Exam Solutions 2020 S2-1

Student
number
Semester 2 Assessment, 2020

School of Mathematics and Statistics
Page 1 of 22 — add any extra pages after page 22 — Page 1 of 22
MAST10005 Calculus 1
Reading time: 30 minutes — Writing time: 3 hours — Upload time: 30 minutes
This exam consists of 22 pages (including this page)
Permitted Materials
• This exam and/or an offline electronic PDF reader, one or more copies of the masked
exam template made available earlier and blank loose-leaf paper.
• One double sided A4 page of notes (handwritten or printed).
• No calculators are permitted.

Instructions to Students
• If you have a printer, print the exam one-sided. If you cannot print, download the exam
to a second device and disconnect that device from the internet.
• Ask the supervisor if you want to use the device running Zoom.
• Check your scanned PDF before submitting.
• You must submit while in the Zoom room and no submissions will be accepted after you
have left the Zoom room.
Writing
• There are 13 questions with marks as shown. The total number of marks available is 108.
• You should attempt all questions and will receive partial marks for partial answers.
• Write your answers in the boxes provided on the exam that you have printed or the masked
exam template that has been previously made available. If you need more space, you can
use blank paper. Note this in the answer box, so the marker knows. The extra pages can
be added to the end of the exam to scan.
• If you have been unable to print the exam and do not have the masked template write
your answers on A4 paper. The first page should contain only your student number, the
subject code and the subject name. Write on one side of each sheet only. Start each
question on a new page and include the question number at the top of each page.
Scanning
• Put the pages in number order and the correct way up. Add any extra pages to the end.
Use a scanning app to scan all pages to PDF. Scan directly from above. Crop pages to
A4. Check PDF is readable.
Submitting
• You must submit while in the Zoom room. No submissions will be accepted after
you have left the Zoom room.
• Go to the Gradescope window. Choose the Canvas assignment for this exam. Submit
your file. Get Gradescope confirmation on email. Tell your supervisor it is submitted.
©University of Melbourne 2020 Page 1 of 22 pages sample solutions

MAST10005 Calculus 1 Semester 2, 2020
Question 1 (8 marks)
Consider the Cartesian curve
C = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | x2 + y 2 = x3 }
and the parametric curve r : R −→ R2 defined by
r(t) = (t2 + 1)i + (t + t3 )j.
(a) Prove that range(r) ⊆ C.
1M
Let (x, y) ∈ range(r). State hypothesis
This means (x, y) = r(t) = (t2 + 1)i + (t + t3 )j,

2M
so x = t2 + 1 and y = t + t3 for some t ∈ R. Hence: Proof
LHS = x2 + y 2 = (t2 + 1)2 + (t + t3 )2

= (1 + t2 )2 + (t(1 + t2 ))2
= (1 + t2 )2 + t2 (1 + t2 )2
= (1 + t2 )2 (1 + t2 )
= (1 + t2 )3 = x3 = RHS
which shows (x, y) ∈ C.
(b) Find all places where range(r) intersects an axis. Explain your reasoning.
Writing r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j, we have x(t) = t2 + 1 > 0, so range(r)

1M
does not intersect the y axis. Explain no y intercept.
1M
range(r) intersects the x axis when –
0 = y(t) = t + t3 = t(1 + t2 ) ⇒ t = 0
1A
Only intersection is at r(0) = (1, 0). (1, 0).
Question 1 continued next page . . .
Page 2 of 22 pages
(c) Decide whether the statement C ⊆ range(r) is true or false and prove your answer. Your
answer to (b) may be useful.
1M
C intersects the axes at (0, 0) and (1, 0). Explain reasoning
1A
By (b) (0, 0) ∈
/ range(r), so C 6⊆ range(r). –
Page 3 of 22 pages
7 − 4i
(a) Express in Cartesian form a + ib.
7 + 2i
1M
7 − 4i 7 − 4i 7 − 2i
= × Multiply by congugate
7 + 2i 7 + 2i 7 − 2i
49 − 28i − 14i − 8i
=
72 + 22
41 − 42i
=
53
1A
41 42
= − i –
53 53

(4 − 2i)(2 − i)
(b) Evaluate
.
(1 + 2i)3

(4 − 2i)(2 − i) |4 − 2i| |2 − i| 1M
(1 + 2i)3 = –

|1 + 2i|3
√ √
42 + 22 22 + 12
= √
( 12 + 22 )3
√ √ 1A
20 2 5
= √ = –
( 5)2 5
√ 3
(c) Express 2 3 − 2i in Cartesian form a + ib. You may use polar form in your calcu-
lations.
√ 3 2M
π 3
2 3 − 2i = 4e−i 6 –
π
= 43 e−i 2
1A
= −64i. Must be Cartesian form.
Page 4 of 22 pages
Sketch the set A ⊆ C defined by

π 3π
A = z z ∈ C and 1 ≤ |z| < 2 and ≤ Arg(z) <
.
4 4
Im
2i
Re
−2 −1 1 2
−i
−2 i
2A 1A
Shape Boundaries
1A
Reflection due to conjugate, so 3 marks for this: Im
Re
Page 5 of 22 pages

Let u = (−1, 2, 4) and v = (4, 2, −1).
(a) Find the cosine of the angle θ between u and v and state whether θ is acute or obtuse.
1M
u·v −4
cos(θ) = =√ √ Angle formula .
kukkvk 1 + 4 + 16 16 + 4 + 1
1A 1A
4
=− . – cos(θ) < 0 ⇒ θ obtuse. Obtuse .
21
(b) Find a vector of length 21 that is parallel to u.
1M
1 1
û = u = √ (−1, 2, 4) –
kuk 21
1A
√
An suitable vector is 21û = 21(−1, 2, 4). –
(c) Find a real number a such that the vectors (1, 2, a) and (a, 3, 1) are perpendicular.
1M
Vectors are perpendicular if their scalar product is 0, so –
1A
0 = (1, 2, a) · (a, 3, 1) = 6 + 2a ⇒ a = −3. –
(d) Find an example of a non-zero vector (x, y, z) that is perpendicular to both of the vectors
(1, 0, 1) and (1, 1, 2).
2M
0 = (1, 0, 1) · (x, y, z) = x + z ⇒ x = −z – .
0 = (1, 1, 2) · (x, y, z) = x + y + 2z ⇒ y + z = 0 ⇒ y = −z
1A
So (−1, −1, 1) is an example. Any vector (−a, −a, a).
Page 6 of 22 pages
Let L be the line in R3 passing through the points A = (1, 0, 4) and B = (2, 2, 3). Let P denote
the closest point to the origin on L.
(a) Using vector projections (or otherwise), find P .
1M
−→ −→
Letting u = AB = (1, 2, −1), v = AO = (−1, 0, −4) Find vectors
gives vk = ku where
2M
OK to use vector formula for k.
0 = u · (v − ku) = (1, 2, −1) · (−1 − k, −2k, −4 + k)

= −1 − k − 4k + 4 − k
= 3 − 6k
1A
1
⇒k= –
−→ −→2
so OP = OA + vk = (1, 0, 4) + 12 (1, 2, −1) = ( 23 , 1, 27 )
(b) Find the distance from P to the origin.
1A
−→ 1
√ 1
√ q
kOP k = 2 32 + 2 2 + 7 2 = 2 62 or 31
2
(c) Does the point P lie between the points A and B? Explain your reasoning.
1A
Yes. –
−→
k ∈ (0, 1), so vk = ku points in the same direction as AB and is
1M
−→
shorter than AB. Explanation
Page 7 of 22 pages
Find the implied domain and range of
f (x) = log(log(x2 )).
Explain your reasoning.
Let g(x) = log(x2 ), so dom(g) = R \ {0}, range(g) = R and f = log ◦ g.

This gives:
2M
dom(f ) = {x ∈ dom(g) | g(x) ∈ dom(log)} –
= {x ∈ R \ {0} | log(x2 ) ∈ (0, ∞)}

= {x ∈ R \ {0} | log(x2 ) > 0}]
= {x ∈ R \ {0} | x2 > 1} [log(y) > 0 ⇒ y > 1]
1A
= (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞) –
2M
range(f ) = log(range(g) ∩ dom(log)) –
= log(R ∩ (0, ∞))

= log((0, ∞))
1A
= R. –
Page 8 of 22 pages
Suppose the motion of a particle is given by the parametric curves r : R −→ R2 defined by
r(t) = (t2 + 1)i + (t + t3 )j.
(a) Give formulas for the velocity, speed and acceleration of the particle at time t.
1A
0 2
Velocity: r (t) = 2ti + (1 + 3t )j. –
1A
0 2
√
Speed: kr (t)k = k2ti + (1 + 3t )jk = 1 + 10t2 + 9t4 . –
1A
00
Acceleration: r (t) = 2i + 6tj. –
(b) Express the set of t values for which the speed is decreasing as an interval.
1M
0 00 2 2 2
r (t)·r (t) = 4t+6t(1+3t ) = 2t(2+3(1+3t )) = 2t(5+9t ) –
so r0 (t) · r00 (t) < 0 ⇒ t < 0

1A
and hence the speed is decreasing on (−∞, 0). –
(c) Does r have any cusps? Explain your answer.
1M
By (a) y 0 (t) = 1 + 3t2 > 0 for all t. –
1A
This shows there cannot be any cusps. –
Page 9 of 22 pages

Consider the function f : R −→ R defined by
1
f (x) =
x2 +1
(a) Find the stationary points of f . Don’t forget to give both coordinates.
1M
0 −2x
f (x) = =0⇒x=0 –
(1 + x2 )2
1A
Only stationary point is at (0, 1). –
(b) Find the intervals on which f is increasing and the intervals on which f is decreasing.
Hence decide whether the stationary points you found in (a) are local maxima or minima.
Since (1 + x2 )2 > 0 for all x,

−2x
f 0 (x) = >0⇒x<0
(1 + x2 )2
and
1M
0 −2x
f (x) = <0⇒x>0 –
(1 + x2 )2
1A
so f is increasing on (−∞, 0) and decreasing on (0, ∞). –
1A
Hence (0, 1) is a local maximum. –
(c) Describe the behaviour of the graph of f (x) as x approaches ±∞. Proof not required.
Since the denominator 1 + x2 becomes very large and is positive f (x)

1A
approaches 0 from above. f (x) −→ 0
Page 10 of 22 pages
(d) Determine where the graph of f is concave upwards and where it is concave downwards
and hence find any inflection points of f . Don’t forget to give both coordinates for the
inflection points.
2M
00 −2(1 + x2 )2 + 8x2 (1 + x2 )
f (x) = –
(1 + x2 )4
(1 + x2 )(−2 − 2x2 + 8x2 )
=
(1 + x2 )4
6x2 − 2 6(x + √13 )(x − √1 )
3
= =
(1 + x2 )3 (1 + x2 )3
Since (1 + x2 )3 > 0 for all x, this is positive on (−∞, − √13 ) ∪ ( √13 , ∞)

and negative on (− √13 , √13 ).
Hence f is concave up on (−∞, − √13 ) ∪ ( √13 , ∞)
1A
and concave down on (− √13 , √13 ). –
1A
giving inflection points at (− √13 , 34 ) and ( √13 , 43 ). –
(e) Use the above information to sketch the graph of f on the axes below. Don’t forget to
label key points.
y
Local maximum (0,1)
Inflection point (− √13 , 34 ) 1 Inflection poin ( √13 , 34 )t
x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
1A 1A 1A
Shape OK Label stationary point Label inflection points
Page 11 of 22 pages
Consider the complex polynomial
P (z) = z 6 − z 3 + 1
π π
(a) Prove that if P (z) = 0 then z 3 ∈ {ei 3 , e−i 3 }.
Since P (z) = (z 3 )2 − z 3 + 1 = 0 the quadratic formula gives

√ √ 2M
3 1± 1−4 1 3
z = = ± i –
2 2 2
π π
Converting to polar form gives z 3 ∈ {ei 3 , e−i 3 }.
(b) Use the fact proved in (a) to find all of the solutions of P (z) = 0. Give your answers in
exponential polar form, expressing all angles as principal arguments.
From (a) and the root finding formula

2M
i( 31 ( π3 +2kπ)) i( 13 (− π3 +2kπ))
z ∈ {e | k = 0, 1, 2} ∪ {e | k = 0, 1, 2} –
π 2kπ π 2kπ
= {ei( 9 + 3 ) | k = 0, 1, 2} ∪ {ei(− 9 + 3 ) | k = 0, 1, 2}
1A
i π9 i 7π i 13π −i π9 i 5π i 11π
= {e , e 9 ,e 9 ,e ,e 9 ,e 9 } Correct polar forms
1A
i π9 i 7π −i 5π −i π9 i 5π −i 7π
= {e , e 9 ,e 9 ,e ,e 9 ,e 9 } Correct principal arguments
Page 12 of 22 pages
(c) Use your answer to (b) to express P (z) as a product of linear factors. Leave the coeffi-
cients in exponential polar form with angles expressed as principal arguments.
i π9
i 7π

−i 5π

−i π

i 5π

−i 7π

z−e z−e 9 z−e 9 z−e 9 z−e 9 z−e 9
1A
Full marks if factorisation correct for answers to (b).
(d) Use your answer to (c) to express P (z) as a product of three quadratic factors with all
coefficients real. When searching for conjugate pairs of roots, you will probably find the
fact that
eiθ = e−iθ
very useful. You will need to express some of the coefficients in terms of cos(θ) for
appropriate θ.
Multiplying factors corresponding to conjugate pairs gives
π 5π

2 2
z − 2 cos z+1 z − 2 cos z+1
9 9
2A
7π
z 2 − 2 cos z+1 –
9
Page 13 of 22 pages
Consider the Cartesian curve
C = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | x2 + y 2 = x3 }
dy
(a) Use implicit differentiation to express as a function of x and y.
dx
1M
2 2 3 dy
x + y = x ⇒ 2x + 2y = 3x2 –
dx
dy
⇒ 2y = 3x2 − 2x
dx
1A
dy x(3x − 2)
⇒ = –
dx 2y
(b) Find the set of points in C where we can be sure that the tangent line is vertical.
dy u
By (a) = where u = x(3x − 2) and v = 2y, so we seek values
dx v
where v = 0 and u 6= 0.
2M
Setting u = 2y = 0 ⇒ y = 0. Find candidates.
Substituting this in the equation for C gives
x2 = x3 ⇒ x3 − x2 = x2 (x − 1) = 0 ⇒ x ∈ {0, 1}
When x = 0 we have u = x(3x − 2) = 0, so no conclusions can be
1M
drawn in this case. Check x = 0 case.
When x = 1 we have u = x(3x − 2) = 1 6= 0, so the tangent line is

1A
vertical at (1, 0). –
Page 14 of 22 pages
(c) Are there any points in C where we can be sure that the tangent line is horizontal ?
Reusing some of your calculations from (b) should save time.
In the notation of (b) we seek points where u = 0 and v 6= 0.
2M
2
Now u = x(3x − 2) = 0 ⇒ x ∈ {0, 3 }. –
By (b), we have v = 0 when x = 0.
Substituting x = 23 into the equation for C gives
4 8 4
+ y2 = ⇒ y2 = −
9 27 27
which has no real solutions.
1A
Hence the tangent is never horizontal. –
Page 15 of 22 pages
Z
(a) Prove by differentiating that cosec2 (x) dx = − cot(x) + C.
2M
d d cos(x)
[− cot(x) + C] = − –
dx dx sin(x)
cos0 (x) sin(x) − sin0 (x) cos(x)
=−
sin2 (x)
− sin2 (x) − cos2 (x)
=−
sin2 (x)
sin2 (x) + cos2 (x)
=
sin2 (x)
1
= 2 = cosec2 (x)
sin (x)
√
Z 2 3
1
(b) Evaluate dx.
0 4 + x2
√ √
Z 2 3 x 2 3 1M
1 1
dx = arctan –
0 4 + x2 2 2 0
1 √
= (arctan( 3) − arctan(0))
2
1A
1 π π
= = –
2 3 6
Page 16 of 22 pages
π
(c) Let h : R −→ R be a differentiable function such that h(0) = 4 and h(1) = π3 .
1
Z
Evaluate 2 cos(h(x))h0 (x) dx.
0
Z 1 Z h(1) 1M
0
2 cos(h(x))h (x) dx = 2 cos(x) dx [Subst] –
0 h(0)
π
= [2 sin(x)] π3
4
√ ! 1A
3 1 √ √
=2 −√ = 3− 2 –
4 2
Page 17 of 22 pages
x2 + 1
Z
(a) Use a linear substitution to evaluate dx.
(x + 1)5
du
Letting u = x + 1 gives = 1 and x = u − 1, so:
dx
3M
x2 + 1 (u − 1)2 + 1 du
Z Z
dx = dx –
(x + 1)5 u5 dx
Z 2
u − 2u + 2
= 5
du [Subst]
Z u
= u−3 − 2u−4 + 2u−5 du
1 2 1
= − u−2 + u−3 − u−4 + C
2 3 2
1 2 1
= − (x + 1)−2 + (x + 1)−3 − (x + 1)−4 + C
2 3 2
1A
1 2 1
=− + − +C –
2(x + 1)2 3(x + 1)3 2(x + 1)4
Z
(b) Evaluate cos79 (x) sin3 (x) dx.
du
Letting u = cos(x) gives sin(x) = − so
dx
Z Z 3M
79 3 79 2 du
cos (x) sin (x) dx = u (1 − u )(− ) dx –
Z dx
= −u79 (1 − u2 ) du [Subst]
Z
= u81 − u79 du
1 82 1 80
= 82 u − 80 u + C
1 82 1 80
= 82 cos (x) − 80 cos (x) + C.
1A
–
Page 18 of 22 pages
Z
1
(c) Evaluate dx.
2x2 + 4x + 20
Z Z 3M
1 1 1
dx = dx –
2x2 + 4x + 20 2 Z x2 + 2x + 10
1 1
= dx
2 (x + 1)2 + 9
Z
1 1 du du
= dx [u = x + 1, = 1]
2 Z u2 + 32 dx dx
1 1
= du [Subst]
2 u2 + 32
1 1 u
= arctan + C.
2 3 3

1 x+1
= arctan + C.
6 3
1A
–
Page 19 of 22 pages

Consider the initial value problem:
dy y2 + 1
= y = −2 when x = 1.
dx xy
In this question, you may assume that x > 0.
(a) Does this initial value problem have any constant solutions? Explain your answer.
1M
There are no y values for which RHS = 0, Explain
1A
so no constant solutions. None
(b) Solve this initial value problem. Be careful to explain any choices you make when solving
to find a formula for y.
Z Z 3M
y dy 1 y dy 1
= ⇒ dx = dx –
y 2 + 1 dx x Z y 2 + 1 dx x
y
⇒ 2
dy = log(|x|) + C. [Substitution]
Z y + 1
1 1 du du
⇒ ( ) dy = log(x) + C [u = y 2 + 1, = 2y, x > 0]
Zu 2 dy dy
1 1
⇒ du = log(x) + C [Substitution]
2 u
⇒ log(u) = 2 log(x) + 2C [u > 0]
2
⇒ u = elog(x )+2C = Dx2 [D = e2C ]
⇒ y 2 + 1 = Dx2 [u = y 2 + 1]
1M
p
⇒ y = − Dx2 − 1 [Since initial value < 0] Mention this
Page 20 of 22 pages
Extra space for solution of 13(b), if needed.

The initial value gives

1M
√
−2 = − 12 D − 1 ⇒ 4 = D − 1 ⇒ D = 5 –
1A
√
Hence y = − 5x2 − 1. –
(c) Find the implied domain of your solution from (b).
1M
√
y = − 5x2 − 1 defined provided –
1A
1
2
5x − 1 ≥ 0 ⇒ x > 2
5 and x > 0, so dom(y) = [ √15 , ∞). –
End of Exam — Total Available Marks = 108
Turn the page for appended material
Page 21 of 22 pages
Useful Formulae
Pythagorean identity
cos2 (x) + sin2 (x) = 1
Compound angle formulae
sin(x + y) = sin(x) cos(y) + cos(x) sin(y)

cos(x + y) = cos(x) cos(y) − sin(x) sin(y)
tan(x) + tan(y)
tan(x + y) =
1 − tan(x) tan(y)
Derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions

1
arcsin0 (x) = √
1 − x2
1
arccos0 (x) = − √
1 − x2
1
arctan0 (x) =
1 + x2
Antiderivatives from inverse trigonometric functions
Z
1 x
√ dx = arcsin +C
s2 − x2 s
−1
Z x
√ dx = arccos +C
s2 − x2 s
Z
1 1 x
dx = arctan +C
s2 + x2 s s
where s is a positive constant, and C is an arbitrary constant of integration.
Complex exponential formulae
eiθ = cos(θ) + i sin(θ)

1
cos(θ) = eiθ + e−iθ

2
1 iθ
e − e−iθ

sin(θ) =
Vector projections 2i
• The vector projection of v onto u is vk = (û · v)û = ku, where k ∈ R is the unique solution
of u · (v − ku) = 0.
• The vector component of v perpendicular to u is v⊥ = v − vk .
Complex roots
1 1
The n-th roots of w = seiφ are s n ei( n (φ+2kπ)) for k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1.
Changes in speed
Provided r0 (t) 6= 0, the speed function kr0 (t)k is decreasing when r0 (t) · r00 (t) < 0 and
increasing when r0 (t) · r00 (t) > 0.
You do not need to include this page in your submitted pdf file.
Page 22 of 22 pages

Exam Solutions 2020 S2-1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Exam Solutions 2020 S2-1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Student

Semester 2 Assessment, 2020

• One double sided A4 page of notes (handwritten or printed).

• No calculators are permitted.

• Check your scanned PDF before submitting.

©University of Melbourne 2020 Page 1 of 22 pages sample solutions

and the parametric curve r : R −→ R2 defined by

r(t) = (t2 + 1)i + (t + t3 )j.

(a) Prove that range(r) ⊆ C.

This means (x, y) = r(t) = (t2 + 1)i + (t + t3 )j,

LHS = x2 + y 2 = (t2 + 1)2 + (t + t3 )2

which shows (x, y) ∈ C.

Writing r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j, we have x(t) = t2 + 1 > 0, so range(r)

Question 1 continued next page . . .

Reflection due to conjugate, so 3 marks for this: Im

Question 4 (10 marks)

(b) Find a vector of length 21 that is parallel to u.

the closest point to the origin on L.

(a) Using vector projections (or otherwise), find P .

0 = u · (v − ku) = (1, 2, −1) · (−1 − k, −2k, −4 + k)

(b) Find the distance from P to the origin.

f (x) = log(log(x2 )).

Explain your reasoning.

Let g(x) = log(x2 ), so dom(g) = R \ {0}, range(g) = R and f = log ◦ g.

= {x ∈ R \ {0} | log(x2 ) ∈ (0, ∞)}

= log(R ∩ (0, ∞))

r(t) = (t2 + 1)i + (t + t3 )j.

so r0 (t) · r00 (t) < 0 ⇒ t < 0

(c) Does r have any cusps? Explain your answer.

Question 8 (13 marks)

Since (1 + x2 )2 > 0 for all x,

Since the denominator 1 + x2 becomes very large and is positive f (x)

Question 8 continued next page . . .

Since (1 + x2 )3 > 0 for all x, this is positive on (−∞, − √13 ) ∪ ( √13 , ∞)

Since P (z) = (z 3 )2 − z 3 + 1 = 0 the quadratic formula gives

From (a) and the root finding formula

Question 9 continued next page . . .

Multiplying factors corresponding to conjugate pairs gives

Substituting this in the equation for C gives

When x = 1 we have u = x(3x − 2) = 1 6= 0, so the tangent line is

Question 10 continued next page . . .

In the notation of (b) we seek points where u = 0 and v 6= 0.

(a) Prove by differentiating that cosec2 (x) dx = − cot(x) + C.

Question 11 continued next page . . .

Question 12 (12 marks)

Question 12 continued next page . . .

Question 13 (10 marks)

Question 13 continued next page . . .

Extra space for solution of 13(b), if needed.

The initial value gives

(c) Find the implied domain of your solution from (b).

End of Exam — Total Available Marks = 108

Turn the page for appended material

cos2 (x) + sin2 (x) = 1

Compound angle formulae

sin(x + y) = sin(x) cos(y) + cos(x) sin(y)

Derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions

eiθ = cos(θ) + i sin(θ)

• The vector component of v perpendicular to u is v⊥ = v − vk .

You might also like