Essay writing

Edition 1, July 2004

Copyright © 2004 Leeds Metropolitan University

Learning & Information Services
http://www.leedsmet.ac.uk/lskills Skills.for.Learning@leedsmet.ac.uk
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• Communication > Effective Written Communication
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Contents

Problems associated with writing essays.........................................................2

Assessment guidelines ....................................................................................2
Analysing the question.....................................................................................3
Definitions of words used in essay titles ..........................................................7
Thinking of your own question....................................................................14
Gathering material .........................................................................................15
Locating and accessing information ...........................................................16
Making notes ..............................................................................................18
Writing the essay ...........................................................................................24
Grammar tips..............................................................................................25

1
Problems associated with writing essays

Most people who are writing essays for the first time have normal and
common fears. Do any of these fears apply to you?
• it is an area which is new to you
• fear of failure
• perceptions about the demands and challenges of essay writing
• the challenge of dealing with new disciplines and applying them to
specific contexts
• that you have forgotten how to write an essay / have not done it for a long
time
• that you have done essays or assessments before but they were very
different to those on this module
• what will be expected of you?
• coming to terms with academic “jargon”
• finding a balance between other peoples’ work and your own “voice”
• treating literature appropriately and avoiding plagiarism
• access to material
• time management; phasing this effort alongside other modules in this
semester
• not going off at a tangent and wasting time
By reading this guide and looking at material on the Skills for Learning
website, you are addressing these fears and hopefully you will be able to
break down what can be a very daunting task, into manageable, less
threatening pieces.

Assessment guidelines

Before you begin doing any work for your essay, it would be useful to refresh
your memory by reading the course rationale and the module
objectives/outlines again. Your approach to the essay should reflect this
rationale and work towards the module objectives.
It is very useful to think about the aims and objectives of the work you are
doing. The aim is the overall goal for the piece of work. The objective is a
statement (usually very precise) about what you will learn from the piece of
work. You will normally have more than one objective for each piece of work.
Read the general assessment criteria for the essay-specific assessment
criteria. For most essay assessments you will usually have to address a
number of assessment criteria which relate to:

2
 1) The accurate presentation and reflective analysis of concepts, ideas and
theories from appropriate disciplines
2) The need for a coherent structure and good organisation of the work
3) The appropriate use of material
4) The application to the context of your subject area

Analysing the question

One of the most important lessons to learn about essay writing is that the
more you prepare before you start writing, the easier the task will be. There is
no point in writing a brilliant essay which does not answer the question.

Types of essay titles and questions

The starting point for any essay is normally the question or title of the essay.
Sometimes your tutor tells you what the essay title is going to be and you
have to stick to it exactly. Other times you are given a choice of questions
and you can choose one from a list that appeals to you the most. The final
type (and the one that most people probably find the hardest) is when you are
given no boundaries – you can do an essay about anything in relation to that
particular module of your course. Final year dissertations normally take this
route, although for these you are often allowed to come up with a title about
anything – as long as it is in relation to your course!
Read the essay title very carefully. Discuss it with someone in your study
group. Identify what you think it is expecting you to do.
Most essay titles will be made up of two elements: an instruction and subject
matter. Instructions include: Discuss; Evaluate; Analyse; Compare. More
information about these terms can be found below. Titles will also contain
subject matter, for example:

Examine the role of information technology in your working environment.

The instruction is examine. The subject matter is role; information

technology; working environment.
Now look at this one:

Why is gender an issue in education? Discuss with particular reference to

primary schools.

The instruction is Discuss. The subject matter is gender, issue, education;

primary schools.

3
Activity

Break down the following titles to identify out what the subject matter
and instruction words are:

Comment upon the current profile of tenants in the social rented sector
and discuss the implications of this for housing managers in both local
authorities and housing associations.

Subject matter =
____________________________________________

Instruction words =
__________________________________________

Discuss the proposition that the idea of post modernism has been
valuable in the development of contemporary art practice.

Subject matter =
____________________________________________

Instruction words =
__________________________________________

Describe and contrast the life of a child sixty years ago and in
contemporary society.

Subject matter =
____________________________________________

Instruction words =
__________________________________________

4
Activity answers

Comment upon the current profile of tenants in the social rented sector
and discuss the implications of this for housing managers in both local
authorities and housing associations.

Your first instruction is to Comment; the subject matter is tenants,

social rented sector. In the second part you are to Discuss, the subject
matter being implications, housing managers, local authorities, housing
associations.

Discuss the proposition that the idea of post modernism has been
valuable in the development of contemporary art practice.

The instruction for this title is Discuss, the subject matter being
postmodernism, valuable, contemporary art practice.

Describe and contrast the life of a child sixty years ago and in
contemporary society.

Finally there are two instructions – Describe and Contrast and the
subject matter is child, sixty years ago, contemporary.
---------------------------
Sometimes essay titles are written like this:

Example 1
To what extent is social class still the most important determinant of children's
educational achievements?

Example 2
Was there any justification for public sector high rise flats?
Do they still have a useful role to play in the national housing stock?

The same principles apply. You are being instructed to do something

particular in relation to key concepts. In the first example you have to decide
how much something is the case. This implies that there are limits and that
this is a 'for' and 'against' essay title.
The same applies in the second example. This one obviously has two parts to
it – make sure that you answer both. The question clearly relates to public
sector high rise flats, and assumes that there was some justification for them
– but only some. The implication of the second part is that they are likely to
have some role to play which is perhaps a limited one.

5
Question components
If you are following a question or title that your tutor has set you, then you
must make sure that you follow the instructions given in the wording of the
title. You have already looked at the two components of ‘subject’ and
‘instruction’, but these normally go alongside other main components which
are usually:
1) Subject matter or topic – the general subject area that the essay must
be written about
2) Instructional words – these tell you exactly what the assessor wants you
to do
3) Aspect or focus – the particular angle of the subject matter that you are
expected to write about.
Some questions also contain the following components:
4) Restriction or expansion of the subject matter – the parameters of the
topic; what limits to the subject matter are implied in the question
5) Viewpoint – some questions may require you to approach the answer
from a particular point of view
When you have been given an essay question, before you start any
preparation it is a good idea to break it down and work out whether it contains
these five main components, and what they are.

Analysing the components of a question set by your tutor

If your tutor set you this question:

Evaluate Shakespeare’s use of metaphor in ‘The Tempest’

he or she does not want you to write down everything you know about ‘The
Tempest’. They are asking you to evaluate the use of metaphor and so you
are expected to appraise its use, not just how it is used. It is also asking you
to only look at its use in ‘The Tempest’, not in everything that Shakespeare
has written.
What you need to do to any question before you start your research is analyse
each word in it to work out exactly what the tutor wants from you in your
answer. Break down the question into its different components so that you
know exactly what it is asking you. Before you begin your research you may
end up with something that looks like this:

6
Definitions of words used in essay titles

When analysing a question, the first thing that you need to do is have a clear
understanding of the instructional words. You may find the following
definitions of words that are frequently used in essay titles useful. They may
all appear to have similar meanings, but there are subtle differences in what
the title or question is asking you. Always remember, though, that different
members of staff may have slightly different understandings of what the terms
mean. If you are not sure how you are expected to answer an essay title or
question, check with the person who has set it.

Activity

How would you interpret the following instructional words, if you were
given an essay title containing one of them? Our definitions are below.

Account for

Analyse

Assess

Compare

Consider

Contrast

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Criticise

Define

Describe

Differentiate or distinguish

Discuss

Evaluate

Examine

Explain

Illustrate

Interpret

Outline

Relate

State

Summarise or Review

Trace

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 Account for

This type of question is asking you to give reasons for or a thorough

explanation of why something has occurred. This would be done in a plain
and clear way.
For example:

Account for Hitler’s rise to power in 1933.

When answering this essay you would be expected to give a thorough
explanation of Hitler’s rise to power, providing all the main reasons why it
occurred.

Analyse

Describe the meaning of the topic in a detailed and methodical way; break the
topic down into its component parts. This is often used to clarify or explain the
significance of something. You would also be expected to assess its
importance, basing your judgement on personal opinion and also logical
argument built on established theory or facts.
For example:

Analyse Shakespeare's sonnet number LXXXIV, particularly his use of

onomatopoeia.
Here you would examine the sonnet closely, looking at each part in detail, but
especially Shakespeare’s use of onomatopoeia. You would use your own
ideas to clarify or explain the significance of it.

Assess

When assessing something you need to work out how important it is and give
reasons why. You will be expected to acknowledge both for and against view
points, and then formulate your own opinion of the merits of the idea or
subject.
For example:

Assess sociological explanations for the underachievement of

Ethnic Minorities.
To answer this question you would need to look at a variety of sociological
explanations and decide the importance of each one giving reasons why.
Your conclusions should be influenced by the views of others, as well as your
own opinion.

9
Compare

Examine the concepts, theories, methods, etc., of the topic in order to find the
similarities or differences. You will normally be expected to come to a
conclusion as to which of the various ideas you think is preferable – make a
value judgement.
For example:

Compare the beliefs of the Royalists and Parliamentarians during the

English Civil War.
This is asking you to explain what beliefs existed within the two groups, but
also why and how these beliefs were either alike or conflicting.

Consider

Weigh up the pros and cons of the topic and give a through explanation.
For example:

Consider the theme of escape in travel writing.

This is asking you to think carefully about the theme of escape and to give as
many examples and explanations of it in travel writing.

Contrast

Set two or more ideas, theories or concepts in opposition with each other in
order to show or emphasise the differences between them.
For example:

Contrast the lifestyles of people who live in French cities with those who
live in the countryside.
Your answer to this question would be expected to include not only how these
two ways of life are different, but also why.

Criticise

Form and express a judgment of the good or bad qualities of the topic. You
will probably be expected to base your way of thinking not simply on personal
opinion, but also provide evidence for your conclusions.
For example:

Criticise Antony Gormley’s ‘Angel of the North’ sculpture near

Gateshead.
As well as expressing your own opinions on the sculpture, you would be
expected to support the evaluation with a rational argument saying why you
have formed those particular opinions.

10
 Define

For a short piece of work, you would probably be expected to write down the
precise meaning of a word or phrase. If there is more than one commonly
used meaning, you would be expected to refer to them all.
For a more in-depth piece of work, you would probably be expected to
describe the nature or basic qualities of the subject matter.
For example:

Define the properties of isotope atoms.

This is asking you to explain precisely what the properties of an isotope atom
are.

Describe

Give an account or representation of the topic in words. You may be

expected to do a very detailed and extensive description.
For example:

Describe how Goya's etchings portray the horrors of war in

grotesque detail.
You would need to explain in precise details how the etchings portray the
horror of war. If the work was purely a written piece, you would have to write
it in a very descriptive and expressive way.

Differentiate or distinguish

Explain what the distinctive features, attributes, or traits are that show the
differences between the topics.
For example:

Differentiate between strategic planning and operational planning.

The aim of the essay would be to demonstrate your understanding of why
these two subjects are different. You would need to explain the attributes of
strategic planning that are different to those associated with operational
planning, and vice versa.

Discuss

Write a logical argument which considers the topic from different points of
view. You would be expected to assess the value or worth of the topic in
detail, basing your assessment on a consistent, logical argument built on
established theory or facts.
For example:

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 Discuss the following statement. "Christianity is considered the
'Established Church' of Britain. This means that it is part of the
Establishment (and even the constitution) of the country. However,
significant numbers of the UK population belong to
non-Christian religions."
A lot of essay titles containing the word discuss will also have statements that
appear to contain opposing views or contradictions. You would be expected
to debate the ideas in this statement by presenting both favourable and
opposing considerations to the issues of religion in Britain.

Evaluate

Convey an opinion about the significance or value of the topic: judge its worth.
You would need to explain why you have formed that opinion and you would
need to illustrate the facts that support your evaluation and the logic of the
arguments upon which it is based. Where appropriate you would include
quotations of supporting arguments collected from recognised academic
sources.
For example:

Evaluate the ways in which Mary Shelley presents the being

Frankenstein has created.
As well as saying how Mary Shelley has presented the monstrous nature of
the monster, you must also say why this presentation is significant: what value
it has on the rest of the book and maybe literature as a whole.

Examine

Investigate or inspect the subject area closely. You will need to consider all
the available evidence to give a thorough exploration of the topic.
For example:

Examine the aims and methods of Italian neo-realist filmmakers.

Here you would look very closely at the work of the Italian neo-realist
filmmakers to investigate what aims and methods were used. Your
explanations would be very detailed.

Explain

Make the nature or meaning of the subject matter understandable. It must be

done in a plain and comprehensible way and you must give clear reasons for
any conclusions you reach.
For example:

Explain the term 'dumbing down' in relation to popular consumption of

high culture.
Write in plain words the meaning of the term 'dumbing down' and clearly
illustrate the reasons for your beliefs or remarks.

12
 Illustrate

If you are asked to illustrate a topic your answer should consist mainly of
examples to clarify or explain your understanding of the topic.
For example:

Illustrate the value of online resource sharing.

Your answer will include lots of examples of where online resource sharing
has been beneficial to prove that it is of value.

Interpret

Interpretation involves explaining what the subject means. You are expected
to translate, illustrate, resolve or comment on the subject and usually you will
use your own ideas to explain the significance of something.
For example:

Interpret the meanings behind Edvard Munch’s painting ‘The Scream’.

Here you would explain what you think the meanings behind Edvard Munch’s
painting are. Your answer would involve commenting on other’s ideas, as well
as your own judgment of the painting’s meanings.

Outline

An outline describes the main points or ideas without including any minor
details. Questions of this type only normally require short answers as only the
important aspects of the subject are needed.
For example:

Outline the policies the United Nations has introduced to try and combat
global warming.
For this answer you would describe the main points of the various policies, but
you would not go into too much detail. It would be a summary of all the
available information on the policies without any of the minor details.

Relate

An essay that asks you to relate things requires you to make links or
connections between two or more ideas. You need to show in what ways the
ideas are connected and the nature of the relationship.
For example:

Relate the expansion of the discipline of geography before 1900 to

social, technological, and ideological change.
Here you would need to give an account of the sequence of events and show
the connection between the various subjects.

13
 State

State requires an answer that expresses the relevant points briefly and clearly
without lengthy discussion or minor details.
For example:

State the planning involved for a disabled person travelling abroad.

Specify and present in a brief, clear way the main points disabled people
would have to think about when travelling abroad. Usually details and
illustrations or examples can be left out for this type of question.

Summarise or Review

Give a short account of the main points of something without including details.
For example:

Summarise the techniques involved with creating computer simulation

software.
You should give a brief statement of the main points or facts of computer
simulation software. All minor details, illustrations and elaboration should be
omitted.

Trace

Trace requires the statement and brief description in logical or chronological

order of the stages in the development of, for example, a theory, a person’s
life, a process, etc.
For example:

Trace the development of capital punishment in Australian law.

Here you would need to follow the development of capital punishment in
Australia from its origin right through to the present day. Your answer should
include descriptions of how the laws have changed and progressed over the
years.

Thinking of your own question

If the scope of what your essay could be about is fairly wide (i.e. anything in
relation to your module or course), then coming up with a good question is
sometimes one of the hardest parts of doing the work. You will normally have
to show your tutor what question you have thought of so that they can check
that it is OK. They normally have a pretty good idea of whether an essay title
will produce a good piece of work or not, so pay attention to their comments!
It is advisable not to forge ahead with your research before your tutor confirms
that your question is appropriate. You don’t want to spend hours looking for
information, only to find that your tutor thinks a question on a completely
different topic would be more suitable.

14
 If you have absolutely no idea of what topic you want to cover, then doing a bit
of background research first is a good way of finding out what has been
written about in the past, or what are currently 'hot topics of discussion'.
Unless you are completely committed to a particular subject area, you will find
it far more beneficial to write about something that has already been
researched or written about before. You may think that a 10,000 word essay
on 'The influence of astrology on primrose germination' would be very
interesting, but finding enough relevant information would probably prove
difficult! Original research is usually something undertaken at dissertation or
final year project level.

Gathering material

At this stage it is necessary to carry out a literature search on the topic, and
collect books, articles and other materials relevant to the subject. These may
even include notes you have made from your lectures.
It might be that you need to redo your essay plan in the light of the information
which you have gained through your research into the topic.

Defining your question in a short clear statement

Once you have your essay question ready (whether it is one suggested by
your tutor, or one you have thought of yourself), and you have broken it down
into its different components, you then need to analyse the subject area so
that you can search for the relevant information in a logical and productive
way. To do this you must clearly define the topic of your title, as well as any
restrictions that define it.
For example, consider the following essay title:

Evaluate the earthquake resistance of building materials.

Before you begin searching for information think about the subject
(earthquakes and building materials) and the restrictions that define it
(resistance of). You can then put these into a short clear statement that will
be a useful starting point when looking for information:

Resistance of building materials in earthquakes.

Identifying the concepts

To analyse your essay title further you can divide the subject area up into a
number of separate concepts, which then make up the whole. Once you have
identified these main concepts, you can then list synonyms (words that have
the same or nearly the same meaning) and other related terms that will
expand your search term until all possibilities are covered. You may find
using a thesaurus helpful to identify related terms.
In our example “Evaluate the earthquake resistance of building materials”, the
concepts and synonyms could be:

15
 Concept 1 Concept 2 Concept 3
Earthquake Building materials Resistance
Synonyms Synonyms Synonyms
Seismic activity Brickwork Resilience
Tremor Constructions Strength
Tectonic Stonework Withstanding
The concepts and synonyms that you define become the keywords used in
searching for information. Thus, when you perform a literature search, the
relevant items you retrieve are those that include these specific words.

Locating and accessing information

To be able to "find out about …." is a key survival skill. This section intends to
give you an overview of the way that information is organised in academic
environments so that you can improve this skill.
Students have commented that they sometimes do ‘pendulum swings’ from
one extreme to the other in their early essays, i.e. from over-quoting and
reporting sources to trying to do it all on their own. Obviously there is a happy
medium here. Try to feel comfortable with some degree of dependence upon
reporting and comparing sources: you are using several voices to tell the
story. Remember a well referenced essay is not the same as an over-quoted
essay. Use other people’s imagination by drawing upon a range of sources,
for example books, journals, websites, etc.
As you progress to becoming 'information independent' you move from having
decisions made for you about the appropriateness and quality of information,
for example, "Read this textbook available in the library", to being able to
identify and obtain appropriate information for yourself. At university you will
be expected to become increasingly independent and able to think through
questions such as those in the following table until the process becomes
automatic:
Questions Example answers
1) How much information do you I need enough for:
need?
• a 5000 word essay
• a 10 minute presentations
• an undergraduate dissertation
• a PhD thesis, etc.

16
 2) What type of information do you
need?
3) Which resources contain the type
of information you need?
4) How do you identify appropriate
tools to look for these resources?
5) How do you locate the information,
e.g. if you have identified a really
good journal article but don't know if
Leeds Met's Library has that journal
either in print or electronic format.
6) How do you access material that is
not available in Leeds Met's
Libraries?
7) How do you know that the
information that you have found is
appropriate?
17
I need:
• current
• historical
• definitional information
• information from 10 years
between 1990 and 1999, etc.
I will need to consult:
• textbooks
• reference sources
• journal articles
• newspapers
• past exam papers
• videos
• conference proceedings
• dissertations
• professional organisations, etc.
I will use:
• subject guides to identify
appropriate catalogues
• abstracting or indexing databases
• web search engines, etc.
• I need to check the journal listing
on Library Online and the Library
Catalogue to find out if the
particular journal I am interested
in is in stock
• I may be able to use an inter-loan
system or find out if there is a
scheme to help me access the
information in another convenient
library
• I can learn about criteria that can
be used to evaluate information
Making notes
You will need to make notes on your information sources. Remember to take
down the details of your references – page numbers if you use actual quotes
– since you will need to include this information in your bibliographic
references, using the Harvard system of referencing.
Note making differs from note taking in that it involves reading, evaluating,
summarising and paraphrasing. Whether you are at university or at work you
will need to make notes to help you remember and understand complex
issues. By actively engaging in the process you will find that note making is
not a painful or boring process, but is one of the steps on the road to
understanding.

Why is it important to make notes properly?

To aid understanding
The process of understanding other people's ideas and making meaningful
connections between others' ideas involves absorbing those ideas and fitting
them with information you already hold. Once you understand, you will more
easily remember.

To process ideas
Making notes helps you process ideas in your own way so that you
understand. There are many ways to describe or explain the same thing;
making notes is a way of making the ideas part of your own intellectual
structure.

To organise and store information

You can't keep all information in your head. Organising your notes and being
fairly systematic will not only help develop your understanding but will also
provide a retrieval system when you need it.

As a recording system
Helps you maintain an accurate record of what someone else has said or
written. In your essays and assignments you will refer to others' ideas and
arguments, summarising the main points, for example, to add weight to your
own argument.

As an opportunity to reflect
Having a set of notes can help you to compare and contrast other people's
ideas. You can make new connections between ideas and re-order them to
create new arguments.

To act as memory hooks

Because you can't remember everything, a good set of notes with appropriate
headings or semantic maps are invaluable when you are revising for exams.

18
 (Semantic mapping is a tool for graphically representing concepts. They
portray the schematic relations that compose a concept).

To avoid plagiarism
Even if you accidentally pass off someone else's work as your own, you can
still be accused of plagiarism and this is regarded as a serious misconduct
within the university. To avoid plagiarism, whenever you make notes from
books or articles, always write down the relevant information you will need to
include the source of the work in your bibliography.

How do I make notes?

• There are several methods for making notes; quite often it depends on
why you are making notes as to how much or how little detail you need.
For example, if you are just beginning to investigate a topic, you will need
to get an overview of the subject. A quick mind map diagram with the
main themes and the issues or problems will be sufficient
• Experimentation is useful as you may find a couple of specific methods
suit you better
• Alternatively you may find that different styles serve different purposes
• You can also combine styles. For example, a mind map to show
relationships, a tree to simply put all the ideas together without any
prioritisation and finally sequential notes for details
• Don’t spend all day making notes, you will become tired and lose
concentration. Note making should be part of your planned activities in a
day – usually you would spend no more than 2 hours at a stretch

Planning techniques
Using diagrams, particularly in the initial stages, may help you to see
relationships, arguments and so on much more clearly. Mind map tools are
very helpful here as you can quickly create your map, move elements around
and produce different versions to help you appreciate relationships between
ideas and arguments.
Here are four techniques you might like to try for organising your ideas and
notes:

Linear notes

These are the most common way of organising ideas. However, we suggest
that if you use this layout, you should allow a wide left-hand margin so you
can add further details later. Look at this example:

19
 “Examine the role of Information
Technology in the working
environment”

1.1 Interpret the question, e.g. “I am 1. Introduction

taking I.T. to mean…”

1.2 Set the objective

1.3 Outline the structure

2.1 Define terms 2. Main Body

2.2 Main areas, e.g. computers, the

modern office, the relationship. Cite
and discuss examples

2.3 Evidence and argument, e.g. ‘for

and against’ case relating to
efficiency, working conditions for
staff, etc.

3.1 Summarise the discussion 3. Conclusion

3.2 Identify areas for further

research

3.3 Offer my ‘thundering conclusion’

20
 Keyword trees

These allow you to specify the key and subsidiary points without organising
them in any order. You can look at the diagram and see the pattern before
you organise them into an argument.

21
Networks

These are useful if you have been asked to outline the main arguments in a
controversy.

22
 Mind maps

Mind maps were developed in the 1960s as a way of making notes that only
used key words and images. This is an extremely useful technique that
enables you to quickly get key concepts and ideas down on the page in an
easy and fun way. You don't have to waste time writing down unnecessary
words or worrying about missing other information while noting down one
idea. Mind maps also make it easier to remember and review information
because of their visual impact. Mind maps can be adapted for many different
uses: taking notes from the printed word, taking notes from a lecture or video,
planning essays or presentations, as a technique for exam revision, or for
problem solving.

How to create a mind map

1) Turn your paper on its side (i.e. in 'landscape')
2) In the middle of the sheet write the main idea
3) Draw lines (or branches) from here and write key words on each line
4) Add smaller branches with details

Top tips for creating mind maps

• Use colour to depict themes and associations and to make things stand
out
• Wherever possible use images or symbols
• Lowercase is more visually distinctive (and better remembered) than
upper case
• Anything that stands out on the page will stand out in your mind
• Put ideas down as they occur – be spontaneous
• Be creative – creativity aids memory
• Have fun!
Here is an example of a mind map that was created to help with revising key
points on essay writing. The original has different colours to depict themes
and uses images to make key points stand out.

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Writing the essay

Now you are ready to write the essay! It should be relatively straightforward,
since you have done all your thinking, carried out all your planning, decided in
what order you will write things, and now it's just a matter of putting it all
together. Your essay should have a beginning, middle, and an end.
All grammar should be checked as should spelling and punctuation. If you are
relying on a word-processing spell checker consult a dictionary before
entering terms into the custom dictionary! Also be aware that certain spelling
mistakes and typos can only be detected through careful proof-reading.
The emphasis should be on a clear, objective and logical presentation of
material into a sharp analysis of the evidence. The essay needs a coherent
and organised structure. An argument or essay is an inter-related series of
statements (critically treated) intended to establish a proposition(s) or
conclusion(s).

Introduction to the essay

This can help you with a number of tasks. It can hit the reader hard with the
current issue and relevance to the topic. It sets the scene for the essay. It
spells out the main debates/issues which you are going to address and
explains and prepares the reader for the order in which you are going to
address it (so tell them!). It gives you the chance to show the reader, early
on, that you have constructed the relevance of what the question is asking
and formulated a logical way of approaching it (so don’t miss a chance!).

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Order
Relevant content is one thing, order and coherent argument is another. Once
you have collected your information from all the relevant sources, in what
order are you going to put the material? Some useful principles might be:
1) Always prepare the reader for what comes next… no surprises. You
should not be explaining theory, concepts, principles, etc., at the same
time as you apply them. You should have done this clearly in laying your
theoretical foundations earlier in the essay. If you want to apply theory to
subject specific contexts, you must clearly articulate the theory first.
2) Use paragraphs! They are very useful in approaching order in a
structured manner. They can be quite large. You can use them to
introduce a point, explain it, critically comment upon it, and link it to the
next one (transitions).

Conclusions
You should be ‘flagging’ or sub-concluding at regular points in the essay so
that the conclusion is more along the lines of “so… it would appear that,
returning to the introduction that X, Y, Z…”.
Never…
• Introduce new materials at the conclusion stage
• Comment upon something which you have not argued towards in the
essay
• Throw on your personal opinion without it arising out of your journey
through the essay
Do…
• Revisit the introduction and check each well structured paragraph of the
essay. Did you do the things you said you would do in the introduction?
What did you find?
• Remember, you may think you have to solve all the problems and find the
practical solutions to them by the time the conclusion arrives, but half the
battle is thinking things through, realising and articulating that there is a
problem in setting an agenda for action, the analysis of which has arisen
out of your journey in the essay.

Grammar tips
Different questions have a different purpose. Below you will find summaries
of the different types of questions you may be asked to write about and
guidelines on useful language.

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Descriptions: physical

You may have to write a physical description of something, for example, a

place, an institution, a piece of equipment, and so on. In most of these
descriptions you will need to use the present simple active tense (for example,
they work/it works) and the present simple passive tense (for example it is
situated/they are situated). Always check when using the present simple
active tense that you have remembered the s. For example:

I/We/You/They look
He/She/It looks

Descriptions: processes

You may have to describe how something works or how to do something.

When describing a process, sequence or order is very important. You will
need to describe the different stages of a process and there are certain words
which are very useful:
First(ly) Second(ly) Finally
To begin with Third(ly) etc lastly
To start with Next
Initially Then
Subsequently
After this

Narratives

In a piece of writing you may need to describe events which happened in the
past. This type of writing would usually follow chronological order, i.e. telling
the events in the order they happened. Here are some useful expressions:
then before this/that while finally
next prior to at the same time eventually
(as)
subsequently formerly meanwhile in the end
afterwards

In the 19th century At the beginning of

Comparison and contrast

When comparing things you need to describe similarities between them and
when contrasting you need to describe differences. There are two recognised
ways of writing this type of essay:

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 1) You can describe one of the subjects in one paragraph and then describe
the second subject in the second paragraph (a vertical pattern)
2) You can compare or contrast the two subjects point by point (a horizontal
pattern)
The style you choose will depend on the purpose of your description and your
own preference. Both patterns are used but usually the first approach is used
for shorter, simpler pieces of writing and the second for longer, more complex
pieces of writing.
Here are some useful expressions:

Comparison within sentences

X is very like Y with respect to cost/size, etc.
X is quite similar to Y in terms of …
X and Y are similar to YY with regard to …
X resembles Y …
X is exactly the same as Y
X is precisely the same as Y
X is just the same as Y
X is virtually the same as Y
X is practically the same as Y
X is almost the same as Y
X is nearly the same as Y
X is about the same as Y
Both X and Y have...
X and Y both have...

Comparison between sentences

X is expensive to produce Similarly, it is expensive to...
Likewise,
Moreover,
In addition,

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 Contrast within sentences
X is unlike Y with respect to cost/size etc
X differs from Y with regard to
X and Y differ in terms of
X contrasts with Y in that X is larger than Y
X is different from Y
X produces 500, whereas Y produced 700
while
but
although
Whereas X produced 500, Y produces 700.
Although
The main difference/One of the main differences between X and Y is that X...,
whereas Y…
X is a great deal bigger than Y
considerably
(very) much
somewhat
a little
slightly
hardly
X and Y are different in every way
dissimilar in every respect

Contrast between sentences

X is difficult to produce. On the other hand, Y is easy...
By/In contrast,
Conversely,
However,
X is totally different from Y. X is not as
expensive as Y
completely
entirely

Cause and effect

This type of writing discusses why things happen.

For example:

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 Cause Effect
Exercise makes the heart beat faster.

Effect Cause
The drought is due to the low rainfall.
There are a lot of ways of showing the relationship between cause and effect.
Here are some:
The parcel was not delivered because of the strike
as a result of
on account of
owing to
The parcel was not delivered because there was a strike
since
as
Because there was a strike, the parcel was not delivered.
Since
As
A decrease in rainfall often results in a drought
causes
leads to
produces
A drought is often caused by low rainfall
due to
There has been a low rainfall. So, there is a drought
Therefore,
Consequently,
Because of this,
Thus,
For this reason,
As a result,
As a consequence,

Degrees of commitment

In your writing you may want to show different degrees of commitment to the
subject, from being certain to no commitment of self. Look at the following
expressions:

Complete commitment
Expressions: it appears, in my view, in my opinion, it seems to me
Verbs: is (not), will (not), must (not)
Adverbs: certainly, definitely, clearly, unquestionably, undoubtedly

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 Partial commitment
Verbs: can, could, should, may, might
Adverbs: probably, possibly, perhaps

Avoiding commitment
It is said that…
It is argued that…
X reports that…
X suggests that…
It appears to/that...
It seems to/that...
It tends to be...

Interpretation of data in tables and diagrams

In your work you may want to comment on data or refer to data in tables and
diagrams. Here are some useful expressions:
As can be seen in Figure 1,
As can be seen from Table 1,
According to the chart,
As (is) shown in the table,
the graph,
the diagram,
It can be seen from the ... that ...

There was a(n) (very) minimal rise

slight increase
small fluctuation
slow decrease
steady decline
gradual reduction
marked fall
large drop
dramatic
steep
sharp
rapid
sudden
Note: not all the above words can go with each other.

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 Discussion

In this type of writing you will need to express your ideas. You will need to
examine what other people have said on the subject and evaluate their
opinions. Eventually you will have to give your own views or opinion on the
subject. When looking at other people's points of view you will want to say if
you agree or disagree with them.

Agreement
I agree with X when he/she says/writes that…

Partial agreement
...however, …
...but ...
...nevertheless ...
...on the other hand, ...

Strong agreement
X is certainly correct when he/she says/writes that…
I completely agree with X

Disagreement
I disagree with X when he/she says that...

Drawing conclusions

When you draw a conclusion you usually make a summary of the main points
you have already made in your work. You may also be expected to add your
own opinion.
Useful expressions:
Concluding: Summarising:
In conclusion, ... In short, ...
Finally, ... In brief, ...
On the whole, … To sum up, ...
In all, ...

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Writing style

Language

• Take care to avoid any language which is, or could be construed as

derogatory, sexist, racist/discriminatory in any way
• Avoid wordiness – padding with unnecessary material is boring
• Avoid jargon and conversational colloquialisms, and keep sentence
construction simple

Spelling

• Please spell check and look carefully at sentence construction. Leave

yourself time to do all of these things in your essay time management
plan.
• Ensure that words mean what you think they do – use your dictionary!

Referencing

• Use quotations effectively but not to often, and do not paraphrase without
giving them credit in the references. Such use is plagiarism and is a form
of cheating. If detected the consequences could be serious. This also
applies to illustrations and material gathered from the Internet

Presentation
The following are suggested guidelines for layout and presentation. Check to
see if your course has any particular requirements.
• All grammar should be checked as should spelling and punctuation
• If you are relying on a word-processing spell checker consult a dictionary
before entering terms into the custom dictionary!
• Certain spelling mistakes and typos can only be detected through careful
proof-reading
• Ensure that words mean what you think they do – use your dictionary!
• A4 paper of good quality is required
• Line spacing should be one and a half, except for long quotations which
should be single spaced
• Margins: left approx. 4cm – all others approx. 2cm
• Pages should be numbered consecutively. Page 1 (Arabic numeral) is the
first page of Chapter 1. Preceding pages (if there are any in your piece of
work) that include the Abstract, Acknowledgements and Contents pages
should be numbered with lower case Roman numerals (i, ii, iii…)

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 • Page numbers should be bottom centred
• Chapter headings should be followed, on the same page, by the text of
the chapter

Re-read the essay

No matter how well you write, it is very important that you leave enough time
to proof read your essay. Try to leave at least 24 hours between finishing
your essay and re-reading it. This is especially true if you don't really like
writing, because this gives enough time for your feelings not to get in the way.
Read the essay critically and objectively – and actively. Is it answering the
question? Does it flow? Is it grammatically correct? Have you included page
numbers when quoting directly from references?

Final draft
Now prepare your final draft, making the necessary changes to produce a
really good piece of work. Try not to write more than two drafts – this is not
good use of your time.

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