, never)] d e gree a d v er bs (e.g. co m pletely, quite )
which give inform atio n about the exte n t or degree of so m ethin g; f o cus a d v er bs ( e.g. ju st, even ) which we
use to focus on a p articular word or phrase. Gra d in g a d v er bs (e.g. extrem ely, very) are used w ith g ra d a b le
a d j e c t i v e s . N o n -g ra din g a d v er bs (e.g. co m pletely, mainly ) are used with n o n - g ra d a b le a d j e c t i v e s .

a d v er b ia l
A word or group of words th a t says wh en, how, where, etc. so m ethin g happens. Th ey m ay co nsist of an
a d v e r b (e.g. quietly ) , a p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e (e.g. through the door ) , a n o u n p h r a s e (e.g. next week ) , or an

a d v e r b i a l c l a u s e (e.g. a fter she left ) .

a d v er b ial cla use

A typ e of su b o rd in a t e c l a u s e th at says wh en, how, where, etc. so m ethin g hap pens (e.g. Before I went to
school this morning, I did my ho m ew ork).
a f f ir m a t iv e se n t e n ce
A sta te m e n t (i.e. not a question) th a t is p ositive, not negative,

agent
The person or thin g th a t p erforms the actio n described in a verb. Usu ally it is the su bject in an active clause
and co m es after ‘by ...' in a passive clause.

a r t icle
The word the is the d e fin it e a r t icle and th e word a ( an before vo w els) is th e in d e fin it e a rt icle . W hen there
is no article before a noun w e refer to this as th e zero a rt icle.
a u x iliary v er bs
The verbs be, have and do when th ey are used with a main verb to form questions, neg atives, tenses, passive
forms, etc. m o d a l v e r b s are also a uxiliary verbs.

205
 Glossary

cl a use
A group of words th at co ntains a verb. A clause m ay be a co m plete sente nce or a part of a se nte nce. A m ain
cla use can exist as a se parate se nte nce, w hile a su b o rd in a t e cla use cannot (e.g. If I see M a tt a t work [=
sub ordinate clause], I'll invite him over this evening [= main clause]). Types of clause include: t o -in fin it iv e
cla use (e.g. To becom e a d octor takes years of stu dy); p rese n t p ar ticiple(-in g) cl a use (e.g. Feeling hungry,
I w e n t into the kitch en); p ast p ar ticip le (-ed) cl a use (e.g. Built during the 79 70s, the building is now in
need of repair); being + p ast p ar ticip le (-ed) cla use (e.g. Being unem ployed, Tom had a lot of tim e on his
hands); havin g + p ast p ar ticip le (-ed) cla use (e.g. Having seen the doctor, I w e n t straig ht h o m e). See also
C O N D IT I O N A L C L A U S E , R EL A T IV E C L A U S E .

cl e f t se n t e n ce
A sente nce in which focus is given to eith er th e su bject or o bject using a pattern beginning ‘I t ...' (e.g. It was
m y bro th er wh o lent me the m o ney) or ‘W h a t ( e . g . W h a t yo u need is a h olid ay).

c o m p le m e n t
A word or phrase th a t fo llo ws a l i n k i n g v e r b and describ es the s u b j e c t (e.g. Linda is a la wyer) or o b j e c t (e.g. I
found th e food inedible ) . A co m ple m ent m ay also be an a d v e r b i a l or p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e which co m pletes
the m eaning of a verb. Som e verbs need a co m ple m ent (e.g. The disease originated in Britain-, ‘The disease
originate d' would be inco m plete).

co m p o u n d
A co m p o u n d n o u n co nsists of tw o or more words to g ether used as a noun (e.g. a language school ) . A
co m p o u n d a d je ct iv e co nsists of tw o or m ore words to g e ther used as an a djective (e.g. Th ey were well-
beh aved ) .
co n d it io n al
A c o n d it io n a l cl a use usually starts with ‘if’, but oth er patterns are possible (e.g. H a d it not rained, Spain
would have w o n). A co n d it io n a l se n t e n ce co ntains a co n ditio nal clause. A distinctio n can be made
b etween real co n d it io n als, which sugg est th a t the situatio n is or w as true, or m ay have been or may
beco me true (e.g. If she makes a pro mise, she keeps it) and u n re al co n d it io n als, which suggest th at th e
situatio n is im aginary or untrue (e.g. If you had asked me, I w o uld have helped).
co n ju ncti o n
A word such as and, but, if, while, a fter, because which co nnects words, phrases, or clauses in a se ntence.
Co m pare s e n t e n c e c o n n e c t o r .

co u n t a b le
A co u n t a b le n ou n can be both singular and plural (e.g. cup / cups) . An u n co u n t a b le n ou n d o esn't have a
plural form (e.g. electricity, but not ‘e le ctricities').

d e t e r m in e r
A word th a t goes in front of a noun to id entify w h a t th e noun refers to (e.g. this, som e, the, a / a n , each, all,
my ). P ossessiv e d e t e r m in e rs (also calle d p ossessiv e a d je ctiv es) are words such as my, y o u r and their.
d irect sp e ech
Speech th at is writte n using the exact words of th e speaker, w ith o u t any chang es. Co m pare r ep o r ted

speec h .

im p era tiv e
An i m p e ra t iv e cl a use uses the b are in f in it iv e form of a verb for such things as giving ord ers and making
suggestions (e.g. C o to bed!) .
in f initive
The form of a verb th a t usually goes after ‘to'. The form can be eith er the t o -in fin it iv e (e.g. to sing, to eat)
or the b are in f initive (e.g. sing, e a t ) .
in t ra nsit iv e verb
A verb th a t d o esn't take an o bject (e.g. She sm iled ) . Co m pare t r a n s it iv e v e r b .

206
 Glossary

in v ersio n
Changing th e usual word order so th at th e verb co m es before the su bject (e.g. Up w ent the balloon ) .
lin kin g verb
A verb (e.g. be, becom e, appear) th a t co nn ects a s u b je c t with its c o m p lem e n t .

m o d a l ver bs
A group of verbs (can, could, may, might, m ust, ought to, sh all, should, will, would ) th a t give inform atio n
ab out such thin gs as p ossibility, necessity, and oblig ation. Se m i- m o d a l v er bs ( used to, need, dare, had
better, have ( got ) to, be able to ) have sim ilar m eanings to m o dal verbs.
n o n - a f fir m a ti v e
Referring to a lack of p ositive, a ffirm a tive m eaning; for exam ple, in m ost questio ns and neg atives. H owever,
questio ns which exp ect a p ositive reply are affirm ative. The terms 'n o n-assertive' and 'assertive' are
so m etim es used for 'n o n -affirm ative' and ‘a ffirm a tiv e ’.
no un
A word th a t refers to a person, place, thing, q uality, etc. A c o lle c t iv e n ou n refers to a group of people or
thin gs (e.g. a udience, crowd, herd ) . See also c o u n t a b l e n o u n .

n o u n p hrase
A group of words where the main word is a noun (e.g. I've been talkin g to the woman across the roa d ; We
spoke to severa l sm all children ) .

o b ject
The d irect o b je ct is the person or thing affecte d by the actio n of th e verb (e.g. I put the book [= direct
object] back on th e sh elf). The in d irect o b je ct is the person or thing wh o benefits from th e actio n or who
receives so m ethin g (e.g. I gave my m other [= indirect object] so m e flo w ers [= direct o bject]). Co m pare
s u b je c t .

p ar ticip le
The prese n t p ar ticip le is the -ing f o r m of a verb (e.g. walking, singing, eating ) used, for exam ple, in
co ntinuous tenses. The p ast p ar ticip le is th e -ed form of a verb (e.g. walked, sang, eaten ) used, for exam ple,
in perfect tenses. A p ar ticip le a d ject iv e is one formed from th e present or past participle of a verb (e.g. the
candidates applying, a broken plate). A p ar ticip le cla use has a present participle or past participle verb form
(e.g. Feeling unwell, he w e nt to bed; The person a ppointed to the post w ill have a difficult jo b to do).

p ar ticle
An adverb or pre position th a t follo ws a verb in t w o - w o r d v e r b s and t h r e e - w o r d v e r b s (e.g. W h a t tim e did
you g e t in? [in = adverb]; I flick e d through th e magazine [through = pre position]; She looks up to her m o ther
[up = adverb, to = pre position]).

p assiv e
In a passive clause or passive sente nce, th e gra m m atical subject is the person or thing th at exp eriences the
effect of th e actio n given in th e verb (e.g. The book was writte n by Dan). Co m pare a c t i v e .

p er f o r m a t iv e
A p erform ative is a verb which states th e actio n th at is performed when a speaker uses th e verb (e.g. I
prom ise I'll do it to m orro w; I a pologise ) .
p h rasa l verb
A verb to g e ther with a followin g adverb and / o r a pre position th at has a single m eaning (e.g. se t off, look up
to ) . Co m pare ‘I ran across Tanya at th e co ncert' (= m et un exp ecte dly; a phrasal verb) and ‘She ran a cross the
road' ( = a p r e p o s i t i o n a l v e r b ) .

p ossessiv e
The possessive form of a noun ends in e it h e r -'s (e.g. Marta's car) or -s' (e.g. the girls' changing roo m),

p re p osit io n
A word such as in, on, or by th a t co m es before a noun, pronoun, noun phrase or -ing form (e.g. in March,
above my uncle's head, by investing).
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 Glossary

p re p osi ti o n al p hrase
A group of words th at co nsists of a p r e p o s i t i o n and its p re p osi ti o n al o b ject (a noun, pronoun, noun phrase
or -ing form) (e.g. behind our house, across it ) .

p re p osi ti o n al verb
A verb and a followin g preposition (e.g. believe in, consist of, look a fter ) . Co m pare ph r a sa l v e r b .

pron o un
A word th a t is used instead of a noun or noun phrase. Pronouns include p e rso n a l pro n o u ns (e.g. I, she, m e ) ,
re fle xiv e pro n o u ns (e.g. myself, herself ) , p ossessiv e p ro n o u ns (e.g. m in e,yours ) , and r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n s
(e.g. who, which ).
q u a n ti fie r
A word or phrase th at goes before a noun or noun phrase to talk about th e q u an tity o f so m ethin g (e.g. a
little w ater, m any o f th e wo m en in the ro o m).
q u est io n
A w h - q u est io n begins with a w h - w o r d (e.g. Where are yo u going? ) . A y es / no q u est io n is one th a t can be
answere d with 'yes' or ‘no’ (e.g. Do yo u like co ffe e? ) . An ech o q u est io n rep eats part of a previous utterance
and asks for a rep etition of all or part of it (e.g. T m moving to Alaska.' 'You're moving w here?') . W e can
ask an in d irect q u est io n by putting it into a su b o rd in a t e c l a u s e beginning w ith a w h - w o r d or with i f or
whether (e.g. Can you te ll me where yo u live? ) .
r e la t iv e cla use
A kind of su b o rd in a t e c l a u s e th at describ es a noun th a t co m es before it in a m ain c l a u s e . A d e finin g
rela t iv e cla use says which person or thin g is being talked about (e.g. A friend who lives in L ondon is getting
m arrie d). A n o n-d e fi nin g rela t iv e cl a use gives more inform atio n ab out the noun (e.g. My bicycle, which
I've le ft outside y o u r house, is over 20 ye ars old). A n o m in al r e la t iv e cla use begins with a w h - w o r d or
wh atever, whenever, etc. and functio ns as a n o u n p h r a s e in a sente nce (e.g. What I need now is a long, hot
bath). A re d uce d rela t iv e cl a use usually begins with an -ing (present participle) or -ed (past participle)
form and has a sim ilar m eaning to a relative clause (e.g. I m et th e people living in our old house [ = ... who
live in our old house], The new rules o nly affect people born before 1960 [= ... who were born before 1960]).
rela t iv e pro n o u n
A pronoun such as who, which, or that which is used at th e beginning of a relative clause,
r ela ti v e w o rd
W ords including r e l a t iv e p r o n o u n s and others (e.g. whereby, why ) th a t can begin a r e l a t iv e c l a u s e .

re p o rt e d sp eech
Speech th a t is reported w ith o u t using the exact words of the speaker. So m etim es calle d ‘indirect speech',
re p orti n g cla use & re p ort e d cla use
A sta te m e n t th at reports w h a t people think or say is often divided into a re p orti n g cla use and a re p ort e d
cla use (e.g. S he sa id [ = reporting clause] th a t the building was unsafe [= reported clause]).
re p ortin g verb
A verb used in a r ep o r t in g c l a u se th a t describ es w h a t people say or think (e.g. ask, claim, say ) .
se n t e n ce co n n e ct o r
A word or phrase th a t sh ows a co nnectio n b etween tw o se parate sente nces (e.g. My car isn't very
co m forta ble. H owever, it's very chea p to run.; The house is large and has a b eautiful garden. What's more,
it ’s very close to the sta tio n.). Co m pare c o n j u n c t i o n .
st a t e verb
A verb th a t is used to d escrib e a state (e.g. believe, think ) ra th erth a n an actio n,

su b ject
The person or thin g th a t does the action of the verb (e.g. Luca w e n t hom e). Co m pare o b je c t .

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 Glossary

su b ju n cti v e
The su bjunctive is a set of verb forms used m ainly in rath er form al English to talk about p ossibilities
rath er than facts. The p rese n t su b ju n ct iv e uses th e base form of th e verb (e.g. W e suggest th a t she leave
im m e dia tely) and the p ast su b ju n cti v e uses were (e.g. If I were yo u, I'd go hom e now).

t r a nsi t iv e verb
A verb th a t takes an o bject (e.g. She was holding a bunch of flo w ers). Co m pare in t r a n s it iv e v e r b .

t w o - w o r d v er bs & t h r e e - w o r d v er bs
Verbs th at are co m m o nly used with a p articular p a r t i c l e (adverb or pre positio n) are referred to here as t w o -
w o rd v er bs (e.g. She looked a fter her eld erly parents). Verbs th at are co m m o nly used with tw o particular
p articles (adverb + pre position) are referred to here as t h r e e - w o r d v er bs (e.g. He looked up to his old er
bro thers). See also p r e p o s i t i o n a l v e r b and p h r a s a l v e r b .

verb
A f in it e verb has a tense (e.g. She w a ited ; She is waiting for yo u). N o n - fin it e verb forms are i n f i n i t i v e (e.g.
He cam e to see me) and p a r t i c i p l e forms (e.g. S houting loudly, I was able to make m yself heard; Built in
2011, th e t o w er is still th e t a llest co nstructio n in Euro pe).

v er b p hrase
A group of w ords co nsistin g of one or m ore verbs (e.g. gives, is giving, has been giving ).

w h - w o r ds
A group of words ( who, whom, whose, where, when, why, how ) th a t are used in w h - Q U ES T io N S .

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 Study planner
Use this stu dy planner if you need help in deciding which units yo u should stu dy, or which part of the
Gra m m ar rem inder yo u should read first.
W hich of the fo ur m ultiple-choice options, A, B, C or D, co m pletes the se ntences in th e correct or m ost likely
w ay? So m etim es more than one option is possible. If you are not sure which o ptions are correct, you may
need to stu dy any related sections of th e Gram m ar reminder first and then the corresponding unit(s) listed on
the right in th e ta ble below. You w ill find the full correct version of each sentence eith er in the section of the
Gram m ar rem inder or in th e unit highlighted.

We to the tennis club since w e moved here.

A have belonged B belong C belonged D are belonging
A fter she
A leaves

W hen he realised I at him, he away.

A looked ... was turnin g B was looking ... turned
C was looking ... was turnin g D looked ... turned
1.9 W hen the builders were here I th e m cups of tea all
the tim e.
A was making B am making C made D make

1.10 W hen I w e n t into th e bathro o m, I found th a t the bath.

A overflo ws B overflowed C had overflowe d

D is overflo win g
1.11 I was sure th a t I him before.
A had m et B am m eetin g C m e et D m et

1.12 Your eyes are red - ?

A did you cry B have you been crying C have you cried
D do you cry

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this holid ay for ages.

A W e're looking forward to B W e've been looking forward to
C W e look forward to D W e ’ve looked forward to
W hen I saw the vase on th e w e bsite, I knew it was exactly w h at I

A looked for B look for

D have looked for

2.6 We a p arty n ext Saturd ay. Can you co m e?

A 're to have B 're having C have D Tl have

2.7 A fter th e op eration you a ny sp ort for a while.

.

A w o n't be doing B aren’t doing C d on't do

D w o n't to do
W h en th e race starts later this afterno o n the drivers
for drier w e a th er than last year.
A were hoping B are hoping C hope D w ill be hoping

In the next few ye ars, thousan ds of speed cam eras

on m ajor roads.
A are ap pear B w ill ap pear C a r e to appear
D are appearing
to Bangkok by the end of June.
A I aim gettin g B I’m aim in g gettin g C l aim to get
D I'm aim in g to get
We each other later th a t day, but I had to phone and
cancel.
A see B are seeing C were seeing D saw

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y . . .

rM o d a ls and sem i-m odals Gram m ar Unit 1

rem inder
L '" J
3.1 D espite yesterd ay's sn o wfalls, we ....................... hom e in less than C5 15
An hour.
A could drive B can drive C were able to drive
D are able to drive

3.2 She swam stro n gly and cross th e river easily, even 15
though it w as sw olle n by th e heavy rain.
A can B was able to C could D is able to

3.3 me to get yo u so m e w a ter? C12 16

A W ould yo u like B Should yo u like C Shall yo u like
D W ill yo u like

3.4 We Switzerland fo ur tim es during th e 1990s. 16

A wo uld visit Buse d to visit C visit D visited

3.5 ‘W hile w e're in M oscow shall w e go and see D ariya?' ‘But it's been C17 17
nearly 20 y e ars since we last saw her. She re m em b er
us.'
A ca n't B co uld n't C m ay not D might not

3.6 During the war, th e police arrest yo u for criticising 17

th e g overn m ent.
A m ay B mig ht C sho uld D could
3.7 ‘I'm seeing Dr Evans next week.' ‘T h a t ............................ be right. He's C2 3 18
on holid ay th en.'
A m ustn't B ca n't C hasn't to D hasn't got to
3.8 I can't access th e data base. You a password. 18
A m ust have got to put in B m ust've to put in
C m ust have to put in D m ust put in
3.9 I .......................... an intervie w because I'd worked there before. C27 19
A didn't have to have B needn't have had C didn't need to
have D nee dn't have

3.10 N owa d ays it cost a fortun e to own an e-book reader. 19

A hasn't to B nee dn't C do esn't have to D m ustn't
3.11 W alkin g under a lad der......................................... be unlucky. C3 2 20
A is suppose to B should C ought to D is supposed to
3.12 It’s th e third tim e she's been skatin g this week. She 20
really enjoy it.
A m ust B should C ought to D had b etter

r - ......... I M - t W M W P - l P . . J. ...H I I .J------- .IJU H U ...

^Linking verbs, passives, questions

4.1 The traffic lights green and I pulled away. 21

A got B became C turned D w ent
4.2 Th e building th e earthquake but then D1 2 2 ,2 3 ,
by a fire. 24
A was survive d ... destroye d B survive d ... was destroye d
C survive d ... d estroye d D was survived ... was destroyed
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4.3 I'm re ally disapp ointe d. I for th e team again.

A w asn't picked B didn't pick C didn't get picked
D w asn't g ot picked
4.4 W hen I asked w h a t w as wrong,
A I was explained th e problem
B he explained th e problem to me
C th e problem was explained to me
D he explained me th e problem

4.5 Th e children to th e zoo.

A were enjoyed taken B enjoyed being taken
C were enjoyed takin g D enjoye d taking
4.6 Th e new co m p uter syste m next m o nth.
A is being installed by people B is be installe d
C is being installed D is been installe d
4.7 ........................... th a t w e have to leave.
A Th ey have inform ed us B It has been informed
C It has been inform ed us D W e have been inform ed
4.8 He just turned a w ay when I asked him.
A W hich do yo u think B H ow do yo u think
C W h a t yo u think D W h a t do you think

4.9 ........................ to see in th e t o w n?

A W h a t there are B W h a t is there C W h a t are there
D W h a t there is
4.10

28

She described 29
A the situatio n B the situatio n to me
D th e situatio n me

5.3 Stevens th e w alle t. 3 0 , 31

A a d m itte d to ste al B a d m itte d ste al
D a d m itte d him stealin g
5.4 My parents w o u l d n 't.............................to th e party. 3 0 ,3 1
A allo w me go B allo w me to go C allo w me going
D allo w to go

5.5 She fe lt the m osq uito ... her. 3 0, 31

A bites B to bite C bite D biting

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r --sgpsp
G ram m ar Unit
rem inder
5.6 You d on't o bject late to nig ht, do yo u? 30
A to w orkin g B to work C w o rk D working

5.7 Th ey arranged in London. 31

A for Rania to stay B Rania to stay C by Rania to stay
D for Rania stayin g

, Reporting

6.1 G eorgia ......................... she would be late for the m eeting. She G4/5 32
. she was feelin g ill.
A told t h a t ... said th a t B told t h a t ... said me that
C told me t h a t ... said th at D told me t h a t ... said me th a t

6.2 She her holid ay in Finland. G7 32

A told me ab o ut B said about C said me about
D told about

6.3 ‘I sup pose yo u've heard the latest ........................... to me. 32

A news,' said she B news.' she said C news', she said
D n e ws,’ she said
6.4 I notifie d ......................... I had changed my ad dress. 33
A w ith th e bank th a t B th e bank th a t C th at
D to th e bank th at

6.5 She remind ed ............................ 34

A w h a t to do B me w h a t I had to do C w h a t I had to do
D me w h a t to do

6.6 Police said th a t th ey the missing girl. 35

A had found B have found C find D were finding
6.7 She encouraged the jo b. 36
A to take th e jo b B th a t Fran should take C Fran to take
D to Fran to take

6.8 Fie asked where he put th e box. 37

A shall B o u g h t to C w ill D should
6.9 She asked my advice subject she should stu dy at 38
university.
A on to w h a t B as to w h a t C on w h at D to w h at

6.10 Th ey directed th a t th e building ........................ 39

A be pulled down B to be pulled down
C should be pulled down D should pull down

- — -------
rR o u n s

7.1 T h e ....................... faulty. HI

A e q uip m ents are B equip m ent was C e quip m ents were
D e quip m ent were L ^ ^

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7.2 Th e co m pany doing a lot o f .............................. in South

A m erica.
A i s ... businesses B are ... business C are ... businesses
D i s ... business
7.3 Th e shoes were covered in mud, so I asked th e m to 43
take th e m off before th ey g ot i n t o car.
A girl's ... Leon's B girls'... Leons' C girls'... Leo n’s
D g irl's... Leons'
7.4 The co uncil postponed a decision on th e new road, 40
and m any leading m em b ers of th e op position party
criticise d th e delay.
A has ... have B has ... has C have ... has D have ... have
7.5 thinks t h a t Phil should be given th e jo b. 41
A N eith er of us B The m ajority of my colleagues
C Practically everyo ne D A num b er of people
7.6 Police th a t Th o m as is in Brazil, althoug h his exact 42
w h e re a b o u ts......................................... unkn own.
A believes ... are B believe ... are C b elieves ... is
D believe ... is
A new is being b uilt outsid e th e town.
A g olf course B g o lfc o urse C golf's co urse D g olf-course

The g overn m ent has intro duced

A a children's clo th es tax B a tax on children cloth es
C a children cloth es tax D a tax on children's cloth es

I'll be w ith you in

A one q uarter of an hour
C a q uarter of one hour
8.2 Look at ...............................It's very bright tonig ht.
A th e m oons B moon C th e moon D a moon

8.3 Sydney i s ..............................

A a b eautiful city B b eautiful city
D th e b eautiful cities
8.4 of th e present co ntinu o us tense on page 32.
A There are exam ple B There are exam ples
C There are th e exam ples D There is exam ple

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G ram m ar Unit
rem inder
8.5 is one of the m any factors involved in changing
farm in g metho ds.
A Clim ate B A clim ate C Clim ates D The clim ate

8.6 A gainst her parents' wish es, she w a n ts to be

A th e jo urn alist B jo urn alist C a jo urn alist D jo urnalists

8.7 ‘You look upset.' ‘Yes, I've had '

A th e terrible m orning B terrible morning
C so m e t errible m orning D a terrible morning

8.8 I haven't been here for

A so m e ye ars B any years C years D the ye ars

8.9 W e haven't got ............ left.

A a b utter B any b utter C the b utter D so me butter

8.10 ‘W h ere were yo u last w e e k?' ‘I w as visitin g 48

A any friends B friends C th e friends D so me friends 4 9-5 1

8.11 ...................... my je w e llery is missing.

A Som e of B A ny of C Som e D Any

8.12 th e furniture arrived y e t. 1 3 4 ,122-28 49

A N one ... has B N one ... have C N one o f ... has
D N one o f ... have

8.13 I phoned Sarah at hom e, but

A there were no answers B th ere were no answer
C there was no answers D there was no a nsw er
8.14 There is n 't ................. traffic along th e stre et where I live. I 3 8 , 122-28
A m any B much C much of D m any of
8.15 ...................... the food was inedible.
A A large a m o unt of B M any of C Much of
D A large num b er of
8.16 waitin g to hear th e results.
A Everyone w as B All w as C Everyo ne were D All were
8.17 Followin g the flo o d, in the area m ajor 1 4 6 ,122-28 51
re pair w ork.
A each of building ... need B every building ... needs
C every building ... need D each buildings ... need
8.18 to A th ens during th e vacatio n.
A All th ey are going B Th ey are all going
C Th ey all are going D Th ey are going all
8.19 There is evid ence to sup p ort his claim. I 4 8 , 122-28 52
A little of B few C a few D little
8.20 W e should use tim e we have available to discuss
Jon's proposal.
A th e little of B th e little C th e few D little

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58

59

Pronouns, substitution and leaving o ut w ords

10.1 'W h a t did you do to y o ur h a n d ?'‘I when I was K1 60

chopping ve g eta bles.'
A cut me B cut C m yself cut D cut m yself
10.2 The sche m e allo ws stu d ents fro m m any co untries t o co m m unicate K7

A each oth er B with each oth er C th e mselves

D with one ano th er
10.3 W e are co nfid e nt th a t both sets of fans w ill at the 60
m atch.
A behave itself B behave th e m C behave th e mselves
D behave
10.4 ‘W e need new curtains.’ ‘ O kay, let's buy ....................... ' 61
A ones with flo w ers on B so m e C ones D one

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10.5 The tw o children for breaking the wind ow.

A each blamed oth er B blamed o th er C blamed each oth er
D each blamed th e other

10.6 had a racing bike when I was yo ung, and

A my bro ther did so B so did m y bro th er C so my bro ther
D did my bro ther

10.7 'I d o n't supp ose t h ere’ll be any seats left.' ‘ N o, I

A d on't suppose B suppose C d on't sup pose so
D suppose not

10.8 Th ey needed so m eone w h o was both an excelle nt a d m inistrator

and m ana g er............................. was not easy to find.
A Such person B A such person C Such D Such a person

10.9 ‘Th ey could have been delayed by the snow.' ‘Yes, th ey

)
A could have B could C could been

10.10

66

11.2 O ur teach er gave us problem to solve. L2 6 7,6 8

A a very im possible B a c o m ple tely im possible
C an a bsolutely im possible D an extre m e ly im possible

11.3 Experience is for th e job. 67

A re ally essential B fairly essential
D very essential

11.4 I m et my professor th e o th er day. She is now 68

advising on th e g overnm ent's ................... ..
A old p olitics ... very foreign p olicy
B very old p olitics ... foreign p olicy
C very old p olitics ... very foreign policy
D old p olitics ... foreign p olicy

11.5 I drank so me coffee. L3

A good very Brazilian B Brazilian very good
C very good Brazilian D very Brazilian good
11.6 I w as ........................... to find th a t th e film was quite L4
A surprised ... frig htenin g B surprised ... frightened
C surprising ... frightenin g D surprising ... frightened

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My w atch was am ong t h e ...............................

A thin gs taken B taken thin gs C thin gs stolen
D stole n things
11.8 He was busy ........................... his hom ework.
A to do B doing C th a t he was doing D he was doing
11.9 It was as we w e n t into the roo m.
A strang e quiet B strang e q uie tly C stran g ely quiet
D strang ely q uie tly
11.10 She towards the door.
A quick ran B ran quick C ran quickly D quickly ran
11.11 It was t h e .......................... thin g to say.
A m ost ridiculous B ridiculous C ridiculo usest
D m ost ridiculo usest

11.12 ‘W h y did you buy th ese orang es?' ‘Th ey were ....................... '
A cheap est B the ch ea p est C th e cheap est ones I could find
D ch ea p est ones I could find

11.13 D espite his disa bility he tried to lead as possible.

A as norm al life B a norm al a life
C as norm al as life D as norm al a life

11.14 Have yo u heard th e good n e w s?......................

A In May, Eva had a baby. B Eva had a baby in May.
C Eva in May had a baby. D Eva had in May a baby.

11.15 Kaspar n owa days, he's so busy at th e office.

A W e see hardly ever B W e hardly see ever
C W e hardly ever see D H ardly we ever see
O n ly later how much damage had been caused.
A she realised B she did realised C did she realise
D realised she
We with the decision.
A agree very much B much agree C agree much
D very much agree
, this su m m er is a crucial tim e for th e g overnm ent.
A Politics speaking B Politically C In p olitical terms
D In a p olitical point of view

I .............................. unw ell when I this morning.

A f e l t ... get up B f e l t ... got up C f e e l... get up
D f e e l... got
Have so m ethin g to eat before you
A leave B left C w ill leave D had left

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G ram m ar Unit
rem inder

12.3 still fe el t ire d .............................. in th e m orning. 1 79

A when I wake up B as I wake up C when I w ill wake up
D w hile I wake up

12.4 W e w ere delaye d an accid ent. I 80

A because B because of there was C because there was
D because of

12.5 wro te down her name .......................forget it. 81

A so as not to B so not to C not to D in ord er not to

12.6 ......................................... th ey sle p t so undly. 82

A H ot though was th e night air B H ot though th e night air was
C H ot as th e night air was D H ot although the night air was

12.7 I'll give yo u a lift if i t ............................... M9 8 3, 8 4

A is raining B w ill rain C rained D ra ins

12.8 If I had known how d ifficult th e jo b w as, I ...................... it. M 14 8 3, 8 4

A w o n't have taken B w o uld n't have taken C w o n't take it
D m ig htn't have taken

12.9 If I a m ore reliable car, I ..............................to Spain rather M17 83, 8 4

than fly.
A would have ... would drive B had ... had driven
C had ... would drive D would have had ... would drive
12.10 If th e techn olo gy
expand the business.
available, w e would be able to I 83
A would b ecome B w ere become C were to become
D b ecame
12.11 If th e N orth Sea ....................... in winter, you could w alk from 84
London to O slo.
A happened to freeze B froze C should freeze
D should happen to freeze
12.12 ........................... in my seventies and rath er unfit, I might co nsid er
takin g up squash.
A W ere I not B W as I not C W eren't I D If I w asn ’t
12.13 Th ey co uld n't decide it was w orth re-sittin g the
exam.
A if B w h e th er or not C w h e th er D if or not
12.14 It was m id d ay.............................. , I put on th e light.
A Even so B Althou gh C Even D Even though

13.1 He su d d enly saw Eva th e roo m. He pushed his w ay

th e crowd of people to get to her.
A across ... thro ugh B o v e r... through C across ... across
D o v e r... along

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13.2 Th e co ncert f e a t u re s,..............................oth ers, Karl Frisk and the

Johnsons. Th eir m usic is still very p opular teenag ers.
A b etween ... am ong B b etween ... between
C am ong ... b etween D am ong ... am ong
13.3 a pause in the co nversatio n, she left the roo m.
B During C O ver D By

13.4 ........................... cricket, I enjoy w atchin g fo otb all and basketb all.
A A p art fro m B Exce pt C Except for D Besides

Jo her disabled m o ther u ntil her death last year.

A cared after B cared for C to o k care of D cared about
W h at's th e chance
five tim es?
A of gettin g B to get

She tried to
A talk me th e plan out of
C talk me out of th e plan

Sara wante d to borrow mo ney.

A Sud d enly hit me th a t B It su d d enly hit
C It su d d enly hit me th a t D Sud d enly hit me
14.3 yo u can swim
A hate
14.4 Luis lost his jo b and was sh ort of m oney, so
and m ove in with his brother.
A th a t he did w as to sell B w h a t he did was to sell
C w h a t he did sold D w h a t he did was sell
been diverte d, th ey would have arrived early.
A Had th e plane not B H ad n't th e plane
C The plane had not D The plane not had

th a t Lana was able to retire at th e age of 50.

A So successful her business w as, B So successful was her
business, C H er business was so successful D So was her
successful business

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 Gram mar reminder
The Gram m ar rem inder su m m arises basic inform atio n ab o ut so m e im p ortant areas of gram m ar.
References within th e main units point yo u to th e sectio ns of th e Gram m ar rem inder th a t are relevant
to those units. Read th ese sectio ns to refresh y o ur understan din g before you start work on the
advance d gram m ar p oints in th e unit.

Tenses
Present continuous (-» Units 1, 2 & 8)
AI O ‘W h o are yo u phoning?' ‘I'm trying to get through to Misaki.'
W e use th e present co ntinu o us to talk about p articular events or a ctivities th a t have begun
but have not ended at th e tim e of speaking. The event or a c tivity is in progress at the
present tim e, but not necessarily at th e m o m ent of speaking.
A2 O She's doing vo lu n tary w ork w ith young children u n til she starts her university course.
W e use th e present co ntinu o us to suggest th a t an event or a c tivity is or m ay be te m p orary.
(For th e present co ntinu o us for th e future, see B7 & Unit 10.)

Present simple (-►Units 1, 2 & 8)

A3 Trees grow more q uickly in su m m er than in winter.
W e use th e present sim ple with verbs describing states or situatio ns th a t are alw ays true or
co ntinue in d efinitely.
A4 This cake tastes w o n d erful. W h ere did yo u buy it?
W e use the present sim ple with states or situatio ns (tho u ghts, feelin gs) th a t exist at the
present m o m ent.

Verbs describing states include *a gre e, a p p recia t e, a t t r a c t , *d esire, *d o u b t, e x p ect ,

ha t e, h o p e, like, love, *p re f er, *re g re t (to do with emotions, a ttitudes, a nd preferences)]
a n tici p a t e, assu m e, *b eli e v e, co nsid er, e x p ect, f eel, fin d, im a gin e, *k n o w , re alise,
t h in k, u n d e rst a n d (m enta l sta tes)] ach e, hear, *n o t ice, see, *sm e ll, so u n d, *t ast e
(senses a nd perception )] *b e l o n g t o , *c o nsist of, *c o nst i t u t e , *co n t a in , cost, *d if f e r
fro m, have, lo o k, *m e a n , m e asu re, *o w n , *p ossess, *rese m b le , *se e m , w eig h ( to do
with 'being', ’having', etc.).
The verbs marked * are rarely used with co ntinu o us tenses (b ut can be if we mean actio ns
ra th e rth a n sta tes).
A5 O Do yo u go to Turkey every ye ar for yo ur holid ays?
W e use th e present sim ple to talk ab out habits or regular events or actio ns. (For th e present
sim ple for th e future, see B6 & Unit 10.)

Past simple (-♦ Units 3, 4, 5 & 8 )

A6 O Aisha le ft a few m inutes ago.
A7 O M ikhail contin ued the co urse even though it was proving very d ifficult.
W e use th e past sim ple t o refer to a co m plete d actio n or event in th e past or to talk about
situatio ns th a t existe d over a period of tim e in th e past, but not now. W e can eith er say
when so m ethin g happened, using a tim e adverbial (e.g. a fe w m inutes ago: A 6), or assum e
th a t th e listen er or reader alrea dy knows when it happened or can understand this from th e
co ntext (A7).
A8 O Isa w m y grand parents every w e ek as a child.
We use th e past sim ple to talk about repeated past actio ns.
(For th e past sim ple in co n ditio nals, see M12 & M13 and U nit 83.)
Present perfect (-* Units 3, 6 & 8)
A9 O W e ca n't have a m eeting, because so fe w people have shown any interest.
A 10 O My ceiling has fa lle n in and the kitchen is floo de d. Co m e quickly!
A ll O W e have belonged to th e tennis club since we moved here.

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 Gra m m ar reminder

A12 J Lee has represen ted his co untry on m any occasions, and hopes to go on to co m p ete in the
n ext O lym pics.
W e use the present p erfect to talk about a past actio n, event or state, when there is so me
kind of co nn ectio n b etween w h a t happened in th e past, and th e present tim e. O fte n we
are interested in the w ay so m ethin g th a t happened in th e past affects or is relevant to the
situatio n th a t exists now (A 9). H owever, th e co nnectio n with th e present m ay also be th at
th e actio n happened recently with a co nseq uence for th e present (A10), th at it co ntinues
u ntil the present tim e (A11), or th a t a repeated event in th e past m ay (or m ay not) happen
again (A12).

Past continuous (-►Units 4, 7 & 8)

A13 J W hen he realised I was looking at him, he turned away.
W e use th e past co ntinu o us to talk ab o ut a situatio n ( . . . I was looking a t him ...) th a t started
before a p articular point in th e past (... he turned away) and was still in progress at t h a t
point.

Past perfect (-* Units 5, 7 & 8)

A 14 W hen I w e nt into the bathro o m, I found th a t the bath had overflow ed.
A15 O By 10 o'clock m ost people had gone hom e.
W e use th e past p erfect to talk ab out a past event th a t to ok place before a no th er past
event (A14), or before or up to a p articular tim e in th e past (A15).
(For th e past p erfect in co n ditio nals, see M14 & U nit 83.)

Present perfect continuous (-►Units 6 & 8)

A 16 Since th e op eration tw o m o nths ago, Sam u el has been learning to w alk again. He can
alrea dy take one or tw o ste ps unaided.
A17 O Your eyes are red - have yo u been crying ?
W e use th e present p erfect co ntinu o us to talk about an ac tivity in progress in th e past for a
period u ntil now, which is still in progress (A16) or has rece ntly finished (A17).

Past perfect continuous (-* Units 7 & 8)

A 18 O W hen I saw th e vase on th e w e bsite, I knew it was exactly w h at I h ad been looking for.
W e use the past p erfect co ntinu o us to talk about a situatio n or a c tivity th at was in progress
over a period up to a p articular past point in tim e.

T h e fu tu r e icuflrfaMSEb
Will + infinitive (-* Unit 9)
B1 O It's late. I think 17/ go to bed now.
B2 I think you'll enjoy th e film.
W e use w ill when we state a decision made at the m o m ent of speaking (B1) and when we
say th a t w e think so m ethin g is likely to happen in th e future (B2).
B3 O I ’U make one of my special d esserts for dinner, if yo u like.
B4 I've asked her to join us t his evening, but she won't.
W e use w ill (or '11) when w e talk about willingness to do so m ethin g in th e fu ture (e.g. in
offers (B3), invitatio ns, requests, and ord ers) and w ill n o t (or w o n't) when we talk about
unwillingness to do so m ethin g in the fu ture (e.g. reluctance, refusal (B4)).
Be going to + infinitive (-* Unit 9)
B5 O ‘ H as anyb o dy offered to look after th e children?' ‘So phia's going to do it.'
W e use be g oin g t o when w e state a decision made so m e tim e before we report it. G oin g
t o is often preferred in inform al spoken English (wh ere it is often pronounced / g a n a / ) and
w ill is preferred in m ore form al c o ntexts.

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 Gra m m ar reminder

Present simple for the future (-►Unit 10)

B6 O The n ext train to Dublin leaves at 3.45. (sta tion a nnouncem ent )
W e use th e present sim ple to talk about future events th a t are part of so m e official
arran g e m ent such as a tim e ta b le or pro gram m e. A tim e expression is usually used with th e
present sim ple for th e fu ture (... a t 3.45 ) unless th e tim e referred to is alrea dy clear from
the c o ntext.

Present continuous for the future (-» Unit 10)

B7 O W e're having a p arty n ext Saturday. Can you co m e?
W e use th e present co ntinuous to talk ab o ut future a ctivities and events t h a t are intende d
or have already been arrange d. Usually a personal pronoun is used (W e ...) and a fu ture tim e
is m entioned (... n ext Saturday) or alrea dy understoo d.

Future continuous (-> Unit 11)

B8 O A fter th e o p eration yo u won't be doing any sp ort for a while.
W e use th e future co ntinu o us t o talk ab o ut an a c tivity or event happening at a p articular
tim e or over a p articular period in the future. W e usually m ention th e future tim e ( A fter the
o p era tio n . ..) .

Modals and sem i-m odals gUJfflSEWBl

The modal verbs are: w ill, w o ul d, can, co uld, m ay, m ig h t, sh a ll, sh o u ld , m ust

M odal verbs have meanings relating to ideas such as p ossibility, likelihoo d, pre diction, n ecessity,
p ermission and o blig ation. Th ey do not have t o -in fin it iv e, -s, -ing or past p articiple forms. Th ey are
often follow e d by th e b are in fin itiv e of a no th er verb (e.g. S he m ight go ) but can also be used on
th eir own (e.g. Yes, I ca n ) . Th ey canno t be followe d directly by a t o -in fi n it iv e, an -ing form, a p ast
p ar ticip le, or a no th er m o d al verb. In questions th ey co m e before th e su bject (e.g. C ould y o u help?)
and before not in neg atives (e.g. H e won't [= w ill not] help ) .

The se mi-modals are: o u g h t to, use d t o, n ee d, d are, had b e t t er, ha v e (got) to, be a b le t o

These have meanings like m o dal verbs but not th e sam e fo rm al features: for exam ple, so m e can be
marked for tense (e.g. have / h ad [got] to J; so m e have non-m o dal uses (e.g. S he needs a rest ) .
Can, could and be able to (-> Unit 15)
ci O A p olyglot is so m eone w h o can speak several different languages.
C2 O Anita cou ld sp eak thre e languages before she was six.
C3 O O livia couldn't swim u ntil she was ten.
W hen w e say th a t so m e one or so m ethin g has or d o esn't have th e a b ility to do so m ething,
w e use c a n (’t) (for th e present; C1) or co u ld (n't) (for the past; C2, C3).
C4 O ‘W hy isn't Ben here y e t?' ‘It cou ld be because his m other's ill again.'
W e use co uld, not can, to say there is a p ossibility of so m ethin g happening or being true.
C5 O Despite yesterd ay's sn o w falls, we were able to drive home in less than an hour.
W e can use be a b le t o instead of ca n or co uld to talk ab o ut a bility. W e prefer be a ble t o
when w e talk about a sp ecific achieve m ent (p articularly if it is difficult, requiring so me
e ffort; C5) rath er than a g eneral a bility. W here th ere is a choice, in speech w e g en erally
prefer ca n or co u ld rath er than be a b le t o.
C6 O A fter the trees have been cut back, we will be a ble to see m ore of th e garden fro m th e
sittin g room.
W e use w ill be a b le t o, not can, to say th a t so m ethin g is possible in th e fu ture on
condition th a t so m ethin g is done first.
C7 O W e c a n / a re a llow ed to stay up late on Fridays and Saturd ays because w e d o n't have to go
to scho ol the next day.
W e use ca n for th e present or th e future and co u ld for th e past to re port p ermission. We
can also use be a ll o w e d t o.

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Will, would and used to (-» Unit 16)

C8 O Will / Won't yo u have a no th er biscuit? ('W o n't yo u ...? ’ is a very p olite and rath er form al
offer)
C9 O ‘Luka w a n ts to borrow th e car.' 'H e will not.' (a firm refusal)
C10 O You will now put y o ur pens down and pay atte n tio n, (a firm instructio n)
We use w ill and w ill n o t (w o n't) to talk about (un)willin g n ess (see B3 -4) and also to make
offers (C 8), requests, refusals (C 9), and to give instructio ns (C10).
cn O You should apply for th e jo b. You would have a good chance of g ettin g it.
W e can use w o u l d to make a pre diction about an im aginary situatio n; th a t is, about
so m ethin g t h a t m ay or m ay not happen (see also M13).
C12 O Would yo u like me to get yo u so m e w a ter?
W e can use W o u ld y o u lik e ... when w e make an offer, but not ‘W ill yo u like ...’. In requests,
to o, we can say I w o uld lik e ..., but not ‘I w ill like ...'. W e can use sh o ul d (with I or w e)
instead of w o u l d in req uests like this, but t his is form al.
C13 O We would / used to lend him m o ney when he was unem ploye d.
C14 O I used to live in a flat in Paris.
To talk about things th a t happened re p eatedly in th e past, but d on't happen now, we can
use w o u l d or use d t o + in fin itiv e (C13). Use d t o is m ore co m m on in inform al English. W e
can use use d t o but not w o u l d to talk about p erm anent past states (C14). N ote how we
n orm ally make q uestions and neg atives with use t o in spoken English: 'D id y o ur children
use to sleep w e ll when th ey were babies?'; ‘I didn't use to like visitin g th e d entist when I was
yo ung.' M any people avoid using use d t o in questions and negatives with o u t d o (‘ Used you
to ...?', ‘I use dn't to ...') and in question tags (..., use d n't y o u?) because it sounds very form al
and old -fashione d.

May, might, can and could (-►Units 15 & 17)

C15 O If the drought goes on much longer, there m ay / m ig h t / c o u ld be a hosepipe ban before the
end of th e m o nth.
Cl6 O H er parents m ay / m ight / cou ld have influ enced her decision to resign.
In affirm ative se nte nces (th at is, sente nces which are not questions or ne gatives) we use
m ay, m ig h t, or co uld w ith a sim ilar m eaning to say th a t there is a p ossibility of so m ethin g
hap pening or being true (C15). C a n is not used in this way. W e so m etim es prefer co uld
to sho w th a t w e are giving an opinion about which w e are unsure. W e use m a y / m ig h t /
co uld + ha v e + p ast p ar ticip le to say th a t it is possible th a t so m ethin g happened in the
past (C16).
C17 Q 'W hile w e ’re in M oscow shall w e go and see D ariya?’ ‘But it's been n early 20 years since we
last saw her. She m ay not / m ight n ot re m e m b er us.'
C18 Q I d efinitely saw her go o ut, so she c a n 't / c o u ld n 't be at hom e.
In ne gative se nte nces, including se nte nces with words like o nly, h ar dly, or n ev er, we use
m a y n o t or m ig h t n o t to say it is possible th a t so m ethin g is not true (C17), and ca n't or
co u ld n't to say th a t it is not possible th a t so m ethin g is true (C18).
C19 G C o ats m ay be left in th e cloakro o m.
M ay (n ot ‘mig ht') is used in form al c o ntexts to say th a t so m ethin g is allowe d. M ay
n o t is used to say t h a t thin gs are not allowe d (e.g. C alculators m ay not be used in th e
exa m in atio n.).

Must and have (got) to (-►Unit 18)

C20 O That's really good news. I m ust te ll Marco straig ht away.
C21 O ‘Can we m e et on Thursd ay m ornin g?’ ‘Sorry, no. I have to go to th e d entist at eleven.'
W hen w e say t h a t it is necessary to do so m ethin g, w e use m ust or ha v e (got) t o.
So m etim es it d o esn't m a tter which w e use, although ha v e g o t t o is less form al than either
m ust or h av e t o and is p articularly co m m on in spoken English. H owever, we use m ust
when w e w a n t to indicate th a t the spe a ker decides th a t so m ethin g isnecessary (C 20)
and we use h av e (got) t o to suggest th a t som eone else or so m e outsid e circu mstances or
a uth ority makes so m ethin g necessary (C21).
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Gra m m ar reminder

C 22 O She was bruised quite badly in th e accid ent. It m ust hurt a lot.
W e n orm ally use m ust , not ha v e (got) t o, when w e conclud e th a t so m ethin g (has)
happened or th a t so m ethin g is tru e .
C 23 O ‘I'm seeing Dr Evans n ext w eek.' ‘Th a t ca n't be right. He's on holiday then.'
W hen we give a ne gative co nclusio n w e rarely use m ust n o t or ha v e (got) t o. Instead, we
use ca n 't (can n o t) or co uld n't.
C24 O W hen my fath er w e n t to scho ol he had to learn Latin.
To say th a t so m ethin g w as n ecessary in the past w e use had t o, not m ust.

N eed(n't), don't have to and m u stn 't (-» Units 18 &. 19)
C 25 O He did n’t co ok th e m eal himself so yo u needn't / don't have to eat it all. He w o n't be
offended.
C26 O You m ustn't put a nythin g on the sh elves until the glue has set hard.
W e use n ee d n't (or d o n't n ee d t o) or d o n't ha v e t o to say th a t so m ethin g is not necessary
(C25) and m ust n 't t o say th a t so m ethin g is not allow e d (C 26).
C 27 0} I didn't need to / didn't have to have an interview because I'd worked there before.
C28 O I needn't have cooked dinner. Just as it was ready, Pablo and Daniela phoned to say that
th ey co uld n't co m e to eat.
W hen we say t h a t it was not necessary to do so m ethin g in th e past, and it w asn't done,
we use di d n't n ee d t o or did n't ha v e t o (C27). To sho w th a t w e think so m ethin g th a t was
done w as not in fact n ecessary we use n ee d n o t (n ee d n't) ha v e (C 28).

Should, ought to and be supposed to (*♦ Unit 20)

C29 O Yo u'll catch cold if yo u go out like th at. I think yo u sh o u ld / ought to take a hat.
C30 0 I enjoye d her first novel, so th e new one sh o u ld / ought to be good.
W e can ofte n use sh o ul d or o u g h t t o w ith little difference in m eaning when w e talk about
obligation (e.g. in giving advice, making reco m m en d atio ns, or talkin g ab out a resp onsibility,
(C 29) and th e pro b ability of so m ethin g hap pening or being tru e (C 30).
C31 The w ork was supposed to sta rt / should have sta rted / ought to have sta rted last week.
C 32 W alking under a lad d er is supposed to be unlucky.
(Be) su p p ose d t o can be used instead of sh o ul d / o u g h t t o to express a less strong
oblig ation than sh o ul d (C31). It is also used to report w h a t m any people think is true, but
sh o ul d / o u g h t t o are not used in this w ay (C 32).

Passives g llfflg k fc ftia

Passive verb forms have one of th e tenses of the verb t o be and a p ast p ar ticip le. Passive verb forms
are sum m arise d in A p p endix 2. The choice b etween an active and passive sente nce allo ws us to
present the sam e inform atio n in tw o different orders. Co m pare:

a ctive The storm damaged th e roof. passive The roof was damaged.
The ro of w as damaged by the
storm.

This se ntence is about the storm , and says w h at
it did. The su bject ( The storm ) is the ‘agent' and
the o bject ( the ro o f ) is the ‘done to'.
These se nte nces are ab out the ro o f and say
w h a t happened to it (in the first sente nce) and
w h a t did it (in the secon d). The subject ( The
ro o f ) is the ‘done to'. If it is m entione d, the
agent ( the storm ) goes in a pre p ositio nal phrase
with by a fter th e verb.

D1 O The building survived th e earthquake but then was destroyed by a fire.

Verbs which take an o bject ( transitive verbs) can have a passive form (... was destroyed ) .
Verbs which do not take an o bject (intransitive verbs) do not have passive forms (The child
v a n ish ed ..., but not ‘Th e child was vanished ...').
 Gra m m ar reminder

H owever, m any verbs can be used at different tim es with and w ith o u t o bjects - th at is,
th ey can be both transitive and intransitive. Co m pare: ‘A re t h e y m e e tin g him at the
airp ort?' ( tra nsitive ) and ‘Is he b eing m e t at th e airp ort?' (passive ); ‘W hen shall w e m e e t?'
( intransitive ) no passive possible)
D2 J I’m really disap p ointed. I didn't g e t p ick ed / w asn't p ick ed for th e tea m again.
D3 O The house was ow ned by an eld erly couple before I bought it.
In spoken language w e ofte n use g e t + p ast p ar t icip le (... didn't g e t p ic k e d ...) instead of
a passive form (... wasn't p ic k e d ...) to talk about actio ns or events th at we see as ne gative
(D 2). N ote, however, th a t w e can also use it to t alk ab o ut p ositive actio ns and events
(e.g. Gre at news - I g o t pick ed for th e team again!). W e d on't n orm ally use g e t + p ast
p ar ticip le to describ e states (D 3).

Questions
El Basic question form s

If a verb phrase includ es an a uxiliary verb, A re t h e y leaving so on?

th e a uxiliary verb co m es before th e su bject. W h ere w ill y o u stay?

If a verb phrase includes more than one H as sh e been doing her h o m ework?
a uxiliary verb, only th e first co m es before W h a t sh o uld w e have told N ina?
th e su bject.

In present and past sim ple tenses of verbs C D o es he enjoy scho ol?
(a p art from be), we use d o or did. W h ere did y o u go on holiday?

If be is used in a verb phrase w ith o u t A re y o u happy at w ork?

a no th er verb, th e form of be co m es before G W h ere w as Lars to d ay?
th e subject.

If w e use w h a t, w hich , w h o or w h ose as W h a t m a d e th a t noise?

th e su bject, we use th e sam e word order as W h o ca n t e l l me the a nsw er to
in a sta te m e n t; i.e. the su bject goes before question 5?
th e verb phrase.

E2 O What h appened to yo ur eye?

If we use w h a t, w hich , w h o or w h ose as th e subject, we d on't use do in th e question (E2).
H owever, note t h a t we can so m etim es use do when w h a t, w hich, w h o or w h ose is the
su bject if we w a n t to add em p hasis, or to co ntrast w ith w h a t has been said or im plie d.
Do is stressed in spoken English: ‘Co m e on, be honest - wh o did t e ll yo u?' D on't co nfuse
w h ose with w h o's (sh ort for eith er w h o is or w h o has), which are pronounced the sam e.
E3 I've got orange juice or apple juice. Which would yo u prefer?
E4 Q He just turned a w ay wh en I asked him. What do yo u think he m eant?
In th ese questions the w h - w o r d is th e o bject. W e prefer w h ic h when we are asking about
an identifie d group or range of thin gs or people (E3), and w e use w h a t when th e possible
range of reference is open (E4). So m etim es, however, we can use eith er w h ich or w h a t
with little difference in m eaning (e.g. W h a t / W hich t o w ns do we go through on th e w ay?).
E5 O H aven't yo u fin ish ed y o ur ho m ew ork y e t?
E6 O Why didn't she pay for th e m eal?
E7 Who wouldn't like to own an exp ensive sp orts car?
W e can use neg ative y es / no or w h - q u est i o ns to make a suggestion, to persuade
so m eone, to criticise, or to sh o w th a t we are surprised, etc. W e make a ne gative y es / no or
w h - q u est io n w ith an a uxiliary verb ( have, did, would, etc.) + - n't (E5, E6, E7). W e can also
ask a negative question using a neg ative sta te m e n t and a p ositive ‘tag' at the end (e.g. We
d on't have to leave just y e t, do w e? ) . N egative questions can be used to sound p olite when
giving an opinion (e.g. Sho uld n't we offer her a lift?).

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 Gra m m ar reminder

V erb c o m p le m e n t a t i o n: w h a t f o ll o w s v er bs
F1 o She described th e a ttack er to th e police.
F2 o Th ey arrived at th e restaurant an hour late.
F3 o He gave me a biscuit.
Som e verbs (e.g. describe in F1) are followe d Also: a rrest, avoid, do, e njo y, find,
by an o b j e c t... the a t t a c k e r ...). These are calle d f orce, g e t, grab, hit, like, p ull, rep ort,
tra nsitive verbs. sh ock, t a k e, t o uch , w a n t, w arn

Som e verbs (e.g. arrive in F2) are not usually Also: a p p ear, co m e, fa ll, go, hap pe n,
followe d by an o bject. Th ese are calle d m a t t e r, sle e p , sw im , w a i t
intransitive verbs. If a verb ca n't be followe d by
an o bject, it ca n't be made passive.

Som e verbs (e.g. give in F3) are co m m o nly Also: lend, o f f er, pay, se ll, t ell, t h r o w
followe d by tw o o bjects ( me and a biscuit in F3).

A good dictio nary w ill list th e meanings of verbs and t e ll yo u w h e th er each m eaning is
intransitive, tra nsitive and, if transitive, w h e th er it is follow e d by one or by tw o o bjects.
F 4 -1 3 Many verbs can be fo llow e d by a no th er verb in the form of a t o -in f in it iv e (e.g. refuse to
e a t ) , -ing (e.g. avoid working ), b are in fin itive (e.g. help carry ) . N ote t h a t when t o co mes
after a verb it can be part of a t o -in f in it iv e (= to + th e base form of a verb; e.g. He w a nts
to go, She hopes to win ) or it can be a p re p osi tio n follow e d by a noun phrase (e.g. He w e n t
to the the a tre ) or by an -ing form (e.g. He a d m itte d to having a gun). An -ing form often
behaves like an o bject (e.g. I regret leaving ).
Here is a su m m ary o f co m m on p atterns to g e ther with exam ples o f verbs th a t are used in
this p attern. N ote th a t m any verbs can be used in several different p atterns, and th a t so me
of th e verbs given can be used just w ith an o bject, and m ay also be used in tra nsitively (e.g.
He faile d to sto p, He faile d th e test, He faile d).

V e r b + t o -in fin it iv e F4 O Th ey w o n't a gree to p a y for th e damage.

Also: ai m, ask, d e cli n e, d e m a n d , f ail, h esi t a t e , h op e,
h urry, m a na g e, o f f er, pla n, pre p are, re f use, w a n t,
w ish

V e r b + -ing F5 O Stevens a d m itted ste aling th e w alle t.

Also: avoid, co nsid er, d ela y, d e ny, d e t est , drea d,
e n v isa g e, f e e l lik e, fin ish , i m a gin e, m iss, r eca ll, rese n t,
risk, su g g est

V er b + t o -in f in it iv e or -ing F6 O Before w e began eating t to e at m y fath er

(little difference in meaning) thanked everyo ne for coming.
Also: ce ase, co n ti n u e, st a r t
V er b + t o -in f in it iv e or -ing F7 OShe ca m e hurrying up the path to bring us the
(differe nce in meaning) news.
F8 O H ow did you com e to buy th e car?
Also: go on, m ea n, re gre t, re m e m b er, st o p , t r y

V er b + o b je ct + t o - F9 My parents w o uld n’t a llow me to go to th e

in f initive party.
(= there m ust be an o bject) Also: b elieve, ca use, co m m a n d , co nsi d e r, e n a b le,
e nco ura g e, e n t i t le , f o rce, in vit e, order, p ersu a d e,
sh o w , t e a c h , t e ll, w arn

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V erb + (o bject) + t o- FI 0 1wo uld h a te ( her) to give th e jo b up.

in finit ive Also: help, lik e, lo ve, n ee d, pre fer, w a n t , w ish
(= there m ay be an o bject)

V e r b + o b je ct + -ing F11 O The police ca ught him driving w ith o u t a

(= there m ust be an o bject) licence.
Also: disco ver, f e e l, fin d, hear, le a v e, n o tice, o bse rv e,
o v er he ar, se e, sp o t

V erb + (o b ject) + -ing F12 I ca n't sta nd (him ) wearing a suit.

(= there m ay be an o bject) Also: d e t est , disli k e, drea d, e n visa g e, h a t e, i ma gin e,
lik e, lo v e, min d (in questions and n e g atives), m iss,
r eca ll, re gre t, re m e m b er, r ese n t , risk, st a r t , st o p

V erb + o b je ct + b are F13 She f e l t the m osquito bite / biting her.

in f initiv e or -ing A lso: hear, n o tice, o bse rve, o v erh e ar, se e, w a t c h
(so m etim es a difference
in meaning)

Re p o rtin g g l l l if f E K K l
W hen w e re port spe ech in a d ifferent co n text from th e one in which it was origin ally produced, we
so m etim es need to make changes to th e original words. O f course, differences b etween th e original
speech c o ntext and th e one in which it is reported w ill influence w h e th er chang es are needed and
w h a t t h ey should be. Here are so m e possible changes:
G1 O 'D an's arriving later today.' C She said th a t Dan was arriving later th a t day.
G2 O ‘I w as sure I'd left it here.' Q He said th a t he w as sure h e ’d left it t h e re / o n the table.
G3 O ' I grew these carro ts m yself.’ He told me t h a t he had grown those carrots himself.
The tense we cho ose for a report is one t h a t is ap pro priate a t the time that we are reporting
w h a t was said or th o u g ht. This m eans th a t we so m etim es use a d ifferent tense in th e rep ort
from th e one th a t was used in th e original sta te m e n t (G1 & G 3) and change pronouns,
references to tim e and place, and w ords such as t h is, t h a t , and t h ese (G 1 - G 3).
G4 O Georgia to ld me (th a t) she wo uld be late for th e m eeting.
G5 She sa id (th a t) she w as feelin g ill.
G 6 Q I sa id to Ivan (th a t) he had to w ork harder.
G7 O She to ld me a bout her holid ay in Finland.
Sa y and t e l l are the verbs m ost co m m o nly used to re p ort sta te m e n ts. W e use an o b ject
after t e l l (... me ..., G 4), but not after sa y (G 5). N ote, however, th a t w e can use t o + o b ject
after sa y (... to Ivan .... G 6), but not after t e ll, and th a t w e can re port w h a t to pic was talked
about using t e l l + o b je ct + a b o u t (G7).
G8 ‘It's a pity yo u can't co m e this weekend.'
G9 Q " I’m re ally hungry. I fa ncy a cheese san dwich."
W hen we quote w h a t people think or w h a t th e y have said, we put single ('...') (G 8) or
double (“..." ) (G 9) quotatio n marks at the beginning and end of a report of th eir exact
spoken or writte n words. This is often referred to as d irect speech
G 10 Here are more exam ples of direct speech. N ote th e p unctuation used:
0 ‘I think w e should go to India w hile w e have th e o p p ortu nity,’ argued O liver.
O ‘Can I make an a p p oin tm ent to see th e d o ct or?’ asked M axim.
O ‘You m ust be mad!' yelle d her brother.
O ‘It tastes horrible,' said A nna, ‘ but it ’s supposed to be very good for yo u.'
O ‘You sho uld go home,' Maria advised. ‘You're looking really ill.’
0 D aniel said, ‘Put th e m all on th e top shelf.'
O She sto od up and shoute d to th e children: ‘It's tim e to go ho m e!’
G11 O ‘W hy did she look at me like t h a t?' wondere d Julia.
O Perhaps th e do or is open, thou ght O m ar.
O Sud d enly she th o u g ht: Could th ey be tryin g to trick m e?
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Gra m m ar reminder

To quote w h a t a person thinks, w e use th e co nventio ns shown in th e exam ples above, or

se parate th e quotatio n fro m th e reporting clause with a co m m a (or colon) and leave out
quotatio n marks.

N o u ns g'li'ff M Mklfai
Countable and uncountable nouns
HI The equipm ent w as faulty.
N ouns can be eith er co u n t a b le or u nco u n t a b le. Co untable nouns are those which can have
th e word a / an before th e m or be used in th e plural. U ncountable nouns are not used with a
/ an or in th e plural. Som e nouns in English are n orm ally unco untable (like equipm ent in H1),
while in m any other languages th ey are counta ble, e.g. acco m m o datio n, advice.

Also: a p p la use, assist a n c e , bag gage, ca m pin g, cash , ch a os, ch ess, clo t hin g, co n d uct,
co ura g e, cu t le r y, d ancin g, dirt, e m p lo y m e n t, evid e nce, f u n, f u rnit u re , har m ,
h e a lt h, h o m e w o r k , h o usin g, h o use w o r k , in f o r m a t io n, j e w e ll e r y , leisure, li t t e r, luck,
lug ga ge, m ach in e ry, m o n ey, m ud, m usic, n e ws, n o nse nse , p arking, p ay, p er m issio n,
p h o t o g ra p hy, p o e tr y, p o llu tio n, pro d uce, pro gress, p u blicit y, rese arch , ru b bish,
sa f e t y, sce n e ry, sh o p pin g, sig h tse ein g, su nsh in e, t ra nsp o r t, u n d e rw e ar, vio le nce,
w e a t h e r, w o rk

H2 O Th e co m p any is / are doing a lot of business in South A m erica.

So m etim es a noun is used unco unta bly when we are talkin g ab o ut th e w h ole su bsta nce or
idea (e.g. business), but co unta bly when w e are talkin g about units or different kinds (e.g.
businesses).
Compare:
Also: b eer, co f f e e, w a t e r;
Three coffees and a lem onade, please. - Brazil
fruit, t o o t h p ast e , w ash in g
is a m ajor pro ducer of coffee.
p o w d er; cak e, chick e n, land,
O M ost to o th p astes co ntain colourings. - D on't
p ain t, sp ace, st o n e; a b use,
forg et to buy so m e to o th p aste.
(d is)a gree m e n t, di f ficu lt y,
Th e chickens have escaped. - I d on't eat
f ear, im p ro v e m e n t,
chicken.
lan g ua g e, life, pain, p ro t est,
I have a fe ar of spid ers. - He was trem blin g
resp o nsi b ilit y, su ccess,
with fear.
t h o u g h t, w a r

H3 The use of recycle d p a per is saving thousan ds o f tre es fro m being cut down each year.
Som e nouns (e.g. p aper ) usually have d ifferent meanings when th e y are used co unta bly and
uncounta bly.
Compare:
Also: co m p e ti tio n , g lass,
gr a m m ar, iron, ja m , lace,
O I just d o n’t understand gram m ar. - I looked the
answ er up in a gram m ar (= a reference book)
p ro p er t y, ro o m, sig h t,
I got held up in a ja m (= tra ffic ja m ). - T h is ja m
sp eech , t i m e, tin, w o rk
is re ally sw e et. (N o te t h a t ‘ja m s' can also be
used to mean typ es of ja m )
She made a w o n d erful speech at th e wedding.
- His speech has been affecte d by th e illness.
Compound nouns (-♦ Unit 43)
H 4 O H ow much p o ck e t m oney do yo u give to yo ur children?
H5 A new g o lf course / golf-course is being built outsid e the t o w n.
A com pound noun (e.g. p o ck e t money ) is an expression made up of more than one
word, which functio ns as a noun in a sentence. For exam ple, w e can use a n ou n + n ou n
co m binatio n to say w h a t so m ethin g is made of, wh ere so m ethin g is, when so m ethin g
happens, or w h a t so m eone does.

Exa m ples: rice p udding, a g lassh o use , t h e k itch e n cu p b o ard, hill fog, a nig h t flig h t,
a m ornin g c a ll, a la n g u a g e t e a ch e r, a w in d o w -cle a n e r
 Gra m m ar reminder

W e so m etim es make co m pounds from nouns, which co nsist of more than t w o nouns.

Exa m ples: a m ilk c h o c o la t e bar, an a ir- t r a f f ic co n t r o lle r, a d in n e r- p a r t y co n v e rsa t io n

Som e co m pound nouns are usually writte n as one word (e.g. a t a b le cl o t h ), so m e as

se parate words (e.g. w ast e p ap er), and others with a hyphen (e.g. a h o use -sit t e r). So me
co m pound nouns can be writte n in more than one of th ese w ays (e.g. a g ol f co u rse or
a g o lf -co u rse; H5). A good dictio nary w ill t e ll yo u how a p articular com pound noun is
usually writte n.
H6 She got so me chewing gum stuck on her shoe.

-ing + n ou n co m pound nouns Exa m ples: ch e w in g gu m, a livin g roo m,

(the -ing form usually says w h at drin kin g w a t e r, (a p ack of) playi n g ca rds, a
purpose th e fo llowin g noun has) dressin g g o w n, a t u rnin g- p o in t, a w ork in g
p ar t y

n ou n + -ing com pound nouns Exa m ples: f ly - fishin g, fil m - m a kin g,

(usually refer to actio ns or processes) su n b a t hin g, risk -t a kin g, lif e-sa vin g

T h e p o ss e ssi v e f o r m o f n o u n s
H7 The girls' shoes were covered in mud, so I asked th e m to take th e m off before th ey g ot into
L eon's car.
To make the possessive form of nouns in writin g - referring to people or groups of people
(e.g. companies), other living things, places, tim es, etc. - we a d d 's (‘apostrophe s') to singular
nouns and to irregular plurals that d on't end in -s (e.g. Leon's car; th e colle g e's ad ministrators;
w o m e n's issues) and add ' (an apostrophe) to regular plurals (e.g. the girls' shoes; the
co m p anies' difficulties). To make the possessive form of names ending in -s pronounced /z /
w e can add e it h e r' o r 's (e.g. It's Leon Jon es' [or Leon Jones's] new sports car).
H8 O That old ca r o f Zara's is fallin g apart.
H9 O It belongs to a frie n d o f his.
W e can use th e p attern n o u n + o f + 's (H 8) or a possessive pronoun (H 9) to talk about
so m ethin g th a t so m eone owns, or about a relatio nship. N ote t h a t when we are talking
a b o ut relatio nships b etween people we can also use a noun w it h o u t 's (e.g. an uncle o f
Em il's ( or an uncle of Em il)).
H 10 C W e're going to Mona's (house) for th e evening.
The noun follo win g a possessive form can be left o ut when we talk ab out so m eone's house.
W e d on't use ‘shop' when we talk about, for exam ple, t h e n e w sa g e n t's / t h e ch e m ist's
or t h e n e w sa g e n t / t h e c h e m ist (but not ‘th e newsa gent's sho p’ / ‘the ch e m ist’s sho p')
where th e nam e o f the shop includes the profession of th e person wh o w orks th ere
(co m pare ‘the sw e et shop', but not ‘the sw e e t’s sho p').
H11 O D avid's guitar playing has improved enorm o usly.
H12 The construction o f the o ffice block was opposed by pro testors.
O fte n w e can use the p ossessiv e 's o r ... o f + n ou n ... with very little difference in meaning.
H owever, in g eneral, we are more likely to use the p ossessiv e form of a noun when th e
noun refers to a p articular person or group of people (H11); and when w e are talkin g about
tim e (e.g. n e x t y e a r's h oliday prices, ra therth a n th e holid ay prices of n ext ye ar).
W e are more likely to use th e ... o f + n ou n ... form w ith an inanim ate noun (H12); when
w e are talkin g about a process, or a change over tim e (e.g. the establish m ent o f t h e
c o m m it t e e, ra therth a n th e co m m itte e's esta b lish m e nt); and when the noun is a long noun
phrase (e.g. She is the sister o f so m e o n e I use d t o go t o sch o o l w it h, ra ther than She is
so m eone I used to go to scho ol with's sister.).

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 Gra m m ar reminder

A r t icles, d e t e r m in e rs and q u a n t ifie rs g f lf f f H Sl g g i

D eterm iners are words such as t h is, her, and y o u r which d eterm in e or sp ecify w h a t a noun or noun
phrase refers to. Th ey co m e before the noun and at the fro nt of the noun phrase. Q u a ntifiers are words
such as so m e, m uch, and f e w which id entify the q uantity of so m ethin g. Som e words can be both
d eterm in ers and quantifiers (e.g. 'I se nt out invitatio ns to a fe w frien ds’ [few = determ in er] and
‘A f e w of m y friends cam e to th e p arty’ [few = q uantifier]) w hile so me are d eterm in ers only (e.g. ‘This
is my friend A n dre w’ [m y = d eterm in er]). M any d eterm in ers and q uantifiers can be pronouns, taking
th e place of a noun phrase (e.g. I’ve invited all my friends and m ost are co ming [m ost = pronoun]).
A rticles (a / an and t h e) are d eterm in ers. Th ey also sp ecify w h a t the noun refers to and co m e at the
beginning of th e noun phrase. H owever, th ey cannot be q uantifiers or pronouns.

The (-> Units 45-47)

11 O Lisa to ok a cake and so m e biscuits to th e party, but only the biscuits were eaten.
12 O Can yo u shut the do or after yo u, please?
13 O W e had a good tim e on holiday. The beaches were all b e autifully clean.
14 . Give it to the man w earin g th e red co at.
15 O Look at the mo on. It ’s very bright tonight.
W e use t h e with singular, plural or uncountable nouns when w e exp ect th e liste n er or
reader to be able to id entify the thing or person we are referring to in th e followin g noun.
It m ay be t h a t the thin g has already been m entioned (11); th a t it is clear from th e situation
which person or thin g w e mean (12); th a t it is in so m e o th er w ay un d erstan dable from the
co ntext which thing or person we mean (13; ‘th e beaches' = ‘th e beaches we w e n t t o'); th at
th e thing or person is id entifie d in w h a t is said after th e noun (14; ‘wearin g th e red co at');
or th a t there is only one of a p articular thin g (15 and also, for exam ple, th e Great W all of
China, the N orth Pole, th e USA, th e w orld).

A / an (-> Units 44-47)

16 H elen's just bought a house on W ilso n Stre et.
17 Sydney is a b eautiful city.
We use a / an with sin gular nouns when we d on't exp ect th e listen er or reader to be able to
id entify the thin g or person w e are referring to in the followin g noun. W e often use a / an
to intro duce a new sp ecific person or thing (16); or when th e noun refers to a class of people
or things g en erally - for exam ple, when we describ e so m eone or so m ethin g or say w h a t
typ e of thin g so m eone or so m ethin g is (17).

Zero article (-♦ Units 45-47)

18 O [ - ] W a ter has g ot into my cam era and damaged it.
19 O There a re / - / e xa m p le s of the present co ntinu o us tense on page 32.
We use zero a r t icle [ - ] with uncounta ble and plural nouns when w e talk g en erally ab o ut
people or things rath er than ab o ut sp ecific people or things. W e mig ht talk about a wh ole
class of things in a g eneral w ay (18) or about an ind efinite num b er or a m o unt (19).

Some (-» Unit 48)

So m e and a n y are used with plural and uncountable nouns, usually wh en w e are talkin g about
lim ite d, but ind efinite or unknown, num b ers or q uantities of things.
110 O Peter gave me som e advice.
111 O H asn't som e inform atio n about th e prop osal been sent out alrea dy? I th o u g ht I read about
it last week.
112 O Shall I send you som e d etails?
W e g en erally use so m e: in affirm ative se ntences (sente nces which are not neg atives or
questions) (110); in questions where w e exp ect a gre em ent or the a nsw er ‘Yes' (111); in offers
and req uests in ord er to sound p ositive, exp ectin g the answ er ‘Yes' (112). If it is used in this
w ay so m e is pronounce d w ith its w eak form /sa m / .

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 Gra m m ar reminder

113 O S om e teach ers never seem to get bored with being in th e classro o m.
W e use so m e to talk ab o ut particular, but unsp ecified, people or things with the
im plicatio n ‘so m e, but not all'. If it is used in this w ay so m e is pronounced w ith its strong
form /sA m /.
114 O I haven't been here for som e years.
W e use so m e (pronounce d / s a i t i /) when w e mean quite a large a m o unt of, or a large
num b er of so m ething. N ote th a t w e can say 'some ye ars, m o nths, w eeks, e tc.' or just ‘years,
m o nths, w e eks, e tc.' w ith a sim ilar meaning.

A n y (-> U n i t 4 8 )
115 W e haven't g ot any b utter left.
116 Do yo u have any b etter ideas?
117 A ny stu d ent could have answered th e question.
W e g en erally use a ny: in sentences with a neg ative m eaning (115); in q uestions where we
d on't necessarily exp ect a gre e m ent or the a nsw er ‘Yes' (116); when w e mean ‘all (of th e m),
and it's not im p orta nt w hich' (117).
118 If you see any cherries in th e shop, can yo u buy t h e m?
119 A ny questions should be sent to th e manager.
W e co m m o nly use a ny: in ‘i f clauses (118; note t h a t ‘so m e' is possible, but w o uld seem
to exp ect t h a t yo u w ill see ch erries); when a n y m eans ‘if there is / are' (119; = If there are
q u e stio n s...).

A n y o n e , so m e o n e , e tc.
120 O Isabella lives som ewhere in D enm ark.
121 I've never seen a nybody th a t t a ll before.
The rules for th e use of th e fo llowin g words are g en erally the sam e as th ose given in 110-119
for so m e and a ny: the pronouns so m e o n e / a n y o n e, so m e b o d y / an y b o d y, so m e t h in g
/ a n y t hin g , (note th a t so m e b o d y = so m e o n e, and a n y b o d y = a n y o n e), and the adverbs
so m e w h e re / a n y w h ere. For exam ple, so m e - words are g en erally used in affirm ative
sentences (I20), and a n y- w ords are g en erally used in sentences w ith a negative meaning
( 121).

Q u a n t i f i e rs w i t h a n d w i t h o u t ‘o f': a n y ( o f ), s o m e ( o f ), m u c h ( o f ), m a n y ( o f ), b o t h ( o f ),
a l l (o f ) e a c h ( o f ), n o n e ( o f ), f e w ( o f ), l i t t l e (o f ) (-* U n i t s 4 8 - 5 2 )
122 O M a ny o f Liam's closest friends are w o m en.
123 O S om e o f m y je w e llery is missing.
124 O H ave yo u seen a ny o f th ese new light bulbs in th e sho ps ye t?
125 O Are you going to eat a ll (of) th a t cake, or can I finish it?
126 O Both o f us w ere exhauste d after flyin g to Japan.
127 O I polished each tro p hy w ith a so ft cloth.
128 Is there m uch orange juice left?
W e usually need to put o f after q uantifiers when there is a p ossessiv e f or m (I22), pron o u n
(I23) or d e t e r m in e r (I24) before a noun. N ote, however, th a t in inform al c o ntexts after
b o t h and a ll w e can leave o ut o f before t h e, t h ese , t h ose (and t h is or t h a t with all; I25);
m y, y o u r, her, his, etc.; and min e, y o u rs, e tc., but not before t h e m , y o u, or us (I26) (or it
with all). W e d on't use o f after a q uantifier im m e d iately before a noun (I27 & 28).

N o , n o n e ( o f ), n e i t h e r ( o f ), e i t h e r (- U n i t 4 9 )
I29 o There's no train until to m orro w.
I30 o N o inform atio n was given ab o ut how th e stu dy was conducte d.
131 o She had no shoes on.
I32 o N one o f m y clo th es fit any more.

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133 O ‘ H ow m any children have yo u g ot?' 'N one.'

W e use the d e term in er no to mean ‘not a' or ‘not any' before a singular (129), uncounta ble
(130), or plural noun (131). Before t h e, m y, t h is, etc. w e use th e q uantifier n o n e (of) to
mean ‘not any' (I32). If it is cle ar from th e c o ntext w h a t we m ean, we can use th e pronoun
n o n e (I33).
134 N one o f th e furniture has arrived y e t.
W hen w e use n o n e o f with an uncounta ble noun th e verb m ust be singular. H owever, when
we use n o n e o f with a plural noun the verb can be eith er sin gular or plural (e.g. N o n e o f
the p arcels hav e / has arrived y e t), although th e sin gular form is m ore gram m atical.
135 O N eith er o f h \s parents could drive.
We use n eit h e r o f instead of n o n e o f when we are talkin g ab out tw o people or things.
136 J You could catch th e 10:05 or th e 10:32. Either train gets yo u there in good tim e.
137 Has either o f th e m passed th eir driving t est y e t?
W hen w e use e i t h e r as a d e term in er (I36), it is follow e d by a singular co unta ble noun. If
this is th e su bject of th e sentence, it is followe d by a singular verb. W e use ei t h e r o f with
plural nouns and pronouns (I37). N ote th a t e i t h e r can also be used as an adverbial as in
‘We can ei t h e r take th e train or go by bus' and ‘I had no wish to go, and Lev did n't w a n t to
go eit her'.

Much (of), many (of), a lot of, lots (of) (-►Unit 50)
138 O There isn't much tra ffic along th e stre e t where I live.
139 W ill yo u be takin g m any suitcases on th e trip?
M uch and m a n y are used to talk about q uantities and a m o unts. M uch is used with
uncounta ble nouns (I38) and m a n y with plural nouns (I39). Before t h e, m y, t his, etc. we
use m uch o f / m a n y of. M uch o f can also be used with a singular co unta ble noun to mean
‘a large part of' (e.g. Much o f th e natio nal park w as destroyed in th e fire.). W e can use m uch
and m a n y w ith o u t a noun if th e m eaning is clear (e.g. Can yo u get so m e sugar when you
go sho pping? There isn't much le ft.). M uch and m a n y are often used after as, h o w, so, and
t o o (e.g. I'd say there were twice as m any wo m en at th e m eeting as m en.).
140 O She didn't sho w m uch interest in w h a t I said.
141 D M ariam offered me a lo t o f m o ney for th e car.
142 O M a ny o f my rela tives live around Auckland.
M uch (of) and m a n y (of) are used in nega tive se n te n ces to em p hasise t h a t we are talkin g
about sm all (or sm aller than exp ecte d) q uantities or a m o unts (I40) and in questions to ask
about quantities or am o unts (e.g. Have yo u g ot much h o m ework to d o?). In affirm a tive
se n te nces w e often use a lo t of, l o ts o f or p le n t y o f rath er than m uch (of) and m a n y to
talk ab out large a m o u nts and q uantities, p articularly in co nversatio n and inform al writin g
(141). H owever, m a n y o f is co m m on in a ffirm a tive sentences in both fo rm al and inform al
co ntexts (142).

All (of) (-> Unit 51)

143 There is heating in a ll (of ) the holid ay cottag es.
W e use a ll or a ll o f when we are talkin g ab o ut th e to tal num b er of things or people in a
group, or th e t o tal a m o u nt of so m ething. In inform al c o ntexts we can leave out of.
144 O Everyone was w aitin g to hear th e results.
In mo dern English w e d on't use a ll w ith o u t a noun to mean ‘everyo ne’ or ‘e verythin g’.
H owever, a ll can mean 'everythin g' when it is fo llow e d by a rela tive cla use (e.g. I d on't
agree with a ll th a t he said. (= everythin g th a t he said)). W e can also use a ll w ith o u t a noun
to mean ‘th e only thin g' (e.g. A ll she w a n ts t o do is help.).
Each / every (-* Unit 51)
145 Q Every newsp ap er had th e sa m e fro nt page story.
146 Followin g th e flo o d, every building in th e area needs m ajor repair w ork.
W e can use e ach and e v e ry with singular co unta ble nouns (145), and e ach o f w ith plural
nouns, to mean all thin gs or people in a group of tw o or m ore (e ach (of)) or thre e or more

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(every). W e use a singular verb (... n e e ds... ) after e ach (of) and e v e r y (146). H owever, when
e ach fo llo ws th e noun or pronoun it refers to, th e noun / pronoun and verb are plural (e.g.
Every stu d ent is teste d tw ice a year. Th ey are each given a hundred questions to do.).
(A) few (of), less (of), (a) little (of) (-» Unit 52)
147 O A fe w o f th e boys were very good co m p uter gamers.
148 O Th ere is little evid ence to sup p ort his claim.
W e use (a) f e w (of) with plural co untable nouns (147) and (a) li t t l e (of) with uncounta ble
nouns (148).
I49 o Th ere’s a lot less w a ter in th e lake than last year.
I50 o Th e holid ay cost less than I th o u g ht it w o uld.
We use l ess (of) with uncountable nouns (149) or in a general sense (150).
151 o I've got a fe w close frien ds t h a t I m e et regularly.
152 o He has fe w close friends and often fe els lonely.
W e often use a f e w and a li t t l e in a ‘p ositive’ w ay (151); for exam ple, to suggest th a t a
sm all a m o u nt or q u an tity is enough, or to suggest th a t it is more than w e wo uld exp ect. W e
often use f e w and li t t l e in a ‘n e g ative’ w ay (I52); for exam ple, to suggest th at the am o unt
or q u an tity is not enough, or is surprisingly low. Co m pare 'A fe w o f her songs w ere po pular
and she w as very w e ll kn own' (= ‘ p ositive’) and ‘F ew o f her songs were very po pular and
eve n tu ally she gave up her m usical care er' (= ‘n e g ative’). This use of f e w and li t t l e is often
rath er form al.

Rela tiv e cla uses an d o t h e r t y p es o f cla use Q 5ESEH

Relative clauses have a sim ilar fu nctio n to a djectives in th a t th ey give more inform atio n about
so m eone or so m ethin g referred to in a main clause. Participle clauses (-ing and -ed clauses) can be
used like relative clauses, but can also have an adverbial functio n, giving inform atio n ab o ut tim e,
cause, etc.

Relative clauses (-+ Units 53-55)

J1 O Magnus stop ped the police car th a t was driving p ast.
J2 O My m oth er, who is in her seventies, enjoys hill walkin g.
D e finin g re la t iv e cla uses (e .g .... th a t was driving past ] J1) are used to sp ecify which person
or thing we m ean, or which type of person or thin g w e m ean. N ote th a t w e d o n't put a
co m m a b etween th e noun and a d efining relative clause.
N o n - d e fin in g rela t iv e cl a uses ( e .g ...., who is in her se v e n t ie s, ...; J2) are used to add extra
inform atio n ab o ut a noun, but this inform atio n is not necessary to explain which person
or thing w e m ean. W e d on't use th e m often in everyd ay spe ech, but we do use th e m
fre q u e ntly in writte n English. N ote th a t w e often put a co m m a before and after a non
defining relative clause.
J3 O Th e house, which is to the north o f the road, is owne d by a rock star.
A fter a relative clause, w e d o n't repeat th e su bject w ith a pronoun; so, for exam ple, w e
w o uld n't say ‘Th e house which is to th e north of th e road it is owne d by a rock star'.
H owever, this is so m etim es found in inform al speech; for exam ple, ‘A friend of mine who is
a so licitor - she helped me.'
J4 U I have a frie n d w h o / t h a t pla ys guitar, (a friend = su bject, plays = verb, guitar = o bject)
J5 O He showed me the rocks (w hich / t h a t) he had co lle cte d, (the rocks = o bject, he = su bject,
had collecte d = verb)
W h en w e use a defining rela tive cla use, the relative pronoun can be eith er th e su bject or the
o bject o f th e relative clause. W hen it is th e su bje ct th e word order is su bject + verb + o bject
(J4). W hen th e relative pronoun is th e o b je ct th e word ord er is o bject + subject + verb (J5).

-ing clauses (= present participle clauses) (-* Units 58 8c 59)

J6 O Gla ncing over his shoulder, he could see th e dog chasing him.
J7 O Pushing h er way through the crow ds,, she just managed to get on th e bus as it pulled away.

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J8 O ‘W ait a m inute,' said A my, running through the door.

We can use an -ing clause to talk about so m ethin g th at takes place at the sam e tim e as
(J6) or just before (J7) an actio n in th e main clause. W e often use an -ing clause in writte n
narrative after quoted spe ech, when w e w a n t to say w h a t so m eone was doing w hile th ey
were talkin g (J8).
N ote th a t the understoo d subject of -ing and -ed (see J10) clauses should be th e sam e as
th e subject o f th e main clause. For exam ple, in J6, 'he' is th e unstate d su bject o f ‘Glancin g
over his should er
J9 Knowing exa ctly wh at I w a nted, I didn't spend much tim e shopping.
-ing clauses can be used to talk ab o ut reasons and results. This sentence has a sim ilar
m eaning to ‘Because I knew exactly w h a t I wante d, I didn't spend much tim e shopping'.

-ed clauses (= past participle clauses) (-* Units 58 & 59)

J10 O A nnoyed by the b oys’ behaviour, she co m plaine d to the hea dteach er.
We can use an -ed clause to talk about so m ethin g th a t happened before an actio n in the
main clause. O fte n the event in th e -ed clause causes the event in the main clause.

Pro n o u ns, su bst it u t io n an d le avin g o u t w o r ds C2!12E3iii2Lis)

Reflexive pronouns (-♦ Unit 60)
K1 O ‘W h a t did yo u do to y o ur hand?' ‘I cut m yse lf when I was chopping ve g eta bles.'
W hen th e subject and o bject o f a se ntence refer to th e sa m e person or thing, w e use a
re fle xiv e pro n o u n as th e o bject of a sente nce rath er than a personal pronoun. The singular
forms of reflexive pronouns are m yself , y o u rse lf , h e rself , hi mself, itself; th e plural forms
are o u rselv es, y o u rse lv es, t h e m se lv es.
K2 W e phoned th e plum b er and he ca m e himself.
K3 O My sister drew th e picture herself.
K4 I was given this book by th e auth or herself.
We can use reflexive pronouns for em phasis: for exam ple, after an intransitive verb (K2)
to em p hasise the subject; after a transitive verb (K3) to em phasise th at so m ethin g is done
with o u t help; or after a noun to em phasise th a t noun (K4).

Each other / one another

K5 O Th ey trie d to avoid each oth er / one a nother at th e party.
K6 O John and Carm en first m et (each oth er / one a nother ) when th e y w ere workin g in Spain.
Som e verbs, such as avoid (K5), can be used to describ e actio ns inwhich tw o or more
people or things do th e sam e thin g to th e o th er(s). W e use e ach o t h e r or o n e a n o t h e r with
th ese.

A lso : a t t r a c t , co m p le m e n t, face, help, re p el

A fter o th er verbs such as m e e t (K6), w e can use each o t h e r or o n e a n o t h e r, but this m ay
be o m itte d when th e su bject is plural or has th e form ‘... and .

Also: e m b race, fig h t, kiss, m a rry

K7 O The sche m e allo ws stu d ents fro m m any co untries to co m m unicate with each oth er / with
one another.
K8 O W e looked a t each oth er / one a nother and starte d to laugh.
W ith so m e verbs (e.g. com m unica te ) w e have t o use a pre positio n, often w it h, before each
o t h e r / o n e a n o t h e r (K7 & K8).

Also: a gree, coinci d e, c o lla b o ra t e, c o m p e t e (a g ainst), co n t r ast , co - o p era t e,

disa gree, jo k e, lo o k a t, q u arre l, t a l k t o / w it h

K9 The tw o children each blam ed th e other for breaking the win d ow.
For e m p hasis we can se parate each and o t he r. This se ntence is more e m p hatic than ‘The
tw o children blamed each oth er

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Substitution (-» Units 61-63)

K10 C I had a racing bike w hen I was yo ung, and so d id m y b ro t h e r.
K11 Q 'Em m a loves ice cre a m .’ 'So d o I.'
K12 O ‘I didn't think much of th e restaurant.' ' N e it h e r d id I.'
We can use so + a u x i l i a r y v e r b + s u b j e c t to say th at a second person does the same things
as the person already mentioned (K10 & K11). The corresponding negative form uses n e i t h e r
(K12), n o r ('N or did I'), or n o t ... e i t h e r (‘I didn't eith er’). W e often use this to avoid repetition
(e.g. in K12 w e use ‘ N either did I' rath er than ‘I didn’t think much of th e restaurant eith er').

Adjectives and adverbs

Gradable and non-gradable adjectives (-» Units 67-68)
LI O Th ey live in a very l a rg e house.
L2 O O ur te ach er gave us an a bsolutely i m p o ssib le problem to solve.
M ost a djectives describ e q ualities t h a t can be measure d or graded, and so can be used
in co m parative and su p erlative forms and with words such as ‘v e ry’ or ‘e xtre m e ly’. These
are referred to as g r a d a b l e a djectives (for exam ple, ‘larg e’ in L1). Som e a djectives are not
gradable because th ey refer to q ualities th a t are co m ple tely present or co m ple tely absent.
These n o n - g r a d a b l e a djectives (e.g. 'im p ossible' in L2) are not usually used in co m parative
and su p erla tive forms or with words such as ‘very' or ‘extre m ely'. Th ey can often, however,
be used w ith words such as ‘a bso lu tely’ or ‘c o m p le tely’.

Order of adjectives
L3 O I drank so m e v e ry g o o d B r a z ili a n coffee.
W hen we use more than one a djective before a noun, there is ofte n a preferred (although
not fixed) order for th ese a djectives depending on w h a t typ e of adjective th ey are:

o p i n i o n + si z e / p h y s i c a l q u a l i t y / s h a p e / a g e + c o l o u r + p a r t i c i p l e a d j e c t i v e s +
o ri g i n + m a t e r i a l + t y p e + p u r p o s e + N O U N

Exa m ples:
an old plastic co ntain er = age + m aterial + noun
a hard red ball = q uality + colo ur + noun
a frig htenin g Korean mask = opinion + origin + noun
a round biscuit tin = shape + purpose (for holding biscuits) + noun
a sm all broken plate = size + participle a djective + noun
a useful digital alarm clock = opinion + typ e + purpose + noun

To help yo u to learn this order, it can be useful to re m em b er th a t gradable adjectives

(d escribing opinion, size, quality, sh ape, and age ) usually precede ungradable a djectives
{ participle a djective and a djectives describing origin, m ateria l, type and purpose ) .
Easily confused adjectives
L4 O I w as s u rp r ise d t o find th a t the film was quite fr ig h t e n in g .
Som e a djectives t h a t are used to describ e feelings ab o ut so m ethin g or so m eone else have
both an - e d and - i n g form. G e n erally, th e - e d form describ es how the person fe els (e.g. I
was su rprise d ...), and the - i n g form gives an evaluatio n of th e thing or o ther person (e .g ....
th e film w as quite frightening.)

Also: a l a r m e d - a l a r m i n g , a m a z e d - a m a z i n g , b o r e d - b o ri n g , e x c i t e d - e x c i t i n g ,
i n t e r e s t e d - i n t e r e s t i n g , p l e a s e d - p l e a si n g , t i r e d - t ir i n g , w o r r i e d - w o r r y i n g

Adjectives and adverbs: use (-♦ Unit 71)

L5 O Th e sta ff in the shop alw ays speak p o l i t e ly to custo m ers.
L6 O It was st r a n g e ly quiet as w e w e n t into th e roo m.
W e use an a dverb, not an a djective, to say how so m ethin g happened or was done (L5), or to
m o dify a djectives (L6).

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Adjectives and adverbs: comparative and superlative forms (-►Unit 72)

L7 Q The building was bigger than I'd exp ecte d.
L8 O It was the m ost ridiculous thin g to say.
W e usually add th e ending - e r to o ne-sylla ble a djectives and adverbs to make th eir
co m p arative forms (L7) and - e s t to make th eir su p erlative forms. W ith thre e or more
sylla bles w e usually add m o r e / l e ss and m o s t / l e a s t (L8). W ith tw o sylla bles we can
usually use either.

Quite
L9 O I was quite satisfied with th e result.
L10 o N o, yo u're quite wrong!
L11 o The food here is quite superb.
Q u i t e has tw o meanings: to a p articular degree, but not ‘very' (= ‘fairly') (L9); and to a
large degree, or ‘very m uch' (= ‘c o m ple tely') (L10). W hen q u i t e is used w ith non-gradable
a djectives it m eans ‘c o m ple tely' (L11).

Adverbial clauses and conjunctions glfffflgfEgSa

An adverbial clause is a typ e of sub ordinate clause, linked to a main clause. An adverbial clause adds
extra inform atio n to the main clause about such thin gs as tim e and co nditions. M ost a dverbial clauses
begin with a co njunctio n th at indicates th eir link with th e main clause. Exam ple co njunctio ns are
a f t e r , b e f o r e , w h e n and u n t i l (tim e co nju nctio ns); and i f and u n l e ss (co n ditio nal co nju nctio ns).

Tenses in adverbial and main clauses: general

Ml Because I'm overweig ht, my d octor has p u t me on a diet.
M2 I f e lt unw ell when I g o t up this morning.
The verb in th e adverbial clause is usually th e sam e tense as th e verb in th e main clause. In
M1 th ey are both present (present sim ple + present p erfect), and in M2 th ey are both past
(past sim ple + past sim ple).

Time clauses: tenses (-►Unit 79)

M3 Have so m ethin g to eat before you leave.
To refer to th e future after a tim e co njunctio n (... before ...) w e use present te nses.
M4 O As soon as yo u see / have seen her, co m e and t e ll me.
M5 She wro te to me after she spoke / had spoken to Carlos.
To talk about an actio n in th e adverbial clause t h a t is co m plete d before an o th er action
described in th e main clause, we can use eith er sim ple or p erfect tenses (present as in M4
or past as in M5), but not w i l l or w i l l h a v e + - e d (the future p erfect).
M6 W hen I sa w Kim, I asked her over for dinner.
If the actio ns in th e main clause and th e adverbial clause take place at th e sam e tim e, w e
use sim ple, not p erfect tenses.
M7 O W hile the children were swim ming, th eir m o th er kept a w a tch ful eye on th e m.
M8 3 I read a book w hile I w aited.
W h i l e is m ainly used w ith co ntinuous tenses (M7) and also w ith sim ple tenses (M 8).

Conditional clauses ( -* Units 83-86)

R e a l a n d u n r e a l c o n d i t i o n a ls ( - * U n i t s 8 3 & 8 4 )
Som e co n ditio nal clauses beginning with i f suggest th a t a situatio n is real - th a t is, the situatio n is or
was tru e, or m ay have been or m ay b eco me true (e.g. I f anyone phones, t e ll th e m I’ll be back at eleven;
If y o u re a lly w ant to learn Italian, you need to spend so m e tim e in Italy). O th ers suggest th a t a situatio n
is unreal - th a t is, th e situatio n is im aginary or untrue, (e.g. W h a t would you do i f y o u won the lo ttery?;
I f yo u h a d st a rted out earlier, yo u w o uld n't have been so late).
Co m pare: I f I g o t o Berlin, I'll trave l by train. ( = re a l co n ditio nal) and I f I w ent to Berlin, I'd trave l by
train. (= unreal co n ditio nal). In the first, th e speaker is thinkin g of going to Berlin (it is a real future
p ossibility), but in th e second, th e sp eaker is not thinkin g of doing so. Th e second mig ht be giving
so m eone advice.
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R e a l c o n d i t i o n a ls: t e n s e s (- U n its 8 3 & 8 4 )

M9 o I'll give yo u a lift if it rains.
M10 o If yo u leave now, yo u'll be hom e in tw o hours.
M11 o If w a ter freez es, it expands.
M12 o If I made th e wrong decision then I apologise.
In real co n ditio nals we use a present tense to talk ab o ut the fu ture (M 9), th e present (M10)
or unchanging relatio nships (M11), and past t enses to talk ab o ut the past (M12).

U n r e a l c o n d i t i o n a ls: t e n s e s (- » U n i t s 8 3 &. 8 4 )
M13 O / / m y gran dfath er was / were still alive, he would be a hundred to day.
To talk about prese n t or fu ture situatio ns in unreal co n ditio nals, w e use a past tense (eith er
sim ple or co ntinu o us) in th e i f - c l a u s e and w o u l d + b a r e i n f i n i t i v e in the main clause.
In unreal co n ditio nals w e d on't use the past sim ple or past p erfect in th e main clause. In
unreal co n ditio nals, we can also use c o u l d / m i g h t (h a v e ) instead of w o u l d ( h a v e ) (e.g.
If my gran dfath er was / were still alive, he m ight have enjoyed looking after our garden; If
I lived out of t o w n, I cou ld take up horse riding.). N ote th a t we so m etim es use i f ... w e r e
instead of i f ... w a s (see U nit 85).
M14 Q If I had known how d ifficult the jo b w as, I wouldn't have taken it.
W hen we talk about so m ethin g t h a t mig ht have happened in the p ast, but didn't, then we
use i f + p a s t p e r f e c t and w o u l d h a v e + p a s t p a r t i c i p l e in th e main clause. W e can also use
m i g h t / c o u l d h a v e instea d of w o u l d h a v e in th e main clause (e.g. Th ey m ight have fou n d
a b etter h otel / / th ey had driven a fe w more kilo m etres.).
M15 O If Bruno w asn't so lazy, he would have p assed th e exam easily.
M16 / / th e d octor h a d been c a lled earlier, Paula would still be alive to day.
In so m e unreal co n ditio nals w e use mixed te nses. Th a t is, a past te nse in th e i f - c l a u s e and
w o u l d h a v e + p a s t p a r t i c i p l e in the main clause (M15), or a past p erfect in th e if - c l a u s e
and w o u l d + i n f i n i t i v e in th e main clause (M 16). W e can use th ese patterns to talk about
possible conse quences if situatio ns were or had been different. W e can also use m i g h t /
c o u l d ( h a v e ) in th e main clause instead of w o u l d ( h a v e ) (e.g. ... he cou ld have passed th e
exam e a sily .;... Paula m ight still be alive to d ay.).
M17 O If I had a m ore reliable car, I'd drive to Spain rath er than fly.
In unreal co n ditio nal sente nces w e d on't n orm ally use w o u l d in an i f - c l a u s e (but see
U nit 84).

O ther adverbial clauses

O th er ty p es of adverbial cla use give inform atio n about p la ce (M 18), contrast (M19 and U nit 82), cause
or reason (M 20 and U nit 80), purpose (M21 and U nit 81), and result (M22 and U nit 81):
M18 o Can yo u put it back where y o u fo u n d it, please?
M19 o My sister is blonde, whereas my brother has dark hair.
M20 o He w asn't allowe d in beca use he was too you ng.
M21 o W e g ot up e arly so that we cou ld w atch the sunrise.
M22 o He played so badly that he was e asily bea ten.

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 Additional exercises
These a d ditio nal exercises provide furth er practice of im p orta nt areas from th e book; each exercise covers
gram m ar from tw o or more units. References to th e relevant exercises are given at th e b otto m of the main
unit exercise pages. The key can be found on p.278.

List of exercises:
Exercise 1 Present and past; sim ple and co ntinuous tenses Un ts 1, 2 & 4
Exercise 2 Present p erfect, past sim ple, and present p erfect co ntinuous Un ts 3 &6
Exercise 3 Past perfect, past p erfect co ntinuous, and past sim ple Un ts 5 &7
Exercise 4 The future Un ts 9 & 10
Exercise 5 M odals and se m i-m o d als Un ts 15-20
Exercise 6 Passives Un ts 22-25
Exercise 7 Verb c o m ple m entatio n: w h a t fo llo ws verbs Un ts 30 & 31
Exercise 8 Reporting Un ts 33, 35, 36 & 38
Exercise 9 N ouns Un ts 40-43
Exercise 10 Articles, etc. Un ts 44-48
Exercise 11 Relative clauses Un ts 53 -55
Exercise 12 Su bstitutio n and leaving out words Un ts 62 -65
Exercise 13 Position of a djectives, adverbs and a dverbial phrases Un ts 66, 69, 74 & 75
Exercise 14 A dverbial clauses and co njunctio ns Un ts 79 -82 & 87
Exercise 15 Prepositio ns Un ts 92-94
Exercise 16 Inversion Un ts 99 & 100

Present and past; simple and continuous ten ses Units 1, 2 & 4

C o m p l e t e e a c h p a ir o f s e n t e n c e s w i t h a p o si t i v e o r n e g a t i v e f o r m o f t h e s a m e v e r b f r o m t h e
b o x . U s e t h e p r e s e n t si m p l e , p r e s e n t c o n t i n u o u s, p a s t si m p l e o r p a s t c o n t i n u o u s. G i v e a l l
p o ssi b l e a n s w e rs. U se t o a d d a n y w o r d s o u t si d e t h e g a p .

c o n sid e r exp ect own phone prefer

^ r o m ise ^ put read t e ll w eig h

1 a If I'm not to o busy, I prprnlse to help yo u in th e garden later to day,

b I'll try to g et over on Saturday, but I to be th ere.
2 a I made a cup of coffe e w hile she th e letter.
b As soon as the teach er told us to start, I through all th e questions quickly.
3 a Th ey to reach the m o untain su m m it by evening, but th e w e ath er was to o bad.
b We Luisa to visit us in June if she can get a cheap flight.
4 a O ver 9 0% o f th e p o pulation now .......................... am o bile phone.
b I grew up in Beijing, where my fath er a bookshop.
5 a I ............................ selling m y house and buying a flat.
b M any people her to be the fin est violinist in the c o untry at the m o m ent.
6 a Leo me th a t yo u're g ettin g marrie d. Co ngratulations!
b A p p arently Angela is very ill. Th ey me th a t she never leaves her house now.
7 a I .......................... the th e atre fo ur tim es this m orning, but th ere was no answer.
b I my m o ther tw ice a day when m y fath er was in hospital.
8 a He alw ays his fe e t up on th e chairs. It's re ally unhygienic.
b I find it annoying th a t she co nstan tly e m p ty m ilk carto ns back in th e fridge.
9 a A survey has found th a t, surprisingly, m ost children to w alk to scho ol than be
taken by car.
b I swam across th e river, but m y friends to w alk to th e nearest bridge,
10 a N athan over 100 kilos and really needs to take more exercise,
b He held th e fish in his hands as if he it and then said, ‘It's ab out 3.5 kilos.'
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 A dditional exercises

;ent perfect, past simple, and present perfect continuous J Units 3 & 6

M atch t h e b eginnings and e ndin gs. So m e ti m es t h ere is m ore t h an o n e p ossibilit y.

1 a I haven't had tim e to phone i) but I'll certainly c o ntact him before I leave
Hugo to day, work.
b I didn't have tim e to phone ii) but I'll c ertainly co ntact him so m e tim e
Hugo to day, to m orro w.

2 a W hen she was prime minister, i) has often been accused of ignoring the advice
Mrs Perez of her colleagues.
b Since she became prime ii) was often accused of ignoring th e advice of
minister, Mrs Perez her colleagues.

3 a I've watch e d Mamm a Mia i) and now I keep hum min g th e songs to myself.
b I've been w atchin g Mamm a Mia ii) at least te n tim es already.

4 a I'd alw ays wante d to own a i) until I've found out how much th ey cost.
Porsche ii) until I found out how much th ey cost.
b I w o n't kn ow if I can afford a
Porsche

5 a U n e m plo ym ent has risen i) by 58% since th e present g overnm ent cam e
b U n e m plo ym ent has been rising to power.
ii) ever since th e present g overnm ent cam e to
power.

6 a As soon as I've finished th e book i) I’m going to have a holiday.

b As soon as I finished th e book ii) I starte d writin g a no th er one.

7 a I've been playing squash i) since my d octor advised me to lose weig ht.
b I've played squash ii) a couple of tim es before, but I can't get the
hang of it.

8 a I haven't been back to London i) since I lived in Italy.

b I haven't eaten really good pasta ii) since I've lived in Italy.

Past perfect, past perfect continuous, and past simple Units 5 & 7

C o m p le t e each se n t e n ce (b) so t h a t it has a si m ilar m eanin g t o se n t e nce (a). Use a verb rela t e d
t o t h e it alicise d w ord in an a p p ro pria t e t e nse (active or p assive): p ast p erf ect, p ast p erf ect
co n tin u o us or p ast si m ple. Giv e a l t ern a tiv es w here p ossible.
1 a The proposed new library had been under discussion for alm ost thre e ye ars at th e tim e an
ap pro priate site became available.
b A t th e tim e an ap pro priate site became available, th ey hcui been discussing the..............
proposed new Librcmj -for atmost three y e a rs ......................................................................
2 a There had been a co nsid era ble im prove m ent in his co ndition when I saw him in hospital last
night.
b His c o n d itio n ..........................................................................................................................................................................
3 a It w as announced th at there w as a te n - m inu te delay to th e Toulouse train.
b It w as announced th at th e To ulouse train ..............................................................................................................
4 a Th o m as had been on a diet for a m o nth when he cam e to stay w ith us, and we noticed
im m e d iately th a t he had alrea dy lost a lot of weig ht,
b Th o m as.......................................................................................................................................................................................

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 A dditional exercises

5 a There was an expecta tion th a t Victoria would win co m forta bly, but she finished third.
b V ic t o ria ......................................................................................................................................................................................
6 a W hen I reversed the car out of th e garage, I did so m e dam age to th e rear num b er plate.
b W hen I reversed th e car o ut of the garage, I ..........................................................................................................
7 a Andrei received a prom otion last week.
b A n d re i.........................................................................................................................................................................................
8 a Rentpo ol had been under investigation by the tax auth orities for a num b er of m o nths when
th ey arrested the chairm an,
b Th e tax a u t h o ritie s...............................................................................................................................................................
9 a The M inister mad e her colleagues angry when she criticise d th e m during her speech yesterd ay,
b The M in ist e r............................................................................................................................................................................
10 a There had alrea dy been a suggestion from Emilia th at th e m o ney should be sp ent on new
ta ble t co m p uters for th e scho ol,
b E m ilia ..................................................................................................................................................................................... ..

9 Units 9 & 10

If n ecessary, co rrect or im prove t h e it alicise d verbs in t h ese dialo g ues, using w ill, sh a ll, g oing
t o , p rese n t co n tin u o us f or t h e f u t ure, or prese n t sim p le f or t he f u ture.
A a : Careful, (1) you 're going to spill yo ur coffee.
b: O h, no! Too late. N ow (2) I 'm going to have t o change m y trousers.
B a : W h a t have yo u got all th a t wo od for?
b : ( 1 ) 17/ build a bird ta ble in th e garden.
a : If yo u need any help, let me know and (2) I 'm going to give you a hand.
C a : (1) S h all yo u be able to co m e over on th e 3rd? W e (2) have a barbecue.
b: Just a minute, (3) Vm going to have a look in my diary. N o, I'm sorry. (4) I'm m eeting some
friends in town th a t day.
D a : Did you know th a t David (1) is going to go to N ew Zealand this su m m er?
b: Yes, I heard. I'm re ally sorry he (2) doesn't com e to see us.
a : I wo nd er when w e (3) see him again?
b : W ell, he c ertainly (4) won't be back before Christm as.
E a : I (1) take A unt Lucy to th e statio n later. Do you w a n t a lift into t o w n, to o?
b : W h a t tim e (2) does her train go?
a : It (3) will be at 4:15. It (4) ta kes us about h alf an hour to get th ere if there isn't too much
traffic.
b : W ell yo u should start out early. A p parently, (5) we'// have heavy sno w this afterno o n. In fact,
thanks for y o ur offer, but I think (6) Vm going to stay at home in the w arm.

Modals and sem i-m odals Units 15-20

U n d erlin e t h e b est a nsw e rs fro m each group in it alics.

1 aI've sp ent m ost of the m orning tryin g to fix my washin g m achin e, but I se em to have made it
:
worse.
b : Y o u ought to ask / m ay ask / ought to have asked me to co m e over and take a look at it. I would

have been / should be / would be happy to help. But I sup pose it's to o late now!
2 The taxi needs to / should / would be here in a co uple of m inutes. W e'd b e tt er / Ve b e t t e r / 'd
b e tter to get ready to go.
3 My daughter wouldn't / won't / m ay not eat carrots. She hates the taste of th e m . I don't have to
/ 'm n o t a b le to / ca n't think of any w ay of g etting her to eat th e m. But to t e ll th e truth, I could /
would / used to hate th e m when I was yo ung, too.

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 Additional exercises

4 a W e're co m ple tely lost! \'m n o t a b le to / ca n't / m ustn't find any of th e stre et nam es around
:
here on th e map.
b: W e m ust have / have go t to have / can have taken th e wrong turnin g at the traffic lights about
a kilo m etre back.
5 You h aven't g o t to / needn't / m ustn't go on th e beach when th e tid e's co ming in. It's very
dangerous. You can / m ight / would play in the playground instead.
6 I was beginning to be concerned th at I w on’t / m ustn't / wouldn't get to th e statio n for my train.
But I didn't need worry / needn't have worried / needn't worry, Aisha turned up in good tim e to
give me a lift.
7 M ost headte achers to d ay fe el th a t parents need / should / had b e tter play a more active part in
the running of scho ols. Th ere was a tim e when parents would / will / should put a lot of effort
into fundraising for scho ols, but those days seem to have gone.
8 a : These trousers shrank th e first tim e I washed th e m.

b : If I were yo u, I ought to / should / can take the m back.

a : Yes, I suppose th ey can / need / m ay give me my m o ney back.

9 Prelim in ary research suggests th at th e bones m ust / have got to / used to be at least 10 0,000
ye ars old, but th ey would / cou ld / can be co nsid era bly old er than th at.
10 A p parently, in the future, w e will be able to / can / cou ld to get holograms of th e people we're
talkin g to on our mo bile phones. O f course, by the tim e this is co m m o n, w e can / m ust / might
have starte d using o th er w ays of co m m unicatin g.
11 Both can did ates for the jo b were very strong and it was hard to choose b etween th e m . I c ertainly
couldn't / m ustn't / had g o t to have decided which one to app oint. But fortu n ately, we hadn't
got to / didn't have to / m ustn't make a fin al d ecision; th e m ana g e m ent found enough m o ney to
allo w us to ap p oint both of th e m .
12 You needn't / don't need to / m ustn't be very fit to play bad minton w ell. It can / is able to / could
be played by anyone who is reasonably fit and who has a good sense of timin g.

M Units 22-25

So m e e x t rac ts fro m radio n e ws re p o rts are given belo w. Re writ e t h e m using p assive f or ms
in w hich t h e it alicise d w ord is t h e su b ject o f each clause. If t h a t is it alicise d, use a p assive
co nstr uct io n w it h it or t h e re .
Exa m ples:
Picasso encouraged her to paint. —> She w as e nco ura g e d to paint by Picasso.
People believe th at th e Prime M inister w ill resign to m orro w. - » It is b elie ve d th at the Prime
M inister w ill resign to m orro w.

A People are encouraging the Prime M inister to sack the Enviro nm ent Minister, Maria Long, after
so m eone revealed that she had received paym ents fro m a m ajor oil co m pany. H owever, in a
sta te m e n t to day, th e Prime M inister said: ‘ My advisors te ll me th a t th e co m pany paid Mrs Long
th e m oney before she joined th e g overnm ent. I have no intentio n of dismissing her.'
B A tro pic al storm has caused severe flo o ding in th e city of Chittag o n g in south ern Banglad esh.
Althoug h we understand th a t there are no casualties, the floo ds have mad e m any thousa nds o f
p eople ho m eless, and people estim ate th e da m age to property as running into m illio ns of d ollars.
C Pro testers have co ntinued to block th e co nstructio n of th e new ring road by tyin g th e mselves to
tre es along th e proposed route. Police say th at th ey have given the pro testers tw o days to leave
th e area or th ey w ill arrest them.

D Co nservatio n groups have demanded th a t th e g overnm ent should close down the nucle ar pow er
sta tion after a re port which said th a t investigators have found un a ccepta ble levels o f radiation in
th e local area.

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 A d ditional exercises

The C o m m issio n er of the Dublin police force has revealed th a t th ey have received a death threat
against th e life of President N ab on, wh o is visitin g the ca pital this weekend. He says th a t th ey
are taking the thre a t very seriously. People exp ect th a t se curity levels w ill be increased during the
President's visit.

Som eone found a man injured on a Scottish hillside this morning. People think th a t he fell while
coming down a hillside in bad w eath er. M edical sta ff are treatin g him in hospital for leg and head
injuries. Som eone reported him missing last night when he failed to return home after a day's
walkin g.

And now fo otb all. People exp ect th a t there w ill be a record crowd at tonig ht's m atch between
Barcelona and Real Madrid. People rep ort th a t the club w ill give the Barcelona pla yers a huge
financial bonus if th ey win and people have even suggested that the club mig ht pay them as
much as € 5 0 ,0 0 0 each.

Verb com plem entation: w hat follows verbs Units 30 & 31

U n d erlin e t he co rrect o p tion. So m e ti m es b ot h are p ossible.

1 He insisted to p a y / on paying for the meal.
2 The interview er starte d off to ask / by asking me w hy I wante d the jo b.
3 I can cle arly recall his saying / him saying th at he was m eeting Sarah at eight o'clock.
4 The university has arra nged / a ppointed Dr Lopez to be head of th e new M edical Institute.
5 I knew I could ask / count on H annah if I needed any help.
6 My parents are alw ays going on a t me to tidy / fo r to tidy up my bedroom.
7 The ticke t enables yo u visiting / to visit both th e museum and th e art g allery.
8 Fatim a is so sm all t h a t she often has to resort to wearing children's clothes / children's clothes to
get th e right size.
9 We objecte d to their ca t / their ca t's digging up our garden.
10 The g overn m ent plans to bring in new laws forcin g / making parents to take more resp onsibility
for the e ducation of th eir children.
11 I d o n't approve of h er wearing / wearing outd o or shoes in th e house.
12 Ram os was arrested when he faile d him to a p p e a r / to a ppear in co urt.
13 If yo u have any pro blems with the co m puter, co ntact Sim on. It's best if yo u a llo w / l e t him deal
with th e m.
14 I've heard a lot about Dr Lau, and I'm looking forward to hearing / to he ar his talk to m orro w.
15 Although Carm en is a d octor herself, it d o esn't e n title her t o / entitle fo r her to sp ecial tre atm e n t,
and she w ill have to join th e waitin g list like everyo ne else.
16 We w a ited / w a ited fo r the storm to pass before we co ntinued.
17 W hen I was in the su p erm arket I noticed a man to take / n oticed a man take a packet o ff th e sh elf
and hide it inside his co at.
18 W e in v ite d / refused Lisa to co m e to the party.
19 I overheard her te ll / telling Aleksi th a t she was serio usly ill.
20 She gave up work so th a t she could focus on looking / look after her children.
21 W e were unhap py in England, and even discussed / ta lked of emigrating to N ew Zealand.
22 The lizard is am azin gly w e ll adapted to live / to living in very dry and win d y co nditions.
23 A n o th er increase in the price of p etrol would discourage me fro m using / fro m using my car.

244
 A dditional exercises

C o m p le t e each re p ort using a noun fro m t h e box f ollo w e d by a t h a t - c l a u se or t o -in f in i t iv e

cla use . Giv e b o th a l t er n a ti v es if p ossible.

a d v ice co m p la in t co n clusio n co n f essio n d ecisio n pre dictio n

p ro m ise r e f usa l re p ly s t at e m e n t threat w arnin g

1 ‘The g overnm ent has decreased taxatio n every ye ar since w e cam e to power,' state d th e
President.
O p p ositio n lead ers have c h alle n g e d t h e Pre sid e n t's stoJxjw z n t t h a t t h e gov&rnrnent
h a v e / houi d p pre asect every y e a r sin c e th e y caJT'e..to...power .....
2 Karen said, T v e decided not to go to university next year.' W e were disapp ointe d with
Karen s decision..........................................................................................................................
3 ‘The Earth w ill pass through the ta il o f a co m et w ithin th e n ext five ye ars,' predicted Professor
A dams.
Co nsidera ble media atte ntio n has been focused on ..............................
4 ‘W e said th at w e would dismiss th e strikers if th ey didn't return to w ork, and w e have now done
th at.'
The co m pany has carrie d out ...........................................................................................................................................
5 ‘You should dele gate more of y o ur w ork to y o ur secretary,' N icky w as advised by her boss.
N icky decided to f o ll o w ..........................................................................................................................................................
6 ‘I'll pick yo u up at ten,' Jason promised.
Jason didn't turn up u ntil eleven, d es p it e ......................................................................................................................
7 ‘Professor Jo nes d o esn't know w h a t he's talkin g about,' Rob co nclud ed.
I w asn't surprised b y .............................................................................................................. _....................
8 ‘ My dinner is cold!'
We decided to ignore D a n's..................................................................................................................................................
9 ‘We w ill not ne g otiate over th e ownership of th e land!'
I was astonished by .................................................................................................................................................................
10 ‘Sm all children should be kept indo ors until p ollution levels have d ecrease d,' th e H ealth M inister
has warne d.
The H ealth M inister has issued .........................
11 T v e never used a co m p uter b efore,’ she co nfessed.
I w as surprised by .....................................................................................................................................................................
12 ‘W here's Be thany?' I asked Zeb. ‘I d on't know,' he replied.
W hen I asked Zeb w here Bethany w a s ............................................................................................................................

Units 4 0 -4 3

C o m p le t e each se n t e n ce w it h an a p p ro pria t e prese n t si m p le f or m (sin g ular or plural) o f t h e

verb in brack e ts. If b ot h sin g ular and plural f or ms are p ossible, give b o th.
1 I've been tryin g to sell my car for ages, but nobo dy to buy it. (want )
2 A le ttuce and a carrot all I need to make th e salad, (be)
3 A lot of stu d ents in th e old houses near th e university, (live )
4 All of th e scie n tific evid ence to th e co nclusio n th a t increasing use of p esticid es in
farm in g is damaging our health, (point )
5 The university to ap p oint lecturers who alrea dy have a PhD. ( prefer )
6 She’s one of those people wh o just sittin g in th e sun on holiday, ( love )
7 The office sta ff th a t th ey have been treate d badly by m ana g e m ent, (claim )
8 All of my children to th e sa m e scho ol, (go)

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 A dditional exercises

9 A lot of cheap er furniture nowa d ays in pieces inside a fla t box for yo u to build
yo urself, ( com e )
10 In France, th e media more respectful of the privacy of celebrities than in Britain, (be)
11 C urre ntly, 16% of th e w o rk fo rc e jo bless, (be )
12 It's a really quiet town at night. Everything at around 10 o'clock, (shut)
13 Th e p o lic e th a t th e fire w as caused d elib erately, (suspect )
14 Th e m ajority of the children in the class under five ye ars old. (be )
15 Although th e bracelet mig ht be w orth so m ethin g, none of the other je w e llery to
be of great valu e, ( appear)
16 The stairs quite ste ep, so be careful how yo u go d own, ( be )
17 W h at worries me about the car the problems we've been having with the brakes, (be)
18 The Unite d N a tio n s............................. to send a team of d octors to investigate th e outbreak of TB.
(plan )
19 O n e of th e arg um ents in favo ur of the new airp ort th a t it w ill bring jo bs to the
area, (be)
20 M any people have sp eculate d on th e reasons for th e south ern po pulation m ove m ents in th e
Indian su bco ntin ent during th e 15th century, but none of th e historic al records identified so far
.............................. an answer, ( provide )
21 It's a ch arity p erform ance, so none of th e actors a fee for takin g part, ( get )
22 Every le tter and p arc e l.............................carefully checked before posting to make sure it has the
c orrect ad dress, (be)
23 My parents w a n t to m ove to Spain, but neither o f th e m Spanish, (speak )
24 A: W h ere are th e scissors? B: I think eith er Leyla or Miguel borrowed th e m , (have )
25 M ost people would agree th a t th e criteria ..................... not of equal im p ortance, (be)
26 The eco no mics of nucle ar p ower become more and more difficult in the last
decad e, (have)
27 W h o ever had co ntact w ith th e patient to be found and vaccinate d against polio.
(have )
28 a : I've got to w alk all the w ay to my uncle's house, and he lives about tw o miles away.
b : But tw o miles far. ( b e / n o t )
29 A recent survey sho ws t h a t around 10% of all cars ............ dangerous to drive, (be)
30 Phonetics one of th e o ptions yo u can take in th e second ye ar of th e course, (be)

Units 4 4 -4 8

C o m p le t e t h e se n t e n ces using t he w ords fro m t h e box. W hich one o p tion can co m p le t e a ll

t h re e se n t e nces a, b and c?

a / an one so m e the ‘zero a r t icle ' (-)

1 a Could you look after my cat w hile I'm a w ay on h oliday? It's only for ........... week.
b Jules lives less t h a n .............................. mile fro m scho ol, so he can get up at eight o'clock and still
be at scho ol by nine.
c W hen I arrived, Alice w as sittin g in corner of th e room and Jake was sittin g in
th e other. I could te ll th at th ey had been arguing.
2 a vulture feeds prim arily on dead anim als.
b Eleni has arthritis, and her d octor has suggested th a t she should spend as much tim e as
possible in w arm clim ate.
c Fiona has decided she w a n ts to b e ............................acco u ntant.
3 a a : H o w should I get to th e to w n centre from here?
b : W ell, yo u could w alk, but catchin g a bus is pro bably quickest,
b The W orld W id e Fund for N ature organised a m ajor cam paign to save tiger,
c washing m achin e has had a huge im pact on people's lives since it was invented.

246
 A dditional exercises

4 a a: Rafael N a d a lis visitin g our scho ol n ext w e ek to talk about tennis.

b: You mean Rafael N a d a l- t h e fa m ous tennis player? Can you get his
auto graph for m e?
b It w as hot in th e house, so she opened all th e win d ows to let in fresh air.
c Large areas of Canada are still covered by forest.
5 a She was made C hief Executive O ffic er in 2002.
b Do yo u w a n t sugar in y o ur coffe e?
c You can buy ........................ m o bile phones for as little as £10.
6 a 500 people were at th e meeting.
b Despite years of research, we still d on't understand th e significance of dreams,
c It is a sad fact th at m o ney buys p olitical p ower in m any so cieties.
7 a earthquake in th e south of th e co untry has left thousan ds hom eless,
b I love having holidays at seaside.
c Do yo u re m e m b er W ilm o tts? Th ey used to live o pposite us.
8 a bicycle is an im p ortant m eans of transp ort for m any people with no access to
public transp ort.
b W e only stayed in O slo for night, but w e re ally liked the place,
c Juan owns a painting th a t he claims is Picasso.
9 a I felt fine wh en I woke up, but by evening I had a fever,
b The te m p erature at mid day reached over 40 °C.
c It's pro bably easiest to c o ntact me b y .............................em ail.
10 a My history te ach er at scho ol - Mrs Bullenski - was alw ays giving us advice on
how to im prove our exam inatio n skills,
b I'll just spend day or tw o in Singapore and then go on to A ustralia for thre e
weeks.
c It was ..... day th a t would remain in my m e m ory forever.

Units 53-55

O Re writ e each se n t e n ce includin g t he in f or m a tio n in brack e ts in a rela tiv e clause. Giv e all
p ossible rela tiv e pron ou ns, b ut if y o u can leave t he m o u t, pu t t he m in brack e ts. Use co m m as
w here n ecessary.
1 Later in th e pro gram m e w e have an intervie w w ith Laura Dekker. (in 2012 she became the
yo ung est solo ro un d-th e-world sailor) wctki
Laura Dekker,. who ui Z01Z becajme t h e yo un g est solo ro un d.-yo e -w orLd sailor, ............
2 Carla's restaurant is very good valu e, (it serves a range of M editerranean dishes)
3 The N ew Zealand rugby tea m are cle ar favo urites to win th e m atch, (all of its m em b ers weigh
over 100 kilos)
4 Chlo e brought hom e a kitten, (she'd found it in th e park)
5 The story is ab out a te enag e boy. (his am bition is to become an astro naut)
6 Paul has got a jo b with Em pirico. (its main pro duct is ele ctric light bulbs)
7 Politicians should give more co nsid eratio n to th e working people, (th ey re present th e m)
8 A m ong th e group of people w as Professor Fischer. (I had last seen him in Munich 20 ye ars
earlier)
9 I live on a sm all road, (it leads down to the river)
10 M onet's e arlier paintings are in a new exhibitio n in N ew York, (m any have never been seen in the
USA before)
11 Ian M clver has b eco me managing director of Europe's largest food retailer, (his first jo b was
selling ve g etables in a m arket)
12 Kaspar has a new girlfriend, (she w orks in th e library)
13 My Volkswag en G o lf is a very reliable car. (I bought it in2006)
14 Bronwen Brookes w ill be present at its official opening, (the Brookes art gallery is named after her)

247
 A dditional exercises

Substitution and leaving o u t words Units 62-65

0 U n d erlin e th e a p pro pria te a lt e rn a tiv e s. S o m e tim es b oth are p ossible.

1 He has a shave every morning, but you w o uld n't think he d id / had.
2 The d evelo pers pulled down th e clock t o w er to make w a y for th e new road. In doing so / so doing,
th ey d estroye d one of the fin est exam ples of 17th ce ntury architecture in the co untry.
3 a : Ben w o n't be coming this weekend, b : But he pro m ised so / prom ised he would.
4 a: It looks like V e ttel is going to win again, b : It appears / appears so.
5 a : I didn't know yo u cycle d to work, b : Yes, I alw ays do / do so.
6 I d on't like eating sh ellfish, and never have / have done.
7 Th ey asked me to go fishing with th e m , but I didn't w ant / didn't w ant to.
8 a: W ill it take yo u long to fix it? b: W ell, it might do / do so. I'm not sure ye t.
9 a: Do you think Fred w ill be up by now? b : I doubt that he will / doubt so.
10 a : Dad w o n't mind us borrowing the car, w ill he? b : N o, I don't suppose so / suppose not.
11 Just park th e car w h erever yo u w a nt to / want.
12 a : Has Rachel arrived y e t? b : N o, I d on't think she has done / h a s.
13 Karl had to choose b etween working much longer hours and moving to ano th er part of the
co untry. He had never faced such a dilemma / a such dilem m a before.
14 He owns much more land than I do so / d o .
15 We'd like to go to Canada to see Ellie, but we can't a fford to / a fford.
16 a : I imagine the inform atio n is kept on co m p uter so m ewh ere, b : I would expect so / expect.
17 I d on't know w h e th er my parents w a n t me to go to N orway, but I suspect not / don't suspect.
18 a: W ill she exp ect us to get th e jo b finished by th e weekend?
b : I certainly don't hope so / hope not.

19 a : There's no answer. I suppose she might have left home by now.

b : Yes, I suppose she m ight have / might.
20 The car's in good co ndition. Th ey told so / t o ld me so at th e garage.
21 I didn't w a n t Luca to clim b th e m o untain, but he w as determ ined to / determined.
22 a : My m o ther was really angry, b : But did n't you exp ect her to / t o be?
23 a : It d o esn't look like th e rain's going to sto p soon, b : I don’t guess / guess not.
24 a : Are yo u going to the library to d ay? b : I m ight do / m ight be.

Position of adjectives, adverbs and adverbial phrases Units 66, 69, 74 & 75

m m Are t he it alicise d w ords and p hrases in t h e co rrect p ositi o n? If no t, su g g est a chan g e o f p ositio n
or re w rit e t he t e x t if n ecessary.
a I every so often leave w ork e arly and go to a p erform ance in the local co ncert hall. It's very close
to my office, in th e opposite building. Usu ally th ey ra ther are good, but yesterd ay's, given by a
singer and pianist, was a tota l disaster. The singer with wonderful con trol began to sing. But when
th e pianist starte d to play, it sounded awful. A t first I th o u g ht he was badly playing, but then it
b ecame obvious th at th e piano co m pletely was out of tune. Th ey stopped and discussed briefly
th e problem. Th ey co uld n't co ntinue cle arly, and th ey left the stage unhappily. N a tura lly, all the
prese n t people felt sorry for th e m. I'm sure th e responsible person for tuning th e piano w ill be
severely reprimande d.
b I ju st was going out to work this morning when th e p ostm an pushed through my letterbox a
letter. It was fro m Mara, wh o writes fro m time to time. The le tter said th a t she has to co me to
Bristol to visit her unwell uncle. She is one of his few rem aining relatives. She w a n ts us to m eet
and asked if I could suggest a timep oss/b /e. W ell, I fo r a couple o f ye a rs haven't seen her, so I was
really pleased. W e first m et at university. W e have a like interests, so alw ays w e find a lot to talk
ab o ut. The included photos in th e le tter showed th a t she hadn't changed since I last saw her. I
sp ent so long reading th e le tter th at I nearly was late for work.
248
 A d ditional e xercises

Adverbial clauses and conjunctions Units 79-82 & 87

g g i M a tch t h e id eas in (i) and (ii) and use t h e w ord in brack e ts t o w rit e ei t h er a single se n t e n ce (as
in 1) or t w o se n t e n ces (as in 2), as a p pro pria te. N o t e t h a t y o u can put t he idea in (ii) first in t h e
se n t e nce.

0)
1 I knew there w as so m ethin g wrong
2 prepare th e rem aining veg etables
3 his w ife is really sm all
4 only about 100 people attend ed
5 I can't afford a co at like th at
6 I’m d etermined to finish th e rep ort
7 y o u'll have to w alk all th e w ay from
the statio n
8 I staye d until the end
9 her husband would never find it
10 I've been running about
200 kilo m etres a week
00
a I found th e film boring
b Johan m ust weigh over 120 kilos
c to prepare for th e m arathon
d -sh esaid she was fe elw g fine
e I d on't like th e style
f leave th e carrots to co ol for a few m inutes
g make sure you catch th e last bus at 11:00
h I have to stay at w ork until midnight
i she hid th e le tter b etween th e pages of a book
j there had been a lot of p ublicity about the
m eetin g

1 (even though) (+ d) I... knew there, wets something wrong, even though she sa id sh e was
•feeling fm e. or £ven though she, said, sh e wets feeling fin e J. knew there wets
soiYie lf) ing wrong............................................................................................................................
2 (m eanwhile) (+ f) Le av e t h e c a rr o ts ...to cool fo r et f e w m in u t e s. M e a n w h ile , pre p are.......
the regaining vegetables ............................................................................................................
3 (whereas)
4 (even so)
5 (besides)
6 (even if)
7 (o th erwise)
8 (although)
9 (so th at)
10 (in ord er to)

Units 9 2 -9 4

A dd t h e m issin g pre p ositio ns in t h e co rrect places af t e r t he it alicise d w ords.

with
1 Personally, I d on’t a gree X fox hunting, although I kn ow th a t you approve it.
2 There se ems to be little likelihood W illia mso n winnin g W im ble d o n because of her in ability play
w e ll on grass ten nis co urts.
3 O ur plan is to split th e organisation into a num b er of sm all units. This w ill improve our prospects
co m p etin g with more sp ecialised co m panies.
4 I ran Danny in to w n th e other day. He asked yo ur e m ail ad dress, so h e'll pro bably be in touch
with yo u.
5 Jack takes great pride never throwing anythin g. He alw ays says th a t one day he'll find a use for
things.
6 Although Professor M artinez knows a great deal m ete orolo gy, even he ca n't a ccou n t th e unusual
w e a th er we have been having over th e last few weeks.
7 There has been a great im provem ent the b ehaviour of children in the scho ol. This has resu lted the
headteacher's idea involving th e m in decision-making.
8 Even though C h arlo tte did n't a ct my advice and fo llo w a care er in m e dicine, I'm full of
admiration her determin a tion train to be a vet.
249
 A dditional exercises

M U n its 9 9 & 1 00

Re writ e each se n t e n ce w it h a si m il ar m eanin g st artin g w it h a w ord / p hrase fro m t h e box

f o llo w e d by in version of t h e verb and t h e su b ject.

Had H a r d ly T^tefele^ N o t f o r o n e m o m e n t O n l y if O n l y in
Seld o m Sh o uld So U n d e r no circ u m st a n c es Such W ere

1 I did n't imagine th a t the boss had calle d me into her office to fire me. UfcfcLe d i d I Lrna ^lne
thafc t h e b oss Had. c a lle d , me in to h e r o f f i c e to «ftr e w»e....................................................................
2 The police w ill only investig ate th e m a tter furth er if an official co m plaint is made.

3 The instructio ns were so co m plicate d, th a t it was im possible to assem ble the m achine.

4 If we had known how ill Rob w as, we would have taken him straig ht to the hospital.

5 The wind was so strong th at all the tre es in the park were blown d own.

6 She didn't often regret her lack of form al ed ucatio n, although she was so m etim es aware of gaps
in her knowledge.

7 You should only phone for an am b ulance in an em ergency.

8 There was never a ny disagre em ent b etween us.

9 If it were not for financial assistance from th e g overnm ent, the m useum would have closed long
ago.

10 Th ey had only just finished eating before a w aiter starte d to clear a w ay the plates.

11 Children should never be allowe d into the room w ith o u t a d ult sup ervision.

12 If th e bridge is ever b uilt, it w ill be welco m e d by th e local co m m unity.

250
Key to Exercises
U N IT 1 2.3 U N IT 4
2 You're forever asking me for money.
1.1 4.1
3 You're co nstan tly criticising my
2 a 'm (am) measuring 2 was hoping - gave
driving.
b measures 3 lived - was spending / w as living -
4 You're continually changing your mind.
3 a doubt spent
5 You're forever moaning about (your)
b doubt 4 start ed - w as checking in
work.
4 a is currently at tracting (‘a t tracts’ is 5 was looking - saw
also possible) 2 .4 6 c a m e - w a s showing
b at tract The m ost likely verbs are given: 7 w as playing - broke
5 a doesn't like 1 a we're (are) usually eating (‘we 8 wen t off - lit
b 'm (am) not liking (‘don't like' is also usually eat' is also possible) 9 wasn't listening (‘didn't listen' is also
possible) b don't eat possible) - was explaining (‘e xplained’
6 a 're (are) fitting 2 a plays (‘is playing’ is also possible) is also possible)
b d oesn’t fit b 're (are) co nstan tly playing 10 a d d e d - t ast e d
7 a feels ('constantly play' is also possible) 11 wasn't watching (‘didn't watch' is also
b 'm (am) not feeling (‘don’t f eel’ is 3 a I'm nor mally taking (‘I normally possible) - was dreaming (‘drea m t’ is
also possible) take' is also possible. It would also possible)
8 a consists of (‘consists only of' would suggest, however, t ha t this is the 12 p ush e d -r a n
also be possible) time they leave home. Present
4 .2
b consists of continuous suggests t hat they are
I ‘was getting' and ‘g ot’ are both
9 a 's (is) sounding (‘sounds' is also on t he w ay to school at 8:30.)
possible. The past si mple suggests t hat
possible) b takes
one event followed the other: I got in
b sounds and then the lights wen t off. The past
10 a 's (is) having U N IT 3 continuous suggests t hat the lights
b has 3. 1 wen t off as I was in t he process of
1.2 1 went getting ready t o get into the bath.
1 apologise / 'm apologising 2 've (have) had 4 ‘w as checking in' or ‘checked in' are
2 ad mit / 'm a dmitting 3 wore both possible wit h a similar meaning.
3 don't suggest / 'm not suggesting 4 've (have) spent Using the past continuous presents
(both possible) 5 overslept ‘checking in' as the background event
4 now realise / 'm now realising (both 6 haven't read which was going on as the couple
possible) started to chat to him.
3 .2
5 conf ess / '-m-eenfessmg- 7 ‘w as playing' and ‘played’ are both
1 hasn't wanted - fell
6 co nsider / 'm considering possible. The past continuous suggests
2 has worked - hasn't had
7 do you find / are you finding (both that t his was a temporary rat her than
3 rescued - has been
possible) a regular arrangement.
4 has happened - spoke
8 know / 'm knowmg- I I ‘didn't w a t c h 'a n d ‘dream t’ are
5 have been able - have felt
9 don’t guarantee / 'm not guaranteeing also possible. However, the past
6 has i mproved - has been
(both possible) continuous emphasises t ha t ‘not
3.3 watching' and ‘dreaming’ went on at
10 promise / -^n promtsing-
1 a signed- 've (have) signed the same time and see ms more likely
b signed S
U N IT 2 here.
2 a finished 've (have) finished
2.1 4 .3
b finished S
1 shoots, are attacking 1 was buying
3 a got y
2 arrives, is waiting, says 2 saw
b -got- have got
3 is playing, stands, starts 3 turned
4 a heard /
4 w as slo wly putting (Past simple in 3
2.2 b -heard- 've (have) heard
and past continuous in 4 seem most
Possible answers 3 .4 likely here as ‘turned round’ describes
2 1gather Vegecorp are going to sack a The m ost appropria te tenses are given a complet ed action and ‘was slowly
thousand workers. 1 has visited putting’ describes the action t ha t was
3 1 understand we're going to have a 2 has closed [or has been closed; present going on a t t hat ti me. However, past
new public holiday for the President’s
perfect passive) - died continuous is also possible in 3 and
birthday. 3 has dropped - has fallen past simple is also possible in 4.)
4 Ed tells me Bruno's crashed his car 4 have been stolen (present perfect 5 was carrying
again. passive) - insisted - held 6 walked
5 Julia says she’s got a new job.
7 picked up
6 They say t h e y’ve identified a gene
8 thought
w hich causes some people to overeat.
9 was looking

251
 t o Exercises

10 dropped 11 had finished / finished 8 have been planning / (‘have planned'

11 had 12 had eaten (Note: In N orth A merican is also possible)
12 noticed English ‘a t e’ would also be possible.)
13 was watching
5.3
14 hurried written / also wrote
2 Lara hadn't intended to become a
15 were walking / walked (si milar
d e n t ist ...
meaning) U N IT 7
3 I had expected the operation to be
16 ran 7.1
p ain f u l...
4 I hadn't thought of cooking r a b b it ... 1 a had only been working (‘had only
U N IT 5 worked' is also possible)
5 He hadn't meant t o insult h e r ... [ or
5.1 He hadn’t meant it to be an insult to b had finally worked
h e r ...) 2 a had carried
eve n ts ord er ord er
b had been carrying (‘had carried’ is
eve n ts are of
m e n tio n e d eve n ts U N IT 6 also possible)
3 a had applied
in t e x t 6.1
b had been applying (‘had applied’ is
1 a 's (has) been staying ('has st ayed’ is
I m o v e d ... 2 2 also possible)
also possible)
I le ar n t... 5 6 4 a had flown
b 've (have) stayed
b had been flying
The pro p ert y 9 8 2 a have been stopping ('have st oppe d’
d evelo p er is also possible) 7.2
d ecid e d ... b has stopped 1 had been trying (‘had trie d’ is also
3 a haven't read possible)
I h e ar d ... 8 9
b 've (have) been reading ('have read’ 2 had visited
I first sa w t he 1 3 is also possible) 3 had cost
old h o use 4 a has been giving (‘has given’ is also 4 had been writing (‘had written'is also
A pro p ert y 6 4 possible) possible)
d evelo p er b has given 5 had been worrying (‘had worried’ is
b ou g ht it 5 a haven't swum also possible)
b 've (have) been swimming 6 had arrived
I n early gave 7 7
6 a have been putting (‘have put' is also 7 had always believed
u p ...
possible) 8 had been talking
I pu t t o g e t h er 4 5 b has (or 'have') put The past continuous is more likely in 8
eno u gh 8 a has disappeared (We were talking ...).
m o n e y ... b have been disappearing (‘have
7.3
disappeared' is also possible)
It w as e m p t y 3 1 1 /
6.2 2 had been taken
The first past 'point of ref erence’ is ‘When
a 3 </ ( N ote t hat ‘W ha t happened?' is also
I first saw the old house*. Events before
1 -Ttas-been-eLatmmg- has claimed possible)
this are in the past perfect: ‘I had just
2 hove been dy ing died 4 had just heard
moved’... ‘It had been e m p ty’.
3 have been making / (‘have ma de’ is 5
The second past 'point of ref erence’ is
also possible) 6 had been fishing
when ‘I le ar n t...’. Events before t his are in
4 -have-bee n producing 've (have) 7
the past perfect: 'I had put t oget her’ ...
produced 8 hadn't wanted
'had bought’. N otice t ha t w e could use 'I
9 /
put t oget her’ here as the order of events is
6 have been looking S (‘have looked’ 10 had collapsed
made clear by ‘By the t i m e...’.
and ‘looked’ are also possible)
The third past 'point of ref erence’ is '...
7 have also been exploring S (‘have also U N IT 8
when I heard t ha t t he house was for sale
explored' and ‘also explored' are also
again’. Events before t his are in the past 8.1
possible)
perfect: ‘I had nearly given up’... ‘The The most likely verbs and tenses are given.
8 -has bee n m aking- has / have made /
property developer had d ecid e d...’. 2 got / arrived
made
3 feel / a m feeling (Present simple and
5.2 b
present continuous have a similar
1 had met
meaning here.)
2 had been / wen t 2 has been announcing has announced
4 go
3 had taken / took 3 has been increasing / (‘has increased’
5 know
4 had seen is also possible)
6 spent
5 had lost 4 has been running (‘has run' is also
7 texted
6 had found possible)
8 w as waiting
7 had cheated / cheated 5 has been neglecting S (‘has
9 got
8 had made up neglected' is also possible)
10 felt / w as feeling (Past simple and past
9 had gone / wen t 6 has been cutting / (‘has cut' is also
continuous have a si milar meaning
10 hadn't heard possible)
here.)
7 ha ve -bee n-find ing- have found
 Key t o Exercises
11 got 6 -4 1-be- 's going t o be (decision already 11 play (or ‘plays') (fixed event;‘will play'
12 enjoy / is enjoying (Present simple made) is also possible)
and present continuous have a similar 7 ’11 have 're going to have (prediction 12 will accep t (prediction)
meaning here, although the present based on present evidence) 13 w an t (with 'supposing')
continuous may suggest t hat she is 8 '11 sell 're going to sell (prediction 14 read (with ‘by t he ti me')
not living in A delaide permanently.) based on present evidence)
10.2
13 is looking 9 '11 cut 'm going to cut (decision
1 (c) Is leaving (prediction perhaps
14 seems already made)
based on opinion, experience or
15 doesn't get on / isn’t getting 10 'll bc-sick 's going to be sick
present evidence). ‘W ill leave' and ‘is
on (Present simple and present (prediction based on present
going to leave' have a similar meaning
continuous have a similar meaning evidence); 'll feel X (prediction based
here.
here, although t he present continuous on opinion / past experience)
2 (a) w ill buy- (planned future
suggests t hat t his is a temporary 11 -'ll leave 'm going to leave (decision
event). ‘I'm going to buy' suggests
problem.) already made); will you tell X (or
an intention without a definite
16 complain / are co nstan tly complaining ‘are you going to tell'; asking about
arrangement; ‘I'm buying’ suggests a
( N ote the word order.) somet hing planned); 'll try X (decision
definite arrangement - perhaps the
17 is starting made at mo me nt of speaking)
speaker has bought the car and is
18 asked 12 'll have- 'm going to have (decision
simply picking it up next week.
19 am looking already made); -*Hsee 're going to
3 (b) arc going to pick-; (c) arc pick ing
20 hear / heard (Present simple and past see (decision already made); 'll sort
(offer; decision made at m o me nt of
simple have a similar meaning here.) out X (decision made at mo ment of
speaking)
speaking)
8.2 4 (a) -w Hl dfive- (planned future event).
13 X (decision made at mo ment of
The most likely tenses are given. ‘I'm going t o drive' suggests a personal
speaking)
2 said (‘has said’ is also possible, but less intention; ‘I’ m driving' suggests a more
14 -m-goiftg-t o hove 'll have (decision
likely here) definite arrangement - perhaps the
made at mo ment of speaking)
3 heard / had heard speaker has been told to go there by
15 X (prediciton based on opinion / past
4 returned / had returned their employer.
experience)
5 came / had come 5 (c) is cuttin g- (permanent future
16 'll build 'm going to build (decision
6 was / had been situation). ‘Will cut' and ‘is going to
already made) cut' have a similar meaning here.
7 left
8 appointed 9.2 6 (b) am g oing t-o-ea b-; (c) am catling
9 finished Exa m ple verbs are given (promise; decision made at ti me of
10 have won 2 're going to plant (main clause action speaking)
11 accused does not depend on action in the //- 7 (a) will serve (planned future event).
12 has disappointed clause) As the present continuous for the
13 has spent 3 'll hurt / 're going to hurt (conditional future suggests a definite arrangement,
- negative) using ‘I am serving lunch' in this
8 .3
4 w i l l ... buy (request) cont ext suggests '... and I am not
1 ’ Has he h a d ' o r ‘ Has he been having’
5 will start / stop (logical consequence) changing w ha t I plan to do', perhaps
are more likely
6 'm going to see (main clause action showing some irritation or annoyance.
2 X
does not depend on action in t he //- 8 (c) arc starving- (no control over
3 t hought / had thought
clause) predicted event). ‘W ill starve' and 'are
4 has worked / has been working
7 'll be sacked / 's going to be sacked going to starve’ have a si milar meaning
5 had been trying
(conditional - negative) here. However, as ‘will’ is often used to
6 did you go
8 'll hear (ability) talk about future facts, it may express
7 heard
more certainty in t his context.
8 X (‘w e nt’ is also possible)
U N IT 10 10 .3
9 X (‘checked’ is also possible)
10 have said / said 10.1 1
11 X (‘have given’ is also possible) 1 get (fixed event; ‘will get’ is also 1 is j o in in g*' joins X (will join X is going
12 have told (‘t old’ is also possible) possible) to join X )
2 will look after (less routine 2 are liking X like X (will like X are going
U N IT 9 arrangement) to like y )
3 rains (with 'in case') 3 is coming X co mes X (will come
9.1
4 will give out (less routine y [but present continuous, present
2 X (prediction based on opinion / past
arrangement) simple or' be going to' are more
experience)
5 goes (fixed event; ‘will go’ is also natural here] is going to co me X)
3 X (decision made at mo ment of
possible) 4 is giving X gives X (will give X is going
speaking)
6 starts (fixed event; ‘will start' is also to give X)
4 W ill yo u-take-o p - Are you going to
possible) 2
take up (prediction based on present
7 stops (with 'provided') 1 is / are sacking X sack X (will sack X
evidence)
8 change (with ‘what if’) [but present continuous or 'be going
5 X (prediction based on opinion / past
9 will miss (prediction) t o ’ are more natural here] is / are going
experience)
10 lend (with 'unless') to sack y )

253
 Key to Exercises

2 are closing X close X (will close X are 3 is to merge / is to be merged ('will 5 / (‘was to be announced’ is also
going to close X) merge’ or 'will be merged' are also possible)
3 are building V build X (will build S possible) 6 is about to start
[but present continuous or ‘be going 4 will rise 7 y
to’ are more natural here] are going to 5 is to be replaced (‘will be replaced' is 8 was supposed; was about to ask
build ") also possible) 9 (‘am going to see' is also possible)
4 are seeing X see X (will see are going 6 is to retire; is t o be succeeded (‘will 10 is to be used
to see X) retire' and ‘will be succeeded' are also 11 / (‘were meeting' is also possible)
possible) 12 would cause
U N IT 11 7 will become Past or present tense f orms are possible in
8 are t o receive (‘will receive' is also 5 ,9 and 11.
11.1
i a will be leaving (‘will leave' is also possible)
1 4 .2
possible) 9 are to be created (‘will be created' is
l a 6 b
b will leave also possible)
2 b 7 a
2 a Will you be working (‘Will you work' 10 will increase
3 a 8 a
is also possible) 12.2 4 b 9 b
b 'llwork 1 are t o have (see section B) 5 a 10 a
3 a won't be using (‘won’t use' is also 2 is t o start / is about to start (A/C)
possible) 3 wins (B) U N IT 15
b won’t use 4 enjoy (B) 15.1
4 a 'll (will) give 5 'm just about t o go (C) 1 can (A: before passive)
b will be giving (‘will give' is also 6 recovers (B) 2 were able to (B: single past
possible) 7 is to keep (B)
achievement)
5 a won’t move 8 is t o resign / is about t o resign (C) (‘is 3 could / were able t o (A)
b will be moving (‘will move' is also about to resign' emphasises t ha t he 4 Could you (B: wit h ‘underst and’ ‘could'
possible) will resign very soon)
is more natural)
11.2 9 are about t o get (C)
5 can't (A: ‘know h ow to')
2 If the company is making a profit by 10 is to be improved (B)
6 can (A: happening as speaking)
the end of the year then we will have 7 were able to (B: single past
achieved the objective we set ourselves U N IT 13 achievement)
when we took over. 13.1 8 could hardly (B: wit h ‘hardly ‘could’ is
3 In two years' time Morneau will have 3 due t o return more natural)
been acting for 50 years, and shows no 4 sure t o provide 9 could (B: with 'smell' ‘co uld’ is more
sign of retiring from the theatre, (‘will 5 set to launch natural)
have acted' is also possible) 6 on t he verge of becoming 10 Can y o u / A r e you able to (A)
4 I am confident that I will have finished 7 on t he point of signing 11 can (A: before passive)
the report before the end of the week. 8 sure to face 12 w as able to (B: single past
5 This book on Proust is really difficult. 9 due t o undergo achievement)
On Saturday I will have been reading it 10 on the verge of quitting 13 couldn't (B: negative sent ence;
for a month, and I'm still only half way. 11 set t o make ‘couldn't' is more natural)
6 As delegates who arrived early will 12 on t he brink of going 14 w as able to (B: single past
have been discovering, there have been achievement)
1 3 .2
some late changes to the conference
2 propose / 'm proposing t o deal 15.2
programme, (‘will have discovered' is
3 expect / 're expecting t o finish a
also possible)
4 ai m / 'm aiming to study 1 can
11.3 5 resolves to give up 2 couldn't
1 will have closed 6 guarantee t o find 3 can
2 will be enjoying 7 intend / 'm intending to move 4 can't
3 will be leaving 5 couldn't / weren't allowed to
13 .3
4 will be arriving 6 can't
1 will
5 will have been 7 were allowed to
2 shan't / won't (‘won't' is more natural)
6 will have been planning b
3 will
7 won’t be spending 1 can
4 shall / will
8 will be keeping 2 wasn't allowed to / couldn’t
5 won't
9 will all be going 3 was allowed to
4 could
U N IT 14
U N IT 12 5 could
14.1 6 can't
12.1
1 was going to do 7 was allowed to
1 is to be staged (‘will be staged' is also
2 will be
possible)
3
2 will stop
4 would have shown

254
 Key t o Exercises

U N IT 16 7 might be imprisoned (C: ty pically the 5 m ust havc te-squceze must have had
case in the past) to squeeze / must have squeezed
16.1
8 may have been exaggerating (E: 6 -must leave must have left
1 will spend
possible activity t ha t w en t on over a 7 y
2 had
period of ti me) 8 -must n%watt-didn't have to wait
3 would exercise
9 might be punished (C: t ypically the 9 -m ust-b e disturbe d- must have been
4 found
case in t he past; passive) disturbed
5 will cause
10 may have told (E: possible event in t he 10 -I'v e t o get I've got t o get / I have
6 would rarely sit
past) to get ( N ote t hat some people use
7 will know
‘I’ve to get' in informal language, but
8 will probably be / would probably be 17.3
others think this is incorrect.)
Possible answers
16.2 11 y
1 ... at least he's in tune.
1 X used to / (changed past state) 12 -m ay must-get may have t o get
2 ... it's never broken down.
2 / ('used t o’ is also possible) 13 -Tve-te-ge-1 must go / I have to go /
3 ... she has a very wide vocabulary.
3 X used to X (changed past state) Tve got to go
5 You may / might not agree with h i m ,...
4 X ('would' is not possible) (changed 14 must-get must be getting
6 She may / might not express her
past state) 15 y
feelings o p e n ly,...
5 / (‘would' is also possible) 16 have t o get- must get (more likely)
7 It may / might not sound very exciting,
6 X met y (number of times specified) The three co mmon expressions with 'must'
are ‘I must say ...', ‘I must a d m i t ...’ (both
16 .3
used to emphasise the following point),
1 will have watched U N IT 18
and ‘needs m ust’ (meaning if somet hing
2 would have approved 18.1 is n ecessary I will do it, even though I may
3 would have hurt 1 must have found not w an t to).
4 will have heard 2 must be
5 would have preferred 3 must be starting (‘must be going U N IT 19
6 will / would have noticed to start' and ‘must start' are also
7 would have bought 19.1
possible)
1 I’ll give you a lift to the station so you
1 6 .3 4 must have had t o work (‘must have
needn't w orry / bother about booking
Exa m ple a nswers worked’ is also possible)
a taxi.
1 B: Well, if you w ill drive everywhere 5 must have changed
2 The q uestions are in the book so you
instead of walking, I’ m not surprised. 6 must have t o show
needn't bother to copy t he m down.
2 B: Well, if you w ill spend so much time 7 must be taking (‘must have taken' is
3 All the windows have screens so you
online, I'm not surprised. also possible)
needn't panic / w orry about being
3 B: Well, if you w ill wear a thick 8 must be
bitten by mosquitoes.
jum p er when it’s 30 degrees, it’s not 1 8 .2 4 O u r sof tware provides full computer
surprising. 2 Hannah rarely has to be asked to tidy security so you needn't concern
her room. yo urself with viruses.
U N IT 17 3 Have we got to hand in the homework 5 The new tax laws don't co me into
17.1 t o m orrow? (‘Do we have to ...' is also force until next year so you needn’t
1 might (more likely than ‘may') possible) change t he details on t he form.
2 may 4 I didn’t have to go to t he hospital after
1 9 .2
3 Are you likely to ... (possible answer; all.
2 W e need only (or W e only need ...)
‘ Might you ...’ would be rather formal) 5 Did Ben have to go alone?
look a t the rainfall figures to see the
4 might (more likely than ‘m ay’) 6 Adam so me ti mes has to start work at
seriousness of the problem, (less
5 Could (possible answer; ‘ Might’ would 6:30. (‘Adam has so me ti mes got to
form a lly We only need to look a t ...)
be rather format) start work . .. ’ is also possible)
3 With such a lead in t he opinion polls
6 may 7 The college has t o be extended to
the Democrats need hardly bother (or
accom m od at e the growing number of
17.2 ... the De mocrats hardly need bother)
students, (‘has got to be extended' is
1 might have enjoyed (E: possible event campaigning before the election, (less
also possible, but less likely in a formal
in t he past) form a lly ... the De mocrats hardly need
context)
2 might have been trying (E: possible t o bother campaigning ...)
8 We may / might have to cancel our
activity t hat wen t on over a period of 4 N o one need know who paid the
holiday because my mother is ill.
ti me) ransom t o the kidnappers, ( less
3 might be coming (E: possible event in 1 8 .3 form a lly No one needs to know who
t he future) 1 paid ...)
4 might require (C; typically the case in 2 always hove got to pull always have 5 Af ter such a huge lot tery win, he need
t he past) t o pull never work again, ( less form a lly ... he
5 may be moving (E: possible event in 3 -Have-y ou t o-baog Do you have to never needs to work again.)
t he future) bang (‘ Must you bang ...'is also
1 9 .3
6 may have i mproved (E: possible event possible but less likely)
1 don't need to
in the future) 4 /
2 needn’t / don't need to

255
 Key t o Exercises
3 seen; Has Chris been seen (by anyone)
3 needn't / don’t need to U N IT 21
4 don't need to this morning?
21.1 4 (have) appointed; Sven Larsen has been
5 needn't / d on’t need to
1 (to be) 6 to be
6 don’t need to appointed ( or was appointed) Regional
2 to be 7 to be
Sales Director for Scandinavia.
1 9.4 3 to be 8 to be
5 will d em onstrat e; I am certain t hat
1 You needn't w orry ... 4 (to be) 9 (to be)
Sarah's suitabilit y as company director
2 Do we need to make ... is more likely 5 (to be) 10 (to be)
will be demonstrat ed t o t hose who
3 ... needn't be a problem ...
21.2 still have any doubt.
4
1 get 6 declared ( or have declared); Alan
5 I need hardly t ell you ..., orless
2 b ecame / has become Watson was declared ( or has been
form a lly I hardly need (to) t ell you ...
3 become (more likely than 'get' in a declared) winner of the election af ter a
6 some people would prefer 'needn't' in
f or mal context) recount.
this cont ext (see C)
4 become
7 y 2 2 .3
5 get
8 ... needn't mean ... 2 The product was phased out (by the
6 get (more likely than 'become' in an
company) over a period of three years.
informal corite xt)
U N IT 2 0 3 No passive
7 became
4 Many people have been deprived of
20.1 8 got
1 should / ought to win (should / ought the right to vote (by the decision).

to have won is also possible ) 21 .3 5 N o passive

2 should I put (more likely than ... ought 2 w en t dead 6 ca me to like 6 N o passive
I to p u t ...; should I have put is also 3 wen t red 7 go blind 7 The last t w o items were held over
possible ) 4 get t o know 8 wen t bust (by the chairperson) until the next
3 should / ought to have arrived (should 5 get tired co m mit tee meeting.
/ ought to arrive is also possible ) 8 Walkers were prevented from crossing
2 1 .4
4 should be sen t (more likely than ought the field af ter it was fenced off (by the
1 go wrong
to be sent) farmer).
2 seemed to bie awake
5 should be removed (more likely than 3 /
ought t o be removed) 4 seemed t o b>e taking
U N IT 23
6 should / ought to wear 5 hadn’t got diIressed 23.1
7 should / ought to have resigned 6 / (‘be ill' would also be possible) 2 denied being involved
8 Should we answer (more likely than 7 wen t missing 3 was left holding
O u ght we t o a n sw e r...; Should we 8 t o get worried 4 remembered being bitten
have answered is also possible ) 9 becoming obvious 5 avoided being taken
9 should go (ought t o is not possible ) 10 6 w as observed hiding
10 should / ought t o be (should / ought to 7 was sen t tumbling
have been is a lso possible ) U N IT 22 8 faced being expelled

20.2 9 was found wandering

22.1
10 resented being given
1 should or must; 'must' gives a stronger 2 She was offered a second-hand
recom mendation bicycle. / A second-hand bicycle was 2 3 .2
2 must offered (to) her. 2 Emil and Laura could be heard arguing
3 must 3 Improvements have been proposed to next door.
4 should or must; 'must' gives stronger the developers. 3 O llie hated being teased by the o ther
advice and is perhaps more likely than 4 So me interesting changes were children.
‘should’ in t his cont ext suggested t o me. 4 The burglar was observed entering the
5 should or must; ‘m ust’ gives a stronger 5 He was awarded a prize. / A prize was museu m through a window.
recom mendation awarded to him. 5 The pop concert is expected to at tract
6 must 6 The President’s arrival will be over 20,0 00 people.
(2, 3 and 6 include logical conclusions, so announced to the waiting journalists. 6 She didn’t mind being criticised.
w e use 'must' not 'should') 7 The password had been mentioned to 7 I w as required to co mplet e two copies
the thieves. of the cust o ms declaration.
2 0 .3
8 I have been lent some skis. / Some skis 8 Mrs Dee was caught shoplifting.
1 should- must
have been lent to me.
2 / 2 3 .3
9 I am being sent a lot of spam emails. /
3 shall should / ought t o 2 O m ar hopes t o be select ed by the
A lot of spam emails are being se nt t o
4 -sho uldr^t- 'd better not team captain, (different meaning)
me.
5 ‘d bett er should / ought to 3 Kat hy arranged t o be taken to the
10 The changes are going to be explained
6 hod better not shouldn't / ought not station by Alastair. (different meaning)
to t he students.
to be 4 Cald os has co me to be recognised as
7 2 2 .2 one of Spain's greatest novelists by
8 2 introduced; I was introduced t o Mrs critics, (corresponding meaning)
9 Rossi by Tony at his birthday party, (or 5 H olidaymakers continue to be
10 had bett er should / ought to ... Mrs Rossi at Tony’s birthday party.) at tracted to t he south coast,
(corresponding meaning)
256
 Key to Exercises
6 The Finance Minister has agreed to 2 5 .2 2 6 .4
be interviewed by Harris, (different 2 X 1 W hose
meaning) 3 It has been discovered t hat there is 2
wa ter on Mars. 3 whose
U N IT 24 4 It is believed t hat terrorists are 4 W ho lives is more likely
24.1 operating in Berlin. 5 Who's
2 The main stadium has been designed 5 It is expected t ha t the moon 6 ( or less form a lly W hose travels in
t o accom m od at e many different astronauts will return (to Earth) today. Nepal did Liam Wilson write a book
sports. 6 It has been revealed t hat ex-President about?)
3 The t emporary stands will be taken Julius is / was a spy. 7 W hich is more likely
down af ter the Games. 7 X 8 W hich is more likely
4 The basketball arena will have been 8 It is said t hat the King is making a 9 To w hose address?
complet ed by the end of May. good recovery. 10 ( What have is also possible )
5 The rowing competition is being held 9 It has been established t hat a
on t he River Nene. restaurant is / was the source of a food U N IT 27
6 The a thletics track had been poisoning outbreak. 27.1
co mplet ed (or w as complet ed) only a 10 / Possible answers are given
year af ter the city got the O lym pics. 2 5 .3 2 Didn't you get my e mail saying I'd be
7 The handball venue was being used as 2 It is not t hought t ha t the fault is on holiday?
a warehouse until a year ago. serious, ( or It is thought t hat the 3 Couldn't you get a babysitt er?
8 The badminton arena should have fault is not serious.) / The fault is not 4 But weren't you supposed to do t hat
been finished by now. thought to be serious. last night?
3 It is expected t hat it will take several 5 Can't you leave it o utside?
2 4 .2
weeks to correct the fault, ( or It is 6 W ouldn't you rat her go by plane?
2 The appoint ment of a new managing
director will be made next week. expected t hat the fault will take 27.2
3 Accusations of corruption in t he local several weeks to correct.) / The fault 2 Haven't you any interest in ma ths at
council have been made. / Accusations is expected to take several weeks to all? ( or Don't you have any interest in
of corruption have been made against correct. ma ths at all?) Have you no interest
the local council. 4 It has been decided to postpone the in ma ths at all? (or Do you have no
4 The demolition of the building was next rocket launch. interest in maths at all?)
complet ed in o nly t w o days. 5 It is suggested t hat the next launch 3 Couldn't you find anywhere else to
5 The presentation of the trophy will be should take place in May. sleep? Could you find nowhere else to
made af ter the speeches. sleep?
6 Resistance from local residents to U N IT 2 6 4 Can't you remember anyt hing about
the proposed new industrial area will 26.1 the accide nt? Can you remember
certainly be expected. 1 whom nothing about the accide nt?
2 Which 5 W hy don't I ever do well in e xams?
2 4 .3
3 Which W hy do I never do w ell in exams?
2 is (being) ruled (or more naturally ’is
4 Which 6 Isn't there anybody you can ask for
now (being) ruled')
5 W ho m / W h o (‘W h o m ’ is very formal) help? Is t here nobody you can ask for
3 are disappearing / have disappeared
6 Who help?
4 fear
7 W h ich / W h o
5 is estimat ed / has been estimat ed 27.3
8 Who
6 will be turned into 2 He's leaving when? / He's doing w hat?
7 is using / has used / has been using 2 6 .2 / He's w hat?
8 to be abandoned 1 are 3 H e’ll be a way for how long? / He'll
9 be affected 2 t eaches (whet her or not the expected w ha t?
10 expect / are expecting answer is one person or two) 4 It'll cost how much? / It'll w hat?
11 are (being) destroyed 3 is 5 He's sold (his) w ha t? / He's done
4 makes w ha t? / He's w hat?
U N IT 25 5 are / is 6 H e’s going climbing where? / He's
6 has doing w ha t? / He's w hat?
25.1
1 agreed 2 6 .3 27.4
2 proposed / shown 2 W ha t + d 1 do-you not- W hy don’t you (C)
3 hoped / explained 3 W ha t / How + 2 W h o do you expect -that- will read
4 decided 4 How + h your blog? (F)
5 explained 5 W ha t + j 3 (F)
6 established / revealed 6 H o w + a or g 4 -Was net- Wasn't (D)
7 intended 7 H o w + e or i 5 (C)
8 planned 8 W ha t + f 6 W hat did you say that- is in these
9 assumed / thought 9 W ha t / How + biscuits? (F)
10 discovered 10 W ha t + e or i 7 (F)
8 did not didn't (C)

257
 Key t o Exercises

U N IT 28 8 Jane posted the letter for me ... 3 0 .4

(‘Jane took the letter for me ...'is also 2 + e The new course is intended to help
28.1
possible) people (to) understand modern art.
2 answered (the phone)
9 1offered my old bike to him ... 3 + a Scientists hope the new drug will
3 eat (dinner)
10 Can you save some dinner for me, help (them) (to) prevent hay fever.
4 thanked Val
please? 4 + f W e didn't agree wit h t he decision,
5 washed (herself)
but w e didn't dare (to) protest against
6 brushed her hair 2 9 .2
it.
7 changed (her clothes) 1 He kindly collect ed so m e library books
5 + d W he n Ethan arrives, have him wait
8 put on some makeup for me.
outside my office.
9 drove (her car) 2 He ad mitted his error to his
6 + c The dial on the left lets you control
10 reached their house colleagues.
the speed of the fan.
11 w ave d(he r hand) 3 y
12 parked (her car) 4 Can 1ask you a favour?
5 A special ticket allows (people) entry
U N IT 31
13 cooking (dinner)
14 to pick so m e flowers t o all the museu ms in the city. 31.1
15 studying (French) 6 / 1 a told b threatened
16 mention her 2 a offered b allowed
2 9 .3
17 introduce you 3 a managed b persuaded
2 his sister to me; me her photograph /
18 enjoyed the evening 4 a encouraged b agreed
her photograph to me
19 afford it 5 a reminded b pretended
3 the problem t o our t eacher; us an other
20 wash up (the dishes) 6 a hoped b advised
half hour
21 invite Val and Tom 31.2
4 him a paper aeroplane / a paper
2 8 .2 aeroplane for him; his broken car for a
2 ... culminated in t he discovery of him; him three bedtime stories / three W he n I advertised for a w ebsite designer
penicillin. bedtime stories to [ or for) him for the business, Gret a got t he job. But
3 ... differentiate between fantasy and 5 you a fortune; me the mo ney / the I've now learnt t hat you can't rely on
reality. money t o me Gre ta t o do anything. I waited ages for
4 ... specialises in seafood. 6 Ben a drink / a drink for Ben; the glass her to co me up wit h some initial ideas for
5 ... inflicted a surprise d efeat on ... to him / him the glass the site, and then I had to keep on a t her
6 ... attributed his success to ... t o do any more work on it. Finally, she
7 ... mistook the black car f o r ... U N IT 30 said she couldn't do it af ter all.
8 ... based her new novel on ... 30.1 b
Managers of the N ational Electricity
2 8 .3 2 We don't approve of the developer's
locating the fact ory so close to houses. Co mpany have appealed to workers to
Example adjectives are given
3 / end their strike, and have called on the
2 satisfied; She declared herself to be
government to intervene in t he dispute.
satisfied wit h the result. / She declared 4 X (not a verb of [disjliking or thinking)
5 It is difficult t o imagine his accepting The Energy Minister said t ha t he has
t hat she was / is satisfied wit h the
arranged for employers and employees
result. the decision wit ho ut any objection.
6 No one in the crowd t ha t day will t o meet next week, and he prevailed
3 inedible; They considered t he food to
forget Ashe's fighting so hard to win
on strikers to return t o work in the
be inedible. / They considered t hat the
the match. meanti me.
food w as / is inedible.
4 reliable; I have always found him to be 7 I remember their arguing a great deal 31 .3
reliable. / I have always found t ha t he when t hey were children. 1 agreed not to tell
was / is reliable. 8 X (not a verb of [disjliking or thinking) 2 are / were thought to have escaped
5 happy; W e believed her to be happy at 3 0 .2 3 don't recall seeing / don't recall having
school. / We believed t hat she was / is seen (si milar meanings)
2 approve of children wearing
happy at school. 3 end by sum marising 4 denies / denied having received or
4 discouraged me from going denies / denied receiving (si milar
U N IT 29 5 rely on Sophie turning up meanings)
29.1 5 asked not to be named
6 adapt to living / adapt to dealing with
In som e cases other tenses are possible life 6 didn't feel like walking

2 I have t o choose his clot hes for him. 7 see ms t o have disappeared
3 0 .3 8 are / were believed to have arrived
3 Can you take t his present for / t o her?
1 burst (a single, short event)
4 ... pass it to me ...
5 ... we sold all the carpets to him as
2 watching (the cont ext suggests t hat U N IT 32
Carl was being watched before he saw
well. ('... w e offered all the carpets to 32.1
the watcher; in other words, he didn’t
him ...'is also possible) The most likely reporting verbs are given in
see the w hole of t he event)
6 He t eaches sports to disabled children. the answers, but others are possible.
3 sting (‘stinging’ is also possible, but
7 Can you read these instructions t o / for 2 ' Why don't we stop for a coff ee?' she
this would suggest t hat the wasp stung
me, please? suggested.
several times)
3 ‘All right, Georgia, it was me,’ he
4 feeding (this refers t o a repeated
confessed.
event)

258

4 ‘ My novel is more exciting than a Dan
Brown thriller,' she boasted.
5 ‘I always carry t wo umbrellas wit h
me because I'm always losing them,'
explained Lena. / ... Lena explained.
6 ‘O h, no, it's raining again,' grumbled
Matt. / ... Matt grumbled.
7 ‘Good morning, Miss Novak,' chorused
the children. / ... the children chorused.
8 ‘ Have I done t he right thing?' I
wondered.
3 2.2
2 threatened not to repay
3 didn't feel - could ( more likely than He
felt t hat he co uldn’t ask his parents to
help him again.)
4 insisted - wasn't (or hadn't been)
5 a n n o u n ce d - w asn 't going
6 didn't expect - to be (more likely than
He expected his mo ther not t o be
angry.)
7 didn't think - would (more likely than
She t hought Adam w ouldn’t mind
waiting.)
8 promised - wouldn't
3 2.3
1 ‘how 1heard about t he job' is also
possible
2 what my long-term career plans were /
what were my long-term career plans
3 how many languages 1spoke / speak
4 where 1(had) learnt / learned Chinese
5 if / whe ther 1could use a spreadsheet
6 if / whe ther 1 had organised
int ernational conf erences before.
7 if / whe ther 1would be willing t o live
overseas for periods of time
8 when 1can / could start work
U N IT 33
33.1
1 advised
2 assured / promised
3 warned
4 inform / teach
5 have shown
6 has reassured / has advised
7 promised
3 3 .2
2 X
3 The judge t hought his e xplanation to
be unconvincing.
4 1expected her plans to fail.
5 X
6 Lucas acknowledged his chances of
winning the race t o be slim.
7 W e found the rugby supporters to be
very well behaved.
8 X
3 3 .3
L ikely answers are given
1 complained to
2 complained to; mentioned to;
announced to
3 joked with; announced to; mentioned
to
4 announced to
5 requires of
6 disagreed with
7 mention to
3 3 .4
Possible necessary objects are given in bold
1 has warned t ha t they
2 explained t o employees t hat
3 confessed to her audience that
4 denied t ha t management
5 replied t hat an announce me nt
6 reassured employees / the m that
7 went on to complain t hat government
help
8 demanded of minist ers t hat
(‘demanded t ha t minist ers provide’
would also be possible and less f ormal)
9 asked of staf f t hat (‘asked staf f to
co ntinu e’ would also be possible and
less formal)
10 reassured staff / them that
N ot e t hat alternatives wit h ou t’ that'
(1 has warned they, 2 explained to
e mployees, etc.) are gram matical, but less
likely in a formal written context.
U N IT 3 4
34.1
A dded objects are in bold
2 + j He took my hands and showed
me how / w h ere to hold the golf club
properly.
3 + g I explained carefully so t hat t he
students understood what they had to
do in the test.
4 + i Anna was new in t he office and
I had to keep reminding her who
everyone was.
5 + b I saw Sarah leave the building, but
I didn't notice where she wen t af ter
that.
6 + e When I saw Hugo alone a t the
party I wondered why Helen wasn't
wit h him.
7 + h As we walked over the hills the
guide warned us where / when the
path w as dangerous.
8 + a Af ter I'd dismantled t he motor I
couldn't remember how t o fit the parts
back together.
9 + f To win a prize you had to guess how
many sweets were in t he jar.
1 0 + c As the guests ca me in Diego told
the m where to put their coats.
Key t o Exercises
3 4 .2
1 debating 4 choose
2 discuss 5 decide
3 considering
3 4 .3
The villagers warned me w ha t the
conditions were like at higher attitudes,
and advised me to take enough food
for a week. There was some discussion
through the day as to whet her the sno w
would arrive before my desce nt from t he
mountain, but I never imagined how hard
the conditions would be. In the morning
t hey showed me (the w ay / how: one o f
these m ust be deleted ) to get to the track
up the mountain.
When the sno w start ed falling it was very
light, and I couldn't decide -if- whet her to
carry on or go back down. Soon, however,
I couldn't see where to go.
1wondered -if whet her to retrace my
steps and try to find the track again, but
by the tim e I decided whe the r- t ha t I
should go back, the track had disappeared.
As the sno w got heavier I began to realise
w he t h er- t h a t my life was in danger.
Fortunately, my years in the Andes
had taught me what to do in extreme
conditions. I knew t hat there was a
shepherd's hut somewhere on this side of
the mountain t hat I could shelt er in, but I
didn’t know -that- w het her it w as nearby
or miles away.
U N IT 35
35.1
2 She alleged t hat Markus had stolen /
stole je wellery from her house.
3 She estimat ed t ha t t he vase was (‘is’ is
also possible) around 250 years old.
4 She repeated t hat she had already seen
the film.
5 She conceded t hat perhaps she treated
/ had treated Lara unkindly.
6 She recalled t hat Wilma's great
grand mother was / had been from
Spain.
3 5 .2
1 have solved 4 understand
2 stat es 5 looks
3 has 6 is / was
3 5 .3
1 W he n I mentioned to N okes t ha t he
had been seen / ( or w as seen) in a
local shop last Monday, he protested
t ha t he -is- w as at home all day. He
swears t hat he didn't own doesn't
own a blue Ford Focus. He clai med
t ha t he had been / ( or went) to the
paint fact ory t wo weeks ago to look
for work. Nokes alleges t hat he is
y a good friend of Jamie Barnes. He
259
 Key to Exercises
insisted t hat he didn't telephone
(ior hadn’t telephoned) Barnes last
Monday morning. W he n I pointed out
to Nokes t hat a large quantity of paint
had been found S ( or w as found) in
his house, he replied t hat he is st oring-
had been storing ( or w as storing) it
for a friend.
2 At the beginning of the int erview I
reminded Barnes t hat he is / (or was)
entitled to have a lawyer present. He
denied t ha t he knew S ( or knows)
anyone by the name of Daniel Nokes.
Barnes confirmed t hat he -is- had
been ( or was) in the area of the paint
fact ory last Monday, but said t hat he
is visiting- w as visiting (or had been
visiting) his mother. He ad mitted that
he is walki ng was walking ( or had
been walking) along N ew Street at
around ten. He maint ains t hat he -was-
is a very honest person and would
never be involved in anything illegal.
U N IT 3 6
36.1
The most likely answers are given. Possible
objects are given in bold.
2 He agreed to collect Declan from
school.
3 He ordered us t o be quiet.
4 He urged me to st ay for a f ew more
days.
5 He vowed t o fight the ban on smoking
in public places.
6 He expected / hoped to see Olivia at
the party.
7 He asked me to lend him t en pounds.
( or He asked to borrow ten pounds.)
8 He called on t he government to do
more to help the homeless.
9 He hoped / expected to avoid the
heavy traffic (by leaving early).
36.2
2 ought to be back soon.
3 intended said / promised
4 -insist e d- expected
5 -demanded ordered
6 ^wanted- hoped
7 /
8 offered proposed / ordered
3 6 .3
Exam ple answers
2 ... reducing bus and train fares.
3 ...se e in g it.
4 ... buying a guide book.
5 ... going to the doctor.
6 ... building it to the east of the city.
7 ... doing more exercise.
8 ... going for a long walk.
260
The verb ‘propose' can be followed by a
to-infinitive witho ut an o bject (see A).
For example:
2 To encourage people to use public
transport t he council proposed to
reduce bus and train fares.
6 The cit y urgently needs a new airport,
and the government proposes t o build
it to the east of the city.
U N IT 37
37.1
1 will 5 couldn't
2 may / might 6 can / could
3 can 7 w ill / w o u l d
4 would
37.2
2 She promised t hat she wouldn't be
late ...
3 He suggested t hat w e could go to Paris
for the weekend ...
4 She guaranteed t ha t she could get me
there in good time ...
5 He insisted t hat he would pay for the
m e a l...
Se nt ences 2 and 4 have alternatives with
a to-infinitive clause:
2 She promised not to be la t e...
4 She guaranteed to get us there in good
tim e...
37.3
2 (that) she would be there t his ti me.
3 had t o be in t he cit y centre by one
(’ must be’ is also possible, but less
natural)
4 asked where w e should meet
5 mustn't forget to bring my student
discount card
37.4
2 She said t hat I could / can travel with
them.
3 She said t ha t she w ouldn't answer his
questions.
4 She said t ha t Karl would / should /
5 She said t ha t she may / might / could
have t o move to Milan.
6 She said t ha t she couldn't / wouldn't
accep t t hat Jason is / w as dishonest.
7 She said t ha t Maria would / will be
disappointed if w e leave / left wit hout
seeing her.
U N IT 3 8
38.1
2 He failed to address the question /
issue of who would / should pay for
the repairs t o the building.
3 I was delighted to get an invitation
to spend t he holidays with t hem in
Scotland.
4 I think it was Aristotle who made the
observation t ha t there's no such thing
as bad publicity.
5 A mazingly the police accept ed Rudi's
e xplanation that he had taken t he
w allet by mistake.
6 O n t he webinar t hey debated t he issue
/ question of whet her assisted suicide
should be a criminal offence.
7 The tetter from t he co m p any gave a
final warning t hat I should pay the bill
by the end of the week. / ... to pay the
bill by the end of the week.
8 The government has broken its
promise to reduce the rate of income
tax. / ... t ha t it would reduce the rate
of income tax.
9 The positive reaction to my work gave
me considerable e ncouragement to
take up photography as a career.
10 Waiting passengers were angry when
they heard the announce me nt t ha t the
flight was cancelled, ( or ... had been
cancelled).
3 8 .2
2 There has been a great deal of
argument as to how to define poverty.
3 There have been m onths of
speculation as to whe ther President
Malik would stand again.
4 Scie ntists might co me t o a / some
conclusion as to w ha t their results
imply.
5 There is still no definite explanation as
to why the dinosaurs disappeared.
3 8 .3
1 unsure w he ther or not certain whe ther
are also possible
2 dismissive of
3 ad aman t t hat
4 unsure how / not certain how
5 angry t ha t / apologetic t hat
6 apologetic about
7 not certain when / unsure when
8 abusive to / towards
9 complimen tary about
10 agreed t ha t / ad am an t t hat
U N IT 3 9
39.1
The m ost likely answers are given
2 Lee urged t hat Mara Bianchi should be
promoted to export manager.
3 Alice recommended t ha t a sales
representative should be sent to South
Africa.
4 Alice reported t ha t the Delaware
Bridge project should be co mplet ed by
August next year.
5 Si mon insisted t hat work schedules
should be kept to.
6 Si mon instructed t hat all monthly
reports should be sent to him directly.
 Key to Exercises

7 Alina suggested t hat web conferencing 6 class have (A plural verb f orm is used 4 2 .2
should be used for meetings t o save as t his is somet hing the individuals did, 1 (singular) is
money on air fares. emphasised by the use of 'all'.) 2 (plural) are
8 Alina declared t hat the company's 7 press presents / present 3 (singular) is
head office should remain in London. 8 The United N ations has / have 4 (singular) has
9 N athan agreed t ha t the co mpany 5 (singular) is
4 0 .3
should sponsor the European chess 6 (plural) provide / offer
1 -come co mes
league for the next three years.
2 / 4 2 .3
10 N athan announced t hat in future all
3 -report- reports 1 have; have; shop / shops
claims for travel expenses should be
4 -are- is 2 is (‘are’ is also possible, but less likely);
made in US dollars.
5 / expect / expects
3 9 .2 6 / 3 is; blames / blame
2 Yes 7 Yes 7 -have has 4 was ('were' is also possible, but less
3 Yes 8 No 8 -are- is likely); has / have
4 No 9 No 9 / ( ' . . . need to be k e p t ...’ is also 5 ad mit / admits; were; was
5 Yes 10 No possible) 6 were; have
6 Yes 10 -are- is 7 shows; is; believe
8 have; says / say; are
3 9 .3
U N IT 41
Possible adjectives are given in these
41.1 U N IT 4 3
answers
*1 43.1
2 I am shocked t hat Kristina should
behave so badly. b his early paintings remains / remain 1 a /
3 I am astounded t ha t anyone should c the food t ast es b a co mputer programmer
vote for him. d Dr Jones's acquaintances knows c a film star
4 It is urgent t hat he should return home 2 2 a /
immediately. a vegetarians is expected b girls' school
5 I am amused t ha t he should take his b medicines relieve c the car door
ap pearance so seriously. c victims ... exceeds d a cut on t he / her head
6 I am upset t hat t hey should think I had d museu ms in the capital charge 3 a /
cheated them. 3 b /
7 It is appalling t hat t hey should be a the pieces lasts / last c a bottle of milk
allowed to go free. b player tries d a packet of biscuits
8 It is imperative t ha t we should act now c t he cars are / is tested e so m e t oothpast e
to avoid war. d these fact ors influence /influences f /
4 a /
4 1 .2
U N IT 4 0 b songs about pollution (‘pollution
1 are; wants
songs' is not a well-known class of
40.1 2 think - has (more likely than ‘have' in
songs)
2 -is- are t his for mal context)
5 a to ol shed
3 rem ain remains 3 has / have; has
b spiders' webs
4 / 4 clai m; constitutes (more likely than
6 a ar mchair
5 -fs-are ‘co nstit u te’ as ‘t he wreck of t he ship
b /
6 -let- lets and its cargo' co nstitu te together, as a
c the 500-piece jigsa w puzzle
7 / single item, a danger)
d glasses case
8 -afe- is 5 is / are (we use ‘is' if we think of
9 -are- is ‘sausages and chips' as a single item); 4 3 .2
10 have has have; are / 's 1 cover up
11 / 2 broken out
12 -is- are U N IT 4 2 3 stopping over
13 -e^d-adds 42.1 4 get t ogether
1 / ('are' is also possible) 5 stopover (related t o 3)
4 0 .2
2 / 6 get-together (4)
2 university refuse / refuses
7 cover-up (1)
3 audience ... is (A singular verb form 3 have
4 / (‘w ere1is also possible) 8 outbreak (2)
is more likely here as the focus is on
the audience as a whole rat hert han 5 go 4 3 .3
individual members.) 6 are 2 middle-of-the-road
4 orchestra perform / performs 7 / (‘has' is also possible) 3 round-the-clock
5 ju ry includes (A singular verb form is 8 are 4 step-by-step
used here as 'include' f ocuses on the 9 say 5 o nce-in-a-lifeti me
group as a w hole rather than individual 6 down-t o-earth
members.) 7 man / woman-in-t he-stree t (an
altern a tive is ‘man or w oman in the
stree t’, usually wit ho ut hyphens)
8 larger-than-life
261
 Key t o Exercises

U N IT 4 4 45.3 4 a the holidays (specific reference; the

2 pleasure 7 a real pleasure holidays t ha t are coming soon)
44.1
3 a sound 8 a grammar b Holidays (a general reference to
1 an
4 grammar 9 an iron holidays in this part of the world)
2 a
5 iron 10 conversation 5 a rain (a general reference)
3 an
6 Sound b the rain (reference to a specific,
4 a
understood period of rain)
5 a (‘
U N IT 4 6 6 a the money (reference to a specific,
6 an
understood sum of money)
7 an 46.1
b mo ney (an observation on the
8 a 1 an author
effect of money generally)
9 an 2 - # i e a / - r minister
7 a Parents (= a general reference)
10 a 3 a Mac
b The parents (a specific reference to
11 a 4 N ot the George Clooney
particular parents)
12 an 5 a Van Gogh
8 a the fire (reference to a specific fire)
13 an 6 y
b fire (a general reference)
14 a 7 the Nielsens
8 -the- a / - Usain Bolt 47.2
4 4.2
1 - (‘all af tern oo n’ is more likely than ‘all
1 one- a 46.2
the afternoon')
2 1 a / t he / - (‘a’ suggests t ha t there are a
2 a
3 a-o ne number of marketing advisers; ‘the' or
3 the
4 -one-an indicate t ha t there is only one)
4 the
5 2 the/-
5 the
6 one a 3 the /-
7 -o n e a ('one' would imply ‘one and no 4 t h e / - (in journalism) 6 -

7 the
more'; ‘a’ is more likely if this is a more 5 -
8 -
general invitation t o ‘have so me cake') 6 —; —
7 - 9 t h e / - ( ‘the win t er'mig h t i mply
8 y (‘o ne’ implies ‘one and only one')
8 A /- ‘the coming winter'. However, both
9 y (both ‘o ne’ and ‘a’ are possible)
‘win t er’ and ‘the wint er’ might be a
10 one a 46.3 generalisation meaning ‘any win ter’)
11 o n e a (‘o ne’ would e mphasise the 1 the 5 (the) 10 a
number and see ms less likely than 'a' 2 (the) 6 (the)
in this context) 3 (the) 7 the 47.3
12 (both ‘one' and 'a' are possible) 4 the 1 an email
8 the
13 -a-one 2 by car / by air
14 o n e a 46.4 3 the air
15 -a-one 1 t his / a 4 the post / an email
16 / (both 'one' and ‘a' are possible) 2 -
5 by post / by e mail
3 - (‘this' would be unlikely here as the 6 the car
4 4 .3 paint is not the topic of what co mes 7 by e mail
1 one/ a 7 one / a next) 8 by air
2 one 8 an 4 the /-
3 one 9 one 5 a/- U N IT 4 8
4 one / an 10 one 6 a
5 a 11 one/a 48.1
7 the
6 one 12 A 1 some books
8 a / this (‘t his’ introduces the w o man as
t he focus of the next part of the story)
U N IT 45 9 the /-
45.1
4 y
10 the /-
5 So me sports
1 a the world b a world
6 y
2 a a bright future b the future U N IT 47
3 a the past b a past 47.1 8 Some children
4 a a deserted beach
1 a Children (a general reference;
b the beach (‘a beach' is also possible specific children are not referred to) 48.2
here, meaning a particular but b the children (a specific reference, S uggested answers are given
unspecified beach) probably to my / our children) 2 Some 3 0% of all city buses have been
2 a the agriculture (a reference t o the found to be unsafe.
4 5 .2
agriculture in a specific area) 3 An unexptoded bomb has been found
1 a cust o mer
b agriculture (a general reference) some five miles from the centre of
2 the individual / an individual (similar
3 a islands (reference to islands N ewham.
meaning)
generally) 4 So me 25% of electricity will come
3 the car
b The islands (reference to a specific from wind energy by 2025.
4 The television
group of islands) 5 Some 200 jobs are to be lost at the
5 the smoker
Encon steelworks.

262
 Key to Exercises

48.3 11 was no reply 6 W hile it is true t hat -a4oT©f many

S uggested answers are given 12 th ousands of jobs were lost wit h the
2 H e’s probably out with some girlfriend 13 was no choice decline of the northern coal and steel
or other. industries, -a-lo t of- many advantages
4 9 .4
3 Maybe I lent it t o so m e student in my have also f ollowed. Much Far too
Possible answers
geography class. many cases of lung disease were
2 Mr Carlson didn't w an t t o sell the
4 I think it's in some travel a gent’s in the recorded in t he region, but wit h lower
painting, and no a mount of mo ney /
High Street. levels of pollution the number has
persuading could make him change his
5 Perhaps she's got t o finish some report declined. In addition, a -great deal of a
mind.
or other. great many hi-tech co mpanies have
3 I sen t job applications to over a
moved in to take advantage of the
48.4 hundred companies, but not one of
newly available workforce.
1 any them invited me for an interview.
2 any / some (‘any’ suggests t hat I could 4 Smallpox used t o be com mon all over 50.2
eat none of the food; ‘so m e’ implies the world but since 1978 not one case 2 many a sunny afternoon
t ha t I w as able to eat some but not all of the disease has been recorded. 3 Many a ship
of it) 5 The floor had dirty black marks all over 4 its / the many golf courses
3 anything it, and no a m ount of polishing could 5 my many emails
4 someone (‘positive’ meaning) get it clean. 6 his many expeditions (‘many an
5 anything / somet hing (‘anyt hing’ expedition' is also possible)
4 9 .5
suggests t ha t he said t hat he did 7 Many a teacher
1 N o problem. / N o bother.
nothing at all wrong; ‘so me thing’ 8 the many coffee shops
2 No wonder.
suggests t hat he has been accused of a
3 N o chance. / N o way. 50.3
particular wrongdoing but denied this) 1 plenty of (’a lot of' is also possible)
4 No idea.
6 anyone 2 A lot of (not ‘plent y of')
5 No co m me nt.
7 any
3 a lot of (not ‘plenty of')
8 any
U N IT 50 4 a lot of (not ‘plenty of')
9 So me (= not all) 5 plent y of (‘a lot of' is also possible)
10 anyone / so me one (‘anyone’ suggests 50.1
S uggested corrections/im provem ents are
t ha t I don't w an t t o lend it t o any U N IT 51
person; ‘som e o ne’ suggests t hat I given
1 Lola's had man y a lot of (more usual 51.1
m ay have a particular person in mind
than ’many' in conversation) problems 1 were all
(perhaps t hey have asked me to lend it
with her back for -a-tet- 2 can all
to them))
-ef- many years. She's having an 3 had all
operation next week and she won't 4 are all
U N IT 4 9
be back at work for a good deal of- a 5 All the children or The children all
49.1 good many weeks afterwards. (both are possible)
2 ... no one heard ... 2 a : There’s bound t o be much a lot 6 all been
3 N ot a drop ... of / lots of traffic on t he w ay to the
4 ... no p o i n t ... 51.2
station. Perhaps we should leave now.
5 ... nowhere else ... 1 The whole process
b: No, there's plenty of ti me left, and
6 ... none of the hotels ... 2 W hole areas of the country
at t his time of day many a lo t of /
7 ... never going to g e t ... 3 The w hole trip
lots of people will already be at work.
8 ... nothing wrong ... 4 all of t he t owns
3 Many A lot of / Lots of (more usual
5 all of the pages
49.2 than ‘many’ in conversation) people
6 all the building / the whole building
1 There aren't any in the cupboard. think t ha t hedgehogs are very rare
('all the building’ suggests t hat we see
4 ... there wasn't any point in protesting. nowadays, but when I was in W ales I
the building as being made up of parts
5 ... he didn't have anywhere else t o go. sa w many a lo t / lots (more usual
(a number of rooms, for example); ‘the
7 Isn’t he ever going t o get a jo b? (or Is than ‘m any’ in conversation).
whole building’ would be more likely in
he ever going to get a job?) 4 A lot Many have clai med t hat
a formal context)
8 ... they couldn't find anything wrong Professor Dowman's study on current
7 The whole room
wit h her. at tit ud es to politics is flawed. On e
criticism is t ha t much- far too many 51.3
49.3 people questioned in the survey were 1 every 6 every
1 are no jobs 2 each 7 each / every
under 18.
2 are no trains or buses 3 every 8 each
5 -A k >t-ef Much research has been
3 no seatbelts 4 each / every 9 Every / Each
conduct ed on the effects of diet on
4 w as no spare tyre 5 each 10 every
health, wit h a lot ef- many studies
5 y (In 4, 7, and 9 ’each' emphasises that
focusing on the link between fat intake
6 y we are thinking of the places / children /
and heart disease. However,
7 are no trees households separately; ’every’ suggests
-a-let- much remains to be done,
8 was no swimming pool somet hing like ‘all o f’.)
(‘much' and ‘ many' are preferred in a
9 was no television
written academic context).
10 y

263
 Key t o Exercises
51.4
1 Every so often
2 20% of their income on books.
3 every few weeks
4 ('all Friday' is possible in an informal
context; 'the whole of Friday’ would
also be possible here)
5 each of them
6 not all the food usually gets eaten
7 N ot all of my brothers always co me
8 Neil and his family were all on holiday
9 the rest of us all had a great time
10 y ('all evening' would also be possible)
U N IT 52
52.1
1 few (‘a f ew’ would mean t ha t a small
number of people would disagree. It
would be more likely after ‘b u t ...' than
‘and ...’)
2 Little
3 few
4 the few / a few
5 A little
6 The few / W ha t f ew
7 a little
8 a few
9 a few
10 the little / what little
52.2
M ost likely changes are given
1 '... a bit o fT V ...’ (more likely in this
informal context)
2 ... there are only a f ew left o r ... there
aren’t many left.
3 ... there isn’t much more ... o r...
t here’s not much more ...
4 ... not many like t h a t ... o r ... only a
few like t h a t ...
5 ... has had f ew female politicians ...
6 ... exchanged few words ...
7 ... a little more confident ...
8 There see ms t o be little p r osp ect...
52.3
Possible answers
1 Fewer students had a part-ti me job
in 2 00 0 than now. (‘Less stu de nts ...’
would also be accept able for some
people) Less ( or Fewer) than 10% of
female stude nts had a part-time job in
2000.
2 Male students spend less money than
f emale students on books. Students
spend less on books now than t hey did
in 2000.
3 Less (or Fewer) than 10% of f emale
st ude nts walk to lectures now.
Fewer students walk t o lectures now
than in 1980. (‘Less st ude nts ...’ would
also be accept able for some people)
4 Male students spend less time online
now than f emale students.
264
Surprising results might be:
Female students now spend no less than
Female students spend no less than 24
hours a week online.
U N IT 53
53.1
The relative pronoun can be omitted in 1,
3, 4, 7 and 10.
53.2
1 ('that' o r a r e more likely in an
informal context)
2 Eva’s father, who is over 80, has just
co me back from a skiing holiday.
3 The problems faced by the company,
which I'll look at in det ail in a moment,
are being resolved, (some people
would use 'that' as an alternative)
4 She was greatly influenced by her
father, w ho / who m she adored,
(‘w h o m ’ is formal)
5 He pointed t o the stairs which / t h a t
led down to t he cellar.
6 These drugs, which are used to treat
sto mach ulcers, have been wit hdrawn
from sale, (some people would use
‘t h a t ’ as an alternative)
7 The singer, who was recovering from
flu, had to cancel her concert.
8 The minister talked about t he plans
for tax reform t hat / which / - he will
reveal next month, (‘w hich’ is more
likely in a f ormal context)
9 I have t wo older sisters w ho m / who
/ t hat / - I love very much, (‘w h o m ’ is
very formal)
5 3 .3
1 ‘w hich’ is possible, but less likely than
‘t h a t’ or
2 ‘w h o m’ see ms rather f ormal here and
less likely than ‘w h o’, ‘t ha t’, or
3 / ‘t hat I can' is also possible
4 ... much t hat can ...
5 -whom-who
6 which- ‘t h a t’ or
7 The boy who took ...
8 ‘w hich’ is possible, but less likely than
‘t ha t’ or
9 ‘w hich’ is possible, but less likely than
‘t h a t ’
10 ‘w hich’ is possible, but less likely than
’that' or
U N IT 5 4
54.1
2 + a The newspaper is owned by the
Mears group, whose chairperson is
M issjiu Kim.
3 + f Parents whose children are between
four and six are being asked to take
part in the survey.
4 + b Children whose diets contain
high levels of protein do better in
examinations.
5 + e My aunt, whose first job was filling
shelves in a supermarket, is now CE O
of a d epart ment store.
6 + c I enjoy growing plants whose
flowers are a t tractive to bees.
54.2
Exa m ple answers
2 A widow is a w oman whose husband
has died and who has not remarried.
3 An actuary is a person w hose job
is to decide how much insurance
companies should charge their
cust omers.
4 A furnace is a cont ainer in w hich things
are melted or burnt.
5 A gazebo is a small garden building in
which people can sit to enjoy the view.
6 Polo is a sport in which horse riders
hit a ball using ha mmers with long
handles.
54.3
1 the m o me nt when
2 an agreement whereby
3 the area where
4 the reason why
5 a method whereby
6 a condition where
54.4
1 -w hat ever- whoever
2 t hat what
3 /
4 w hich what ever (or ‘w ha t’)
5 -whichever what ever
6 / (or ‘no relative pronoun’ or ‘w hich’)
7 wha t that
8 w hich whichever / what ever
U N IT 55
55.1
2 He was the uncle of Anne Boleyn,
after whose execution in 1536 he lost
power.
3 It is her unmarried name by which she
is bett er known.
4 Mr Wang, across whose land the road
will be built, is very unhappy about the
plans.
5 The election result, about which
there can be no doubt, is a great
disappoint ment.
6 The building from which Marcus
emerged was little more than a ruin.
7 It is a medieval palace, in whose t ower
the king hid during the civil war.
8 I am grateful to Aarav Basu, from
whose book on t he history of the
bicycle this information comes.

55.2
2 Until 1914 the pound sterling was the
currency in / wit h which most world
trade was conducted.
3 They have changed the date on / by
which the furniture is to be delivered.
4 Pasteurisation w as discovered by the
French che mist Louis Pasteur, after
whom it was named.
5 He was persuaded to stay in England
by Charles Dickens, to w ho m he had
shown his novel.
6 There are a number of saf et y
procedures of which you should be
aware.
7 Details are in the instruction manual
wit h which t he printer was supplied.
8 Ms Park w as left the money by her
for mer husband, from who m she was
divorced in 2005.
55.3
2 Until 1914 t he pound sterling was
the currency which / that most world
trade w as conducted in.
3 They have changed the date which /
t ha t / - t he furniture is to be delivered
on / by.
4 Pasteurisation was discovered by the
French che mist Louis Pasteur, who it
was named after.
5 He was persuaded to stay in England
by Charles Dickens, who he had shown
his novel to.
6 There are number of saf et y procedures
which / t ha t / - y o u should be aware
of.
7 Details are in the instruction manual
which / t hat / - the printer was
supplied with.
8 Ms Park w as left the money by her
f ormer husband, who she w as divorced
from in 2005.
55.4
1 The house which t he thieves broke into
2 schoolboy who was being told off by
3 ... first of which ...
4 The party, w hich I've been looking
forward to all week ...
5 5 introduced; Across the river were some
6 ... both of which ...
7 ... part of which ...
8 ... all of who m ...
U N IT 56
56.1
The most likely answers are given
2 I w en t on an IT training course with my
colleague Mateo.
3 Rubella, or Ger man measles, is still a
co m mon childhood disease in many
countries.
Key t o Exercises
4 Four kilos of Beluga caviar, among the U N IT 57
most expensive foods.in the world, has
57.1
been ordered for the reception.
The m ost likely answers are given
5 O n e of the most popular modern
2 + e She's in t he photograph on the
writers for children is the Australian
piano.
John Marsden.
3 + b I plan to cut down t he tree in t he
6 Tonya's father, and (her) trainer for
back garden
the last ten years, was in the crowd to
4 + a There's a team of people in green
watch her victory.
shirts.
7 Dr Sofia Lopez, head of Downlands
5 + d We took the footpath by / along
Hospital, has criticised government
the canal.
plans to cut health funding.
6 + i The children can't get over the f ence
8 Klaus Schmidt, the Ger man 10,000
around the pool.
metres record holder and current
7 + g Go along the lane bet ween the
European cha mpion, is running in
houses.
the St ockhol m Marathon, [ or Klaus
8 + j Nico's a boy with a quick temper.
Schmidt, the current European
9 + f Follow the main road from Paris to
champion and (the) Ger man 10,000
Lyons.
metres record h o ld e r,...)
1 0 + h She’s a t eacher from N ew
56.2 Zealand.
2 + d The t wo countries having land
57.2
borders wit h the USA, namely / t ha t is
2 She's in the photograph which is on
Mexico and Canada, have complained
the piano.
t o the President about the new
3 I plan t o cut down t he tree which is in
custo ms regulations.
the back garden.
3 + a The three most popular pets in
4 There’s a team of people who have /
Britain, namely / t hat is cats, dogs
are wearing green shirts.
and rabbits, are found in 25% of
5 W e took t he footpat h which runs /
households.
goes by / along the canal.
4 + f The capital of Estonia, namely /
6 The children can't get over the f ence
t ha t is Tallinn, is situated on the Gulf
which is around the pool.
of Finland.
7 Go along the lane which runs between
5 + b The largest island in the world,
t he houses.
namely / t hat is Greenland, covers over
8 Nico's a boy who has a quick temper.
2 million square kilometres.
9 Follow the main road which runs /
6 + c The ‘consumers' of education,
goes from Paris t o Lyons.
namely / t hat is students, should
10 She's a t eacher who is / co mes from
have w ays of complaining about poor
N ew Zealand.
teaching.
57.3
56.3
Possible answers are given with some
2 educated; I w en t to a reunion for
altern atives
students who were educated in the
2 Teachers (who work / working) at
physics d epart ment during the 1990s.
Queen's College in the city centre,
3 being told off; As my au nt told
who wen t on strike last week, have
me w hat she thought, I felt like a
appointed Kristina Borg, t he head of
English, as their spokesperson.
his headteacher.
3 Marge Scot t, who has died aged 95,
4 saying; There is a sign on the gate
was the first woman (to be) educated
which says ‘Entry forbidden'.
at Marston College in south Wales. /
Marge Scot t, the first w oman (to be)
of the deer which were introduced into
educated at Marston College in south
t he park in the 19th century.
Wales, has died aged 95.
6 flowing; Rivers which flow into the
4 The conference (held) in Singapore,
Baltic Sea are much cleaner now than
which approved the world trade
ten years ago.
agreement drawn up by European and
7 being printed; The booklets which are
Asian stat es, has now ended.
being printed as we speak will be on
5 A book on gardening, A ll a bout Plants,
sale lat er this afternoon.
t ha t / which Anna wanted to borrow,
8 needing; Anyone who needs further
wasn't available in the library. / A book
information can see me in my office.
on gardening called A ll about Plants
t hat / which Anna wanted to borrow
w asn’t available in the library.
265
 Key to Exercises
6 A painting found in a second-hand
shop by Lara Gruber, an antique dealer
from Austria, is t hought to be by
J.M.W. Turner, t he British landscape
artist, (or... by the British landscape
artist J.M.W. Turner.)
57.4
1 The sen tence could mean: (i) t ha t a
man w as wearing a grey suit - he was
talking; (ii) (the ridiculous) t hat a man
was talking wit h a grey suit. To remove
the ambiguit y the sent ence should be:
A man (who was) wearing a grey suit
was talking. / A man in a grey suit was
talking.
2 The sen tence could mean: (i) t ha t the
lorry was carrying thousands of stolen
cigarettes - it was stopped by a police
officer; (ii) (the ridiculous) t ha t the
police officer was carrying thousands
of stolen cigaret tes at the time
s/ he stopped t he lorry. To remove the
ambiguity the sen tence should be:
A lorry (which was) carrying t housands
of stolen cigaret tes was stopped by a
police officer.
3 The sent ence could mean: (i) that I am
going t o discuss the matt er with my
parents; (ii) t hat I am going to decorate
the room and my parents will help
decorate it with me; (iii) (the ridiculous)
t hat I am going to use my parents as
decoration in the room! To remove the
ambiguity the sent ence should be:
I discussed with my parents my plan to
decorate the room, (to mean [i]) or
I discussed my plan to d ecorat e the
room with t he help of my parents (to
mean [ii]).
U N IT 58
58.1
2 Dressed { or Being dressed) all in black,
she w as alm ost invisible in the starless
night.
3 N ot having a credit card, I found it
difficult to book an airline ticket online.
4 Being unemployed, Antonio spent a lot
of tim e filling in job application forms.
5 Walking quickly, I soon caught up with
her.
6 Built of wood ( or Being built of wood
...), the house w as clearly a fire risk.
7 Having been told off the day before for
arriving late, I was eager to ca tch the
bus in good ti me.
8 N ot knowing where the theatre was,
she asked for directions at the hotel
reception.
9 Being a nurse, she knew what to do
af ter the accident.
10 Having spent his childhood in Oslo, he
knew the cit y well.
266
58.2
1 D (first implied subject = T ; second
subject = ‘a car') Waiting for the bus,
I w as splashed all over by a car t hat
w en t through a puddle. / W hile I was
waiting for t he bus, a car wen t through
a puddle and splashed wat er all over
me.
2 S (subject in both clauses = ‘Rashid’)
3 S (subject in both clauses = ‘Suzanne’)
4 D (first implied subject ‘w e’; second
subject = ‘the t o wn’) Looking down
from t he hill, we could see t he town
spread out before us t owards the
coast. / As w e looked down from the
hill, w e could see t he town spread o ut
before us to wards the coast.
5 D (first implied subject = ‘I’; second
subject = ‘the boat') I w as feeling
rat her sick as the boat ploughed
through t he huge waves.
6 S (subject in both clauses = ‘the plant')
58.3
1 N ot wishing t o b o a st ...
2 Pretending not to notice ...
3 Determined not to be beaten ...
4 N ot feeling well ...
5 N ot bothering to put on his c o a t ...
6 Trying not t o cry ...
58.4
2 + c Looking over my shoulder, I could
see Ida running af ter me.
3 + f Walking through t he t unnel, I
banged my head on the low roof.
4 + a Having waited six weeks for the
washing machine t o be delivered, I
decided to cancel the order.
5 + g Having suffered from depression
myself as a teenager, I could
understand how N athan was feeling.
6 + h Having parked / Parking the car
about a kilometre from t he stadium, I
walked the rest of the way.
7 + b Having reached / Reaching my
mid-t hirties, I felt I needed t o change
my life.
8 + e Having learnt some Swahili as a
child, I was able t o understand most of
w hat she said.
U N IT 59
59.1
2 W hile being interviewed ...
3 Before taking ...
4 W hile w elco m in g ...
5 Since being overthrown ... ( or After
being overthrown ...)
6 Through working ... ( or Af ter working
...)
7 Before being sold ...
8 Af ter leaving ...
59.2
2 + a By giving up sugar, she soon began
t o lose weight.
3 + e In turning down t he job, she gave
up the possibility of a huge salary.
(‘By turning d own’ is also possible.
However, ‘In turning down' f ocuses on
the consequence of the action and so
is perhaps more likely here.)
4 + b By moving to a smaller flat,
she saved over a hundred pounds a
month. (‘In moving ...' is also possible.
However, ‘By moving ...'focuses on the
method used t o save money.)
5 + f O n entering the classroom, she
was surprised when all the children
stood up.
6 + c In criticising her father, she
knew t ha t she might offend him.
(‘By criticising' is also possible.
However, ‘In criticising' f ocuses on t he
consequence of the action and so is
perhaps more likely here.)
59.3
1 With Maryam having flu, we couldn't
go on holiday.
2 W it ho ut having more information, I
won't be able to advise you.
3 W it ho ut realising it, he had solved the
problem.
4 W it h ti me running out before the train
left, I couldn’t wait for Andrei any
longer.
59.4
(1) Although from a poor background.
Paula Regis gained a place at Southam
University. (2) Always fascinated by
the stars, she t ook a first degree in
astrophysics. (3) O nce at university she
also became interested in student politics
and, (4) popular wit h her f ellow students.
was elected Universit y President in her
second year. This didn't distract her from
her studies, however, and (5) while in
t he final year of her degree, she won t he
International Young Scien tist of the Year
award for her work on star classification.
( 6 ) W he n asked w hat was ( or When
asked about ...) t he secre t of her success
( or When asked w hat t he secret of her
success w as ...) she said, ‘Just hard
work and a little luck.’ (7) Determined to
continue her research, she has recently
begun work on her PhD.
U N IT 60
60.1
2 prepared (herself)
3 prides itself on
4 occupied t he mselves wit h / by (‘with'
and ‘by’ could be o mitt ed: ‘occupied
t he mselves playing co mputer games')
 Key t o Exercises

5 adapt (yourself) 61.4 63.3

6 trouble hi mself about / with Possible a nsw ers 2 such research
7 dress (herself) 1 ... one who knew the way. 3 such claims / such a clai m
8 absent himself from 2 ... ones you have t o drive to. 4 such a project
3 ... one is t he burning of fossil fuels. 5 such destruction
60.2
4 ... ones are small and lightweight 6 such t actics / such a t actic
1 me
2 myself 63.4
3 us
U N IT 62 Exam ple answers
4 them 62.1 2 ... into research of this kind
5 yourself 2 ‘I doubt it' is also possible. 3 ... claims like t his ( or these) / a claim
6 hi mself ('him' is also possible i f ' he’ 3 I hope so. like this.
and 'him' refer t o different people) 4 I suppose so. 4 ... this kind of p r o je c t...
7 herself (‘her' is also possible i f 1she' 5 I think so. 5 ... this sort of destruction ...
and 'her' refer t o different people) 6 Yes, I hear (that) she is. (‘So I hear' is 6 ... t hese t actics / this t actic ...
8 me also possible; see E)
7 I guess so. U N IT 6 4
60.3
8 He says so. 64.1
1 got ourselves vaccinated / got
9 I promise (that) I will. 2 Yes, w e should have booked t ickets
vaccinat ed
10 I'm sure (that) you will.
2 y in-advance-.- / Yes, we should have
3 had themselves checked 62.2 booke d tickets in advance.
4 he'd caught hepatitis hi mself 1 suppose n o t / d o n 't suppose so 3 Yes, we will -be-stay ing t n-BrazU-
5 y (however, some people think this is 2 don’t think so / think not (‘think n ot’ pc r manently. / Yes, w e will be
incorrect and would use 'Jan and I') would be rather formal) stay ing in BrazH-peFm ane n tlyr
6 t o tear himself away 3 suspect not / don't suspect so 4 Yes, I’m sure they will have been
7 we're going to occupy ourselves 4 d oesn’t appear so / appears not taken by nowr- / Yes, I'm sure t hey will
8 t hey can't reach it themselves 5 didn’t say so have -bee n taken by n o w r / Yes, I'm
sure t hey will have been
62.3
U N IT 61 -t a ken by now;
2 Yes, t hey are.
5 No, I haven't -
61.1 3 Yes, it has. / So it has.
6 Yes, I am -
1 -ones- some 4 Yes, you did.
7 Yes, I would have missed the train - /
2 Yes, I would have misse d t he tram.
62.4
3 -ones- some
Possible answers 8 No, I can’t see him anywhere.
4 ... mint ^ane-. . . / . . . some m i n t ...
2 So I understand. 9 No, he couldn't have been looking, or
5 y No, he couldn't have been-
3 So I gather.
6 looking . / No, he couldn't have been -
4 So it appears.
7 o n es-o n e
5 So he tells me. leekmgr-
8 ones some
64 .2
61.2 U N IT 63 2 do
1 ones 63.1 3 has
2 ones (So me people would avoid this 2 She w as asked to t each more classes, 4 do
use of ‘ones' to refer to people.)
and w as happy t o do so. 5 (do)
3 No 3 My French hosts gave me snails to eat, 6 hasn't / doesn't
4 one but I did so very reluctantly. 7 is
5 N o (‘ones' would be unlikely here, 4 The co mp any wanted to build a dam 8 have (done) / did
referring to a group of people) on the site, but they were prevented 9 have / do
6 ones from doing so by local opposition. 10 (be)
7 one 5 All EU countries agreed to i mplement
8 No 6 4 .3
the new regulations on recycling
9 No 2 might / would (be)
plastic, but so far only Finland and
10 N o (‘yo ur ones' is possible, but some 3 might / should (be)
Austria have done so.
people avoid it. ‘Are t hese y o urs?' is 4 should (be)
6 The w at er freezes in the cracks in
much more likely) 5 might / would be
rocks, and as it does so it expands.
6 should (be) / would
6 1 .3
6 3 .2 7 would / might be
3 (ones) N ot e t ha t some people think
1 do so 8 would / might be
t hat ‘th ose ones' is incorrect.
2 do (not ‘do
4 (one) 3 doing so U N IT 65
5 / 4 do (not ‘do
6 (one) 65.1
state)
7 2 used to
5 does so
8 (ones) 3 pretended to be
6 do (not ‘do
9 (ones) 4 used t o be
7 do (not ‘do
10 (one) 5 claimed to
8 did so
267
 Key to Exercises

6 pretended to / claimed to 5 a legal / stupid 9 pretty / very-

7 expected it t o be b legal /st u pid 10 fairly / pretty (both correct)
8 expected to
6 6 .3
U N IT 68
6 5 .2 1 all the people concerned
1 opportunity (to) 2 As t he minist er responsible 68.1
2 hated to 3 the opposite effect. The m ost likely answers are given
3 refused (to) 4 a responsible adult. 2 very late
4 choose to 5 t he only available room / the only 3 very critical
5 determined (to) room available 4 a straight
6 deserved to 6 the apparent approval 5 false
7 idea (to) 7 and concerned parents 6 a critical
8 delighted (to) 8 financial advice available 7 late
9 prefer to 8 original
10 afford to U N IT 67 9 very straight
10 very false
6 5 .3 67.1
1 ... if you'd like to ( o r ... if you like) The m ost likely answers are given 6 8 .2
2 y ( or ... you'd like to.) 1 al most / practically complet e 2 a highly technical
3 ... she doesn't w an t to. 2 mainly cotton b tech nical
4 / (or ... if she’d like.) 3 a bsolutely e xcellent 3 a very human
5 S ( or ... where I wan t to.) 4 very clear b human
6 ... if you don’t w an t to. (However, 'if 5 co m plet ely illegal 4 a largely aca de mic
you d on’t w an t’ is so m e tim es used in 6 very popular b acad emic
colloquial speech) 7 an alm ost permanent 5 a private
7 ( o r ... if t hey wan t to.) 8 very a ttractive b an int ensely private
8 ... I'd like t o very much. 9 exclusively / mainly male 6 a diplomatic
9 ... you like, (oryou'd like to) 10 very visible b an e xtremely diplomatic
10 ... so I didn't like to.
67.2 6 8 .3
S uggested answers: Possible answers are given
U N IT 6 6 2 I'd be incredibly upset. 2 ... nice and quiet
66.1 3 I’d be rather angry. 3 ... lovely and soft
S uggested corrections are given 4 I'd be a bit e mbarrassed. 4 ... nice and juicy
2 a lone figure / a figure walking alone 5 I'd be e xtremely annoyed. 5 ... good and ready
3 /
67.3
4 a happy / cheerf ul person / a person U N IT 69
S uggested corrections are given, but others
who was always glad and smiling
are possible 69.1
5 his sleeping daughter / his daughter,
1 e xtremely old 2 ... the problems identified. / the
who was asleep
2 y identified problems.
6 frightened passengers / passengers on
3 absolutely useless 3 Interested visitors ...
board who are afraid
4 very happy 4 ... the sheet provided.
7
5 ‘reasonably unique’ is unlikely; more 5 ... wit h flights included.
8 a similar age
likely is, for example, ‘alm ost unique' 6 ... the resulting p u blicit y / t h e
9
6 y publicity resu lti n g ...
10 The girls, w ho were sorry for their
7 y 7 ... any remaining cheese. / any cheese
behaviour, apologised to t heir teacher.
8 quite small remaining.
/ The girls apologised to their teacher
9 perf ectly comf ortable
because t hey were sorry for their 6 9 .2
10 y
behaviour. Exam ple answers
11 reasonably quiet
2 The a mount of added sugar in dark
66.2 12 virt ually impossible
chocolat e is less than t hat found in
1 a an u tt er / inevitable 13 y
white chocolate.
b inevitable. 14 a really terrible
3 Organic oranges contain 30%
2 a unsafe (‘d o m estic’ would only 15 simply awful
more vitamin C than those grown
be possible here if w e wanted to 16 y
conventionally.
e mphasise t ha t the equipment was
6 7.4 4 Cars today are much more fuel-
for use in the home (i.e. domestic)
1 -fairly / really efficient than those manufactured in
rather than another kind of
2 really / fairly (both correct) 1990.
equipment)
3 fairly / really 5 The President's salary is 25 times
b d o m estic / u nsa f e
4 pret ty / very (both correct) higher than t ha t earned by t he average
3 a e ducational / entertaining
5 very / pretty citizen.
b e d uca tio nal / e n t ert ainin g
6 pret ty / very-
4 a serious
7 really / foifly
b serious / underlying
8 really / very (both correct)

268
 Key t o Exercises

69.3 U N IT 71 7 complexef- more complex

2 well-resourced 8 y (‘more clever' would also be
71.1
3 nerve-wracking possible)
1 repeatedly
4 far-reaching 9 powerfuler- more powerful
2 in / wit h despair ('despairingly' is also
10 alerter more alert
69.4 possible)
2 were wide-ranging 3 in / wit h anticipation 72.3
3 is clean-shaven 4 reputedly 'the' can be left out in 2, 4 and 5.
4 eye-catching 5 disappointedly 72.4
6 in a relaxed w ay / manner / fashion
1 in
U N IT 70 7 det erminedly
2 of
70.1 8 in / with satisfaction (‘in a satisfied way
3 of
1 to reduce / manner / fashion' are also possible)
4 in or of (both are possible)
2 to cheat / cheating 9 in an organised w ay / manner / fashion
5 in
3 knowing 10 agitatedly
4 to leave 71.2 U N IT 73
5 to underesti mate / underestimating 1 a most 73.1
6 to open / opening b mostly 2 The Downtown H otel is not such a
7 talking 2 a short pleasant place to st ay as the Strand
8 to resign / resigning b shortly Hotel. / The Downt own H o tel is not as
9 to panic 3 a directly pleasant a place to stay as the Strand
10 turning b direct Hotel.
70.2 4 a wide 3 The President’s address t o the nation
1 stupid going / stupid to go b widely is as important a speech as he is ever
2 confident t hat he wouldn't get lost 5 a highly likely to make in his career.
3 / b high 4 It w asn’t such a big problem as I first
4 guilty shopping 71.3 thought. / It w asn’t as big a problem as
5 w as concerned to learn 1 y I first thought.
6 / 2 ... t o me in a friendly w ay / m an n er / 5 Theresa's dog is as f erocious an ani mal
7 y fashion. as I’ve ever seen.
8 busy drinking 3 ( or ... fine ...) 6 She’s not such a fluent Greek speaker
9 was sorry to (have) upset me / was 4 ... flatly refused. as she clai ms to be. / She's not as fluent
sorry t hat he'd upset me (‘was sorry 5 / (’... very clear' is also possible in a Greek speaker as she clai ms to be.
for upsetting m e’ is also possible) informal contexts) 73.2
10 w asn’t prepared to ad mit 6 ... in a co wardly way / m a n n e r / 1 as many as 5 as little as
11 fashion ... 2 as f ew as 6 as few as
70.3 7 ... justly renowned. 3 as much as 7 as little as
2 It was wonderful to hear such a 8 ... slo wly turned ... 4 As many as 8 as much as
magnificent performance. 9 ‘thinly' is gra m ma tically correct,
but some people would use ‘t hin’ in
73.3
3 It was mean of you t o eat all the cake 2 + a Her handwriting was so untidy as
and not leave any for me. informal cont exts
to be nearly illegible.
4 It was unreasonable of t hem to 10 ... loudly applauded ...
3 + e The bookcase w as so heavy as to be
complain about the exam results. alm ost i mpossible to move.
5 It was awkward t o get the top off the U N IT 72
4 + c The CD was so badly scratched as
jar. (or ... to get the top of the jar off.; 72.1 to be unplayable.
inform ally . .. getting the t op off the 1 more scared 5 + f The plot of the novel was so
jar.) 2 deeper or more deep (for e mphasis) co mplicated as to be co mplet ely
6 It w as simple to put up the shelves. 3 more pretty incomprehensible.
7 It was unprofessional of him to criticise 4 stronger 6 + b The difference between the results
the headteacher in front of the staff. 5 more naughty w as so small as to be insignificant.
8 It was kind of you to give birthday 6 harder
presents to the children. 7 truer or more true (for emphasis) 73.4
8 longer 1 How serious an injury
70.4 2 or as serious as
Possible answers are given 72.2 3 bad enough to
2 It made me furious listening to his lies. 2 y (‘more dirty' would also be 4 not as fit as
3 It made me sad t hat we wouldn't be possible) not such a good player as / not as
5
working toget her again. 3 recent er more recent good a player as
4 It made me ashamed to learn how 4 -exeitinger- more exciting 6 go so far as to say
badly we treated immigrants in the 5 / (‘wealthier’ would also be possible) 7 suf ficiently well / well enough
1950s. 6 / (‘more unique’ is used to suggest
8 as speedy a recovery as possible
5 It made me nervous hearing the t hat so me people have particularly
dentist's drill as I sat in the waiting individual charact eristics)
room.

269
 Key t o Exercises
U N IT 74
74.1
1 I expect Cat alina to win the race
easily.
2 He regretted missing the concert
greatly. / He greatly regretted missing
t he concert.
3 I secretly hated playing the piano ...
(more likely than ‘I hated playing the
piano secretly, although my parents
thought I loved it.' This would mean
tha t my parents t hought I loved
playing the piano secretly.)
4 He calmly start ed to walk across ... /
He started to walk calmly across ...
5 She kindly offered to do the work.
6 Bruno hurriedly finished speaking and
sat down. / Bruno finished speaking
hurriedly and sat down.
7 I si mply don’t remember putting it
down.
8 We look forward to hearing from you
so o n .
9 They delib erat ely tried to ignore me. /
They tried t o ignore me deliberately.
10 I don't pretend t o understand t he
instructions co mpletely.
74.2
1 around Switzerland / in July (place +
time)
2 a c a r / a t the airport (object +
adverbial)
3 south / towards the lakes (place
[adverb] + place [prepositional phrase])
4 for a week / in a beautiful cottage
belonging t o some friends of Kim's
mother (ti me + place [long adverbial])
5 early / at about six o'clock (time
[adverb] + tim e [prepositional phrase])
6 briefly / in the village where Kim had
spent some ti me when she was a
stude nt (time + place [long adverbial])
7 caref ully on the narrow winding roads
(manner + place)
8 the train / ho me (object + adverb)
9 ourselves / e nor mously / in Switzerland
(object + manner + place)
10 there / before too long (place + ti me)
74.3
2 y or N ext, vigorously beat the eggs in
a small bowl. (Both of these are more
likely than 'Next, beat the eggs in a
small bowl vigorously’).
3 I thought I’d securely locked t he
luggage. / I t hought I’d locked t he
luggage securely.
4 I stopped playing tennis regularly ...
(more likely)
5 y or Lee was beaten easily in the final.
/ Lee was beaten in the final easily.
6 He always brings sandwiches from
home.
270
7 No, t hey moved away last year.
8 The local residents welco me d war mly
t he decision ... or The local residents
w ar mly welco med the decision ...
9 period; does not take inversion [see C])
U N IT 75
75.1
2 a I was brought up t o earn money
h o n est ly ...
b H o n estly, I’m perfectly capable of
putting up t he shelf myself.
3 a she ad mitted f ra n k ly ...
b Fran kly, I wen t to sleep during his
lecture ...
4 a Serio usly , I d on’t know w hat I’d
have done ...
b I tried to speak se ri o usly to him ...
5 a Cle arly, he wants me to take the job.
b I’d had very little sleep and was
having difficulty thinking cle arly.
6 a Plainly, he was feeling ill at ease,
b She always dressed p lain ly ...
75.2
1 enorm o usly / significantly
2 from-t im e t o t im e / rarely
3 easily / -seareely-
4 almost / by an hour
5 often / on many occasions
6 -hafdlyever ^ / every week
7 greatly- / rarely
8 -nearly / entirely
75.3
1 [1 ] & [3 ]
2 [1] & [3]
3 [2]
4 [1] & [3]
5 [2] & [3]
6 [1] & [ 2]
U N IT 76
76.1
2 ... and out jum ped Daniel.
3 O u tside the door stood t w o small
children.
4 In t he park the boys were playing
cricket, despite the muddy conditions,
(no inversion)
5 Around her neck hung a jad e necklace.
6 ... and up the tree it climbed, (no
inversion)
7 ... and in marched a delegation from
t he striking workers.
8 ... a w ay swa m the fish.
9 ... in t he corner was a very old
grandfather clock.
10 In the office Lea found (no inversion)
it difficult to concentrate, but at
ho me she worked (no inversion) more
efficiently.
76.2
2 ... last week I had a holiday, (su bject-
verb inversion is not possible: 'last
week' is an adverb of ti me indicating a
3 ... first ca me a w elco ming address by
the head of the organising t eam.
4 ... at no time were members of the
public in danger.
5 No change; the adverb 'daily' can't go
in front position.
6 ... seldom can a politician have
changed his views so quickly as Beckett.
7 ... next came a blizzard, preventing us
from leaving the hut.
8 ... by next Friday we'll be in Japan.
(subject-verb inversion is not possible:
'by next Friday’ is an adverb of time
indicating a definite point; does not
take inversion [see C])
9 No change; the adverb 'hourly' can't
go in front position.
10 ... hardly ever did I hear him raise his
v oice in anger.
76.3
1 I play squash t wice a week / t wice a
week I play squash
2 your salary will be paid monthly
3 y
4 y
5 Around the town she drove / She drove
around the town; in a side street she
spotted the place / she spotted the
place in a side street
6 across t he room it flew / it flew across
t he room
U N IT 77
77.1
1 very / much / very much
2 very / much / very much
3 very / much- / very much
4 very / much / very much
5 -vety- / -much- / very much
6 very / much / very much
7 very / much- / -ve fy much
8 very / -much- / very much
9 -very / much / very much
10 very / much / very much
77.2
1 to o 5 very / too
2 very / to o 6 too
3 very 7 very
4 very 8 too
77.3
1 ... and he even offered ...
2 I will o nly be ...
3 ... and even t he smallest donation can
make ...
4 ... he has eve n asked Ann ...
5 O nly Louis knew ...
6 ... I only cook ...

U N IT 78
78.1
A number o f positions fo r these adverbs
are possible, depending on the wider
co n text and the particula r emphasis th at
the speaker / writer wants to give. The
first answer below gives perhaps the most
likely position in m any contexts, a nd then
alternatives.
2 ... Presumably, the idea is to welco me
visitors from other countries. / The
idea, presumably, is to welco m e ... /
The idea is, presumably, t o welco me
. . . / . . . o ther countries, presumably.
3 The builders generously agreed to
plant new trees t o replace t he ones
t hey had dug up. / Generously, the
builders agreed ... / The builders
agreed generously to plan t...
4 Most people rightly believe t ha t the
prisoners should be released. / Rightly,
m ost people ... / Most people believe,
rightly, t h a t ...
5 O bviously, she knew more about the
robbery than she told the police. / She
obviously knew ... / ... told the police,
obviously.
6 He carelessly broke the window when
he w as painting. / Carelessly, he
broke ...
7 She bravely picked up the spider and
put it outside. / Bravely, she picked
u p... / She picked up the spider
bravely ...
8 Interestingly, t he road didn’t appear
on t he satnav.
78.2
2... out wardly she looked remarkably
calm.
3 ... e nviron mentally it is no longer the
problem it once was.
4 ... industrially it is relatively
undeveloped.
5 ... visually the performance was
stunning.
6 ... financially we'd be much b ett er off
if we moved there.
7 ... politically he claims to be a socialist.
8 ... t echnically she could be sen t to
prison.
78.3
S uggested answers are given
2 In geological t erms, li mest one is a
relatively new rock.
3 The building is si milar to the
opera house in Milan in ter ms of
architecture.
4 From a gram matical point of view
the essay was well written, but its
style was inappropriate.
5 The election w as clearly rigged and t he
result is a severe blow to t he country
as far as d emocracy is concerned.
Key t o Exercises
U N IT 79 6 + c As the guest lecturer w as late.
Dr G o m ez spoke about his research
79.1
instead.
1 as / when (‘w he n’ e mphasises a direct
7 + e I suggested we all go on holiday
connection between kicking the ball
toget her seeing t ha t we get on so
and falling over - it suggests that
well.
kicking the ball caused her to then
8 + g You should never walk under a
fall over; ‘as’ suggests ’a t the same
ladder because it’s supposed to be
ti me as’ - kicking and falling happened
unlucky.
simultaneously)
2 When (more likely than ‘W hile ...'; 80.2
talking about a period of our lives) 2 ... due t o lack of interest.
3 When 3 ... due t o / owing t o its central location.
4 W hile / As 4 ... due t o human error.
5 while / when (‘as’ could mean 5 ... due t o / owing to heavy cloud.
‘because’ here) 6 ... because of the bright sunlight.
6 when 7 ... because his mobile was switched off.
7 As/ W he n 8 ... because of local opposition.
8 as 9 ... because of his age.
9 while / as 10 ... because there w as a fly in it.
10 A s / W h e n (‘W he n’ su g g ests’By the
80.3
ti me t he paint is dry'; ‘As’ emphasises a
2 I couldn't hear what Isabella was
continuous change during the period it saying with the noise. / W it h the noise,
is drying)
I couldn't hear what Isabella was
79.2 saying. / I couldn't hear w ha t Isabella
1 -As- When was saying for the noise.
2 - When- While / As 3 With her father (being) in hospital,
Olivia wen t to st ay wit h her aunt. /
3 w hile when
Olivia w en t to stay with her aunt, with
4 /
her father (being) in hospital.
5 -While- When / As (= ‘because’)
4 With all the exercise I w as doing I felt a
6 -as- when
lot fitter. / I felt a lot fit ter with all the
79.3
exercise I was doing. / I f elt a lot fitter
1 until
for all the exercise I was doing.
2 Before / Until
5 W it h the train drivers on strike
3 before / until
tomorrow, I don't think I'll go to town
4 before
after all. / 1don't think I'll go to town
5 Before / Until
af ter all, with t he train drivers on strike
6 until
tomorrow.
7 before / until
8 until
U N IT 81
79.4 81.1
Possible answers are given 2 + h He packed his suitcase wit h the
2 ... than he broke his arm. books at t he bottom so as not t o / in
3 ... when it rang again. order not t o crush his clothes.
4 ... than / when it w as time to st art 3 + a Bus fares in the cit y were being
work again. cut so as t o / in order to encourage
5 ... before members of the audience people to use public transport.
start ed to criticise her. 4 + f We crept quietly t owards the deer
6 ... when t he engine cut out. so as not t o / in order not t o frighten
t hem away.
U N IT 8 0 5 + c I walked around the outside of the
80.1 field so as not t o / in order not to
2 + b Andrea agreed to book tickets for damage the growing crops.
us all as it w as her idea to go to the 6 + b We put up a f ence so as t o / in
theatre. order t o prevent people walking across
3 + a Seeing as it's your birthday, I'll buy the grass.
you lunch. 7 + g She looked down at the book in
4 + h Because I'm trying to lose weight front of her so as t o / in order to
I've given up d airy products. avoid his gaze.
5 + d W e were recommended t o buy the 8 + e The roadworks were carried out at
textbook second-hand since a new night so as not to / in order not to
copy would be very expensive. disrupt traffic too much.
271
 Key t o Exercises
81.2
2 X 6 walking holiday in Nepal.
3 7 y
4 X 8 X
5 X
8 1.3
2 ... nobody would know it w as there.
3 ... mosquitoes couldn't get in.
4 ... it won't take up a lot of computer
memory.
5 ... we could see the view over t he city.
6 ... it will receive the new channels.
81.4
S uggested a nswers are given
2 The meeting room is designed in such
a w ay t hat everyone's voice can be
heard without the use of microphones.
/ ... in such a w ay as t o allow
everyone's voice to be heard without
the use of microphones.
3 The website is organised in such a w ay
t hat it is easy to navigate. / ... in such
a way as to be easy to navigate.
4 If the dial is rotated in such a way that
the number 1 is at the top, the valve
opens. / . . . in such a w ay as to locate
the number 1 at the top, t he valve
opens.
U N IT 82
82.1
2 + b Frightened though / as she was, she
forced herself to pick up the snake.
3 + e Scarce though / as food became,
they always found enough to share
with me.
4 + c Experienced though / as the
climbers were, they had never faced
such severe conditions before.
5 + a Confusing though / as the
instructions first appeared, t hey were
very useful when I looked at t he m in
detail.
6 + h Disgusting though / as it looked, it
was act ually quite tasty.
7 + f Confident though / as she felt, she
knew the examination would not be
easy.
8 + d Successf ul though / as t heir new
products have proved, t he co mp any is
still in financial difficulties.
82.2
2 In spite of being much younger
than the others, he was the most
outstanding rider in the team.
3 In spite of eating a big lunch, he had a
three-course meal in t he evening.
4 In spite of his fear, he allowed t he huge
spider to be placed in his hands.
5 In spite of her obvious intelligence, she
finds it difficult to express her ideas in
writing.
272
6 In spite of her illness, she w ent on a a warning or t hreat about a possible
future event.
4 doesn't arrive / hasn’t arrived; give.
2 Despite the fact t ha t he was much
The present perfect and the present
younger than the others, he was the
simple have a similar meaning.
most outstanding rider in t he team.
5 haven’t filled in / don't fill in; need.
3 Despite the fact t hat he at e / had
The present perfect suggests ‘ify o u
eat en a big lunch, he had a three-
previously filled in an application
course meal in the evening.
form'; the present simple may imply
4 Despite the fact t ha t he was
‘Ify ou don't fill in an application form
frightened, he allowed the huge spider
now, you will need to do so ...'.
to be placed in his hands.
6 don't help / haven't helped; go. The
5 Despite t he fact t ha t she is obviously
present perfect and t he present simple
intelligent, she finds it difficult to
have a similar meaning.
express her ideas in writing.
6 Despite the fact t ha t she was ill, she 83.3
w en t on a walking holiday in Nepal. 1 belonged 4 doubted
2 / 5 /
82.3
3 liked 6 understood
1 even though 5 even though
2 even if 6 even if 83.4
3 Even if 7 Even though 2 If it were not for his anxiety over
4 Even though 8 even if Carla, his happiness would have been
complet e.
82.4
3 Were it not for the intervention
2 W hereas a decade ago only 5% of
of the government ( or ... for (the)
students dropped out of college, the
government intervention / intervening
figure t od ay is 25%.
...), the strike would probably still be
3 While t he temperat ure is below
going on.
freezing, it act ually feels quite war m
4 Had it not been for the arrival of the
when t he sun is out.
police (or ... for the police arriving ...),
4 While t he cost of rail travel has
the fight could have got out of hand.
increased, the number of train
5 But for the sound of birds singing,
passengers has grown.
everything was quiet.
5 W hereas I've always wanted to visit
6 If it was not / were not for the United
Australia, I've never had any wish t o go
Nations, there would have been far
to Canada.
more wars in t he last 50 years.
7 If it had not been for the roadworks we
U N IT 83
would have been here t wo hours ago.
83.1
S uggested answers are given U N IT 8 4
2 ... give me a call. / ... take it back to
84.1
the shop.
2 Had you not been absent from school
3 ... t ell him I want to see him. / ... ask
on Friday, you would know what you
him to co me and see me.
have t o do for homework.
4 If you see any large, hairy spiders in
3 W ere Clare's friends still living in
the grass ... / If you co me across any
Brussels, she would have been able to
snakes on your walk ...
stay with them, (or Were her friends
5 If y o u’re ever in Birmingham ... / If you
still living in Brussels, Clare would ...)
ever need any more a dvice ...
4 Were the workers prepared to accep t a
6 If you're coming by bus . . . / Ifyo u
wage cut, the fact ory would not have
don't wan t to walk far t o the shops ...
had to shut down.
83.2 5 Should t he financial performance of
1 The present perfect suggests ‘ify o u the co mpany not i mprove in t he near
previously studied M acbeth ...'; the future, we shall have t o reduce the
present simple suggests ‘ify o u study number of employees.
M acbeth in t he future, then you will 6 Had the salary been higher, I might
(get to) know ...’. have considered taking the job.
2 leave / have left; meet. The present
84.2
perfect and the present simple have a
1 X If I press t his button ...
similar meaning.
2 y
3 break / have broken; have to. The
3 y
present perfect suggests t hat you
4 X If the disease is untreated ... ( or ...
may have broken it (perhaps I think
goes untreated ...)
you have); the present simple may be
 Key t o Exercises

y U N IT 8 6 87.2
6 X If you complain about me ... 1 N evertheless
86.1
7 y 2 while
2 + d Unless alternative sources of
3 even though
8 4 .3 funding are found, the research will
4 Even so
1 If I happen to see Georgia when I'm in not be able to continue.
5 Instead
Rome ... 3 + c Unless the roads have changed in
6 whereas
2 X t ha t part of town, I'm sure I'll be able
7 so
3 ... if you happen to live nearby. t o find my w ay there.
8 Meanwhile
4 X 4 + a Unless the w ea ther starts
9 while
5 If you happen to be in the south of improving soon, t he farmers will lose
10 Before
Spain next w e e k ,... t heir crops.
11 unless
5 + e Unless it's ridiculously expensive, I
84.4 12 At t ha t time
think I’ll buy t hat painting.
Possible answers are given using the notes
6 + f Unless you have been unemployed 87.3
2 ... overcome with a great weariness.
for six months, you are not entitled to Exa m ple answers are given
3 ... trying to i magine w ha t it contained.
stat e benefit. 2 However hard you might exercise, it is
4 ... to agree with everything Julia said.
difficult to lose weight wit ho ut cutting
(or ... agreeing with ...) 8 6 .2
down on t he amount you eat.
5 ... it had been reversed into a wall. 2 ‘If the infection isn't treat ed’ is also
3 Ho wever much we enjoy being
possible.
together, it is important to spend some
U N IT 85 3 If he wasn't
ti me apart.
85.1 4 y ‘if you don't have' is also possible.
4 Professor Malcol m is always happy to
2 + d Were t he government t o increase 5 if Anya doesn’t pass
spend time with his students, however
university fees, t here would be an 6 If you d on’t get
busy he might be.
o utcry from students. 7 y ‘if they don't get' is also possible.
5 However many times I see t he Eiffel
3 + a Were anyone to lean against the 8 if Louise isn’t a t home
Tower, it never fails t o i mpress me.
window, the glass would certainly break. 9 / ‘if t hey can’t prove' is also possible.
6 Some people never see m content,
4 + c Were I not already busy in August, I 10 if she w asn’t
however much money t hey have /
would gladly accep t your invitation. 8 6 .3 however rich they are.
5 + b Were you to see the conditions 1 if / whether
in which t he refugees are living, you 2 whet her U N IT 8 8
would be horrified. 3 w he ther
88.1
85.2 4 if / whether
1 across
Possible sen tences are given 5 whe ther ( or in form a lly'
2 across / over
2 Imagine you were t o inherit a million 6 w he ther
3 over
dollars. 7 if / whe ther
4 across / over
3 Suppose your parents were to t ell you 8 if / w h e t h e r
5 across
t hey were emigrating to Canada. 9 w he ther
6 across
4 Supposing Spain were to win t he 10 if / w h e t h e r
7 across
World Cup. 11 w he ther 8 over
5 Imagine the population of Britain were 12 if / whe ther
88.2
all Buddhist.
U N IT 87 1 along / through
85.3 2 Across
87.1
2 even if it were 3 through
2 A sm all boy w as kicking a ball against
3 even if she were 4 across / over
a wall; otherwise, the street was
4 as if I were 5 over (‘all over' is more likely than ‘all
deserted.
5 as if she were across' or ‘all through’)
3 I couldn't remember meeting him
6 even if I were 6 along
before, ye t his face seemed familiar.
7 as if it were
4 A mass evacuation of islanders is 8 8 .3
8 even if t hey were
taking place. Meanwhile, t he volcano 1 under
85.4 continues to erupt. 2 y (‘under’ is also possible)
Possible answers 5 a : W hy don't you like t ha t new French 3 below
2 I'd sooner she were going wit h friends. restaurant? B: For one thing, it's too 4 over
3 b : Well, if only it were as easy as that. expensive. 5 / (‘over’ is also possible)
4 I know you haven't got much time, but 6 Ingrid ca me down with flu while we 6 over
if I were you I'd have breakfast before were on holiday. 7 under
you leave. 7 My landlady didn't mind me having 8 y (‘ab ove’ is also possible)
5 Wearing odd shoes t o school was parties in my room as long as the rent
8 8 .4
embarrassing and I’d rather it were was paid on time.
1 c under t he w ea t her = ill
forgotten by my classmat es. 8 O n e way of getting rid of weeds is to
2 d below the belt = cruel or unfair
6 I’m very fond of Paul, but I wish he dig them out. Alternatively, you could
3 b under her belt = successfully
were not so critical of his employees. poison them.
complet ed

273
 Key t o Exercises

4 e under a cloud = with some people's 9 0 .3 3 -about / -f©f- / with

disapproval i O ver / During 4 -of- / -with- / on
5 f over the top = extreme behaviour; 2 So far 5 for / af ter / -about-
indicating disapproval 3 Until now 6 for / -on- / -with-
6 a over and above = in addition to 4 so far 7 of / about / -oft-
5 until now
9 2 .2
U N IT 89 6 during
1 for
89.1 7 until
2 o f / about
1 between 6 between 8 by
3 wit h (note t hat 'to' would also be
2 among 7 among possible)
3 between 8 among U N IT 91 4 for
4 between 9 between 91.1 5 about
5 among 1 e xcept 6 on / about
2 except / except for 7 of (‘a bo ut’ is unlikely in this f ormal
8 9 .2
3 except context)
2 between / among the pupils
4 e xcept for (in informal cont exts); more 8 about
3 between amate ur
f ormally, 'but for’ is possible 9 wit h
4 among teenagers
5 except 10 of
5 between / among his remaining
6 except / except for (in informal 11 about
relatives
contexts) 12 about
6 among its clients
7 except / except for 13 about
7 between intake of refined sugar
8 e xcept / e xcept for (in informal 14 on (‘a bout’ is also possible but less
8 between cooking
cont exts) natural here)
9 among my closest friends
9 e xcept for (in informal cont exts); more
10 between t he striking dockers 9 2 .3
f ormally, ‘but for’ is also possible
8 9 .3 1 acted on = did w hat so me one else
10 except / except for
1 among 6 between advised or suggested; acted for =
11 except
2 among 7 among represented (usually a professional
12 except
8 between person such as a lawyer or accountant)
3 between
9 1.2 2 thinking ... about = concentrating on;
4 among 9 among
1 -besides- except for think of = asking about an opinion
5 between 10 between
2 Besides / 3 have called on = have f or mally asked
3 except for- besides him to do it; called for = demanded
U N IT 9 0
4 -fexeept-fof- Besides 4 worked for = was employed by; works
90.1 5 -besides- e xcept (for) wit h co mputers = uses co mputers a lot
1 7 y 6 except for y in her work
2 X 8 y 5 counting on = depending on; counts
3 X 9 X 9 1.3
for little = is of little value
4 S 10 y 2 + a But for the interruptions caused by
5 X 11 X t he bad weather, the building would
have been co mplet ed by now.
U N IT 93
6 / 12 y
3 + c But for t he supply of food and 93.1
9 0 .2 medicines by the charity ( or But for 2 there has been an improvement in her
1 a by t he food and medicines supplied by condition
b until ('until' would also be possible in the charit y ...), many more people 3 takes (great / a lot of) pride in
(a). It would mean, however, t hat up would have died in the famine. 4 give / offers / provides advice on
to the time dinner was served I was 4 + f But for the shelter provided by the 5 cruelty to
hungry, and then when it was served trees, t he wind would have caused 6 had a long / lengthy discussion about /
(but before I ate it) I was not. Perhaps even more damage to the house. on
t he food was so unappetising that 5 + b But for the threat of sanctions 7 have a vaccination against typhoid /
I couldn't face eating it; ‘by’ in (a) by the EU ( or But for the sanctions have a typhoid vaccination
simply means that I was hungry threatened by the EU ...), human 8 had a significant influence on
when dinner was served) rights would not have improved in the 9 There is a lack of affordable housing
2 a until country. in the city. / The city has a lack of
b by 6 + d But for the loan from t he bank (or affordable housing.
3 a by But for t he loan the bank gave me 10 a ban on fireworks
b until ... / ... given to me by t he bank ...), 1
4 a Until 9 3 .2
would not have been able to set up my
2 sign of stopping
b By ('By' would also be possible in business.
3 decision to allow
[a])
4 reason to worry
5 a by U N IT 92 5 risk of transmitting
b until
92.1 6 ability to remember
6 a by
1 -of- / -for- / about 7 failure to protect
b until
2 -after- / about / -fer- 8 cost of buying

274
 Key to Exercises

9 poss i bi lity of getti ng 10 Is there anyone who / t ha t can help 9 6 .2

10 unwillingness to acknowledge m e? The m ost likely answers are given
11 There are some general rules (which / 2 ... it astonished me t o discover (that)
9 3 .3
t hat) you can follow. she was also a successful novelist.
L ikely verbs are given
12 There used to be an art gallery around 3 ... it hurts (me) t o pedal my bicycle. /
2 of seeing
here. ... it has hurt (me) to pedal m y bicycle.
3 t o take
(Se nt ences wit h ‘There . .. ’ are unlikely in 4 ... it struck me (that) he w as jealous.
4 to retire / of retiring
2, 5, and 7 because the subjects have a 5 ... it concerned me to hear (that) he
5 of taking / t o take
definite or specific meaning, indicated by was offended, ( or ... it upset me ...)
6 of dancing
'Your', ‘The’, and ‘ My’.) 6 ... it didn't bother him (that) everyone
could see in.
U N IT 9 4 9 5 .2
7 ... it upset me (that) she hadn't even
94.1 1 are 5 are
told me when she was going away, (or
2 are 6 is
1 intransitive; no noun / pronoun needed ... it concerned me ...)
2 ... look it up ... (a noun or pronoun is 3 is 7 are
8 ... it doesn't do t o criticise them t oo
necessary) 4 is 8 is
much.
3 ... help (you) o u t ... (a noun or 9 5 .3 9 ... it scared me to see (that) t hey were
pronoun is possible) The m ost likely sentences are given. carrying knives.
4 ... tidy (things) up ... (a noun or 2 + c There's a cake in the kitchen (that 10 ... it pays to plan yo ur journey ahead.
pronoun is possible) / which) I've made especially for your
5 intransitive; no noun / pronoun needed 9 6 .3
birthday.
Exa mple answers are given
9 4 .2 3 + h There was never any doubt (that)
2 It takes a lot of hard work to build your
1 / out Bruno would get t he job.
own house.
2 about 4 + a There have been suggestions (that)
3 It takes a considerable am ou nt of
3 up X an election will be held next month.
courage to make a speech in front of a
4 out X 5 + f There aren't many people alive today
group of strangers.
5 X up who / t ha t haven’t watched TV.
4 It takes patience and a lot of time to
6 away 6 + g There are still some old houses in
explain t he rules of cricket to someone
the village t hat / which don’t have
9 4 .3 who doesn't know the game.
electricit y.
2 left her name o ut / left out her name 5 It takes bravery t o stand up t o a bully.
7 + d There was absolutely nothing (that)
3 shut the t hing up 6 It takes a lot of organisation t o be a
I could do to prevent him falling.
4 make my mind up / make up my mind good administrator.
8 + b There are f ew people in t he
5 got down the general ideas / got the 7 It takes a great deal of time to learn to
co mpany who / t hat are harder-
general ideas down speak a foreign language well.
working than Kristin.
6 hear me out
9 5 .4 U N IT 97
9 4 .4 2 There being no further business, the
97.1
meeting closed at 12:30.
2 find it
3 There being no doct or available, the
3 discover (‘find’ would also be possible)
patients were sen t home.
their children 4 o we it
4 There being inadequate facilities at the
5 remember
hotel, t he conference was relocated to
the secret 6 enjoy it
a nearby university.
4 c-oUed m o torists-en- called on 7 prefer it
motorists 8 leave it
U N IT 9 6
5 / 9 predict
96.1 10 consider it
6 took-up Emre on took Emre up on
7 y 2 It w as unsettling how he stared
straight at me.
97.2
8 2 I see it as part of my role to
3 X (However, in spoken English
9 4eoke d Mr G a o-up-t-o- looked up t o Mr significantly reduce Rexco's carbon
w e might say ‘It was surprising,
Gao f ootprint in / over the next five years.
Francesco's e xcellent exam result'.)
3 I accep t it as a necessary evil t hat
4 It is an advantage in the job t o be a
U N IT 95 some people may be made redundant
qualified driver.
95.1 in t he next year.
5 X (However, in spoken English we
3 Is there somet hing bothering y o u? 4 I view it as i mportant for relations
might say ‘It's quite radical, her
4 There w as a barrier across the road. with the workforce to make available
proposal'.)
6 There remains t he problem of w hat to information about / on managers'
6 It is highly unusual to put carpet on
do wit h nuclear waste. salaries.
walls.
8 There is supposed to be a video on the 5 I regard it as unacceptable for a
7 X (However, in spoken English we
website, but it d oesn’t work. modem co mp any t o exclude the
might say ‘It's a Ferrari, Robin's new
9 There was no petrol available workforce from major decision making.
car'.)
anywhere in the city. 8 It is hard finding a good plumber these
days, ( or It is hard to find ...)

275
 Key t o Exercises
6 I take it as a fundamental principle
of the co mpany t ha t suppliers of raw
materials should be given a fair price
for their products.
97.3
2 t here’s no hope / chance
3 It's no secret
4 It's no good / use or There's no point
5 there's no reason
6 t here’s no alternative / choice
7 It's no longer
8 there's no denying / question
U N IT 98
98.1
2 ... it w as t o cheer her up t ha t I booked
a holiday in A mst erdam.
3 ... it's because I’ve got so much work
to do t hat I can’t come.
4 ... it was somewhere in there t ha t /
where I lost it.
5 ... it was only by studying very hard
t hat she improved her Spanish.
6 ... it is to my family t hat I dedicate this
thesis.
98.2
2 No, w ha t I hope is t ha t t hey will be put
into a public art gallery.
3 No, w hat annoyed me was t ha t she
didn't apologise.
4 No, w hat I meant was t ha t she could
borrow it until I needed it again.
6 No, what I did was (to) put some oil
and soy sauce on it and grill it.
7 No, what I did was (to) give her some
money t owards it.
8 No, w ha t I did was (to) hire a car and
drive all the way.
98.3
5 uggested answers
2 I don't know if she's free, but
somebody who / t ha t might be able
to help is Petra, [ or ... but Petra is
somebody who / t hat might be able to
help.)
3 In fact t he place where / t hat I grew up
is between t his village and the next, (or
... the place t ha t I grew up in ...)
4 I suppose t he ti me when I lived in
Australia was when I was happiest.
U N IT 99
99.1
1 (in a narrative ‘down co mes' is also
possible; see Unit 2)
2 along comes
3 up go
4 back / a way / off he went
5 out / in ca me (or comes)
6 along / up came (or comes)
7 off / away she went (or goes)
276
99.2
2 + h Should you not wish t o receive
f urther information about our
products, click on the box below.
3 + a Were the plane ever (to be) built, it
would cut t he journey time from New
York to Tokyo by four hours.
4 + g Should the ice hockey team win
again today, it will be their tenth
consecutive victory.
5 + d Were l (to be) offered the job, I
would have no hesitation in accepting.
6 + i Had a car been coming the other
way, I might have been seriously
injured.
7 + f Had there been a referendum
on the issue, it is unlikely t ha t the
elect orat e would have supported the
government.
8 + b Should you not be able to afford
the SXL3, there are less expensive
models in t he range.
9 + e Were Charles Dickens (to be) alive
today, he would be writing novels
about t he homeless in London.
99.3
Exam ple sentences
(i)
Europeans spend less of their income on
recreation t od ay than do A mericans.
A mericans spent less of their income on
housing in 1970 than did Europeans.
(ii)
Europeans spent less of their income on
recreation than on housing in 1970, as is
the case today.
A mericans spend more of their income on
food and drink than on recreation today,
as was the case in 1970.
99.4
2 Kamal w en t to O xford University, as
did his sister.
3 People in poorer countries consume
a far smaller proportion of the earth's
resources than do t h ose in developed
nations.
4 He is a much better t eacher now than
he w as five years ago. (no inversion
wit h a pronoun as subject)
5 Dan is a keen golfer, as is his wife.
U N IT 100
100.1
2 At no time was the public (ever) in any
danger.
3 O nly with close friends and family did
he f eel entirely relaxed.
4 O nly if the pitch is frozen will the
ma tch be cancelled.
5 Little did I know then t hat Carmen and
I would be married one day.
6 Barely had he entered the w at er when
it b ecame clear he couldn't swim.
7 O n no accou nt are you to light the fire
if you are alone in t he house. / O n no
accou nt should / m ust you ...
8 N ot for one mo me nt was there any
rivalry between the three brothers.
9 N ot only was I w e t through, I was
freezing cold.
10 O nly once had I ever climbed this high
before. / O nly once before had I ever
climbed this high.
11 Hardly had the audience taken t heir
sea ts when the conduct or stepped
ont o the stage.
12 O nly in the last few years has he been
acknowledged to be a great author.
100.2
Possible answers
2 ... w as the strength of the earthquake
3 ... is her dominance in the s p o r t ...
4 ... alike were t he t wins ...
5 ... co mplicated was the equation ...
6 ... boring was t he lesson ...
100.3
Corrections are given in the underlined
sections
The people of Sawst on were evacuated
yest erday as f orest fires headed towards
the to wn. Such was the heat of the
oncoming inferno t hat trees more than
100 metres ahead began to smoulder.
O nly once in recent years, during 2004,
has a town of this size (inversion is likely in
this written con text ) had t o be evacuated
because of forest fires. A fleet of coaches
and lorries arrived in t he to wn in the early
morning. Into these vehicles climbed the
sick and elderly (inversion is likely in this
written con text ) , before t hey headed off
to saf et y across the river. Residents with
cars left by mid morning, as did all non-
essential police officers.
Hardly had the evacuation been
co mplet ed when t he wind changed
direction and it b ecame clear that the fire
would leave Sawst on unt ouched. Soon
af ter t ha t co mplaints were heard from
some residents. ‘A t no time did the fires
pose a real t hreat,’ said one local man. 'I
didn't wan t to leave my home, and nor
did most of mv neighbours.’ So upset
are some elderly residents t hat t hey are
threatening to co mplain to t heir MP. But
Chie f Fire O f ficer Jones replied, ‘Had we
not taken this action, lives would have
been put at risk. O nly when the fires have
moved w ell a way from t he town will
residents be allowed t o return to their
homes.'
Key to Study planner
T e nses 5.6 A 10.2 B, D
1.1 B 5.7 A 10.3 C, D
1.2 D 10.4 A, B
1.3 C Re p ortin g 10.5 C, D
1.4 A, B 6.1 C 10.6 B
1.5 C 6.2 A 10.7 C, D
1.6 A 6.3 D 10.8 D
1.7 D 6.4 B 10.9 A, B, D
1.8 B 6.5 B, D 10.10 A
1.9 A, C 6.6 A
1.10 C 6.7 C A d je ct iv es an d a d v er bs
1.11 A 6.8 B, D in B
1.12 B 6.9 B, C 11.2 B, C
1.13 B, D 6.10 A, C 11.3 A, C
1.14 C 11.4 D
1.15 B, C N o u ns 11.5 C
7.1 B 11.6 A
T h e f u t u re 7.2 B, D 11.7 A, C, D
2.1 C 7.3 C 11.8 B
2.2 D 7.4 A, D 11.9 C
2.3 B, D 7.5 A, C 11.10 B (in informal speech only), C, D
2.4 A, D 7.6 B, D 11.11 A
2.5 C 7.7 A, D 11.12 A (in informal speech only), B, C
2.6 B 7.8 D 11.13 D
2.7 A 7.9 A 11.14 A, B
2.8 D 11.15 C
2.9 B, C A r t icles, d e t e r m in e rs and 11.16 A, C
2.10 C, D q u a n t if ie rs 11.17 A, D
2.11 C 8.1 B 11.18 B, C
8.2 C
M o d als and se m i- m o d a ls 8.3 A A d v er b ia l cl a uses and
3.1 C 8.4 B co n ju n ct io ns
3.2 B 8.5 A, D 12.1 B
3.3 A 8.6 C 12.2 A
3.4 D 8.7 D 12.3 A
3.5 C, D 8.8 A, C 12.4 C, D
3.6 B, D 8.9 B 12.5 A, D
3.7 B 8.10 B, D 12.6 B, C
3.8 C 8.11 A 12.7 A, D
3.9 A, C 8.12 C 12.8 B, D
3.10 B, C 8.13 D 12.9 C
3.11 D 8.14 B 12.10 C, D
3.12 A 8.15 A, C 12.11 B
8.16 A 12.12 A, D
Lin king v er bs, p assiv es, 8.17 B 12.13 A, B, C
q u est io ns 8.18 B 12.14 A
4.1 C, D 8.19 D
4.2 B 8.20 B Pre p osi tio ns
4.3 A, C 13.1 A
4.4 B, C R ela tiv e cla uses and o t h e r 13.2 D
4.5 B t y p es o f cla use 13.3 A, B
4.6 C 9.1 D 13.4 A, D
4.7 A, D 9.2 A, B 13.5 B, C
4.8 D 9.3 B, C, D 13.6 A
4.9 B 9.4 B 13.7 C
4.10 C 9.5 C, D
9.6 A, C O r g a n isin g in f o r m a t io n
V er b c o m p le m e n t a t io n: w h a t 9.7 A 14.1 B
f o ll o w s v er bs 9.8 B 14.2 C
5.1 D 9.9 C 14.3 B
5.2 A, B 9.10 B 14.4 B, D
5.3 C 14.5 A
5.4 B Pro n o u ns, su bst i t u t i o n an d 14.6 B, C
5.5 C, D le av in g o u t w o rds
10.1 D
277
 Key to Additional exercises
1 6 W he n I reversed t he car o ut of the
1 b 'm not promising / don't promise / garage, I d a ma g e d the rear number The agent (after ‘by . .. ’) is given only
didn’t promise plate. where it is likely to be included. Where it
2 a w as reading / read 7 Andrei w as pro m o t e d last week. might either be included or left out, it is
b read 8 The tax authorities had been written in brackets.
3 a were expecting / expected in vestig a tin g Rentpool for a number A The Prime Minister is being
b are expecting / expect of m onths when t hey arrested the encouraged to sack the Environment
4 a owns (or ‘o wn’) chairman, ('had investigated' is also Minister, Maria Long, af ter it was
b owned / owns possible, but less likely as the duration revealed t hat she had received
5 a 'm considering / was considering / of the investigation is e mphasised) p ayments from a major oil company.
considered 9 The Minister an g ere d her colleagues However, in a st at e me nt today, the
b consider when she criticised them during her Prime Minister said: ‘I am told (by
6 a tells / told speech yesterday. my advisors) / I am advised t ha t Mrs
b t ell / told 10 Emilia had alre a d y su g g est e d t hat Long w as paid the mo ney (by the
7 a phoned the mo ney should be spent on new company) [ N ote the word order, not ‘...
b was phoning / phoned ta blet co mputers for the school. by the compa ny the m o n e y ...'] before
8 a 's always putting / puts she joined t he government. I have no
b 's co nst an tly putting / puts 4 intention of dismissing her.'
9 a prefer A B A tropical storm has caused severe
b preferred 1 y (‘you'll' is also possible) flooding in t he city of Chittagong
10 a weighs 2 I’ll ( = ‘I w ill' o r ‘I shall') in southern Bangladesh. Although
b w as weighing B t here are understood t o be [ or it is
1 I'm going to build / I’m building understood t hat t here are / have
2 2 I'll give been) no casualties, many t housands
1 a + (i) or (ii) b + (ii) C of people have been made ho meless
2 a + (ii) b + (i) 1 W ill / A r e you going to be able t o / A re (by the floods), and t he damage to
3 a + (i) or (ii) b + (i) you able to property is estimat ed as running into
4 a + (ii) b + (i) 2 we're going to h a v e / w e'r e having millions of dollars.
5 a + (i) or (ii) b + (ii) 3 I'll C Protesters have continued to block
6 a + (i) b + (ii) 4 y t he construction of t he new ring road
7 a + (i) b + (ii) D by tying t he mselves to trees along
8 a + (ii) 1 is going (more likely than ‘is going to t he proposed route. (Police say that)
b + (i) (b + (ii ) is also correct go') The prot esters have been given t wo
gra mmatically, but it is unlikely to 2 isn't (is not) coming / isn't (is not) days t o leave the area or t hey will be
be used; it suggests t ha t it is difficult going t o co me / w o n’t come arrest ed (by the police).
t o get good pasta in Italy, w hich is, 3 w e’ll see / we're going to see D Conservation groups have demanded
of course, not the case!) 4 y t hat the nuclear power station should
E be closed down (by the government)
3 1 I'm taking / I’m going to take / I’ll take after a report which said t hat
1 ‘had discussed' is also possible, but less 2 y unacceptable levels of radiation have
likely as the duration of t he discussions 3 more likely is ‘It's at 4:15' as this is part been found (by investigators) in the
is emphasised of a ti met able local area.
2 His condition had improved 4 It'll take E The Co m missioner of the Dublin
considerably when I saw him in 5 ‘we're going to have' is more likely police force has revealed t ha t a death
hospital last night, ('improved' would 6 ‘I'll stay' is more likely if t he decision is t hreat has been received (by the
be unlikely as it would suggest t ha t his made a t the m o me nt of speaking police) against the life of President
condition improved beca use I saw him Nabon, who is visiting the capital this
last night) 5 weekend. He says t hat t he threa t
3 It was announced that the Toulouse 1 ought t o have asked; would have been is being taken very seriously. It is
train had been delayed by ten minutes, 2 should; "d better expected t hat securit y levels will be
(‘was delayed' is also possible wit h a 3 w o n ’t; can't; used to increased during the President's visit.
similar meaning) 4 can't; must have F A man was found injured on a Scot tish
4 Tho mas had been dieting for a month 5 mustn't; can hillside this morning. It is thought
when he ca me t o stay wit h us, and 6 wouldn't; needn't have worried t ha t he fell while coming down a
we noticed im mediately t hat he had 7 should; would hillside in bad weather. He is being
already lost a lot of weight. 8 should; may trea ted in hospital for leg and head
5 Vict oria had been expected to win 9 must; could injuries. [We can assume th at medical
comfortably, but she finished third, 10 will be able to; might st a ff would trea t him in hospital, so
(‘w as e xpected’ is also possible wit h a 11 couldn’t; didn't have to there is no n eed to mention the agent
similar meaning) 12 don't need to; can here.] He w as reported missing last

278
 Key t o A dditional e xercises

night when he failed to return home 7 1wasn't surprised by Rob's conclusion 2 a A / The; b a; c an (a / an)
af ter a day's walking. t hat Professor Jones doesn't know 3 a the / -; b the; c The (the)
G And now football. There are expected w hat he is talking about. / ... Rob's 4 a the / -; b some / - ; c - (-)
t o be ( or It is expected t ha t there conclusion t hat Professor Jones didn't 5 a the / -; b some / -;
will be) a record crowd at tonight's know w hat he was talking about. c some / - (-)
ma tch between Barcelona and Real 8 W e decided t o ignore Dan's co mplaint 6 a - /So m e; b c -(-)
Madrid. It is reported t hat the t h a t his dinner w as cold. 7 a The / An; b the; c the (the)
Barcelona players will be given a 9 1was astonished by their refusal to 8 a The/ A;
huge financial bonus (by the club) negotiate over the ownership of the b a / one (informally, we could also
if t hey win and it has even been land. say ‘... for the n i g h t . .. ’);
suggested t hat t hey might be paid as 10 The Health Minister has issued a c a (a)
much as € 5 0,0 0 0 each (by the club). warning to keep small children indoors 9 a t h e / -; b -; c - (- )
until pollution levels have decreased. 10 a a / - ; b a; c a (a)
7 / ... a warning t hat small children
1 on paying should be kept indoors until pollution 11
2 by asking levels have decreased. 2 Carla's restaurant, which serves a
3 his saying / him saying 11 1w as surprised by her confession t hat range of Mediterranean dishes, is very
4 appointed she has / had never used a computer good value, (some people would use
5 count before. ‘t h a t ’ as an alternative to ‘w hich’)
6 at me to tidy 12 W he n 1asked Zeb where Bethany was, 3 The N ew Zealand rugby team, all of
7 t o visit his reply was t hat he didn't know. w hose members weigh over 100 kilos,
8 wearing children's clo thes / children's are clear favourites to win t he match.
clothes 9 4 Chlo e brought home a kitten (which /
9 t heir cat 1 w an ts t hat) she'd found in the park.
10 forcing 2 are 5 The story is about a teenage boy
11 her wearing / wearing 3 live whose ambition is t o become an
12 to appear 4 points astronaut.
13 let 5 prefer / prefers 6 Paul has got a job with Empirico,
14 t o hearing 6 love / loves (although a plural verb is whose main product is electric light
15 entitle her to more gram matical) bulbs.
16 waited for 7 claim 7 Politicians should give more
17 noticed a man take 8 go consideration t o the working people
18 invited 9 co mes (who / t ha t / whom) they represent.
19 t ell / telling 10 is / are 8 A mong the group of people was
20 looking 11 is / are Professor Fischer, who / whom I had
21 talked 12 shuts last seen in Munich 20 years earlier.
22 to living 13 suspect 9 I live on a small road which / t ha t leads
23 me from using 14 are down to the river.
15 appears 10 Monet's earlier paintings, many of
8 16 are which have never been seen in t he USA
2 We were disappointed wit h Karen's 17 is / are (although a plural is preferred before, are in a new exhibition in N ew
decision not t o go t o university next in f or mal contexts) York.
year. / ... Karen's decision t ha t she 18 plan / plans 11 Ian Mclver, whose first job w as selling
w ouldn’t go / w asn't going / isn't 19 is veget ables in a market, has become
going to university next year. 20 provides (more likely than ‘provide' in managing director of Europe's largest
3 Considerable media at te ntion has this f or mal context) food retailer.
been focused on Professor Adams's 21 get / gets 12 Kaspar has a new girlfriend w ho / that
prediction t ha t the Earth will / would 22 is works in t he library.
pass through the t ail of a co me t within 23 speak / speaks 13 My Volkswagen Golf, which I bought
t he next five years. 24 has / have in 2006, is a very reliable car. (some
4 The co mpany has carried out its 25 are people would use 'that' as an
t hreat to dismiss the strikers / ... t hat 26 have alternative to ‘w hich’)
it would dismiss the strikers (if t hey 27 has 14 Bronwen Brookes, after who m the
didn’t return t o work). 28 isn’t Brookes art gallery is named, will
5 Nicky decided t o f ollow her boss's 29 are be present at its official opening. /
advice t ha t she should d elegate more 30 is Bronwen Brookes, who(m) t he Brookes
of her work t o her secretary. / ... her gallery is named after, w i l l ...
boss's advice t o delegate more of her 10
work to her secretary. 1 a a / one (informally, we could also 12
6 Jason didn't turn up until eleven, say ‘... for the week’); 1 did
despite his promise to pick me up at b a / one; 2 doing so / so doing
ten. / ... his promise t ha t he would c one ('one' can co mplet e all three 3 promised he would
pick me up at ten. sent ences) 4 appears so
5 do

279
 Key to A dditional e xercises
6 have / have done
7 didn’t want to
8 do (’do so' is unlikely in t his informal
context)
9 doubt t ha t he will
10 don't suppose so / suppose not
11 want to / wan t
12 has
13 such a dilem ma
14 do
15 afford to
16 expect so
17 suspect not
18 hope not
19 might have / might
20 told me so
21 determined to / determined
22 to be
23 guess not
24 might do / might be
13
S uggested improvements are given
a Every so often I leave work early ( )
(or I leave work early every so often )
and go t o a perf ormance in the local
concert hall. It’s very close to my office
in the building opposite. Usually ( )
they are ra ther good, but yesterday's,
given by a singer and pianist, was a
tota l ( / ) disaster. The singer began to
sing with wonderful control. But when
the pianist started to play, it sounded
awful. At first I t hought he was playing
badly, but then it became obvious
t hat t he piano w as com pletely out
of tune. They stopped and discussed
the problem briefly ( or ... and briefly
discussed the problem). Cle arly, they
couldn't continue (or They cle arly
couldn't continue), and they left the
stage unhappily ( ). N aturally ( '),
all the people presen t f elt sorry for
them. I'm sure the person responsible
for tuning the piano will be severely
reprimanded.
b I was ju st going out to work this
morning when the postman pushed a
letter through my letterbox. It w as from
Mara, who writ es from time to tim e ( ).
The letter said t ha t she has t o co me to
Bristol to visit her uncle, who is unwell.
She is one of his few remaining ( / )
relatives. She wan ts us to meet and
asked if I could suggest a possible time.
Well, I haven’t seen her fo r a couple o f
ye a rs, so I w as really pleased. We first
( / ) met at university. W e have similar
int erests ( or O ur interests are a like ) , so
we always find a lot t o talk about. The
photos included in the letter showed
t hat she hadn't changed since I last
( ) saw her. I spent so long reading the
letter t hat I was nearly late for work.
280
14 weeks.
3 + b Johan must weigh over 120 kilos, 7 There has been a great improvement
whereas his wife is really small. / in the behaviour of children in the
W hereasjo han must weigh over 120 school. This has resulted from t he
kilos, his wife is really small. / His wife headteacher's idea o f involving them
is really small, w he reasjo han must in decision-making.
weigh over 120 kilos. / W hereas his 8 Even though Charlo tt e didn't a ct
wife is really small, Johan must weigh on my advice and follow a career in
over 120 kilos. medicine, I'm full of admiration f or her
4 + j There had been a lot of publicity determination to train t o be a vet.
about the meeting. Even so, only
about 100 people attended. 16
5 + e I can't afford a coat like that. 2 O nly if an official complaint is made
Besides, I d on’t like t he style. will the police investigate the matt er
6 + h I'm determined to finish t he report further.
tonight, even if I have to stay a t work 3 So complicated were the instructions,
until midnight. / Even if I have to stay
at work until midnight I'm determined 4 Had we known how ill Rob w a s,...
t o finish the report. 5 Such was the strength of the wind that
7 + g Make sure you ca tch the last bus at ... (or So strong w as the wind t h a t ...)
11:00. O t herwise, you'll have to walk 6 Seldom did she regret her lack of
all the w ay from the station. f ormal education, ...
8 + a Although I found the film boring, I 7 O nly in an emergency should you
stayed until the end. / I found the film phone for an ambulance, (or O nly
boring, although I stayed until the end. if there is an emerge ncy should you
9 + i She hid the letter between the phone for an ambulance.)
pages of a book so t ha t her husband 8 N ot for one m o me nt w as there any / a
would never find it. / So t ha t her disagreement between us.
husband would never find it, she hid 9 Were it not for financial assistance
t he letter between t he pages of a from t he g o v er n m e n t,...
book. 10 Hardly had they finished eating before
1 0 + c In order to prepare for the a waiter started to clear aw ay the
marathon, I've been running about plates.
2 00 kilometres a week. / I've been 11 Under no circu mst ances should
running about 2 00 kilometres a week children be allowed into the room
in order to prepare for the marathon. wit ho ut adult supervision.
12 Should the bridge ever be b u il t ,...
15
1 ... although I know t hat you approve
of it.
2 There see ms to be little likelihood
of Williamson winning Wimbledon
because of her in ability to play w ell on
grass tennis courts.
3 O ur plan is to split the organisation up
into a number of small units, ( or 'split
up the organisation into'. N ot e that
'split the organisation int o’ [without
'up'] is also possible.) This will improve
our prospects of competing wit h more
specialised companies.
4 I ran into / across Danny in to wn the
other day. He asked for yo ur email
address, so he'll probably by in touch
wit h you.
5 Jack takes great pride in never
throwing anything a way (‘throwing
a way anything' is also possible, but
less likely).
6 Although Professor Martinez knows a
great deal about meteorology, even he
can’t a ccount f or the unusual wea ther
we have been having over the last few
Index of grammatical items
A it + ma ke + a dject ive (+ t o -in finitive a d vice 4 0, 78
a / an, t h e, and zero articl e / -ing / t h a t -cla use) 140 af fir m a tive se n t e nces 205, 207
g e n e ralisa t io ns a b o u t classes o f t hings p osition o f ag e nt 205
90 a d ditio n al e x ercise 248 se e a lso p assive f or ms
g e o gra p hical are as 9 0 b efore / af t er nou n 132 a gree m e n t, su b ject and verb
h olid ays, seaso ns, d ays o f t h e w ee k, classifyin g a djectiv es 132 clause, as su bject 8 0
and f estiv als 9 4 e m p hasisin g a d jectiv es 132 co-o rdin a t e d n ou ns / p hrases, as
jo bs / j o b t it les 92 gra m m ar revie w 237 su b ject 82
m e ans o f tra nsp ort and wit h linking verbs 132 co lle ct iv e n ou ns 8 0
co m m u nica t io n 9 4 q ua lit a t ive a djectives 132 co m p le x su b ject 80
na m es o f p e ople 92 red uce d rela tive clauses 132 d e t er m in e rs 82
n o u ns bot h co u n t a b le and st u d y plan n er 2 18 -19 h o w / here / t h er e + be / have 82
u nc o u n t a b le 9 0 t y p es of 205 it e ms join e d by ( e i t h e r)... or
sp ecific versus g e n eral 9 4 se e a lso co m p ar a t iv e f or ms; co m p o u n d o r( n e i t h e r)... nor 82
w it h su p erla tiv e a djectiv es 92 a djectiv es; p articiple a djectives; m e asu re m e n t / a m o u n t / q uantit y,
wit h t h er e + be 190 su p e rla tiv e f or ms w it h sin g ular verb 84
t hin gs t h a t are u niqu e 9 0 a d verbial clauses na m es / ti t les e ndin g in -s 8 0
t his, in st ories and jo k es 92 a d ditio n al e x ercise 249 n o u ns e ndin g in -s 84
ti m es o f d ay and night 9 4 co n t rasts 164 su b ject, p osition of 8 0
a / an and one d efinitio n o f 2 05 t here + be / have 82
a b b revia tio ns 88 st u d y plan n er 2 1 9 -2 20 w h a t-cla use, as su bject 8 0
in n u m b er / q ua n t it y e x p ressio ns 88 t e nses in 2 38 all (of), w h o le, every, each
o n e ... o t her / a n o t h er p a t tern 8 8 o f tim e 158 tim e e x p ressio ns 102
p articular, but u nsp ecifie d p erson / a d verbial p hrases, as co m p le m e n t 2 0 6 w h o le / e n tire, before n o u ns 102
thing / even t 88 a d verbials a mo n g and b e t w ee n 178
wit h p ossessives 8 8 a d verb as 205 a m o u n ts 104
be fore sin g ular co u n t a bl e n ou ns 88 a d verbial clause as 205 any see so m e and any
b ef ore v o w e ls / co nso na n ts 8 8 d e finition of 2 05 a p ostro p he, f or p ossessives 231
a b brevia tio ns 8 8 inversion af t er n eg a tive 2 0 0 art icles
a bilit y n ou n p hrase as 2 05 a d d itio nal e x ercise 2 4 6 - 4 7
be a ble t o 30 p articiple clauses 116,118 d e finitio n o f 205
can / co uld 30, 3 4, 224, 225 pre p ositio nal p hrase as 205 g ra m m a r re min d er 232
aca d e m ic writing a d verbs st u d y plan n er 210
f e w and lit tl e 104 and a d jectives, use o f 237 se e a lso a / an, t he, and zero a rticle
may 34 d efinitio n of 205 au xiliary verbs 205
much (of), m an y (o f) 100 f or m a tio n of 142 in inversion 198
prep ositio nal p hrases 114 p articiple a djectiv es in -ed, leaving w or ds o u t af t er 128
such t h a t, to in t ro d uce a result 162 a d verbial f or m of 142 be as m ain verb in previous cla use /
ac tiv e ( versus p assive) f or ms 4 4, 4 6, p ar ticles 207 se n t e n ce 128
4 8 ,2 0 4 ,2 0 5 p hrasal verbs 207 have as au xiliary + d one 128
a ddin g inf or m a tio n co n ju ncti o ns 174 p osition of m o d al au xiliary + do / be 128
noun p hrases 112,114 a d d iti o n al e x ercise 248 m ore t han o n e au xiliary 128
p re p ositio nal p hrases 114 af t er o bject 148 no au xiliary 128
se n t e n ce co n n ect ors 174 co m m e n t a dverbs 1 5 0 ,1 5 6 su bsti t u t e do 128
a djectiv es co n n ect in g a d verbs 150 n e g ative q u estio ns 54, 227
and ad verbs, use of 142, 237 d egree a d verbs 1 5 0 ,1 5 4 su bsti t u t e so and n o t 124
d efinitio n o f 2 05 f ocus a d verbs 154 see also m o d al verbs
easily co nf use d 237 fre q u e ncy a d verbs 1 4 8 ,1 5 0 ,1 5 2
B
gra da ble and n o n-gra d a ble 134 long a d verbials 1 4 8 ,1 5 0
bare infinitive 2 06
bot h se nses 136 and m eanin g 148
being + p ast p articiple cla use 2 06
classifyin g a d jectiv es 136 m ore t h an o n e a dverbial 148
b e t w ee n and a mo ng 178
dif f ere n t se nses 136 ord er o f eve n ts 150
good and / l o v ely and / nice and ... + place and directio n a d verbs 1 50 ,15 2 C
grad a ble a d ject iv e 136 ti m e a d verbs 1 50,1 5 2 can see a bilit y; p ermissio n; p ossibilit y
gra m m ar revie w 237 vie w p oi n t a d verbs 1 5 0 ,1 5 6 chan ge, pr ocess of 42
more and m ore + a dject ive 136 pre p ositio nal p hrases, a d verbial use of 'ch oosing' verbs 68
q ua lit a tive a djectiv es 136 142 classifyin g a djectives 1 3 2 ,1 3 4 ,1 3 6 , 205
p a t t erns af t er linking verbs st u d y plan ner 218 -19 clauses
a d ject ive + -ing / t h a t -cla use / t o- t y p es o f 2 05 d e finitio n o f 2 0 6
infinitive / w h -cla use 140 w it h and w i t h o u t -ly 142 st u d y plan ner 217
it + linking verb + a d jective (+ t o- se e a lso co m p ara t ive f or ms; su p erla tiv e t y p es of 2 06
in finitive) 140 f or ms cle f t se n t e n ces 196, 2 0 6
281
 Index of gram m a tical items
co lle ct iv e n o u ns 8 0, 207
colo n 1 7 4 ,2 3 0
co lo u r a d jectiv es 122
co m m a 2 30
co m m e n t a d verbs 1 5 0 ,1 5 6 , 2 0 5
co m p ara tiv e f or ms 2 38
a d jectives w it h co m p ar a t iv e /
su p erla tive m eanin g 144
co m p ara tiv e a d jectiv es, linking wit h
and 136
m ore + o n e -sylla b le a d jective 144
m ore / less + t w o -sylla b le a djectiv es
144
o n e -sy lla b le a d jectiv es and a d verbs +
-er 144
p hrases and clauses
as + a d jectiv e + a / an + n oun 146
as + a dject iv e / a dverb as 146
go so / as far as + t o-in finitive 146
less + a dject iv e + t h an 146
as li t tl e / f e w as 146
as m uch / m an y as 146
n ot + a d jective / a dverb + enough
+ t o -in finitive 146
so + a dject iv e / a d verb + as + t o-
infinitive 146
so + a dject iv e / a dverb + t h a t -
cla use 146
su f f icie n tly + a djective 146
t o o + a djective + a / an + noun 146
t o o + a dject iv e / a d verb + t o-
infinitive 146
se e a lso f e w, lit tle, less, and f e w er
co m plainin g 12
co m p le m e n t
a d verbial p hrases as 2 0 6
d efinitio n o f 2 0 6
an d linking verbs 4 2 , 2 0 6 , 2 0 7
and o bject 2 0 6
prep ositio nal p hrase as 2 0 6
and su bject 2 0 6
transiti ve / in t ransitive verbs 56
se e a lso verb co m p le m e n t a t io n
co m p o u n d a dj ectiv es 138, 2 0 6
co m p o u n d n ou ns
co u n t a bl e co m p o u n d n o u ns 86
d efinitio n o f 2 0 6
gra m m ar re m in d er 2 3 0
hy p he na t e d p hrases, b efore n o u ns 8 6
noun + n oun 86
noun + pre p ositio n + noun 8 6
o ne w ord, se p ara t e w ords,
hy p he na t e d 2 3 0
plural f or ms 8 6
p ossessive f or ms 8 6
t w o - and t hree- w o rd verbs, n ou ns
rela te d t o 86
co nclusi o ns, dra win g
gra m m ar re m in d e r 2 2 5 -2 2 6
m ust 36, 74
prese n t p erf ect co n ti n u o us / presen t
p erf ect 12
w ill / w o u l d 32
282
co n di tio nal clauses st u d y plan n er 215-16
d efinitio n o f 2 0 6 direct o bject 58, 207
real and u nreal co nditio ns 2 0 6 , 2 3 8 - 3 9 se e a lso co m p le m e n t; o bject;
real co n d itio na ls, t e nses in 2 0 ,1 6 6 , tra nsi tiv e / in t ransitive verbs; verb
1 6 8 .1 7 2 .2 3 9 co m p le m e n t a t io n
u nreal co n d iti o na ls, t e nses in 1 6 6 ,1 7 0, direct sp eech 2 06
1 7 2 .2 3 9 directio n a d verbs 1 5 0 , 1 5 2 , 1 9 8 , 2 0 5
co n di tio nal se n t e nces 2 0 6 disa p pro val 168
co nj u nct io ns 174 'd islikin g'verbs 60
se n t e nce co n n ect o rs 174 d ist an ce 104
co nj u ncti o ns do, af t e r n eg a tive a d verbials 2 0 0
a d d itio nal e x ercise 249 see a lso auxiliary verbs;
co n d iti o ns 174 su bstit u tio n
d efinitio n o f 2 06 -ed cla uses see p ast p articiple
nou n p hrases, a ddin g in f or m a tio n to
E
112
each see a ll (of), w h o le, every, each
reaso ns and resu lts 174
ech o q u estio ns 54, 2 0 8
st u d y plan ner 219
e m p hasisi n g a djectiv es 1 3 2 ,2 0 5
ti m e 174, 2 3 8
ev ery see a ll (of), w h ole, every, each
co n n ect in g a dverbs 1 5 0 ,2 0 5
e xce p ti o ns 182
co n tr astin g
e x p ect a tio ns 40
alt h o u g h, th o ug h, w hile and w hilst ,
f estiv als 94
wit h p articiple cla uses 164
alt h o u g h and th o ug h 164 F
co nj u nct io ns 174 f e w, lit tle, less, an d f e w er
eve n t h ou g h and eve n if 164 (a) f e w, (a) lit tle, as pro n ou ns 104
se n t e nce co n n ect ors 174 t h e fe w, t h e lit tl e + noun, as ’not
in spi t e o f t h e fact t h a t 164 e no u gh' 104
w hile / w he reas 164 f e w + p erso nal pro n o u ns 104
w h il e / w h ils t 164 f e w and lit tl e, as in f o r m al al t er na tiv es
co uld se e a bilit y; p er mission; 104
p ossibilit y; reporting; u nreal p ast less (t han) an d f e w e r (t han) 104
co u n t a b le / u nc o u n t a b le n ou ns a lit tle, as inf or m al alt ern a t ive 104
d efinitio n o f 2 0 6 w h a t f e w / w h a t lit tle, as 'the sm all
g e n eralisa t io ns a b o u t classes o f t hings (n u m b er / a m o u n t)’ 104
90 f e w er see f e w, lit tle, less, and f e w e r
gra m m ar rem in d er 2 30 finite verbs 2 09
wit h t h er e + be 190 f ocus a d verbs 154, 205
se e a lso a / an, t he, and zero art icle; a f ocusin g
/ an and one; a gree m e n t, su bject and fronting, for e m p hasis 198
verb; a ll (of), w h ole, every, each; i t-cla uses 196
f e w, lit tle, less, and f e w er; m uch w h -cla uses 196
(of), m an y (of), a lo t of, lo ts (of); w h a t -cla uses 196
o n e and ones; so m eand any fre q u e ncy a d verbs
criticisin g 12 wit h have t o 36
m ig ht / co uld + have + p ast in de finite fre q u e ncy 2 05
p articip le 3 4 p ast co n t in u o us w it h 4
n eg a tive q u estio ns 54, 227 p ositio n o f 1 4 8 ,1 5 0 ,1 5 2
w ill / w o uld, use of 32 prese n t co n ti n u o us wit h 4
f ut ure co n ti n u o us
D
arran ge d e ve n ts / ac ti vit ies 22
d ash (-) 174
gra m m ar re m in d e r 224
d ays of t h e w ee k 94
im a ginin g w h a t is ha pp enin g
d efining rela tive cl auses 2 0 8
aro un d n o w 22
se e a lso rela tive clauses
p articu lar p oin t in f ut ure, rela tin g
d e finit e art icle 205
st ar t o f eve n t t o 22
se e a lso a / an, t he, and zero article
re p eat e d / reg ular ev e n ts 22
degree a d verbs 205
willin g n ess, av oidin g 22
m uch, ve ry m uch 154
f ut ure e ve n ts
w it h o win g t o 160
a d dit io nal e x ercise 242
p ositio n o f 1 5 0 ,1 5 4
be a b o u t t o + in finitive 24, 26
very, t o o 154
be going t o + in finitive 2 0 ,1 6 6 , 223
d e t er m in e rs 2 0 6
be t o + in finitive 24
gra m m ar re min d er 2 3 2 -3 3
co m m o n p hrases f or t alkin g a b o u t 26

g ra m m ar re m in d er 2 2 3 - 2 4
p ast an d prese n t co n t in u o us for
in t e ntio n 8
p ossibilit y, can / co uld 3 0
prese n t co n t in u o us f or 20
gra m m ar re m in d e r 224
in f or m al arran g e m e n ts 22
prese n t sim ple f or
co n d itio nal cl auses 20
fixed eve n ts 20
gra m m ar re m in d er 223
if-cla uses 24
su p p ose / su p p osin g / w h a t if ... 20
ti m e clauses 20
real co n d iti o na ls 166
see n fro m t h e p ast
be su p p ose d t o 28
in t e n t io ns 26
re portin g 28
w as / w ere t o + infinitive 28
w as / w ere t o have + p ast
p a rticiple 28
sh a ll / shan't versus w ill / w o n't 26
st u d y plan ner 211
verbs + t o-in finitive, f or in t e n t io ns 26
w ill + in finitive 223
w ill and be going t o 1 8 ,2 0
f ut ure p erf ect and f u t ure p erf ect
co n t in u o us 22
p assive f or m 2 0 4
f ut ure sim ple 2 0 4
G
g e n e ralisa t io ns 90
g e o gra p hical are as 9 0
g lossa ry 2 0 5 - 0 9
going t o see w ill and be going t o
gra da ble a d jectiv es 1 3 4 ,1 3 6 , 205, 237
gra ding a d verbs 134, 205
H / d egree 200
have (g ot) t o 3 6, 2 2 5 - 2 6
having + p ast p a rticiple (-ed) clause
6 2,1 1 6 , 2 0 6
h olid ays 9 4
h o w ever 174
I narra tive 64
-ing (prese n t p articiple) f or m
gra m m ar re m in d er 2 3 5 - 3 6
prep ositio nal o bject 2 0 8
re duce d rela tive clauses 2 08
se e a lso p articiple a d jectiv es; verb
co m p le m e n t a tio n
if, in co m p ariso n cl auses 168
if and w h e t h er
af t er cert ain verbs 172
af t er prep osition 172
in cla use actin g as su b ject or
co m p le m e n t 172
n oun + a dject iv e + as t o w h e t h er
172
p ossibilities, t alkin g a b o u t 172
rep ortin g y es / no q u esti o ns 6 4
b ef ore t o-in finitive 172
Index of gra m m a tical items
w h e t h e r ... or n o t 172
if-cla uses jo bs / jo b tit les 92
af t er w o uld / w o u ld like 130
L
f u t ure e ve n ts 24
less see f e w, lit tle, less, and f e w e r
inversio n inst ea d of 198
linking verbs
sh o uld, w ere, had, and o m issio n o f if
a d jective p a t t e rns wit h 1 3 8 , 1 4 0 , 1 6 4
168
b eco m e and g et 42
w it h o u t main cl auses 168
'b eco ming' verbs 42
se e a lso co n di tio nal clauses i m a ginary
'being' verbs 42
sit u a t io ns 32, 2 39
and co m p le m e n t 4 2, 2 06, 2 07
im p era tive cl auses 4 2 ,1 6 6 , 2 0 6
go and t ur n 42
ind e finit e ar ticle 2 05
'see ming' verbs 42
se e a lso a / an, t he, and zero a rt icle
st u d y plan ner 212-13
indirect o b ject 58, 207
su p erla tives 144
se e a lso o bject; verb co m p le m e n t a tio n
lit t le see f e w, lit tle, less, and f e w e r
indirect q u esti o ns 2 0 8
se e a lso rep orting M
indirect sp eech 2 0 8 main clauses
se e a lso rep orting d efinitio n o f 2 06
infinitive f or ms 2 06 and rela tive clause 2 0 8
inst ruct io ns 2 4 , 1 6 6 , 1 9 6 m ann er, a d verbs o f 148, 205
gra m m ar re m in d er 225 m ay se e p ossibilit y
if-cla uses, w it h o u t main cl auses 168 migh t see p ossibilit y; u nreal p ast
in t e n t io ns 26, 78 m o d al and se m i- m o d a l verbs
int erru p t e d p ast act io ns / eve n ts 8 a d d itio nal e x ercise 2 4 2 - 4 3
in tra nsit ive verbs see tra nsi tiv e / au xiliary verbs 205
in tra nsit ive verbs d e finitio n o f 207
in trod ucin g n e w t o p ic 196 gra m m ar re min d er 2 2 4 - 2 6
inversion wit h p erf or m a tives 2
a d ditio n al e x ercise 250 re portin g t o rep orte d clause, su m m ar y
ad verbs o f directio n of m o v e m e n t 198 o f cha n g es 74
af t er n eg a tive a d verbials 2 0 0 st u d y plan n er 212
af t er n ei t h er an d n or 2 0 0 m uch (of), m an y (of), a lo t of, lo ts
af t e r tim e a d verbs 152 (of) 100
fron ting, f or e m p hasis 198 m ust
wit h here co m es, t h er e g oes 198 dra win g co nclusi o ns 36
inst ea d o f if-cla uses 198 f or m al rules, reg ula tio ns an d w arnin gs
wit h so + a dject ive 2 0 0 36
w it h such + be, f or e m p hasis o f e x t e n t and have (got) t o 36, 2 2 5 - 2 6
m ust / m ust n ’t, in rep orting 74
wit h as an d t han, in co m p ariso ns 198 n eed(n't), d o n't have to, m ust n't
of verb an d su b ject 207 2 26
irreg ular verbs 2 0 2 - 3 prop osin g f u t ure arran g e m e n ts 36
it
N
it is / w as no versus t h er e is / w as no
194 na m es, o f p e ople 8 0, 92
as o b ject o f verb 194
n ecessit y 2 2 5 - 2 6
rep ortin g wit h p assive f or ms 50
need
wit h vie w p oin t v erbs 194
in f or m al w rit t e n English 38
it, in tro d uct o ry
n eed(n't), d o n't have t o, m ust n't,
t o f ocus a t t e n tio n on se n t e nce
d o n't n eed t o 3 8, 2 26
e le m e n t 192
as ordinary versus m o d al verb 38
it + be + a d jective / noun 192
in q u esti o ns 38
it + verb + o bject + t h a t -cla use 192
n eg ative q u estio ns 54, 227
it + verb + o b ject + t o-in finitive
n e wsp a p er writin g
cl a use 192
be t o + infinitive, f or ev e n ts likely t o
it + verb + t h a t -cla use 192
ha pp e n 24
it + verb + t o -in finitiv e cla use 192
p articiple clauses, use o f 112
not as alt ern a t ive t o noun as su b ject
p ast p erf ect co n t in u o us, use o f 14
192
no, n o n e(o f), and n ot a ny 98
w here su b ject is t o-in finitive, t h a t -
n o m inal rela tive cl auses 1 0 8 , 2 0 8
clause, w h -cla use or -ing clause
se e a lso rela tive clauses
192
n o n- af fir m a t ive m eanin g 207
i t-cla uses 4 8 , 1 9 6
283
 Index of gra m ma tical items

n o n-de fining rela tive cla uses w it h a d verbial m eanin g 116 in t e n t io ns n ot carried o u t 10
f or a ddin g inf or m a tio n 106 co n tr astin g 164 p ast p erf ect and p ast co n tin u o us
d efinitio n o f 2 0 8 de finition o f 2 0 6 activit y in progress rece n tly
p articiple clauses, use o f inst ea d of 112 having + p articiple, and ti min g of versus finishe d 14
pre p ositio nal p hrases 114 actio n 116 n u m b er of ti m es so m e t hin g
w h ose, cl auses w it h 108 im plied su b ject, and su b ject o f main ha p pe n e d 14
se e a lso rela tive cl auses cla use 116 p ar ticular p ast ti m e, rela tin g eve n ts
n o n-finit e verbs 2 0 9 not, p osition o f 116 t o 14
n o n-gra d a ble a djectiv es 1 3 4 ,1 3 6 , 205, wit h o wn su bject 116 revie w of use o f 16
237 use of pre p ositio ns wit h 118 st a t e verbs 14
n o n-gra ding a d verbs 134, 2 05 p articiples 207 p ast sim ple
noun p hrases p ar ticles 188, 207 gra m m ar re m in d er 222
a d ding in f or m a tio n t o 112 p assive f o r ms 2 04 p assive f or m 2 0 4
co nj u nct io ns 112 activ e p a t t erns 44, 4 6 and p ast co n t in u o us 4, 8 ,1 0 ,1 6
na m ely, use o f 112 a d d itio nal e xercise 2 4 3 - 4 4 and p ast p erf ect 1 0,1 6, 2 41-2 42
p articiple clauses 112 a ge nt, o m issio n o f 4 8 and prese n t p erf ect 6, 241
prep ositio nal p hrases 114 'a p p o in t in g 'v erbs 44 p ast su bju nct ive 2 09
t h a t is, use o f 112 'givin g'verbs 44 as it w ere 170
t o-in f ini tive clauses 112 g ra m m a r remin d er 2 2 6 -2 7 u nreal co n d iti o na ls, w er e in if-cla use
c o m p le m e n ts 42 it -cla use as su bject o f 48 170
d efinitio n o f 2 0 6 'liking / w a n ti n g'v e r bs 46 w ere, f or i m a ginary sit u a t io ns 170
n o m inal rela tive clauses 2 08 m o d al verbs 2 04 w ere, in co m p ariso ns 170
n ou ns 'naming' verbs 44 p erf ect f or ms 16
a d ditio n al e x ercise 2 4 5 - 4 6 rep ortin g wit h 50 p erf o r m a tive verbs
d efinitio n o f 2 07 st u d y plan n er 212-13 d e finitio n of 207
st u d y plan n er 214 'telling' verbs 4 4 prese n t si m ple 2
se e a lso co m p o u n d n ouns; t e nses 2 0 4 p er m issio n 34, 38, 224
co u n t a bl e / u nco u n t a b le n ou ns t o pic e m p hasis 4 8 co uld, be all o w e d t o 30
n u m b er e x p ressio ns 88 tra nsitive t w o - and t hree- w o rd verbs p erso nal pron ou ns 2 08
44 p ersua din g 54
O
verbs wit h rela te d n ou ns 4 8 p hrasal verbs
o bject
p ast co n ti n u o us d e finitio n of 207
and co m p le m e n t 2 06
w it h a d verbs o f fre q u e ncy 4 w ord ord er 188
d efinitio n o f 207
as / w h e n / w hile 158 see a lso t w o- and t hree - w o rd verbs
p ositio n o f in t w o - and t h ree- w ord
g ra m m a r re min d er 223 place a d verbs 205
verbs 188
p assive f or m 2 0 4 p ossessive d e t er m in e rs 2 06
tra nsitive verbs 2 0 9
p ast p erf ect co n t in u o us, and p ast p ossessive n ou ns 207, 231
se e a lso t ra nsiti ve / in transitive verbs;
p erf ect 14 p ossessive pro n ou ns 207, 231
verb co m p le m e n t a tio n
and p ast sim ple 8 ,1 6 p ossibilit y
o blig a tio ns 4 0, 2 26
in t e n tio ns n o t carried o u t 8 ,1 0 can an d could 30, 34
o f f ers 1 8 ,7 2 , 1 6 6 , 2 2 5
in narra tives 8 g ra m m ar re m in d er 224
o ne and o nes
p ast eve n ts in successio n 8 m a y and mig h t 34, 225
wit h co u n t a bl e n ou ns 122
p ast eve n ts o ver sa m e period 8 pre dictio ns 18
inclusion o f 122
re p eat e d p ast actio ns 8 pref ere nces 170
n ot use d af ter n ou ns use d as a djectives
p ast p articiple (-ed) 207 pre p ositio nal o bjects 58, 2 0 8
122
g ra m m ar re min d er 2 36 pre p ositio nal p hrases
o m issio n o f 122
red uced rela tive clause 2 0 8 as co m p le m e n t 2 06
wit h p ossessive d e t e r m in ers 122
se e a lso p articiple a d jectives; p articiple d efinitio n of 2 0 8
ref erring t o p e ople 122
clauses pre p ositio nal verbs 2 0 8
se e a lso a / an and one
p ast p erf ect se e a lso p hrasal verbs; t w o - and t hree -
o pinio ns 62
g ra m m ar re min d er 223 w ord verbs
ord ers 24, 72, 78
p assive f or m 2 0 4 pre p ositio ns
org anisa tio ns, n a m es o f 8 0
p ast p erf ect co n t in u o us, and p ast a d ditio n al e xercise 249
o ug h t t o se e sh o uld and o ug h t t o
co n t in u o us 14 af t er n ou ns 186
P and p ast sim ple af ter v erbs 184
p articiple a djectiv es 207 a d ditio nal e x ercise 2 41-4 2 d efinitio n of 207
-ing and -ed f or ms, as a d jectiv es 138 in t e n tio ns not carried o u t 10 p articles 207
af t er n ou ns, red uce d rela tives 138 ord erin g p ast eve n ts 10 p hrasal verbs 207
in co m p o u n d a d jectives 138 rep ortin g p ast ev e n ts 10 of place 178
wit h much, ve ry m uch 154 revie w o f use of 16 o f p osition an d m o v e m e n t 176
p osition o f 138 tim e clauses 6 reaso ns, giving 160
t h a t / t h o s e be fore 138 p ast p erf ect co n t in u o us in rela tive cl auses 110
p articiple clauses a d ditio n al e x ercise 2 41-2 42 st u d y plan ner 220 -2 21
activ e and passive in n ou n p hrases 112 g ra m m ar re min d er 223 of ti m e 180

2 84
 Index of gra m m a tical items

prese n t and p ast ti m e, revie w 16, 240 Q whe n, w here b y, w here, w h y 108
prese n t co n tin u o us q ua lit a t ive a djectiv es 1 32,13 6, 205 w h ose, clauses w it h 108
wit h a d verbs of fre q u e ncy 4 q uan tifiers rep orte d sp eech 2 0 8
f or f u ture ev e n ts 20, 22, 224 d efinitio n of 2 08 rep orting 64
gra m m ar rem in d er 222 gra m m ar re m in d er 2 3 2 -3 5 a d ditio n al e x ercise 245
in t e n tio ns 26 st u d y plan n er 215-16 gra m m ar re min d er 229
p assive f or m 204 w it h and w it h o u t 'of' 2 3 3 - 3 5 m o d al au xiliaries 74
and prese n t sim ple 2, 4,16 q ua n ti t y e x p ressio ns 8 4, 88 n eg ative f or ms 64
presen t p articiple (-ing) 207 see a lso so m e and any o ff ers / sug g estio ns / ord ers /
se e a lso p articiple a djectives; p articiple q uestio n f or ms in t e n ti o ns / req u ests 72
clauses gra m m ar re m in d er 227 p assive f or ms 44
presen t p erf ect indirect q u estio ns 2 0 8 p u nct ua tio n f or 229
gra m m ar re m in d er 222-23 n e ga tive q u estio ns 54 q u estio ns 64
p assive f or m 204 st u d y plan ner 212-13 q u o t a t io ns 64
and p ast si m ple 6, 241 w it h t h a t -cla uses 54 st u d y plan ner 214
and prese n t p erf ect co n ti n u o us 12,16, t y p es o f 2 0 8 t e nse ch o ice in 70
241 se e a lso w h -q u est io ns; y es / no t h a t -cla uses 66, 72, 76
real co n d iti o na ls 166 q u esti o ns using a d jectiv es 76
presen t p erf ect co n tin u o us q u estio n t a gs 227 using n ou ns 76
g ra m m a r re m in d er 223 q u o t a tio n m arks 229 rep orting / rep orte d clauses 64, 72
p assive f or m 204 d efinitio n o f 2 08
R
and presen t p erf ect p ast t e nses 70
real co n d iti o na ls
ac tivit ies in progress until rece n tly 12 prese n t su b ju nctive 78
if -cla uses 1 6 6 ,1 6 8
a d ditio nal e x ercise 241 rep orting verbs 6 4 , 2 0 8
real and u nreal co nditio ns 206, 2 3 8 - 3 9
co nclusi o ns fro m w h a t can be seen / req u ests
t e nses in 2 0 , 1 6 6 , 1 6 8 , 1 7 2 , 239
heard e tc. 12 g ra m m ar re min d er 225
u n less and if n o t 172
rece n t ly co m p le t e d eve n ts 12 if-cla uses 168
reaso ns
re peat e d versus o n e -o f f ac tiv iti es 12 re portin g 72, 78
cle f t se n t e n ces 196
results o f circu mst an ces / activ iti es w ill and be going t o 18
c o nj u nct io ns 174
12
pre p ositio ns 11 8,16 0 S
revie w of uses of 16
se n t e n ce co n n ect ors 174 seaso ns 8 8, 9 4
sit u a t io ns e xistin g u n til prese n t 12
red uce d rela tive clauses 132,13 8, 2 0 8 se m i-c o lo n 174
prese n t sim ple
se e a lso rela tive clauses se m i- m o d a l verbs 207
co n t e n ts of b ooks / films e tc. 4
re fle xive pron ou ns g ra m m a r re min d er 2 2 4 - 2 6
f or f ut ure e ve n ts 20, 24,166,172, 224
d efinitio n o f 2 0 8 se e a lso m o d al verbs
gra m m ar re m in d er 222
f or e m p hasis 120 se nse v erbs 30
in t e n tio ns 26
f or m alit y 120 se n t e nce co n n ect ors 174, 2 0 8
n e wsp a p er hea d lin es 4
g ra m m ar re m in d er 236 sh ort answ ers 124
p assive f or m 204
inclusion / o m issio n of, wit h so m e sh o uld and o u gh t t o
p hrases in tro ducin g n e ws 4
verbs 120 be sup p ose d t o 2 26
and prese n t co n ti n u o us 16
in verb + o bject + a dject ive e x p ect a tio ns 4 0
i m m e d iacy 4
co m p le m e n t struct ur e 56 had b e t t er, in spo k en English 4 0
life co m m e n t a ries 4
regret 170 o blig a tions / rec o m m e n d a t io ns 4 0
m e n t al st a t es 2
rela tive clauses q u esti o ns / re q u ests for co n fir m a t io n
p erf or m a tive verbs 2
a d ditio n al e xercise 2 48 or a d vice 4 0
st a t e verbs 2
d efining 1 0 6 , 1 0 8 , 1 1 2 , 2 0 8 regret / criticism 4 0
real co n d iti o nals 166
d e finitio n o f 2 0 8 sho uld and sh a ll 40
tim e cl auses 6
g ra m m a r remin d er 235 si m ple versus co n ti n u o us f or ms,
prese n t su b ju nctive 78, 209
n o m inal 108, 2 0 8 su m m ary o f uses of 16
prese n t t e nses, in rep ortin g and rep orte d
n on-d e finin g 1 0 6 ,1 0 8 ,1 1 2 ,1 1 4 , 2 0 8 since an d f or 12,1 4
cla uses 70
pre p ositio ns in 110 so m e and any
prod uct na m es 92
red uce d 1 3 2 ,1 3 8 , 2 0 8 w it h bef ore 96
pr o mises 18
st u d y plan n er 217 ‘a p p ro x i m a t ely ’ 96
pron ou ns
rela tive pro no uns w it h co m p ariso ns 96
d efinitio n o f 208
d efinitio n o f 2 0 8 g e n eral st a t e m e n ts a b o u t w h ole
st u d y plan ner 217-18
o m issio n / inclusio n o f 1 0 6 ,1 1 0 ,1 9 0 classes o f t hin gs 96
t y p es o f 208
as su b ject / o bject of rela tive clause gra m m ar re min d er 2 3 2 -3 3
p urp oses and results
106 wit h n e g ative w or ds 96
in ord er / so as + t o-in f initive 162
rela tive w ords 2 08 n o n -af fir m a tive co n t e x ts 96
in order t h a t and so t h a t 162
a / t h e reaso n w h y / t h a t 108 n o n-sp ecific, u nspecified t hings 96
so + a djective / a d verb + t h a t -cla use
n o m in al rela tive clauses, wit h w h o / before plural and u nco u n t a ble n ou ns
146
w h a t 108 96
such t h a t , in such a w a y t h a t, such ...
w ha t e ve r, w h o ever, w hiche ve r 108 stron g an d w ea k f or ms 96
t h a t 162

285
 Index of gram ma tical items

u nk n o w n / u ni m p or t an t p erson or ti m es, o f d ay an d night 9 4 W

t hin g 96 tit les, o f n ewspa p ers, books, films 80 w h -cla uses
st a t e verbs 2 , 1 2 , 1 4 , 1 6 6 , 2 0 8 t o-in finitive f ocusing 196
su b ject an d co m p le m e n t 2 0 6 wit h co m e and gro w 42 w it h linking verbs 140
d efinitio n of 2 0 8 d efinitio n o f 2 0 6 verbs w it h 68
it -cla use as 48 leaving o u t 130 w h- q u esti o ns 52, 2 0 8 , 2 09
p assive, uses o f 48 wit h linking verbs 140 au xiliary verb 54
place m e n t o f long 4 8 n ou n p hrases, a ddin g in f or m a tio n to h o w an d w h a t 52
rela tive pro n ou ns as 106 112 rep ortin g 64
w h o or w h a t as 52 se e a lso verb co m p le m e n t a tio n wit h t h a t -cla uses 54
se e a lso a gree m e n t; inversion transitive / in transitive verbs 56 w h a t 52
su bj u nctive 2 09 gra m m ar re m in d er 2 28 w hich 52
p ast 170 i m plied o bject 56 w h o 52
presen t 78 in transitive verbs 56, 2 0 6 w h o m 52
su b ordina t e cl auses 2 0 6, 2 0 8 p assives, gra m m ar re m in d er 2 2 6 -2 7 w h ose 52
se e a lso a d verbial clauses; rela tive transitive or in transitive verbs 56 se e a lso n eg ative q u estio ns
clauses transiti ve verbs 56, 2 0 9 w h- w o rds 2 0 8 , 2 0 9
su bstit u tio n t w o - and t hree - w ord verbs, w ord ord er w h a t-cla uses 8 0 , 1 9 6
to, for t o -in fin it iv e cla use 130 188 w h e t h er see if and w h e t h er
a d ditio nal e x ercise 248 se e a lso verb co m p le m e n t a tio n w h o le see all (of), w h ole, every,
do 128, 2 0 0 , 227, 237 t w o- and t hree- w o rd verbs each
do so and such 126 d efinitio n o f 2 0 9 will, w o uld and used t o
so and n o t 124 p ar ticle in 2 07 ch arac t erist ic b e havio ur / ha bits 32
st u d y plan n er 217-18 p osition o f prep ositio ns in 110 co nclusi o ns / assu m p ti o ns 32
sug g estio ns 54, 72, 78, 227 w ord ord er 188 criticism 32
su p erla tiv e f or ms gra m m ar re m in d er 225
U
t h e + a d jective wit h - est 144 re p eat e d eve n ts in p ast 32
u ncer t a in t y 76
t h e + m ost + a dject iv e 144 u nreal p ast sit u a t io ns 32
u nchan gin g st a t es 12
o f + p lu ra l n oun p hrase, af t er w ill and be going t o
u nco u n t a b le n ou ns se e
su p erla tive 144 be going t o + go / co m e 20
co u n t a bl e / u nco u n t a b le n ou ns
in + sin g ular n ou n p hrase, af t er co n dit io n al se n t e n ces 18
u nless an d if no t 172
su p erla tive 144 d ecisi o ns 18
u nreal co n d itio nals
a d jectiv es w it h a / an, t he, and zero f o r m ali t y / in f o r m alit y 18, 20
b ut f or 166
a rt icle 92 o ff ers / req u ests / pro mises 18
if + p ast sim ple 166
m ost + a d ject ive / a dverb 144 plan ne d / likely eve n ts 1 8 ,2 0
real and unreal co nditio ns 2 0 6 , 2 3 8 - 3 9
n oun + o f w h ich 110 pre dictio ns 18
u nless an d if n o t 172
w illin g n ess 22
T w ere in if-cla use 1 6 6 ,1 7 0
w orks of art 92
t e nses u nreal p ast
w o ul d see if-clauses; will, w o uld and
gra m m ar re m in d er 2 2 2 - 2 4 mig ht / co uld have + p ast p a rticiple
used t o
st u d y plan n er 210-11 2 39
Y
t h a t -cla uses w o uld have + p ast p a rticiple 32, 2 39
y es / no q u esti o ns 64, 2 08
p assive se n t e n ces 4 8 used t o
se e a lso q u estio n f or ms
rep orting 6 6, 72, 76 g ra m m a r remin d er 225
Z
sh o uld in 78 rep ea t e d eve n ts in p ast 32
zero a rt icle 205
w h- q u est io ns wit h 54 in rep ortin g 74
see a lso a / an, t he, and zero a rt icle
t h e se e a / an, t he, and zero articl e
V
t h er e + be
verb co m p le m e n t a tio n
chan g e of t o pic, t o p ic k no wn to
a d ditio n al e x ercise 2 44
list e n er / rea d er 190
d irect and in direct o b jects 58
in trod ucin g t o p ics 190
n eg a tive f or ms 62
noun f ollo wing, a g ree m e n t of be wit h
pre p ositio nal o bject, wit h f or / t o 58
190
verb + -ing or bare infinitive 6 0
noun f ollo wing, in de finite / n o nsp ecific
verb + o bject + bare infinitive 6 0
m eanin g o f 190
verb + o bject + t o-in f ini tiv e 62
wit h n o u ns f ollo w e d by t h a t ,
verb + o bject / p ossessive + -ing 6 0
wh, t o -in finitiv e o r -ing clause 190
verb + prep ositio n + o bject + t o-
'thinking' verbs 3 0, 60
in finitive 62
t hree- w ord verbs see t w o - and
verb + t o have + p ast p articiple 62
t hree- w ord verbs
verb + t o (prep ositio n) + -ing 6 0
ti m e a d verbs 2 05
se e a lso tra nsi tiv e / in t ransitive verbs
ti m e clauses
verb p hrases 2 0 9
co nj u ncti o ns 174
verbs 2 0 8 , 2 09
t e nses in 2 38
vie w p oi n t a d verbs 156, 205

286
Index of lexical items
a / a n 8 8 ,9 0 ,9 2 , 9 4 , 1 4 6 , alar m e d / alar min g 237 a p p are n t 42 au t u m n 94
190, 205, 206 a le r t 144 a p p are n tly 156 avail o f 120
a bit 134 alik e 132,144 a p p eal 62 av aila ble 132
a bit o f 104 alive 132 a p pear 2, 42, 46, 62,124, avera g e 136
a f e w (of) 235 a ll 110,206 13 2,1 40,16 4,1 90,19 2, avoid 46, 228
a lit t l e (of) 235 a ll (of) 8 2 ,1 0 2 ,2 3 3 ,2 3 4 228 a w a k e 132, 202
a lo t (of) 8 2 ,1 0 0 ,2 3 4 a ll o f a su d d e n 4 a p p ly 62 a ward 44, 58
a n u m b er o f 82,110 a ll o ver 176 a p plying 138 a w are 4 2 ,1 3 2 ,1 4 0 ,1 4 4
a / t h e m ajo ri t y o f 82 a ll t h e sa m e 174 a p poin t 44 a w a y 198
a b ili t y 186 all e g a tio n 76 a p precia t e 4 6 ,1 5 4 ,2 2 2 a w f ul 134,140
a ble 140 alle g e 50, 62 a p prove 60 a w k w ard 140
a b o u t 184 alle g e d 138 a p prove o f 6 0 ,1 8 8
baby's bedroo m 86
a b ove 176 a lle g e d ly 142 argue 66,1 9 4
back 198
a b ove a ll 174 a llo ca t e d 138 argue a b o u t / f or / w it h 184
bad 140
a bse n t fro m 120 a ll o w 46, 58, 62, 228 arg u m e n t 76
bald 42
a bsol u t e 132 a lm ost 1 0 2,1 34,15 0,1 54 arise 202
ban 186
a bso lu t e ly 134 alo n e 132,1 44,154 ar ms tra d e 8 6 ,9 0
b are ly 96, 200
a b usive 76 alo n g 176,198 ar m y 80
b ase on 56
aca d e m ic 136 also 174 arran g e 46, 62, 68
be 4 2 ,1 2 8,1 3 0 ,1 3 2 140,
acce p t 124,194 alt ern a tiv e 194 a rrest 228
164, 202, 205
a ccid e n t 194 a l t er n a ti v ely 174 arts f esti v al 86
be a ble t o 3 0 ,1 3 0 ,2 0 7 ,2 2 4
a cclim a tise 120 alt h o u g h 118,164,174 as 144,1 46,15 8,1 74,19 8
be a b o u t t o 24, 26
according t o 156 alt o g e t h er 154 as a co nse q u e nce 174
be afraid 124
acc o u n t for 188 a lw a ys 4, 36,150 as a result 174
be allo w e d t o 30, 207
ache 222 a m a ze 192 as a rule 150
be bound t o 26
ack n o wle d g e 2, 66 a m aze d 78,140 as if 170
be cer t ain 124
ack n o w le d g e m e n t 76 a m aze d / a m azin g 237 as it w ere 170
be d ue t o 26
across 176 a mazin g 140 as lon g as 174
be going t o 1 8 ,2 0 ,1 6 6 ,2 2 3
a c t o n 188 a m bitio n 186 as m an y 146
be lik ely 34
active 144 a mo n g 178 as m uch 146
be on t h e brink o f 26
a d a m an t 76 a mo n g o t he r t hin gs 178 as so on as 6, 20,174
be on t h e p oin t o f 26
a d a p t 60,1 2 0 a m o ng o t h ers 178 as t h o u g h 170
be on t h e verge o f 26
a d a p t e d 42 a m o n gst 178 as t o 68, 76,172
be su p p osed t o 2 8 ,1 9 0 ,2 2 6
a d dress book 86 a m o u n t o f 100 as w e ll 174
be sure t o 26,124
a d here t o 56 a m use d 78 asha m e d 1 3 2,1 40,14 4,1 86
be t o 24
a d just 60 and 112,174,206 asid e 182
beach 90
a d m ira t io n 186 angry 7 6 ,13 4,140 ask 44, 46, 56, 58, 62, 66,
bear 202
a d mire 154 an n o u nce 44, 50, 58, 66 68, 72, 78,13 0, 228
b ea t 202
a d mi t 2 , 5 8 , 6 0 ,6 2 , 6 6 , 1 2 4 , an n o u nce m e n t 76 ask a b o u t / f or / o f 184
b ea u tif ul 132
194, 228 an n o y 192 ask o f 184
b ecause 11 8,1 60,1 74,2 06
a d ult 136 an n o ye d 76,140 aslee p 132
b eca use o f 160
a d ver tise 62 an n o yin g 140 aspire t o 56
b eco m e 4 2 ,1 3 2,1 4 0 ,1 6 4,
a d vice 76 a n n u all y 152 asso cia t e w it h 56
202
a d visa ble 78 a n o t h er 122 associa ti o n 80
bef ore 2 0 ,9 6 ,1 1 8 ,1 5 8 174,
a d vise 2, 46, 62, 66, 68 72, a nsw er 56, 66, 76 assu m e 50, 56, 66,124, 222
200
78,130,172 a nsw e r b a c k 188 assu m in g (t ha t) 174
bef ore t h a t 174
af f ect e d 138 a n tici p a t e 46, 222 assure 66
beg 2,78
af f ord 130 an xi o us 78 ast o nish 192
begin 4 6 ,5 6 ,6 0 , 1 3 0 , 2 2 8 ,
afraid 1 3 0,1 3 2,1 4 0 1 4 4 a ny 9 6 ,1 8 6 ,2 3 2 -3 3 ast o n ishe d 140
202
a f t er 6, 20,118,1 58174, 206 a ny 82 ast o nish in g ly 156
b ehave 120
af t er a ll 174 a ny (of) 82,2 3 3 ast o u n d e d 78
b elieve 2, 30, 46, 50, 56 62,
a f t er t h a t 174 any b o d y 9 8 ,2 3 3 a t no ti m e 152
64, 66, 124,194, 222, 228
a f t ern o o n 94 any o n e 96, 98,1 9 0, 233 a t t h a t tim e 174
belon g 12,166
a f t er w ards 174 any t hin g 96, 98, 233 a t t h e sa m e ti m e 174
b elon g t o 222
a g it a t e d ly 142 a n y w a y 174 a t h le t ics 84
b elon gings 84
a gree 2, 26, 46, 50, 62 66, an y w he re 98 a t m osp h ere 90
b elo w 176
72,124,130, 222, 228 a p art 182 a t o m ic 132
bend 56,2 0 2
agree a b o u t / on / w it h 184 a p ar t fro m 182 a t t e m p t 46,1 8 6
b en ea t h 176
a gree d 76 a p ol o g e tic 76 a t t r a c t 2, 222
b esid es 118,174,182
aim 2 6 ,4 6 ,1 8 6 ,2 2 8 a p olo gise 2 a t trib u t e t o 56
bet 202
alar m e d 140 a p p allin g 78 au die nce 80
b e t w ee n 178

287
 Index of lexical items

big 134 care 150 co m p a ny direct or 92 d aily 152

bind 202 care a b o u t / f or 184 co m plain 66 d ance 56
b iolo gically 156 care f ul 140,144 co m p le t e 132,144 d are 60, 204, 207
birds' n ests 86 ca re less 144 co m p le t e ly 134,150 d ark 144
bit e 202 ca re lessly 156 co m ple x 144 d at a 84
bleed 202 c a rr y o u t 44 co m p lim e n t a ry 76 d aw n 94
blind 42 cast 202 co m p u t er 90 d aw n on 192
blo w 202 cast back 44 co m p u t er k eyb oard 86 d ay 102
book 58 ca tch 46, 5 8 ,2 0 2 ,2 2 9 co nce n t ra t e 60 d eaf 42
bored 144 ca tch o u t 188 co nce rn 38,1 8 6,1 9 2 d eal 202
bored / boring 237 ca use 62, 228 co nce rn w it h 120 d e b a t e 68,172
boring 144 ca use d 138 co nce rn e d 78,132,1 40,172 d ecide 30, 50, 62, 68
bo th 110 ca u t io us 144 co nclu d e 2, 68 d ecisio n 76,186
bo th (of) 233 ce ase 228 co nclusio n 76 d eclar e 2, 44, 56, 66
b o t her 38 cer t ain 76,1 4 0,1 4 4 co n f ess 2, 60, 66 d eclin e 228
boy's ar m 86 cer t a in ly 156 co nfid e 66 d ecre ase 56
brave 140 cha nce 1 0 2,1 3 0,1 8 6 1 9 4 co n fid e nce 102 deep 134
brav ely 156 chan ge 56 co n f id e n t 140 d ee p(ly) 142
break 56,2 0 2 cheap 144 co n f lic t 172 d e f in it ely 156
break in 188 che a p(ly) 142 co n f usio n 172 d elay 228
brea k-o u t 86 check 66, 68 co n g ra t u la t e 2 d elig ht e d 130
brick-built 138 check int o 188 co n g ra t u la tio ns 84 d eman d 66, 72, 78, 228
brie fly 148 ch e m ical 132 co nse n t 62 d e m ocr a tic 132
bring 46, 58, 202 chicke n dr u m sticks 86 co nse q u e n tly 174 d e m o nst ra t e 44, 50, 58
bring a b o u t 188 ch oice 194 co nsid er 2, 8, 46, 50, 56, 62, d e ny 2, 46, 58, 62, 66 96,
bro a d cast 202 ch o ose 58, 68,130,172, 202 66, 68,172,194, 222, 228 194, 228
broken 138 ch ose n 138 co nsist o f 2, 222 d e p art m e n t 80
b ro t h er-in -la w 86 civil 136 c o nst a n t ly 4 d epen d 60, 62
brush up on 44 clai m 50, 76 c o nst it u t e 222 d epen d on 172
build 5 8 ,2 0 2 class 80 co n t ain 222 d escrib e 44, 46, 58
building m a t e rials in d ustry clean 136 co n t e n t 132 d escrip tio n 186
86 cle an up 188 co n t in u all y 4 d eserve 130
burn 56,2 0 2 cle ar 140,144 co n tin u e 46, 228 d eserv e d ly 142
b urst 202 cle ar a w a y 188 co n ve rsa ti o n 90 d esire 186,222
b usy 134,1 40 cle a rly 14 8,1 50,1 56 co n vince 66 d espit e 164
b usy w it h 120 cle ar(ly) 142 co n vince d 42 d e t er 60
but 174,182, 206 cle ve r 134 cook 56, 58 d e t er m ina tio n 186
but f or 166,182 clim a t e 90 cost 2, 58,186,192,2 0 2,222 d e t e r m in e 68
b uy 58, 202 clim b 46 co uld 30, 34, 74,128, 204, d e t er m in e d 130
by 94,1 1 8,180 clin g 227 207, 224, 225, 239 d e t e r m in e d ly 142
by air 94 close 56, 60 co u ncil 80 d e t est 60, 228
by bus 94 cl o t h es 84 co u n t 60, 62 d e t ract fro m 56
by car 94 cl o t h es sho p 86 co u n t o u t 188 d evelo p 150
by co n t rast 174 club 80 co u n try(si d e) 90 d ia b e t es 84
by e m ail 94 co al mine 86 co ver up 188 dif f er 150
by pho ne 94 co f f ee 90 co w ar d ly 142 dif f er fro m 222
by plan e 94 coincid e nce 194 co w's m ilk 86 dif f ere n tia t e b e t w ee n 56
by p ost 94 cold 144 cra z y 140 d if ficult 42,1 4 0
by sea 94 c o ll ect 58 crease d 144 dig 202
by t a xi 94 colle g e 80 creep 202 digital 132
by t h e ti m e 6, 20 co m e 42, 4 6 ,1 5 2,198, 202, cre w 80 dignified 142
by train 94 208, 228 crit eria 84 dip lo m a tic 136
co m e a b o u t 192 crit ical 76,136 d irect 78,144
ca lc u la t e 50, 68
co m e acr oss 110 crop up 188 d irect(ly) 142
calcu la t e d 132
co m e in f o r 188 cro w d 80 disa gree 66
ca ll 44
co m e t o 188 crucia l 78 disa gre e m e n t 172
c a ll b a c k 4 4 ,1 8 8
co m e up a g ai nst 4 4 ,1 8 8 cu lm in a t e in / w it h 56 disa p p oint e d 78,14 0
ca ll on 72,188
co m m an d 62, 72, 78, 228 cup o f t ea 86 disa p p oin t e dly 142
ca ll up 44
co m m e n t 76 curio us 140 disa p pro ve o f 44, 60
ca m p aig n 62
co m m issio n 80 curio usly 150 disco ura g e 60
can 30,7 4,1 28,207,2 24,225
co m m it t e e 80 cust o ms o f ficer 86 disco ver 50, 68, 228
can't b ear 46,1 9 4
co m m o n 134,136 cu t 202 discuss 68,172
can't st an d 194, 229
co m m u n it y 80 cu t back on 188 discussio n 76,172,186
ca p a ble 132
co m p a ny 80 cu t o ut 188 dislik e 12, 46, 60,1 94, 228

288
 Index of lexical items

dism issive 76 e n visa g e 228 fi n all y 148 g et d o w n 4 4 ,1 8 8

dive 202 e n vy 58 fi n a ncia lly 150,156 g et up 188
do 12 6,128,192, 200, 202, e q u al 144 find 2, 46, 50, 56, 58, 66, girls' sch o o l 86
205, 227, 237 e q u a t e w it h 56 194, 202, 222 228 give 44, 58, 202
do o u t o f 188 esp eci ally 154 find o u t 46, 68 glad 132,140
do so 126 esse n ti al 78,134 fin e 132 g lasses case 86
d o m estic 134 est a b lish 50, 68 fi n e(ly) 142 go 42, 146, 152, 198, 202,
d o n ’t have t o 3 8 ,2 2 6 est im a t e 50 finish 5 6 ,6 0 ,2 2 8 228
d ou bt 2,1 2 4 ,1 66,172,2 22 eve n 154 first 122,150,152 go bad 42
d o u b t f ul 76,140 eve n if 164,170 fit 2, 202 go b ust 42
d o wn 198 eve n so 174 fix 58 go dea d 42
d o w nst a irs 148 eve n t h ou g h 164,174 f l a t(ly) 142 go missing 42
dra w 202 eve ning 94 fle e 202 go m o uld y 42
dread 228 ev ery 8 2 ,1 0 2 ,1 8 6 ,2 3 4 flick t hro u g h 188 go o f f 42
dre a d f u lly 134 ev ery f e w (m o n t hs) 102 fling 202 go on 62
drea m 202 eve ry n o w and again 102 f ly 15 2,1 98,202 go o ver 188
dress 120 eve ry o t he r (kilo m e tre) 102 f ocus 60 go ro t t e n 42
drink 56,2 0 2 ev ery sin gle (day) 102 f o llo w 192 go thro u gh wit h 188
drin k up 188 ev ery so o f t e n 102,150 f ond 186 go up 150
drive 56,2 0 2 every b o d y 82 f o n d n ess 186 go wro n g 42
drop 56 every o n e 82 f o olish 140 g o at's ch eese 86
duck's eggs 86 every t h in g 82 f o o lishly 156 good 140,194
du e t o 160 e x act 144 f or 12,1 4,174,184 good and 136
during 180 e x ce lle n t 134 f or one thin g 174 g o od-lo o king 138
d w e ll 202 e xce p t 182 f or (reaso ns) 160 g oo ds 84
e xce p t for 182 f orbid 2 , 9 6 ,2 0 2 g o vern m e n t 80
each 8 2 ,1 0 2,110,1 2 2,205,
e xce p t e d 182 f orce 62, 227, 228 grab 228
234
e xcit e d / e xciting 237 f o recast 76, 202 gra m m ar 90
each o f 82
e xcit e d ly 142 f oreign 136 g ra t e f u l 76
each (of) 233
e x cl usiv ely 134 f o rever 4 g re a t ly 150
each o t he r 236
e x p ect 2, 8, 26, 46 50, 54, f org e t 46, 60, 62, 68,1 30, ground 90
ea ger 144
64, 66, 72 124,130, 222 202 group 80
earli er 174
e x plain 44, 50, 66, 68 forgive 58, 202 gro w 42, 202
earnin gs 84
e x plana tio n 76 f or m al 144 gro w up 188
easy 140
e x tr e m ely 134,154 f orw ards 148 gru m ble 66
easy-g oin g 138
f ound 138 g uaran t ee 2, 26, 58, 72 76,
ea t 56,2 0 2 face 46
f ra n k ly 150,156 194
eco n o m ic 132 fail 56, 62, 96,1 30, 228
free 140 g u ess 68,124
eco n o m ics 84 failure 186
f ree(ly) 142 g u ess so / n o t 124
e f f ec t 186 fair 144
freeze 202 g uil t y 136,140
ei t h e r 122, 233 fairly 134
fre q u e n t 144 g y m n astics 84
e i t h e r ... or 82 fa ll 202, 228
frie n d ly 134,142
ei t h er o f 82 fa ll t hro u gh 188 habit 186
frig h te n 192
el d erl y 142 f alse 136 had b e t t er 40, 207, 224
fri g ht e ne d 132
elect o ra t e 80 fa m iliarise w it h 120 hair 90
fri g ht e ne d / frig ht e nin g
el ectric 136 fa m ily 80 hair-raisin g 138
237
e m erg e 192 far-re achin g 138 hand 44, 58
fro m m y / his / her
e m p hasise 194 fashio n 142 hang 152,202
p ersp ective 156
e m p t y 136 fast 134 han ger-o n 86
fro m tim e t o ti m e 150
e na b le 62, 228 fast-gro win g 138 happen 168,1 92,22 8
f u lly 134
e nco ura g e 50, 62, 72, 228 fav o u rit e 144 ha p pily 142
fun 144
e nco ura g e m e n t 76 f e ar 38, 9 0 ,1 8 6 hap py 134,140
f urious 140
end 60 f e d era tio n 80 hard 140
f ur nit ure 96
end up 42 f eed 202 har dly 3 8 ,9 6 ,1 5 0 ,1 5 8 ,
f u rt h er m o re 174
e n e m y 80 f e el 2, 30, 44, 46, 50, 60 200, 225
f u t ure 90
e njo y 4 6 ,1 5 4,1 6 6 ,1 9 4 , 228 64, 6 6 ,1 3 2 ,1 4 0 ,1 6 4 1 9 4 , har dly ever 150,152
e n o r m o usly 150,154 202, 222, 228 g a t h er 124 ha t e 4 6 ,6 0 ,1 3 0 ,1 9 4 222,
en ough 146 f e el like 228 g a t her up 188 228
e n tire 102,132 f e tch 58 g e n eral 132 have 2, 6 0 ,6 2 ,1 1 4,1 2 8 ,
e n tirely 13 4,1 50,1 6 0 f e w 104,146 g e n er ally 156 202, 205, 222
e n ti tl e 62, 228 f e w (of) 235 g en era tio n 80 have g ot 128
e n vir o n m e n t 90 f e w e r 104 g e n ero usly 156 have g ot t o 36, 207, 224,
e n viro n m e n t al 132,134 fig h t 202 g en uine 136 225-26
e n vir o n m e n t ally 156 f ill in 110 g et 4 2 ,5 8 ,1 3 2 ,2 0 2 ,2 2 7 have t o 36, 38, 74, 225-26

289
 Index of lexical items

hear 30, 44, 46, 60,124 i m p era tive 78 it 5 0 ,1 4 0 ,1 9 2 ,1 9 4 lo n g est-servin g 138

202, 222, 228 im p o rt ance 90 it sa ys here 4 loo k 2 ,4 2 ,1 6 4 ,2 2 2
hear o ut 188 im p o rt a n t 78,134 i tself 236 look a f t er 110,188
help 44, 6 0 ,1 9 2 ,2 2 8 i m p ossible 9 6 ,1 3 4 ,1 4 0 look d o w n on 188
jo k e 66
help on w it h 188 im pr o v e m e n t 186 loo k f orw ard 60
j o u r n alist 92
help o u t 188 in 118,180,198 loo k f orw ard t o 154
ju d g e 56
he nce 174 in a d dition 174 loo k o u t 188
j u r y 80
her 122 in a m a z e m e n t 142 loo k t o 26
j ust 154
here 82 in any case 174 loo k up 188
j ust (l y) 142
here co m es 198 in case 20 loo k up t o 188
he rsel f 120, 236 in co nse q u e nce 174 k eep 42, 46, 60, 202 lo o k er-on 86
h esit a t e 228 in c o n t rast 174 k eep on 62 lose 202
hide 120,202 in m y / his / her opinion 156 kind 140 lo ts o f 100, 234
high(ly) 142 in order t h a t 162 kin dly 142,156 lo u d(ly) 142
hi mse lf 120, 236 in order t o 162 k n eel 202 love 2, 46, 6 0 ,1 3 0,1 9 4 , 228
hit 192, 202, 228 in spit e of 164 k nit 202 loved o n es 122
hold 5 6 ,2 0 2 in such a w a y t h a t 162 k n o w 2,12, 50, 60, 68 124, lo v ely 140,142
hold o u t 188 in t h a t 160,174 166, 202, 222 lo v ely and 136
hold o ver 44 ina bilit y 186 k n o w a b o u t / o f 184 lo w 134
h o lid ay 180 ina p pro priat e 78 luck ily 156
h o m e - m a d e 138 lack 186
inasm uch as 160 luck y o n es 122
h o n est ly 150,156 la m b ch o ps 86
inclin e t o / t o w ar ds 56
lar g ely 134,1 54,16 0 mad 140
hope 8,10, 26, 46, 50 54, inclin e d 140
last 150 m a d e-u p 138
62, 72,1 0 2,1 2 4 1 3 0,1 9 4, includ ed 138
la t e 136 m ai nly 13 4,1 54,160
222, 228 inco m e t a x 86
l a t e(l y) 142 m ajo ri t y o f 82
horiz on 90 inco nceiva ble 78
la t er 174 m a k e 44, 58, 60,1 4 0, 202
h o urly 152 increase 56
la y 202 m a k e up 188
h o w 52, 68, 82,1 4 6 196, in dica t e 66
lead 202 m anag e 62, 228
209 in dica tion 76
lean 202 m an n er 142
h o w e ver 174, 208 in dif f ere n t 172
leap 202 m an y 100,110,146
huge 134 individual 136
learn 68, 202 m an y (of) 233, 234
h u g ely 134 in d ust rially 156
learn a b o u t / o f 184 m arch 152
h u man 136 in f ecte d 42
l e ast 144 m a t h e m a tics 84
h u m an race 90 in flict on 56
leave 58,194, 208, 202 m a t t e r 228
h u rrie dly 142 in f lu e nce 186
leave o u t 188 m a xim u m 132
h urt 192, 202 inf or m 50, 66, 68
lend 44, 58, 207, 202 m ay 34, 74,128, 207, 225
in n oce n t 136
I bet 18 less 10 4,1 4 4,1 4 6 me 208
insist 60, 78
I e x p ect 18 less (of) 235 m e al 180
insist e n t 76
I g a t her 4 le t 60, 202 m ean 8 , 2 6 , 4 6 ,1 3 0 1 4 0 ,
inso far as 174
I hear 4 le t go 60 192, 202, 222, 228
inst ea d 174
I hope 18 le t in 44 m e ans 84
inst it u t e 80
I ima gine 18 le t in on 188 m e an w hile 174
inst ru ct 46, 68, 72, 78
I reckon 18 le t o u t 44 m e asles 84
instruct io n 76
I see 4 lie 152, 202 m easu re 2, 222
insultin g 76
I t hin k 18 lig ht 202 me dia 84
in t ak e 86
I u n d e rst an d 4 like 2 ,4 6 , 6 0 ,1 3 0 , 1 5 4 166, m e dical 132
int en d 8, 26, 50, 64 72, 78,
I w o n d er 18 194, 202, 228 m e d ically 156
130
idea 130,1 86 likelih oo d 186 m ee t 202
in t e nsely 134
id eal 144 lik e w ise 174 me nd 58
in t e n tio n 186
id e ntified 138 lin g uist ics 84 m e n tio n 44, 50, 58, 66 194
in t erest e d 42,1 38
i d e o lo gically 156 lio n ’s den 86 m ere 132
in t erest e d / in t erest in g 237
if 20, 64,166,1 72,174, 200, lit t le 1 0 4 ,1 4 6 ,2 0 0 m ess up 188
in t erestin g 140
206 lit tl e (of) 235 m id d ay 94
in t er estin g ly 156
if n o t 172 lit tl e o n es 122 mid nigh t 94
In t ern e t 90
if o nly 170 live 152 migh t 34,1 2 8, 204, 207,
in t ervie w 186
if so 174 live up t o 188 225, 239
in tro d uce 44, 58
ill 42,132 liv ely 142 mind 46, 228
in valua b le 134
illn ess 180 lo g ically 156 mine 208
in vit a tio n 76
I'm sure 18 Lo n d o n-b ase d 138 minim u m 132
in vit e 62, 72, 228
i m agina ble 132 lo n e 132 m isera b le 140
inv olved 132
ima gine 2, 46, 60, 68 124, lo n ely 142 m iss 228
iron 90
170, 222, 228 lon g 62, 72 m ist a k e f or 56
irre le va n t 42
i m m e nsely 134 lo n g-lastin g 138 m o bile 136
issu e 76

290
 Index of lexical items

m o d ern 144 n or 200 o urselv es 236 p o ur 58

m o n ey- m a kin g 138 n or do I 200 o u t 198 p ract ically 134
m o n t h 102 n o r m ally 36 o u t co m e 86 pre dict 2,194
m o n t h ly 152 n or t hern 132 o u tsk ir ts 84 pre fer 2 ,4 6 ,7 8 ,1 3 0 1 5 4 ,
m o rally 156 n ot 200 o u t w ar d ly 156 194, 222, 228
m ore 144 n o t a single 98 o ver 176,180 pre g nan t 42
m ore and m ore 136 n o t a n y 9 8 ,1 8 6 o verhea ds 84 pre mises 84
m ore wron g 144 n o t cer t ai n 76 o verhear 60, 228 prep are 120, 228
m ore o ver 174 n o t m an y 104 o w e 58,194 prepared 140
m ornin g 94 n o t m uch 104 o win g t o 160 p rese n t 90
m ost 110,144 n o t o nce 152 o w n 2, 222 press 80
m ost ly 154 n o t o n e 98 o w n up 60 p resu m a b ly 150,156
m ost(ly) 142 n ot hin g 54,182 presu m e 66,124
p anic 38
m o ve 56,120 n o t ice 46, 60, 66, 68 194, pre te n d 62
p ark 56
m o ve o f f 188 22 2,2 28 p re t t y 134
p art 110
m o w 202 n o t ify 66 prevail 62
p articu la r 136
m uch 100,1 46,15 4 n o w 152 preve n t 60, 96
p art icu la rly 154
m uch (of) 233, 234 n o w here 54, 98 p re vio usly 174
p articula rs 84
m ust 36, 40, 74,128, 207 n u m b er of 82,1 0 0 pride 186
p a rt ly 160
m ust n't 36, 38, 74, 226 pride on 120
o bject 60 p ass 58
m y 122,206 p rim arily 134
o blig a t o ry 78 p asser-b y 86
m yse lf 120, 236 priva t e 136
o bserva t io n 76 p ast 90
p ro b a bilit y 186
na m e 2, 44 o bserve 44, 46, 60, 228 p ause 56
pro b a bly 156
n a m ely 112 o b vio us 42 p ay 58,19 2, 202, 228
pro ble m 76,186
n a t u ra lly 150,156 o b vio usly 156 p eace-k ee pin g 138
pro f essio nal 136
n earb y 150 occasi o na l 132 p ecu liar 144
prohibit 60, 96
n ea rly 10 2,1 34,1 5 0 o cc u p y ... w it h 120 pen t o p 86
pro m ise 2, 26, 66, 72 76,
n eed 3 8 ,4 6 ,1 3 0 ,1 9 4 ,2 0 7 , odd 136,140 p e ople 48, 84
124,130
22 4,2 28 o d dly 150 p e rc e n t 84
pr o no u nce 56
n ee d n't 38, 226 o f 144,184 p erf ect 134,144
prop er 132
n ei t h er 122, 200 o f f 198 p er f e ct ly 134
p ro p ert y 90
n ei t h er do I 200, 237 o f f er 44, 58, 62, 72, 228 p er missio n 186
pro p osal 186
n eit her / nor 82 o f fice- w or k er 86 p er mit 2, 58
prop ose 26, 44, 50, 64 66,
n eit her of 82,110 o ft e n 150 p erso na lly 156
72, 78
n eit her (of) 233 old 136 p ersuad e 50, 62, 66, 72, 228
prosp ect 186
n erve- wrackin g 138 on 118,184 p he n o me na 84
proud 186
n erv o us 140 on co nditio n t h a t 174 pho ne 56
prove 4 2 ,5 6 ,5 8 , 1 6 4 , 2 0 2
n e ver 36, 38, 54, 96, 98, on m a n y occasi o ns 150 p h o n e tics 84
provid e f or 188
150,2 00, 225 on t h e c o n t rary 174 p h ysically 156
provided 20,138
n e v e r t h eless 174 on t h e o t h er hand 174 p hysics 84
provided t h a t 174
n e ws 84 o nce 6 pick up 188
p u blic 80,1 3 6
n e x t 150,152 o nce a w ee k 152 p lainly 150
p u b lica tio ns d e p art m e n t
nice 140 o ne 88,122 plan 8 , 1 0 , 2 6 , 5 0 , 6 2 64,
86
nice and 136 o ne an o t h er 8 8 ,2 3 6 68,1 8 6, 228
p ull 228
night 102 o ne o f 82 plans 130
p ull t o 188
no 5 4 ,9 8 ,1 8 2 ,1 8 6 ,2 0 0 ,2 3 3 o n es 122 play 56, 58
push t o 188
no a m o u n t o f 98 o n eself 120 please d 140,144
push-up 86
no b o t he r 98 o nly 3 8 ,1 5 4 ,2 0 0 ,2 2 5 please d / pleasin g 237
p u t 203
no ch a nce 98 o nly la t er 152 pleasure 90
p u t d o w n as 188
no co m m e n t 98 open 56, 60 p le n t y o f 82,1 0 0
pu t o u t 44
no idea 98 o p p ort u ni t y 130,1 86 p oin t 194
pu t up t o 188
no lo n ger 194 o p p osit e 132 p oin t o u t 5 8 ,6 6
pu t up wit h 188
no o n e 38, 98 o p p ositio n 80 p o in t e dly 142
no problem 98 o p tion 186 p olice 84 q u ar t e rly 152
no so o n er 158 or 112,174 p o lit ically 156 q u estio n 76,172,194
no so o n er t h an 200 o rch estra 80 p oli tics 84 q uickly 142,148
no w a y 98 ord er 2, 46, 58, 62, 72, 76, p o p ular 134 q uick(ly) 142
no w o n d er 98 78, 228 p o p ula tio n 80 q uie t 134
n o b o d y 3 8 ,5 4 ,9 8 , 1 8 2 ord er a b o u t 188 p ositive 140 q u ie t ly 148
n o(b o dy) 190 original 136 p ossess 222 q uit 203
n o m ina t e 44 o t h erw ise 174 p ossi bilit y 186 q uite 15 0,2 38
n on e (of) 8 2 ,9 8 ,1 1 0 ,2 3 3 o u gh t t o 40,1 2 8, 204, 207, p ossible 132
rabies 84
n oon 94 22 4,2 26 p ost 58
rare ly 3 6 ,9 6 ,1 5 0 ,1 5 2 ,2 0 0

291
 Index of lexical items

ra t he r 134,1 50,170 run int o 188 sim ila r 132 st a f f 84

read 44, 56, 58, 203 ru n n er-u p 86 si m ila rly 174 st a irs 84
rea d- o u t 86 sim ple 140 st an d 152,203
sad 140
rea d y 140 sim p ly 134,154 st an d up 188
sa d ly 156
rea d y - m a d e 138 since 6,1 2,14,1 18,174 st a r t 46, 56, 60, 62,13 0,
sa tisfact io n 186
real 144 since (b ecause) 160,174 228-29
sa tisfie d 186
re alise 2, 68, 222 sing 56, 58, 203 st a t e - o f- t h e - ar t 86
save 58
re ally 134,154 sink 203 st a t e m e n t 76
savings 84
reaso n 1 0 2,1 08,18 6,1 94 sit 152,203 st a t ist ics 84
savings acco u n t 86
reaso n a bly 134 sk y 90 st a y 42,1 8 0
sa w 203
reassure 50, 66 slee p 207, 203 st e al 203
sa y 50, 54, 58, 62, 66 68,
recall 46, 60, 62, 228 slee pin g 132 stick 203
72,124, 203, 229
rece n t 144 slid e 203 sting 203
sc a rce ly 9 6 ,1 5 0,1 5 8 200
reckon 54 slig h t ly 134,150 stink 203
sca re 192
reco gnise d 42 slin g 203 st ip u la t e 78
sch o ol 80
reco m m e n d 50, 66, 72, 78 sl o w l y 148 st o le n 138
scie n tific 136
reco m m e n d a ti o n 76 sl o w (l y) 142 st o p 60, 228-29
sco rn f u l 76
re f usal 76,186 sm a ll-sca le 138 straig h t 136
sea 90
re f use 2, 46, 58, 62, 72 96, sm e ll 30, 203, 222 stran g e-so u n din g 138
seasid e 90
130, 228 sm o k e 56 strik e 192,203
se cre t 194
regard 194 so 146,174, 200 strive 203
see 3 0 , 4 4 , 5 0 , 6 0 , 6 8 1 9 4 ,
regard as / w it h 56 so as t o 162 stro ng 134
203, 222, 228
region t o region 94 so do I 2 0 0,2 3 7 st u d y 56
seeing as 160
regre t 2 ,6 2 ,1 5 4 ,2 2 2 ,2 2 8 so far 180 stu pid 140
seeing t h a t 160
re g ularly 150 so long as 174 st u p id ly 156
see k 203
reluct an ce 186 so t h a t 162,174 sub d ue d 142
see m 4 2 ,4 6 ,6 2 ,1 2 4 1 3 2 ,
re lu ct an t 96 so f t 144 su bse q u e n t ly 174
16 4,190,1 92, 222
re ly 60, 62 so f t -sp o k e n 138 such 200
see n 140
re main 42 so le ly 154 such t h a t 162
seld o m 9 6 ,1 5 0 ,1 5 2 ,2 0 0
re maining 138 so m e 96,110,122, 206, 232 su d d e nly 4, 142
se lf 120
re m e m b er 30, 46, 60, 62 so m e 82 su f f er 150
se ll 5 8 ,2 0 3 ,2 2 8
6 8 .1 6 6 .1 9 4 .2 2 8 so m e (of) 82, 233 su f f icie n tly 146
se lv es 120
remind 2, 50, 62, 66, 68, 72 so m e b o d y 48, 96, 233 su g g est 2, 44, 50, 54, 58,
sen d 4 4 , 4 6 , 5 8 , 2 0 3
remind o f 56 so m e o n e 48, 96, 233 66, 72,78,1 24, 228
se nse 186
re pair 58 so m e t hin g 48, 96,190, 233 su g gestion 76,130
serio usly 150,156
re p ea t e d ly 142 so m e t im es 36,1 4 8 su it a b le 132
se t 203
re ply 66, 76 so m e w h a t 154 su m m er 94
se w 203
re p ort 44, 46, 50, 56, 58 so on 174 sun 90
sha k e 203
6 6 .2 2 8 so o n er 15 8,1 70,20 0 su perb 134
sh all 40, 74,128, 207
re p o rt e dly 142 so rry 132,140 su p p ose 20, 50, 54, 64,
sh all / sha n't 26
re p u t e d ly 142 so rt o ut 188 124,170
sh a m e 186
re q u est 2, 72, 78 so un d 2 , 4 2 , 9 0 ,1 6 4 , 2 2 2 sup p ose d t o 2 8 ,1 9 0 ,2 2 6
sha m p o o 90
req uire 46, 66, 78 so ur-t astin g 138 su p p ose dly 142
shav e 120
rese m b le 222 so w 203 su p p osing 20,170,174
she 208
rese n t 46, 60,1 9 4, 228 spea k 60, 203 sure 76 ,132,1 40
she ar 203
resolve 26 sp ecial 144 surprise 192,194
she d 203
resort 60 sp ecialise in 56 surprise d 78
sh ee r 132
resp o nsible 132 sp ecificall y 154 surprise d / surprisin g 237
shin e 203
result fro m 188 sp ec ula t e 66, 68 surprisin g ly 156
sh ock 192,228
resultin g 138 sp ecula ti o n 76,172 surro u n din gs 84
sh ock e d 78,140
reve al 50 sp ee d 203 susp ec t 124
sh o o t 203
rich 134 sp ell 203 suspicio us 42
sh o o t d o w n 188
rich es 84 spend 203 sw e ar 72, 203
sho p aro un d 188
ride 203 sp ill 203 sw ee p 203
sh o r t- t e r m 138
rig ht 144 spin 203 sw e e t-sm ellin g 138
sh o r t(ly) 142
right across 176 spit 203 sw e ll 203
sh o uld 40, 74,128,198,
rig h t ly 156 sp lash o ut 188 swim 152,2 07,203
207, 224, 226
ring 203 sp lit 203 swing 203
sh o w 46, 50, 58, 62, 66
rip 56 split up 188 sy m p a t h e tic 76
68, 228
rise 203 sp oil 203 sy m p a t h y 102
shrin k 203
risk 18 6,2 28 sp o t 229
sh u t 56, 203 t a ct f u l 76
roll 152 sprea d 203
sh u t up 188 t a k e 5 8 ,1 9 2 ,1 9 4 ,2 0 3 ,2 0 7
rough 144 spring 94, 203
sign 186 t a k e a f t er 4 4 ,1 8 8
run 152, 203

292
 Index of lexical items

t a k e a g ainst 188 t h er e f o re 174 u n d ern ea t h 176 w av e 56

t a k e on 110 t h ese 122, 229 u n d erst an d 2,12, 30, 46 w a y 142,186
t a k e o ver 188 t h e y 48 50, 66, 6 8 ,1 2 4,1 6 6 1 9 4, w e 48
t a k e up on 188 t h e y sa y 4 203, 222 w ea k 134
t a k e n 138 t hin k 2 , 8 , 1 0 , 5 0 , 5 4 , 5 6 , u n d ert a k e 26 w e a r 203
t alk 60 62, 64, 66, 68,1 2 4,194, u n d o u b t e d ly 156 w e av e 203
t alk a b o u t / o f / on / wit h 20 3,2 22 u n d ress 120 w e e k 102
6 8,1 7 2,184 t hin k a b o u t 8, 68,172 u n e x p ec t e d ly 142 w e e k ly 152
t a l k d o w n t o 44 t hin k o f 8,10, 60 u nha ppy 42,1 4 0 w ee p 203
t a l k o u t o f 188 t h in(ly) 142 u nique 134,144 w eig h 2, 222
t ast e 3 0 ,1 9 2 ,2 2 2 t h is 92,122, 206, 229 u niv ersi t y 80 w elc o m e 140
t ea cup 86 t his m ornin g / w ee k / u nk n o w n 134 w e ll 132
t ea le a f 86 month 6 u nless 20,172,174 w ell- b e ha ve d 138
t e ach 44, 46, 58, 62, 66, 68, t h ose 122,138 u nlik ely 96 w ell-reso u rce d 138
2 0 3,2 2 8 t h ou g h 164,174 u n n ecessar y 78 w ere 170
t ea m 80 t h o u g h t f u l 140 u n p ro f essio n al 140 w e t 203
t e ar 203 t h re a t 76 u nreaso na ble 140 w h a t 52, 64, 68, 76 108,
t e a r a w a y fro m 120 t h re a t e n 62, 72 u nsure 132,140,172 227
t e ch n ica l 136 t hro u gh 118,176,180 unsure, w h a t if 20
t e ch n ic a lly 156 t hro u g h o u t 176,180 n ot sure 76 w h a t wit h 118
t e ll 44, 46, 50, 58, 60, 62, t h ro w 44, 58, 203, 228 u n t il 6, 20,158,174,1 8 0, w h a t e ve r 108
66, 68, 72,124, 203, t h r o w a w a y 188 200 w h a t's m ore 174, 208
228-29 t h rust 203 u n t il n o w 180 w h e n 6 ,2 0 , 54, 6 8 ,1 0 8,1 5 8 ,
t e ll a p art 188 t h us 174 u n w ell 132 174,196, 200, 208
t e n d 46,1 9 0 tid y up 188 u n w illin g n ess 186 w he n ev er 118,174
t e rrib le 134,140 t ill 180 up 198 w he re 64, 68, 82,1 0 8,1 9 6 ,
t e rrific 140 tire d 140 up t ill 180 208
t h an 198 tire d / tirin g 237 up t o 180 w he re a b o u ts 84
t h an k 2 t i t le 44 u p -t o-d a t e 86 w h er eas 164,174
t h an ks 84 t o 130 u pse t 78,1 4 0,192 w he re b y 108
t h a t 10 6,1 10,1 22,1 38,1 96, t o d a t e 180 u pst airs 148 w h e t h er 64, 68, 76,172
208, 229 t o m y / his / her k n o wle d ge urge 72, 78 w h ich 5 2 ,6 4 ,6 8 ,1 0 6 ,1 1 0 ,
t h a t is 112 156 urg en t 78 122.1 96.20 8, 209, 227
t h e 9 2 ,9 4 ,1 2 2 ,1 4 4 ,2 0 5 , today 6 use 194 w hich ev er 108
206 t o m o rr o w 150 use up 188 w hile 20,1 18,158,1 64,174,
t h e a f flu e n t 122 to o 146,154,174 used t o 32, 74,190, 207, 206
t h e disa d van t a g e d 122 t o t a l 132 22 4,225 w h ilst 164
t h e eld erly 122 t o t a lly 134 usu ally 148 w h o 5 2 ,6 4 ,6 8 ,1 0 6 ,1 0 8 ,
t h e h o m eless 122 t o uch 228 u t t e r 132 19 6.2 08, 20 9,2 27
t h e lo w -paid 122 t o w n 90 u t t e rly 134 w h o ev er 108
t h e main 122 tra nspire 192 w h o le 102,134
va ry 56,150
t h e m ajo ri t y o f 82 tr a v el in d ustry 90 w h o m 5 2 ,1 0 6,1 1 0 ,2 0 9
ve ry 134,154
t h e min u t e / seco n d / trea d 203 w h ose 5 2 ,1 0 8 ,2 0 9 ,2 2 7
ve ry m uch 154
mo m ent 6 t r e a t m e n t 180 w h y 6 8 ,1 0 8 ,1 9 6 , 209
vie w 194
t h e n u m ber o f 82 tre e-lin e d 138 w id e(ly) 142
vi o le n t ly 148
t h e o nly 122 tre m e n d o us 134 wild 136
vir t u ally 10 2,1 34,1 54
t h e po or 122 tr e m e n d o usly 154 w ill 18, 20, 26, 32,12 8, 207,
visit 180
t h e p osition o f 92 tro u b le a b o u t / w it h 120 225
visu ally 156
t h e p ost o f 92 tru e 136,144 w illin g 140
vi t al 78
t h e privileg ed 122 t r y 130,228 w illin g n ess 186
v o lu n t e er 62,72
t h e rich 122 t r y o u t 188 win 56, 203
v o t e 44
t h e role o f 92 t urn 42 win d 203
v o w 72
t h e slig h t est 186 t urn in 188 win d up 188
t h e so le 186 t urn o u t 42,192 w ai t 62, 228 w in t e r 94,1 0 2
t h e w a y 68 w a k e 5 6 ,2 0 3 w ise ly 156
u na ble 96,1 4 0
t h e w e a l t h y 122 w alk 152 w ish 170, 228
u na w are 140
t h e w h o le o f 180 w a n t 8,10, 26, 46, 64 72, w it h 118,184
u n b eliev a b ly 156
t h e y o u n g 122 130,228, 229 w it h co nf usio n 142
u ncert ain 76,140,172
t h eir 206 w arn 2, 50, 62, 66, 68 72, w it h o u t 96,118
u ncert ai n t y 172
t h e m se lv es 120, 236 78, 228, 229 w o m an's face 86
u nco m f o rt a b le 140
t he n 152,174 w arnin g 76, 78 w o m e n's clinic 86
u nd ecid ed 172
t h er e 50, 82,190 w ash 56,120 w o n d er 4, 8, 68
u nd er 176
t h er e g oes 198 w ash up 56,188 w o n d erf ul 134,1 40
u n derlying 132
t h er e is 190 w a t ch 60, 229 w o rl d 90

293
 Index of lexical items

w orn 144
w orrie d 4 2 ,1 4 0 ,1 4 4
w orrie d / w orryin g 237
w orrie d ly 142
w o rry 38,19 2
w ould 32, 74,128, 207, 224,
22 5,2 39
w ould like 130
w o uld ra t h er 170
w o uld so o n er 170
wring 203
w rit e 5 6 ,5 8 ,2 0 3
wro ng 144
w ro n gly 156

y est e r d a y 152
y e t 174
y o u 48
y o u n g 134
y o u r 122, 206
y o u rs 208
y o u rse lf 120, 236
y o u rse lv es 236

294
1

W h a t's on th e CD-RO M
This CD-RO M provides over 200 extra exercises to help
you practise the gram mar presented in Adva nced Grammar
in Use Third Edition.

Syst e m Re q u ire m e n ts
Windows® XP, Vist a, 7 or 8
Mac OSX 1 0.5 ,1 0 .6 ,1 0 .7 or 10.8
1024 x 768 screen resolution
Speakers or headphones

Inst a lla t io n inst ru ct io ns

Insert the disc into y o ur CD-RO M drive.

W indows XP, Vista a n d 7 users

You need to have ad ministra tor rights on y o ur co mp ut er to co m plet e the
installa tion. O n m ost co mputers, the installa tion will start aut o m a tically
whe n y ou place the disc into the CD-RO M drive. If it does not:
1. O p en the Start menu and click on My Co mp u ter, or dou ble-click T e r m s a n d c o n d it io ns o f use
on the My Co m p u t er icon on the desktop. T h is is a le g al a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n 'Y o u' ( w h ic h m e a ns t h e in d iv id ua l c ust o m e r) an d Ca m brid g e
U n iv e rsi t y Press (T h e Lic e nso r1) f or A d va n ce d G r a m m a r in Use C D -R O M . By p la cin g t h is C D -R O M
2. Do uble-click on the CD-RO M icon. in t h e C D / D V D -R O M driv e o f y o u r co m p u t e r Y o u a gr ee t o t h e t e r m s o f t h is lic e n ce .
3. D ou ble-click on the A G UThirdEditio n.e x e file and f ollow t he 1. Lic e n ce
(a) Y o u a r e p u rc h asin g o n ly t h e rig h t t o use t h e C D -R O M a n d a r e acq uiri n g n o rig h ts, e x p r ess or
onscreen instructions. im plie d t o it or t h e s o f t w a r e o t h e r t h a n t h ose rig h ts gra n t e d in t h is li m it e d lice n ce f or n o t-f or-
pro fi t e d u ca t i o n a l use o n ly.
(b) C a m br id g e U n iv e rsi t y Press g ra n ts t h e c ust o m e r t h e lic e n c e t o use o n e c o p y o f t h is C D -R O M
W/ ndows 8 users
(i) o n a sin gle c o m p u t e r f o r use b y o n e or m o r e p e o p le a t d if f e r e n t t im es, or (ii) b y a sin g le p erso n
You need to have a d ministra t or rights on y o ur co mp ut er t o co m plet e o n o n e o r m or e c o m p u t e rs (pro vid e d t h e C D -R O M is o n ly use d o n o n e c o m p u t e r a t o n e t im e an d
is o n ly use d b y t h e c ust o m e r), b u t n o t b o t h.
the installa tion. O n most co mputers, the installa tion will start (c) T h e c ust o m e r sh a ll n o t: (i) c o p y or a u t h o rise c o p yin g o f t h e C D -R O M , (ii) t r a nsla t e t he
aut o m a tically whe n you place t he disc into the CD-RO M drive, ho wever C D -R O M , (iii) r ev erse - e n g in ee r, d isasse m b le or d ec o m p il e t he C D -R O M , (iv) t r a nsf er, se ll, assi g n
or o t h e r w ise c o n v e y a n y p o rt io n o f t h e C D -R O M , o r (v) o p er a t e t h e C D -R O M fro m a n e t w o r k or
if you have not changed the co m pa tibility mode of the A G U sof tware m ai n f ra m e syst e m .
beforehand, the installa tion will not co m plet e successfully. To change 2. Co p yrig h t
(a) A ll o rig in al c o n t e n t is pro vi d e d as p a rt o f t h e C D -R O M (inclu d in g t e x t , im a g es an d a n cill a r y
the co m pa tibility mode: m a t e ri al) (‘O rig in a l M a t e ria l') an d is t h e co p y rig h t o f t h e Lic e nso r, pr o t ec t e d b y co p y rig h t a n d a ll
1. O p en the Desktop app, then open the St art menu and click on o t h e r a p plica b le in t e ll e c t u a l pr o p er t y l a w s an d in t e r n a t io n a l t r e a t ies.
(b) Y o u m a y n o t co p y t h e C D -R O M e x c e p t f o r m a k in g o n e co p y o f t h e C D -R O M s o l e ly f o r b ack u p
My Com p ut er. or a rch iv a l p u rp oses. Yo u m a y n o t alt er, re m o ve or d est r o y a n y c o p y rig h t n o tic e or o t h e r m a t e ri a l
2. Right-click on the CD-RO M icon (AG U) and cho ose ‘O p e n’. pla ce d o n or w it h t h is CD -R O M .
3. Lia b ilit y
3. Right-click on the ‘A G UTh irdEditio n’ icon and select ‘Prop erties’. (a) T he C D -R O M is su p pli e d 'as-is' w i t h n o e x p r ess g ua r a n t e e as t o it s su it a b ili t y . T o t h e e x t e n t
p e r m it t e d b y a p p lica b le la w , t h e U c e nso r is n o t li a bl e f o r c o sts o f pr o cu r e m e n t o f su b st i t u t e
4. G o to t he second tab ‘Co m p a t ib ilit y ’, and tick the check-box
pr o d uc ts, d a m a g es or t osses o f a n y kin d w h a tso e v e r r esu lt in g fro m t h e use o f t h is p ro d uc t, or
underneat h ‘Co m p a t ibilit y Mode'. er r o rs o r fa u lt s in t h e C D -R O M , a n d in e v e r y c ase t h e Lice nso r's li a b ili t y sh a ll b e lim it e d t o t he
su g g est e d list price o r t h e a m o u n t a c t u a ll y p aid b y Y o u f or t h e p ro d uc t, w h ic h e v e r is lo w er,
5. Select ‘W in d o ws 7’ from the drop-down box underneat h the
(b) Y o u acc e p t t h a t t h e Lice nso r is n o t r esp o nsib le f or t h e p ersist e n cy , a cc u r a c y or a v a il a b ili t y o f
check-box a n y U RLs o f e x t e r n a l o r t hird p a r t y i n t e r n e t w e b sit es r e f e rr e d t o o n t h e C D -R O M an d d o es n o t
g u a r a n t ee t h a t a n y c o n t e n t o n such w e bsit es is, or w il l re m ain , a ccu r a t e , a p p ro p ria t e o r av aila b le .
6. Select ‘O K ’ t o save these set tings, and then launch the sof tware T he Lice nsor sh a ll n o t b e li a b le f or a n y c o n t e n t m a d e a v a il a b l e f ro m a n y w e bsit es a n d urts o u tsid e
using t he ‘A G UThirdEditio n’ icon. t h e So f t w a r e.
(c) W h e r e , t h ro u g h use o f t h e O rig in a l M a t e ri a l y o u in frin g e t h e c o p y rig h t o f t he Lice nsor
y o u u n d er t a k e t o i n d e m n if y an d k ee p in d e m ni fi e d t h e Lic e nso r fro m an d a g ainst a n y loss,
M ac users c ost , d a m a g e or e x p e n se (in clu d in g w it h o u t li m i t a ti o n d a m a g es p aid t o a t hird p a r t y an d a ny
1. Double-click t he A G U Third Editio n icon on y our desktop t o open it. r easo na bl e le g al c osts) in cu rr e d b y t h e Lice nso r as a r esu l t o f su ch in fri n g e m e n t.
4. T e r m i n a t io n
2. Do uble-click the A G U Third Editio n icon and f ollow the o nscreen W i t h o u t pr ej u d ice t o a n y o t h e r ri g h ts, t h e Lice nsor m a y t e r m i n a t e t h is lic e n c e if Y o u f a il t o
c o m p ly w it h t h e t e r m s an d co n d it io ns o f t h e lice n ce . In suc h ev e n t , Yo u m ust d est r o y a ll c o p ies
instructions.
o f t h e C D -R O M .
5. Coverninglaw
T ech n ical su p p ort T h is a g r ee m e n t is g o vern e d b y t he la w s o f En glan d, w it h o u t r e g ard t o i ts c o n f lic t o f la w s
pro visio n , and ea ch p a r t y ir r e v o ca b ly su b m i ts t o t h e e x cl usi v e j u ris d ic t i o n o f t he En g lish co u rts.
For support and updates, go to T h e p a r t ies d iscl a im t h e a p p lica ti o n o f t h e U n it e d N a t io ns C o n v e n t io n o n t h e In t er n a t io n al Sa le
w w w .ca m brid g e .o rg / e lt / m ulti m e d ia / h elp o f G o o ds.