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Ser
vice

1I
ntr
oduct
iont
olaw

FORMALSOURCESOFLAW

Theel
ement
soff
ormalsour
cesofl e:sov
awar erei
gnt
y;pr
ocedur
alval
ues;andconst
it
uti
onal
val
uesofal
awt
hatder
ivesi
tsv
ali
dit
y.

A)Sov
erei
gnt
y

Asapost
ulat
etoexpl
aint
hewor
kingofal
egalor
der
,theconceptofsov
erei
gnt
yhasi
tsuses.
Nev
ert
hel
ess,t
het
ermi
susedwi
thsomanyconf
li
cti
ngmeani
ngsandsoeasi
l
yst
ir
sthe
emot
ionst
hati
tisbet
terf
orj
uri
spr
udencet
ofor
goi
tsuse.The‘
i
nit
ialpr
emi
se’
isabet
terand
mor
eneut
ralphr
ase:t
her
eisnoneedf
orj
uri
spr
udencet
opost
ulat
esov
erei
gnt
yint
hesense
ofpowert
hati
sunl
i
mit
ed,
il
li
mit
abl
e,andi
ndi
vi
sibl
e.Thesequal
i
tiesar
enotapr
ior
inecessar
y,
butdepend onl
yon par
ti
cul
arpol
i
ticalt
heor
ies,as i
s demonst
rat
ed bya st
udyoft
he
f
unct
ioni
ngofact
ualst
ates.Thebasi
sofl
awi
sal
egalor
der
,thepr
esupposi
ti
onsofwhi
char
e
accept
edbyt
hecommuni
tyasdet
ermi
ningt
hemet
hodsbywhi
chl
aw i
stobecr
eat
ed,and
t
hosepr
esupposi
ti
onswi
l
lvar
yfr
om onecommuni
tyt
oanot
her

B)Pr
ocedur
alVal
idat
ion

Ther
ear
epr
ocedur
esapar
ti
cul
ardr
aftofl
awshoul
dpasst
hroughi
nor
dert
ogeti
tsbi
ndi
ng
f
orce.Asi
tispr
ovi
dedundert
heFDREConst
it
uti
on(
Art57)
,lawsshoul
dbedel
i
ber
atedupon.
Then,t
heHouseofPeopl
es’Repr
esent
ati
veswi
l
lpassi
t.Af
tert
hat
,thePr
esi
dentoft
he
Count
rysi
gnst
hel
aw.Next
,itshoul
dbepr
omul
gat
edonNegar
it
Gazet
asoast
hecour
ttohav
e
t
akej
udi
cialnot
iceandappl
yitt
osol
vepr
act
icaldi
sput
esbr
oughtbef
orei
t.[
Art
s.57oft
he
FDREConst
it
uti
on;
andPr
oc.No3/
1995,
Art2)
.

C)Subst
ant
iveVal
idi
ty

Ev
eryl
aw shal
lconf
ormt
other
ulesandpr
inci
plest
otheFDREConst
it
uti
on.Pur
suantt
o
Ar
ti
cle9(
1)oft
heConst
it
uti
on,al
awt
hatcont
rav
enest
heConst
it
uti
onshal
lbeofnoef
fect
.

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egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
ethi
olawbl
og
 ስለ-
ሕግየሕግአገልግሎት/AboutLawLegal
Ser
vice

Thus,al
aw wi
l
lder
ivei
tsf
orceonl
ywher
eiti
smadei
nli
newi
tht
heConst
it
uti
on.The
subst
anceorcont
entoft
hel
awshal
lbev
ali
dtest
edagai
nstt
hesupr
emel
awoft
hecount
ry.

I
ngener
al,whenwesaysour
ceofl
aw,wemeantt
hatf
rom wher
ethel
awder
ivesi
tsbi
ndi
ng
f
orceandi
tscont
ent
s.Sour
ceofal
awmaybef
ormalormat
eri
al.Wehav
eseent
hatmat
eri
al
sour
ceofl
awi
sthatf
rom whi
cht
hel
awder
ivedt
hemat
ter
,i.
e.t
hecont
ent
.Af
ormal
sour
ceof
l
awi
sthatf
rom whi
char
uleofl
awder
ivesi
tsf
orceandv
ali
dit
y.

Wedi
scussedt
hatcust
om i
smat
eri
alsour
ceofl
awbecauset
hel
awder
ivesi
tscont
ent
sfr
om
t
hecust
om.Cust
om i
sasetofsoci
alat
ti
tudest
hatt
hesoci
etyr
egar
dedaspar
tofl
aw and
enf
orced.Cust
om,
tober
egar
dedassour
ceofl
aw,
itmustber
easonabl
e;beconsi
stentwi
tha
wr
it
tenl
aw;beobser
vedasofr
ight
;itshoul
dhav
ebeencont
inuousl
yinexi
stencef
rom t
he
t
imei
mmemor
ial
;andbecer
tai
n.

 CLASSI
FICATI
ONOFLAWS

 PUBLI
CANDPRI
VATELAW
 Publ
icl
aw r
egul
atest
heact
sofper
sonswhoacti
nthegener
ali
nter
est
,inv
irt
ueofa
di
rectormedi
atedel
egat
ionemanat
ingf
rom t
hesov
erei
gn[
Whati
sLaw?Pp,8-
9].As
Sal
mondpr
opounded‘
publ
i
claw’i
snott
hewhol
eoft
hel
aw t
hati
sappl
i
cabl
etot
he
st
atei
nit
srel
ati
onswi
thi
tssubj
ect
s,butonl
ythosepar
tsofi
twhi
char
edi
ff
erentf
rom
t
hepr
ivat
elaw concer
ningt
hesubj
ect
soft
hest
ateandt
hei
rrel
ati
onst
oeachot
her
.
Pr
ivat
elawi
sthust
her
esi
dueoft
hel
awaf
terwesubt
ractpubl
i
claw[
Pat
on,1967,Pp.
291-
92]
.
 Pr
ivat
elaw r
egul
atest
heact
s,whi
chi
ndi
vi
dual
sdoi
nthei
rownnamesf
ort
hei
rown
i
ndi
vi
duali
nter
est
.Publ
i
claw i
ssubdi
vi
dedi
ntoconst
it
uti
onalandadmi
nist
rat
ivel
aw
[
Whati
sLaw?Pp,
8-9]
.
 Const
it
uti
onall
awdef
inest
heor
gani
zat
ionoft
hest
ate,
itsf
undament
alr
ules,
modeof
gov
ernment
,andt
heat
tri
but
ionsofi
tspol
i
tical
organs,
thei
rli
mit
sandt
hei
rrel
ati
ons
 Const
it
uti
onall
aw deal
swi
tht
heul
ti
mat
equest
ionsoft
hedi
str
ibut
ionofl
egalpower
andoft
hef
unct
ionsoft
heor
gansoft
heSt
ate
 Admi
nist
rat
ivel
aw r
egul
atest
heoper
ati
onoft
heexecut
ivepoweri
nal
lit
sdegr
ees,

ስለ-
ሕግ AboutLaw Tel
egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
ethi
olawbl
og
 ስለ-
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Ser
vice

begi
nni
ngwi
thcabi
netmi
nist
ersanddescendi
ngt
oit
smosthumbl
erepr
esent
ati
ves.I
t
al
sor
egul
atessuchl
ocal
,depar
tment
alandcommunaladmi
nist
rat
ions.Ver
ywi
dei
nit
s
appl
i
cat
ionadmi
nist
rat
ivel
awcompr
isesmanymat
ter
s,whi
chi
mpi
ngeuponpr
ivat
elaw.
Thi
sisbecauset
headmi
nist
rat
ionof
tent
akesi
ndi
vi
dual
sunderi
tst
utel
age.I
tist
hus
t
hatt
heoper
ati
onofmi
nes,ofwat
erf
all
s,andofr
ail
way
sisgov
ernedbypr
ovi
sionsof
admi
nist
rat
ivel
aw.I
naddi
ti
on,
thecr
eat
ionandf
unct
ioni
ngofcer
tai
ngr
oupsofper
sons,
such as l
abouruni
ons,associ
ati
ons,and mut
ualai
d soci
eti
es ar
e gov
erned by
admi
nist
rat
ivel
aw,ev
ent
houghpr
ivat
eper
sonsmaybeact
ingi
nthei
rownpr
ivat
e
i
nter
est
 Cr
imi
nall
aw,t
hei
nfl
i
cti
onofpuni
shmentdi
rect
lybyt
heor
gansoft
hest
ate,i
sal
so
usual
l
yregar
dedasf
all
i
ngundert
heheadofpubl
i
claw.Somewoul
dsayt
hatci
vi
l
pr
ocedur
eshoul
dal
sobepl
acedi
nthi
ssect
ion,
sincet
heser
ulesr
egul
atet
heact
ivi
ti
es
ofcour
ts,
whi
char
emer
eagenci
esoft
heSt
ate;
butci
vi
lpr
ocedur
eissol
i
nkedwi
tht
he
enf
orcementofpr
ivat
eri
ght
sthati
tismor
econv
eni
entt
oregar
ditasbel
ongi
ngt
obot
h
publ
i
candpr
ivat
elaw[
Pat
on;
1967:
292]
.
 Pr
ivat
elaw gov
ernsi
npr
inci
pleal
ltheact
sofi
ndi
vi
dual
sint
hei
rpr
ivat
ecapaci
ty.
Howev
er,i
nFr
anceandi
nmostci
vi
li
zedst
ates,i
tisatpr
esentdi
vi
dedi
ntot
hree
sect
ions.Theyar
eci
vi
ll
aw,
procedur
e,andcommer
cial
law.
 I
NTERNATI
ONALANDNATI
ONALLAW
 A)I
nter
nat
ional
law
 Thel
awofnat
ionsoft
he18t
hcent
urywasnamedasi
nter
nat
ionall
awbyBent
ham i
n
1780.I
tconsi
stsofr
uleswhi
chr
egul
ater
elat
ionsbet
weenSt
atei
nterse.Oppenhei
m
hasdef
inedi
nter
nat
ionall
aw as“
thebodyofcust
omar
yandconv
ent
ionalr
uleswhi
ch
ar
econsi
der
edl
egal
l
ybi
ndi
ngbyci
vi
li
sedSt
atesi
nthei
rint
ercour
sewi
theachot
her
.”

Asonecanobser
vef
rom t
heabov
edi
scussi
on,i
nter
nat
ionall
aw i
scl
assi
fi
edi
ntopubl
i
c
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw and pr
ivat
eint
ernat
ionall
aw.Publ
ici
nter
nat
ionall
aw r
egul
ates t
he
r
elat
ion bet
ween st
ates.Forexampl
ethe r
elat
ions bet
ween Et
hiopi
a and Sudan ar
e
gov
ernedbypubl
i
cint
ernat
ionall
aw.Pr
ivat
eint
ernat
ionall
aw,ont
heot
herhand,gov
erns
t
he r
elat
ions bet
ween i
ndi
vi
dual
s ofdi
ff
erentnat
ional
s.Di
ff
erentnat
ional
sinv
olv
ein
commer
cialandot
herci
vi
ltr
ansact
ionsbey
ondt
hei
rcount
ri
es.Si
ncet
hel
awsofdi
ff
erent

ስለ-
ሕግ AboutLaw Tel
egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
ethi
olawbl
og
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Ser
vice

count
ri
esar
enott
hesame,t
hepr
obl
em ar
isesast
owhi
chl
aw shoul
dbeappl
i
edt
othe
r
elat
ionsofdi
ff
erentnat
ional
s.Forexampl
e,l
etusassumet
hatEt
hiopi
annat
ionaland
Chi
nesear
emar
ri
edi
nAddi
s,andt
heyl
i
vei
nBei
j
ing.Letusf
urt
herassumet
hatadi
sput
e
ar
isesbet
weent
hem wi
thr
egar
dtot
headmi
nist
rat
ionoft
hei
rhousehol
d.Whosel
awi
sto
appl
ytosol
vet
hei
rdi
sput
e:t
heEt
hiopi
anorChi
nesel
aw?Pr
ivat
eint
ernat
ionall
awsol
ves
t
hispr
obl
em.Pr
ivat
eint
ernat
ionall
awi
sknownbydi
ff
erentnames.Fori
nst
ancei
tiscal
l
ed
conf
li
ctofl
aws

B)Nat
ionall
aw-l
awt
hatper
tai
nst
oapar
ti
cul
arnat
ion(
asopposedt
oint
ernat
ional
law)

 I
tisal
awofanat
ion,
forexampl
ethel
awoft
heUni
tedSt
atesofAmer
ica,
France,
or
Et
hiopi
a.Suchl
aw i
sappl
i
cabl
eal
lov
eracount
ryi
nquest
ion.I
tisal
soknownas
l
aw oft
hel
and.I
tisi
nef
fecti
nacount
ryandappl
i
cabl
etoi
tsmember
s.Thel
aw
maybest
atut
ory
,i.
e.enact
edl
aw,
admi
nist
rat
iveorcasel
aw
 LocalLaw
 Locall
aw i
sthel
aw ofapar
ti
cul
arl
ocal
i
tyandnott
hegener
all
aw oft
hewhol
e
count
ry.Theymaybeoft
woki
nds–l
ocal
cust
omar
ylawandl
ocal
enact
edl
aw.
 Localcust
omar
ylawhasi
tsr
oot
sint
hosei
mmemor
ialcust
oms,whi
chpr
evai
lina
par
ti
cul
arpar
toft
heSt
ateandt
her
efor
e,hav
ethef
orceofl
aw.Thel
ocalenact
ed
l
aw,on t
he ot
herhand,has i
ts sour
ce i
nthe l
ocall
egi
slat
ive aut
hor
it
y of
muni
cipal
i
tiesofot
hercor
por
atebodi
esempower
edt
ogov
ernt
hei
rspher
esbyby
-
l
aws,
suppl
ement
aryt
ogener
all
aw.
 SUBSTANTI
VEANDPROCEDURALLAW
 Ci
vi
lpr
ocedur
eisnot
hingbutadet
achedpar
toft
heci
vi
llawgov
erni
ngt
hemanner
ofasser
ti
nganddef
endi
ngr
ight
sbef
orecour
ts.
 Accor
dingt
oSal
mond,
subst
ant
ivel
awi
sthatwhi
chdef
inesar
ightwhi
l
epr
ocedur
al
l
awdet
ermi
nedt
her
emedi
es
 Pr
ocedur
all
awi
sal
socal
l
ed‘
l
awi
nact
ion’
asi
tgov
ernst
hepr
ocessofl
i
tigat
ion.
 Subst
ant
ivel
aw i
sconcer
nedwi
tht
headmi
nist
rat
ionofj
ust
iceseekst
oachi
eve
whi
l
epr
ocedur
all
awdeal
swi
tht
hemeansbywhi
cht
hoseendscanbeachi
eved.

EVI
DENCELAW

ስለ-
ሕግ AboutLaw Tel
egr
am l
i
nkt
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ethi
olawbl
og
 ስለ-
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vice

 LawofEv
idencei
sthel
awt
hatconsi
stsoft
her
ulesandpr
inci
ples,
whi
chgov
ernt
he
r
elev
ancy
,admi
ssi
bil
i
ty,wei
ghtandcompet
encyofev
idence.I
tcompr
esst
hel
egal
r
ulesr
egul
ati
ngt
hosemeansbywhi
chanyal
l
egedmat
teroff
ast
,thet
rut
hofwhi
ch
i
ssubmi
tt
edt
oinv
est
igat
ioni
sest
abl
i
shedordi
spr
oved
 CI
VILANDCRI
MINALLAW
 Ci
vi
llaw i
sthatbr
anchofl
aw deal
i
ngwi
tht
hedef
ini
ti
onandenf
orcementofal
l
pr
ivat
eorpubl
i
cri
ght
s,asopposedt
ocr
imi
nal
mat
ter
s
 Thel
aw enf
orcedbyt
heSt
atei
scal
l
edci
vi
llaw.I
nEt
hiopi
a,wehav
eaci
vi
llaw
codi
fi
edi
n1960,whi
chi
sknownasCi
vi
lCode.Thef
orceofSt
atei
sthesanct
ion
behi
ndt
hisl
aw.Ci
vi
llaw i
sessent
ial
l
yter
ri
tor
iali
nnat
ureasi
tappl
i
eswi
thi
nthe
t
err
it
oryoft
heSt
ateconcer
ned.Thet
erm ci
vi
llawi
sder
ivedf
rom t
heRomanwor
d
j
usci
vi
le.Aust
inandHol
l
andpr
efert
ocal
lci
vi
llaw as‘
posi
ti
vel
aw’becausei
tis
enf
orcedbyt
hesov
erei
gnpol
i
ticalaut
hor
it
y.Howev
er,Sal
mondj
ust
if
iest
het
erm
‘
ci
vi
llaw’ast
hel
aw oft
hel
and.Hear
guest
hatposi
ti
vel
aw i
snotnecessar
il
y
conf
inedt
othel
aw oft
hel
and.Forexampl
e,i
nter
nat
ionall
aw i
saki
ndofj
us
posi
ti
vi
sm buti
tisnotaci
vi
ll
aw.
 Ont
heot
herhand,Penall
aw unquest
ionabl
yfor
mspar
tofpubl
i
claw.Thest
ate
al
one,r
epr
esent
ing t
he nat
ion,has t
he r
ightt
o puni
sh. Pr
osecut
ions and
condemnat
ionsar
ecar
ri
edouti
nit
sname.Theappl
i
cat
ionofpenal
ti
esi
sapar
tof
t
headmi
nist
rat
ionofast
ate.Todaywehav
eacr
imi
nall
awenact
edi
n2004whi
chi
s
ar
evi
si
onoft
he1957Penal
;CodeofEt
hiopi
a.Thedesi
gnat
ioni
schangedt
o
cr
imi
nal
lawbecausepenal
lawhasnegat
iveconnot
ati
onwhi
chcar
ri
espenal
tyonl
y.
 THEMAKI
NGANDREPEALOFLAWS
 STEPSI
NLAW MAKI
NG
 Thef
ir
stst
ageoft
hel
egi
slat
ivepr
ocessi
sthei
ntr
oduct
ionofabi
ll
.Abi
l
lei
ther
pr
oposesachangei
ntheexi
sti
ngl
awormakesnewpr
oposal
s;i
tist
hef
ir
stdr
aftof
whatwi
l
lul
ti
mat
elybecomeast
atut
e.
 Fr
om t
hisst
ageonwar
ds,t
hel
egi
slat
ivemonopol
yofPar
li
ament
sismar
kedl
y
encr
oached upon.The r
ightt
oint
roduce bi
l
lsi
s usual
l
y shar
ed bet
ween t
he
gover
nmentandpar
li
ament
.
 I
tisi
mpl
i
citi
ntheconceptofdemocr
acyt
hatt
hei
nit
iat
ivei
nlawmaki
ngshoul
drest

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egr
am l
i
nkt
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Ser
vice

wi
tht
heel
ect
edof
fi
cial
s.Att
hesamet
imei
tisunder
stoodi
nfactandi
nlaw t
hat
l
aw maki
ngr
ighti
sal
way
sshar
edwi
tht
heexecut
ive.Thef
unct
ionofgov
ernment
her
eist
osuppl
yagi
venpol
i
cy.Thegov
ernmentbei
ngbet
teracquai
ntedt
han
any
oneel
sewi
tht
heneedsoft
hesoci
etyandbecauseoft
hemor
eandmor
e
compl
exnat
ureoft
hepr
obl
emst
hathav
etobesol
ved,i
tist
echni
cal
l
ybet
ter
equi
ppedwi
thi
ndi
vi
dualmember
sofpar
li
amentt
odr
aftl
aws,whi
chmakesabl
e
f
rom t
hel
egalst
andpoi
nt.I
n mostcount
ri
es,t
hegov
ernmenthast
her
ightt
o
i
ntr
oducedr
aftl
awswhet
hert
heyar
emember
sofPar
li
amentornot
.
 Lawsar
eimpl
ement
edi
nthedayt
odayact
ivi
ti
esoft
hesoci
ety
.Thosewhodi
rect
ly
i
nvol
vedi
ntheadmi
nist
rat
iveact
ivi
ti
eshav
epr
act
icalknowl
edgeont
hepr
obl
emsof
exi
sti
ngl
awsort
heact
ivi
ti
est
hatneedr
ulest
oandcanpr
oposeadr
aft[
Ann,
Rober
t
andNal
i
n;2001:
22]
.
 I
ncount
ri
eswher
ether
eisst
ri
ctsepar
ati
onofpowerasi
ntheUni
tedSt
ates,
member
soft
hel
egi
slat
iveassembl
esal
onehav
ether
ightt
oint
roducebi
l
ls.The
pr
esi
dentmayal
soi
nit
iat
edr
aft
ingofl
awsi
nUSA.
 LAW MAKI
NGPROCESSI
NETHI
OPI
A

I
nthepr
esentdayofEt
hiopi
a,t
hesov
erei
gn,i
.e.t
hel
egi
slat
urehast
hepowert
omakel
aws
[
Art
.55oft
heFDREConst
it
uti
on]
.Thus,
theHouseofPeopl
es’
Repr
esent
ati
veshast
hepower
t
oenactl
awsi
nthef
orm ofpr
ocl
amat
ion,f
ort
heFeder
alSt
ate,i
nthef
oll
owi
ngsect
ors[
Art
.
55oft
heFDREConst
]:

 Nat
ural
resour
cesoft
heFeder
alSt
ate;
 I
nter
-r
egi
onandf
orei
gnt
radel
aw;
 Feder
alt
ranspor
tat
ionl
aws;
 El
ect
oral
lawsandot
herl
awswi
thr
egar
dtot
heenf
orcementofpol
i
tical
right
s;
 Nat
ional
i
tyandot
herl
aws;
 St
andar
dandcal
endar
;
 Pat
entandcopy
rightl
aws.

TheHouseofPeopl
e’
sRepr
esent
ati
vesi
sal
soempower
edt
oenactl
awsi
nthef
orm ofcodes

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egr
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i
nkt
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ethi
olawbl
og
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Ser
vice

on[
Art
.55(
3),
(4)and(
5),
(6)ofFDREConst
it
uti
on]
.

 LabourCode;
 Commer
cial
Code;
 Cr
imi
nal
Code;
 Ci
vi
ll
awsnecessar
ytoest
abl
i
shandsust
ainoneeconomi
ccommuni
ty.

AsperAr
ti
cle62(
8)oft
heConst
it
uton,t
i heHouseofFeder
ati
onhast
hepowert
odet
ermi
ne
ci
vi
lmat
ter
sonwhi
cht
heHouseofPeopl
es’Repr
esent
ati
vesmakesl
aws.Butwhatar
ethe
det
ail
edpoi
ntst
obet
akent
odet
ermi
neagi
venmat
terasessent
ialt
oest
abl
i
shoneeconomi
c
communi
ty?

Weobser
vet
hatl
egi
sl
ati
vepoweri
sgi
vent
otheHouseofPeopl
es’
Repr
esent
ati
vesbecausei
t
i
sthehi
ghestaut
hor
it
yoft
heFeder
alGov
ernment
.Inaddi
ti
ont
otheHouseofPeopl
es’
Repr
esent
ati
ves,execut
ive or
gans hav
e al
so gi
ven t
he powert
o enactr
egul
ati
ons and
di
rect
ives.Thepr
ovi
si
onofAr
ti
cle77(
3)oft
heFDREConst
it
uti
onst
at hatt
est heCounci
lof
Mi
nist
ersshal
lenactr
egul
ati
onspur
suantt
opower
svest
edi
nitbyt
heHouseofPeopl
es’
Repr
esent
ati
ves.Her
e,t
hepr
ovi
sionmakescl
eart
hatl
egi
slat
ivepowerv
est
edt
otheCounci
l
ofMi
nist
ersi
slegi
sl
ati
vepowerdel
egat
edf
rom t
hel
egi
slat
ure(
i.
e.t
heHouseofPeopl
es’
Repr
esent
ati
ve)
.

Accor
dingt
oAr
ti
cle74(
5)oft
heConst
it
uti
on,t
hePr
imeMi
nist
erhast
hepowert
osuper
vise
t
hei
mpl
ement
ati
onofr
egul
ati
onsanddi
rect
ivesadopt
edbyt
heCounci
lofMi
nist
ers.The
pr
ovi
si
onofAr
t.74(
5)oft
hesamei
mpl
i
est
hatt
heCounci
lofMi
nist
ershast
hepowert
oenact
di
rect
ivesi
naddi
ti
ont
oregul
ati
ons.

Mi
nist
ri
esar
eal
sogi
vent
hepowert
oenactdi
rect
ivest
oimpl
ementt
hepower
sgi
venunder
pr
ocl
amat
ions.Forexampl
e,Mi
nist
ryofLabourandSoci
alAf
fai
rswasgi
vent
hepowert
o
i
ssuedi
rect
ivesconcer
ningt
her
egi
str
ati
onofempl
oyer
s’andwor
ker
s’uni
on[
Proc.No4/
95
Ar
t.20(
3)]
.

Wehav
eseent
hatt
heexecut
ivebodi
eshav
ethepowert
oenactr
egul
ati
onsanddi
rect
ives.

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egr
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i
nkt
.me/
ethi
olawbl
og
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Ser
vice

Thesear
enon-
sov
erei
gn l
aw maki
ng bodi
es.Bodi
esot
hert
han t
hel
egi
slat
urear
enon-
sov
erei
gnl
awmaki
ngbodi
es.

Whatar
ethechar
act
eri
sti
csofnon-
sov
erei
gnl
aw maki
ng bodi
es?Theyar
esubor
dinat
e
l
egi
slat
ivesbecause:

A)t
her
ear
elawssuchbodi
esmustobeyandcannotchange;
B)t
her
eisadi
sti
nct
ionbet
weenf
undament
all
awandor
dinar
ylaws;
C)t
her
e mustbe a bodyhav
ing aut
hor
it
yto pr
onounce upon t
he v
ali
dit
yor
const
it
uti
onal
i
tyofl
awspassedbysuchl
awmaki
ngbody[
Dicey
;1961:
91]
.

Ther
egul
ati
onsandt
hedi
rect
ivesmadebyt
henon-
legi
slat
ivebodi
esshoul
dnotcont
radi
ct
wi
tht
heConst
it
uti
on[
Art
.9(
1)oft
heFDREConst
it
uti
on]
.Thi
spr
inci
pleappl
i
est
oal
llaws
i
rr
espect
iveofwhomadei
t.I
naddi
ti
on,
theHouseofFeder
ati
oni
sempower
edt
oint
erpr
ett
he
Const
it
uti
on[
Art
.62(
1)oft
hesame]
.Ther
efor
e,t
heHouseofFeder
ati
oncoul
densur
ethatal
l
l
awsar
einl
i
newi
tht
heConst
it
uti
on.

 Theot
heressent
ialchar
act
eri
sti
cofnon-
legi
slat
uresi
sthatt
heyhav
egi
vent
he
powert
omakel
awsbydel
egat
ionofpower
 Who does i
nit
iat
elaws?The Const
it
uti
on cl
ear
lypr
ovi
des t
hatt
he Counci
lof
Mi
nist
ers“
shal
lsubmi
tdr
aftl
awst
otheHouseofPeopl
es’Repr
esent
ati
vesonany
mat
terf
all
ingwi
thi
nit
scompet
ence,i
ncl
udi
ngdr
aftl
awsonadecl
arat
ionofwar
”
[
Art
.77(
11)oft
heConst
it
uti
on]
.Weunder
standt
hatt
heCounci
lofMi
nist
ershast
he
powert
oini
ti
atedr
aftl
awsonmat
ter
sthatf
allundert
hej
uri
sdi
cti
onoft
hef
eder
al
Gov
ernment
.In addi
ti
on,i
thas t
he powert
oini
ti
ate and submi
tdr
afton a
decl
arat
ionofwart
otheHouseofPeopl
es’Repr
esent
ati
ve,andt
hel
att
ermay
decl
arest
ateofwar[
Art
.55(
9)oft
heConst
it
uti
on]
.
 Fur
t ,each mi
her nist
ry has t
he powert
oini
ti
ate pol
i
cies and l
aws [
Proc.No.
471/
2005,Ar
t.10]
.Accor
dingt
oAr
t.4ofPr 2005,t
oc.No470/ heGover
nment
;the
HouseofFeder
ati
on;t
heSpeaker
; heFeder
andt alSupr
emeCour
t;member
soft
he
House;Commi
tt
eesoft
heHouse;and ot
hergover
nment
ali
nst
it
uti
onsdi
rect
ly
account
abl
etot
heHousehavet
hepowert
oini
ti
ateandsubmi
tdr
aftbi
l
lst
othe

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egr
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nkt
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og
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Ser
vice

Houseonmat
ter
swi
thi
nthei
rjur
isdi
cti
ons.Howev
er,i
tisonl
ytheGov
ernment
empower
edt
oini
ti
atedr
aftf
inanci
all
aw[
Art6(
4)ofPr
oc.No.470/
2005]
.
 Any dr
aftmustbe made i
n wr
it
ing and be submi
tt
ed t
othe Speakert
oit
s
pr
esent
ati
ont
otheHouse.
 Thent
heHouseshal
lpasst
hebi
l
l(dr
aftl
aw)af
terat
hroughdi
scussi
onont
hef
inal
pr
oposal(
Art
.10(
b)]
.Then,t
heSpeakershal
lsendt
hedr
aftt
othepr
esi
dentf
or
si
gnat
ure(
Art11(
a)]
.ThePr
esi
denti
srequi
redt
osi
gnt
hebi
l
lwi
thi
n15day
sot
her
wi
set
hebi
l
lwi
l
lbeef
fect
iveaf
ter15day
sift
he Pr
esi
dentf
ail
stosi
gni
t[Pr
oc.No
470/
2005;Ar
t.11(
b)]
.Whati
smor
e,t
her
ati
fi
edl
aw mustbenumber
edbyt
he
Speakerandt
her
ebypubl
i
shedi
ntheFeder
alNegar
it
Gazet
a[Ar
t.11(
c)]
.
 Pr
omul
gat
ionoft
hel
awupont
her
ati
fi
cat
ionoft
hedr
aft
,theSpeakeroft
heHouse
ofRepr
esent
ati
vessendst
hel
aw t
othePr
esi
dentf
orsi
gnat
ure[
Art57ofFDRE
Const
it
uti
onandPr
oc.No.470/
2005,Ar
t.11(
b)]
.ThePr
esi
dentneedst
osi
gnt
he
l
awwi
thi
nfi
ft
eenday
s,t
hel
awwi
l
lhav
eef
fectwi
thouthi
ssi
gnat
urei
fthepr
esi
dent
f
ail
stosi
ngwi
thi
nthespeci
fi
edt
ime[
Art57ofFDREConst
it
uti
onandPr
oc.No.
470/
2005,
Art
.11(
b)]
.
 REPEALOFLAWS
 Repealofl
awi
sanabr
ogat
ionofanexi
sti
ngl
awbyl
egi
slat
iveact
.Inot
herwor
ds,
r
epeal awmeansmaki
ofl ngt
hel
awnol
ongerhaveal
egalef
fect
 I
sther
eadi
ff
erenceBet
weenRepealandExpi
ryofLaws?
 Al
aw(
stat
ute)i
sei
therper
pet
ualort
empor
ary
.Iti
sper
pet
ualwhennot
imei
sfi
xed
f
ori
tsdur
ati
on,andsuchast
atut
eremai
nsi
nfor
ceunt
ili
tsr
epeal
,whi
chmaybe
expr
essori
mpl
i
ed.Aper
pet
ualst
atut
eisnotper
pet
uali
nthesenset
hati
tcannotbe
r
epeal
ed;i
tisper
pet
uali
nthesenset
hati
tisnotabr
ogat
edbyel
apseoft
imeorby
non-
user
.Ast
atuei
stempor
arywheni
tsdur
ati
oni
sonl
yforaspeci
fi
edt
ime,and
suchast
atut
eexpi
resont
heexpi
ryoft
hespeci
fi
edt
imeunl
essi
tisr
epeal
edear
li
er.
Si
mpl
ybecauset
hepur
poseofast
atut
e,asment
ionedi
nit
spr
eambl
e,i
stempor
ary
,
t
hest
atut
ecannotber
egar
dedast
empor
arywhennof
ixedper
iodi
sspeci
fi
edf
ori
ts
dur
ati
on.Cessat
ion of t
ransi
ti
onall
egi
slat
ive power has no ef
fect on t
he
cont
inuanceofaper
pet
ualActenact
eddur
ingt
hecont
inuanceoft
hatpower
.The
dur
ati
onofat
empor
aryst
atuemaybeext
endedbyaf
reshst
atut
e.Buti
tappear
s

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egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
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olawbl
og
 ስለ-
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Ser
vice

t
hataf
tera t
empor
aryst
atut
e expi
res,i
tcannotbe made ef
fect
ive bymer
ely
amendi
ngt
hesame.Theonl
yaptmannerofr
evi
vi
ngt
heexpi
redst
atut
eisbyr
e-
enact
ingast
atut
einsi
mil
art
ermsorbyenact
ingast
atut
eexpr
essl
ysay
ingt
hatt
he
expi
redActi
sher
ewi
thr
evi
ved.
 WhoMayr
epealLaws?Apowert
omakeal
awwi
thr
espectt
othet
opi
cscommi
tt
ed
t
oPar
li
amentorSt
atel
egi
slat
urescar
rywi
thi
tapowert
orepeall
awsont
hose
t
opi
cs.Subj
ectt
oanyconst
it
uti
onalr
est
ri
cti
on,
thegener
alr
ulei
sthat“
thepowerof
al
egi
slat
ivebodyt
orepealal
awi
sco-
ext
ensi
vewi
thi
tspowert
oenactsuchal
aw”
andal
egi
sl
atur
ewhi
chhasnopowert
oenactal
awonapar
ti
cul
arsubj
ectmat
ter
hasal
sonopowert
orepeal
thesame.
 Wi
thr
egar
dtot
hest
epsi
nlawmaki
ng,
wehav
eseent
hatadr
aftshoul
dbepr
epar
ed
f
ir
st.Then,di
scussi
onwi
l
lbehel
d.Af
tert
hat
,thedr
aftcoul
dbei
ndor
sedandi
twi
l
l
becomel
aw.Thel
awwi
l
lal
sobepubl
i
shed.
 r
epealofl
awmeansmaki
ngt
hel
awnol
ongerhav
eal
egalef
fect
.Wehav
eobser
ved
t
hatal
awcoul
dbeper
pet
ualunt
ili
tisr
epeal
ed.Thepr
inci
plei
sthatabodyt
hathas
apowert
oenactal
awhasal
soapowert
orepeal
thesame.
 r
epealofl
awsmaybeexpr
essori
mpl
i
ed.Ar
epealofl
awsi
ssai
dtobeexpr
ess
wher
ethel
aw i
srepl
acedbyal
aw byspeci
fi
cdecl
arat
iont
othatef
fect
.Ont
he
cont
rar
y,ani
mpl
i
edr
epealofl
awi
srepealbyi
rr
econci
l
abl
econf
li
ctbet
weenanol
d
l
awandar
ecentone.

 HI
ERARCHYOFLAWS
 Af
eder
alconst
it
uton i
i sacovenantoft
heuni
onbywhi
chf
eder
alr
elat
ionshi
pis
est
abl
i
shed.Soast
omaket
hisr
elat
ionper
pet
ual
,thecov
enantshoul
dber
educedt
oa
wr
it
tendocument
.
 Fur
ther
mor
e,i
nor
dert
oav
oidmi
sunder
standi
ngar
isi
ngt
her
efr
om,t
het
ermsoft
he
agr
eementshoul
dbesi
mpl
eandunder
standabl
e.
 Thef
eder
alconst
it
uti
on,
bei
ngt
hesour
ceofpower
sofbot
hthecent
ralandt
her
egi
onal
gov
ernment
s,i
sbel
i
ev obet
edt hesupr
emel
aw.I
ntheor
igi
nalsenseoft
het
erm as
usedbyBr
yce,i
tis“
ri
gid”
.Soast
osayt
hataconst
it
uti
oni
ssupr
eme,weneedt
osee
i
tsdecl
arat
iont
otheef
fectt
hatt
hepoweroft
hel
egi
slat
ort
oal
tert
heconst
it
uti
oni
s

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egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
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olawbl
og
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Ser
vice

ei
therl
i
mit
edornonexi
stent
.Int
hisr
espect
,thef
eder
alconst
it
uti
onusual
l
yembodi
esa
pr
ovi
sion,whi
chpr
ohi
bit
sbot
hthel
egi
slat
orsoft
hewhol
ecount
ryandoft
hepar
tst
o
al
tert
heconst
it
uti
onuni
l
ater
all
y.Thesupr
emacyoft
heconst
it
uti
onandi
tsr
igi
dit
yar
e
t
he essent
ialchar
act
eri
sti
cs oft
he f
eder
alconst
it
uti
on and t
hey ar
e al
so t
he
mani
fest
ati
onsoft
hei
deaoff
eder
ali
sm i
tsel
f.
 Thi
sor
gani
sal
soempower
edbyt
heConst
it
uti
ont
oenactpr
ocl
amat
ions(
feder
al
st
atut
e)[
Art55oft
hesame]
.Thus,
bot
htr
eat
iesandpr
ocl
amat
ionscomei
ntof
orceby
t
heactoft
hisor
gan.Hence,now aquest
ionmayar
isewi
thr
egar
dtot
hehi
erar
chy
weent
bet het
reat
iesandpr
ocl
amat
ions.Toputi
tinquest
ion,whi
chonei
ssuper
iori
n
hi
erar
chybet
weent
het
reat
iesandpr
ocl
amat
ions?Whi
chonei
ssuper
iori
nhi
erar
chy
whenconf
li
ctar
isesbet
weent
het
wo?Whenl
awsar
epassedbyt
hesamebody
,ther
ule
i
sthatsuchl
awsar
eonequalst
andont
hel
adderofhi
erar
chy
.Ther
efor
e,sol
ongas
i
nter
nat
ionalt
reat
iesandpr
ocl
amat
ionsar
erat
if
iedandenact
edbyt
hesamebody(
the
HouseofPeopl
es’
Repr
esent
ati
ves)
,theyhaveequalst
atusont
hel
adderofhi
erar
chy.
 Howev
er,i
nor
dert
osayt
hati
nter
nat
ionalt
reat
ieshav
esuchposi
ti
onont
hel
adderof
hi
erar
chy
,they hav
eto be concl
uded i
n accor
dance wi
th and t
he spi
ri
toft
he
Const
it
uti
onofFDRE.I
nthi
sregar
d,t
hepr
esentConst
it
uti
oni
nit
sAr
t86asser
tst
hat
i
nter
nat
ionalagr
eement
sconcl
udedi
nthepr
omot
ionoft
heext
ernalr
elat
ionshoul
d
r
espectandaccor
dwi
tht
hesov
erei
gnt
yofEt
hiopi
aandt
hei
nter
estofi
tspeopl
e.On
t
hispoi
nt,
Dr.Fasi
l
[1997]wr
ote:“
taki
ngal
essonf
rom hi
stor
y,t
heEt
hiopi
anConst
it
uti
on
i
nsi
stsonmaki
ngi
tamat
terofr
ecor
d t
hatt
hepr
omot
ionoff
orei
gnr
elat
ionmust
accor
dwi
tht
hei
nter
estofpeopl
esofEt
hiopi
a”.Ther
efor
e,i
tisonl
ysol
ongast
hey
conf
ormt
othedecl
arat
ionofAr
ti
cle86oft
heConst
it
uti
ont
hati
nter
nat
ionalt
reat
ies
bei
ngr
ati
fi
edbyt
hesamebodywhi
chenact
sthepr
ocl
amat
ionst
hatt
heycanst
and
equali
nhi
erar
chywi
tht
hel
att
er.I
nsuchacase,i
fconf
li
ctar
isesbet
weent
het
wo
(
treat
yandpr
ocl
amat
ion)t
heonewhi ssubsequenti
chi nti
mepr
evai
lov
ert
heot
her
whi
chi
spr
iori
nti
me.
 Wehav
eseent
hatpr
imar
ylegi
slat
ionnor
mal
l
yref
erst
otheenact
ment
smadebyt
he
supr
emel
egi
sl
ati
veor
ganoft
hecount
ryt
owhi
chi
tbel
ongs.Ther
efor
e,i
nourcase,
f
eder
alst
atut
es(
procl
amat
ions)enact
edbyt
heHouseofPeopl
es’Repr
esent
ati
ves,
whi
chi
sthesupr
emel
egi
slat
iveor
ganoft
hef
eder
algov
ernment[
Art50(
3)oft
he

ስለ-
ሕግ AboutLaw Tel
egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
ethi
olawbl
og
 ስለ-
ሕግየሕግአገልግሎት/AboutLawLegal
Ser
vice

Const
it
uti
on]f
all
undert
hisgr
oupofl
egi
slat
ion(
pri
mar
ylegi
slat
ion)
.
 I
naddi
ti
ont
othi
s,t
her
ear
ecer
tai
nci
rcumst
ancesi
nwhi
cht
hepr
imar
ylegi
slat
ionmay
i
ncl
udel
awst
hatar
eissuedbyt
heexecut
ive(
subor
dinat
e)aut
hor
it
ies.Howev
er,
insuch
acase,f
ort
hosel
awst
obecat
egor
izedundert
heabov
egr
oupofl
egi
slat
ion,t
he
aut
hor
it
ies enact
ing t
hem shoul
d be empower
ed t
o do so by t
he supr
eme l
aw
(
const
it
uti
on)
.Inconnect
ionwi
tht
his,t
heFDREConst
it
uti
onconf
er heCounci
st lof
Mi
nist
erst
hepowert
opr
ocl
aim adecr
eeofemer
gency[
Art
.93oft
heConst
it
uti
on]
.
Hence,
suchdecr
eespassedbyt
hisor
ganmayal
sof
all
undert
hesai
dcat
egor
yofl
aws.
 Nev
ert
hel
ess,t
hef
actt
hatbot
hthepr
ocl
amat
ionsandt
hedecr
eesofemer
gency
bel
ongt
othesamegr
oupofl
aw doesnotmeant
hatt
heyhav
eequalaut
hor
it
yint
he
hi
erar
chyofl
aws.Thi
sisbecause,asar
ule,i
nor
dert
osayt
hatl
egi
slat
ionmadeby
di
ff
erentaut
hor
it
iesar
eonequalf
oot
ingi
nhi
erar
chy
;thei
rmaker
sshoul
dbeont
he
same posi
ti
on i
nthe poweror
der
.Howev
er,t
hisi
s nott
rue i
nthe case under
consi
der
ati
on.Assai
dshor
tl
ybef
ore,t
heHouseofPeopl
es’Repr
esent
ati
vesi
sthe
supr
eme aut
hor
it
y oft
he f
eder
algov
ernment
.As a r
esul
t,t
he f
eder
alst
atut
es
(
procl
amat
ions)enact
ed byi
tar
esuper
iort
o al
lot
herl
awsmadebyt
hef
eder
al
aut
hor
it
ies.Accor
dingl
y,t
he Counci
lof Mi
nist
ers,bei
ng a f
eder
alaut
hor
it
y,i
s
subor
dinat
etot
heHouseofPeopl
es’
Repr
esent
ati
vesandt
hust
hel
awsmadebyi
tar
e
i
nfer
iort
othepr
ocl
amat
ions.
 Howev
er,t
he st
atus oft
he decr
ees ofemer
gencypr
ocl
aimed byt
he Counci
lof
Mi
nist
ersi
s except
ions t
o whati
s sai
d abov
e.Thi
sis because,t
he Const
it
uti
on
empower
stheCounci
lofMi
nist
erst
osuspendev
endemocr
ati
candpol
i
ticalr
ight
pr
ovi
dedt
her
eundert
hrought
hedecr
eesi
ssuedbyi
tint
imeofemer
gency
.Ther
efor
e,
f
orst
rongerr
eason,i
tispossi
blet
osayt
hatt
hedecr
eesofemer
gencypr
ocl
aimedby
t
heCounci
lofMi
nist
erscanr
epeal
thepr
ocl
amat
ions.
 Theot
hergr
oupofl
aw(
der
ivat
ivel
egi
slat
ion)t
hatar
eissuedatt
hef
eder
all
eveli
ncl
ude
r
egul
ati
onsand di
rect
ives.TheCounci
lofMi
nist
erand each mi
nist
ryi
ssuet
hese
l
egi
slat
ion.I
nthi
s case,t
he Counci
lofMi
nist
ers der
ives i
ts powert
o make t
he
r
egul
ati
onsf
rom t
hesupr
emel
egi
slat
ori
.e.t
heHouseofPeopl
es’Repr
esent
ati
ves
t
hrough t
he pr
imar
ylegi
slat
ion.Consequent
ly,t
he posi
ti
on oft
he r
egul
ati
onsand
di
rect
ivesont
hel
adderofhi
erar
chyi
sbel
owt
hepr
ocl
amat
ionsanddecr
ees.Howev
er,

ስለ-
ሕግ AboutLaw Tel
egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
ethi
olawbl
og
 ስለ-
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Ser
vice

i
nsof
arast
her
egul
ati
onsar
epassedbyt
heCounci
lofMi
nist
ers,t
heyar
ehi
gheri
n
hi
erar
chyt
hant
hedi
rect
ivespassedbyeachmi
nist
ry.
 :I
NTERPRETATI
ONOFLAWS
 Al
ll
awsmustbesuf
fi
cient
lycl
earandr
easonabl
yfor
mul
atedt
oaddr
esst
hei
rpur
poses.
Lawsshoul
dbecl
earnotonl
ytot
hel
awy
erbutal
sot
othel
ayper
son.Howev
er,
thi
smay
notbeachi
evedal
lthet
ime.Ther
emaybecer
tai
nsi
tuat
ionst
hatgi
ver
aiset
heneedt
o
gi
vemeani
ngt
oal
aw.
 I
nter
pret
ati sa pr
oni ocessofgi
vi
ng meani
ng t
othephr
aseol
ogyoft
hel
aw.I
tis
r
educi
ngt aw i
hel ntor
eal
it
y.“
Int
erpr
etat
ioni
sthear
torpr
ocessofdi
scov
eri
ngand
expoundi
ngt
hei
ntendedsi
gni
fi
cat
ionoft
hel
anguageused,t
hati
s,t
hemeani
ngwhi
ch
t
heaut
hor
soft
hel
awdesi
gnedt
oconv
eyt
oot
her
s”
 I
nter
pret
ati aw compr
on ofa l ises ofsear
ch f
ort
he souloft
he l
aw.The wor
d
i
nter
pret
ati
oncanhav
eanar
rowmeani
ng,i
.e.f
indi
ngt
hel
i
ter
almeani
ngoft
hewor
ds
usedandawi
demeani
ng,
i.
e.ascer
tai
ningt
hei
ntent
ionoft
hel
awmaker
.
 Wehav
egr
ammat
icalandl
ogi
cal
int
erpr
etat
ions.

 .Gr
ammat
icali
nter
pret
ati
oni
mpl
i
est
hatt
hemeani
ngoft
hel
awi
stobesought
i
ntheact
ualwor
dsusedi
nit
,whi
char
etobeunder
stoodi
nthei
ror
dinar
yand
nat
uralmeani
ng.I
not
herwor
ds,wher
ether
eisnoambi
gui
tyi
nthel
anguage
empl
oyed by t
he st
atut
e any ot
her i
nter
pret
ati
on except gr
ammat
ical
i
nter
pret
ati
oni
sper
missi
ble.Thi
sisknownasl
it
erascr
ipt
a

Logi
cali
nter
pret
ati
on,ont
heot
herhand,i
sthatwhi
chdepar
tsf
rom t
hel
ett
eroft
hel
awand
seeksel
sewher
eorsomeot
herormor
esat
isf
act
oryev
idenceoft
hei
ntent
ionoft
hel
egi
slat
ure.
Thi
si sent
sknownas“ ent
ial
egi
s”.I
nter
pret
ati
onmayal
sobecl
assi
fi
edasdoct
ri
nal
,j
udi
cial
,or
l
egi
slat
ivei
nter
pret
ati
ondependi
ngonwhoi
nter
pret
sthel
aw

Whoi
nter
pret
sthel
aw:t
heschol
ars,t
hecour
t(j
udges)
,ort
hel
egi
slat
ure?I
nanswer
ingt
his
quest
ion,

 I
nter
pret
ati
onmaybedoct
ri
nal
,j
udi
cialorl
egi
slat
ive.

ስለ-
ሕግ AboutLaw Tel
egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
ethi
olawbl
og
 ስለ-
ሕግየሕግአገልግሎት/AboutLawLegal
Ser
vice

A)Doct
ri
nalI
nter
pret
ati
on

Doct
ri
nali
nter
pret
ati
oni
sthat“
whi
chi
smadei
nbooks,i
nrev
iews,i
nthecl
assr
oom”
.Iti
s
per
for
medmost
lybyt
hel
egalschol
arswhent
heyl
ect
ure,pr
epar
ear
ti
cles,andbooks.Apar
t
f
rom t
hat
,thedoct
ri
nali
nter
pret
ati
onpr
opoundedbyschol
arshas“
noot
heruset
hant
o
i
nfl
uencecour
tdeci
si
ons”
.Thi
sisbestachi
evedt
hroughcomment
ingonl
awsandj
udi
cial
opi
nions,
groupi
ngpoi
ntsofl
awi
nvol
vedi
nanal
ogouscases,
andst
ressi
ngi
nconsi
stenci
es,
if
any
,thatmaycr
opupi
nthej
udgesdeci
sion.Ther
efor
e,schol
arsi
nter
prat
elawsandwoul
d
hel
pjudgest
osol
vepr
act
icalcases.Et
hiopi
ancases,bei
ngmost
lyunr
epor
ted,cannotbe,a
sy
stem sodi
scussed.I
not
herj
uri
sdi
cti
ons,
thei
nfl
uenceofschol
arl
ycomment
ator
sisst
rong
when t
hei
ropi
nionsar
eunani communi
mous( sopi
nion doct
orum)and t
husconst
it
utes
“
doct
ri
nalcust
om”
.InEt
hiopi
a,t
her
eisnocust
om ofsuchschol
arl
ycomment
ator
sandi
tis
i
mper
ati
vet
odev
elopt
hecul
tur
e.I
nsodoi
ngt
heSupr
emeCour
tcaser
epor
tswoul
dhel
pus.

B)Judi
cialI
nter
pret
ati
on

Whenacasei
slodgedbef
oret
hecour
t,l
awy
ersmustar
guewhyt
hel
awcov
ersordoesnot
cov
ert
hebehav
iouri
nquest
ion.Then,
thej
udgesmust“
fi
ndt
hemeani
ng”oft
hel
awt
odeci
de
whet
heri
tregul
atest
hepar
ti
cul
arconductati
ssue.Thi
ssear
chf
or“
meani
ng”i
sknownas
j
udi
ciali
nter
pret
ati
on“
Judi
ciali
nter
pret
ati
oni
sthatwhi
chemanat
esf
rom acour
twhen,i
n
or
dert
odeci
deacase,
itappl
i
esal
awwhosemeani
ngi
sdi
scussedbef
orei
t.
”Admi
nist
rat
ive
or
gansmayi
nter
pretl
awt
oadj
udi
cat
ecases.I
tisi
mpor
tantt
onot
ethati
fthemeani
ngi
snot
di
sput
ed,
noneedofi
nter
pret
ati
onbutasi
mpl
eappl
i
cat
ionoft
hel
aw.

C)Legi
slat
iveI
nter
pret
ati
on

Legi
sl
ati
vei
nter
pret
ati
oni
st hel
hatmadebyt awmaker
.

aj
udgemaynotr
efuset
opassj
udgmentont
hepr
etextt
hatt
hel
aw i
ssi
l
ent
,obscur
eor
i
nsuf
fi
cient
.S/
hewoul
dbegui
l
tyofadeni
alofj
ust
ice.Underpr
esentEt
hiopi
anl
aw,such
r
efusalt
opassj
udgmentmi
ghtbechar
gedasabr
eachofof
fi
cialdut
yunderAr
ti
cle420
Cr
imi
nal
Code,
unl
esst
hel
awpr
ovi
desot
her
wise.

ስለ-
ሕግ AboutLaw Tel
egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
ethi
olawbl
og
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Ser
vice

TheFDREConst
it
uti
onempower
stheHouseofFeder
ati
ont
oint
erpr
ett
heconst
it
uti
on[
Art
.
62(
1)and83(
1)]
.

TheHouseofFeder
ati
oni
srequi
redt
obehel
pedbyt
heCounci
lofConst
it
uti
onalI
nqui
ry
[
Art
.82ofFDRECons]
.Themember
soft
heConst
it
uti
onali
nqui
ryar
ebyl
argel
awy
ersandt
his
i
smadet
oassi
stt
heHouseofFeder
ati
onbypr
ofessi
onal
s.I
naddi
ti
on,t
hiswoul
denabl
ethe
const
it
uti
onali
nter
pret
ati
onbal
anced.Thatmeanst
henat
ureofpol
i
ticali
nst
rumentandl
egal
documentoft
heconst
it
uti
onar
etobet
akeni
ntoaccountt
oint
erpr
ett
heConst
it
uti
on.

 RULESOFI
NTERPRETATI
ONI
NGENERAL

A)Thegol
denRul
eofI
nter
pret
ati
on

 Themai
npur
poseofj
udi
ciali
nter
pret
ati
oni
stoascer
tai
nthei
ntent
ionoft
he
l
egi
sl
atur
e. I
n or
dinar
y cases t
he Judges must r
esor
tto gr
ammat
ical
i
nter
pret
ati
onf
orascer
tai
ningt
het
ruei
ntent
ionoft
hel
egi
slat
ure.Thegol
den
r
uleofi
nter
pret
ati
oni
sthat“
ift
hewor
dsoft
hest
atut
ear
eint
hemsel
vespr
eci
se
andunambi
guous,t
hennomor
ecanbenecessar
yt oexpoundwor
hant dsi
n
t
hei
rnat
uralandor
dinar
ysense.Thewor
dst
hemsel
vesal
onedo,
insuchcases,
bestdecl
aret
hei
ntent
ionoft
hel
aw-
giv
er”
 Lor
dWensl
eydal
ecal
l
edgr
ammat
icali
nter
pret
ati
onast
he“
gol
denr
ule”f
ort
he
i
nter
pret
ati
onofst
atut
es.Heobser
vedt
hati
nconst
rui
ngst
atut
esandal
lot
her
wr
it
teni
nst
rument
s“t
hegr
ammat
icalandor
dinar
ysenseoft
hewor
dsi
stobe
adher
edt
ounl
esst
hatwoul
dleadt
osomeabsur
dit
yorsomer
epugnancyor
i
nconsi
stencybutnof
urt
her
.”
 The gol
den r
ule ofi
nter
pret
ati
on gui
des us t
oint
erpr
etwor
ds as t
heyar
e
empl
oyedi
nthest
atut
e.I
nshor
t,gr
ammat
icali
nter
pret
ati
oni
sknownasgol
den
r
uleofi
nter
pret
ati
on.
 B)TheEj
usdem Gener
isRul
e=
 Accor
dingt
oej
usdem gener
isr
ule,
asweepi
ngcl
ausei
nast
atut
ewhi
chsay
s“al
l
ot
herar
ti
cleswhat
soev
er”maybei
nter
pret
edt
omeanonl
yar
ti
clesoft
hesame
genusorspeci
esast
hoseexpr
essl
ydeal
twi
thbyt
hest
atue.

ስለ-
ሕግ AboutLaw Tel
egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
ethi
olawbl
og
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Ser
vice

 Sal
mond gi
vesan i
nter
est
i eofej
ng exampl usdem gener
is whi
ch ser
vest
o
r
est
ri
ctt
hemeani
ngofgener
alwor
dst
othi
ngsormat
ter
soft
hesameki
ndas
t
hepr
ecedi
ngpar
ti
cul
arwor
ds.I
famant
ell
shi
swi
fet
ogooutandbuybut
ter
,
mi
l
k,eggsandany
thi
ngel
sesheneeds,hewi
l
lnotnor
mal
l
ybeunder
stoodt
o
i
ncl
udei
nthet
erm,
‘any
thi
ngel
sesheneeds,
’anewhatorani
tem off
urni
tur
e.
 I
tmust
,howev
er,ber
emember
edt
hatwher
ewor
dsar
ecl
ear
lywi
dei
nthei
r
meani
ng,t
heyoughtnott
ober
est
ri
ctedorqual
i
fiedont
hegr
oundoft
hei
r
associ
ati
onwi
thot
herwor
ds.
.
 I
nconsi
stencyorcont
radi
cti
oni
nlaw

Twopr
ovi
sionsoft
hesameordi
ff
erentl
awsmaysomet
imesbei
nconsi
stentor
cont
radi
ctor
y.I
nsuchasi
tuat
ion,whi
choft
hepr
ovi
sionsshoul
dbeappl
i
cabl
ebecomes
t
hei
ssuet
hathast
obedeci
dedbyusi
ngr
ulesofi
nter
pret
aton.Ther
i ear
ethr
eewayst
o
deci
det
hisi
ssue.

Fi
rst
ly,t
hehi
erar
chi
calposi
ti
onoft
het
wol
aws mustbeseen.I
ftheyexi
sti
ndi
ff
erent
hi
erat
icalposi
ti
onl
i
keonei
nconst
it
uti
onandt
heot
heri
npr
imar
yorsubor
dinat
elegi
slat
ion,
t
her
uleappl
i
cabl
eist
hehi
gherl
awpr
evai
l
sov
ert
hel
owerl
aw.I
not
herwor
ds,
itmustbet
he
hi
gherl
awt
hatshoul
dbeappl
i
cabl
eandt
hel
owerwi
l
lhav
enoef
fectf
ori
tvi
olat
est
hehi
gher
l
aw.

Secondl
y,t
het
wopr
ovi
sionsmayexi
sti
nthesamehi
erar
chi
calposi
ti
oncannotser
vet
o
deci
det
hei
ssue,becausebot
har
eint
hesamehi
erar
chi
calposi
ti
on.I
nsuchasi
tuat
iont
hei
r
ef
fect
ivedat
ei.
e.t
hedat
eonwhi
cht
heyent
eredi
ntof
orcemustbeconsi
der
edasar
efer
ence.
Because,t
her
ulei
sthatt
hel
aterl
aw pr
evai
lsovert
hef
ormerl
aw (
expost
eri
order
ogat
e
pr
ior
i)
.Inot
herwor
ds,t
heneworr
ecentl
awmustbeappl
i
cabl
eandt
heol
dlawwi
l
lhav
eno
ef
fectf
ori
tisassumedt
hatt
hel
egi
slat
orwhomadeamewl
awt
hatcont
radi
ctswi
thanol
d
l
awoft
hesamehi
erar
chi
cal
posi
ti
oni
ntendedt
orepeal
theol
dlawbyi
mpl
i
cat
ion.

Fi
nal
l
y,bot
hthecont
radi
cti
ng pr
ovi
sionsmaysomet
imesexi
sti
nthesamel
aw l
i
kef
or
i
nst
ancei
nthesamecodewhi
chi
mpl
i
est
hatnei
therhi
erar
chynoref
fect
ivedat
ecanbeused
t
odeci
det
hei
ssuebecauset
heyar
eint
hesamehi
erar
chalposi
ti
onev
eni
nthesamel
awand

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egr
am l
i
nkt
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ethi
olawbl
og
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Ser
vice

al
sohav
ethesameef
fect
ivedat
e.Ther
emedyf
orsuchapr
obl
em i
sref
err
ingt
othenat
ureof
t
hel
awswhet
heronei
sgener
alandt
heot
heri
sspeci
alr
ulei
nwhi
chi
tisusual
l
ythecase.I
f
onei
sint
hegener
alr
ulesandt
heot
heri
sint
hespeci
alr
ulesl
exspeci
alder
ogat
egener
ali
s
(
i.
e.speci
alRul
espr
evai
lov
ergener
alr
ules)
.Thus,t
hespeci
alr
ulesmustbeappl
i
cabl
e
becauset
heyar
especi
alt
othecaseathandwher
east
hegener
alr
ulesar
eappl
i
cabl
ewher
e
t
her
eisnospeci
alr
ulegov
erni
ngt
hei
ssue.Ev
ent
houghi
tmaynotar
isei
npr
act
icei
tisal
so
possi
blet
oext
endt
hei
ssuet
owhatwoul
dbedonei
fbot
hpr
ovi
sionsi
nthesamel
aw ar
e
gener
alorbot
har
especi
al.I
nthi
scasei
tispossi
blet
oremedyt
hepr
obl
em byappl
yi
ngt
he
l
essgener
ali
fbot
har
egener
alandt
hemor
especi
ali
fbot
har
especi
alr
ules.

Fur
ther
,we hav
e seen t
hatt
he House ofFeder
ati
on has empower
ed t
oint
erpr
ett
he
Const
it
uti
on.Themember
soft
heHouseofFeder
ati
onbei
ngpol
i
tici
ansbeabl
etoi
nter
prett
he
Const
it
uti
onasapol
i
ticaldocument
.Ast
oit
slegalaspect
,theHousei
sassi
stedbyt
he
Const
it
uti
onalI
nqui
rywhosemember
sar
emai
nlyl
awy
ers.Howev
er,t
hei
nter
pret
ati
onseems
t
obet
imeconsumi
ng.

Fur
ther
mor
e,wehav
edi
scussedt
hatt
hepr
ovi
sosonhumanr
ight
soft
heConst
it
uti
onshal
lbe
i
nter
pret
edi
nli
ghtoft
hei
nter
nat
ional
inst
rument
sofhumanr
ight
s.

 JURI
DICALACTS

 Jur
ist
icact
-isdef
inedas“
asactt
hati
sint
endedt
ocr
eat
e,t
ransf
er,orext
ingui
sha
r
ightandt
hati
sef
fect
ivei
nlawf
ort
hatpur
pose.
”
 I
tisal
soexpl
ainedas“
theexer
ciseofl
egal
power
”
 Theessent
ialel
ementi
nev
eryj
uri
dicalacti
sthedecl
arat
ionofwi
l
l.Somet
imest
he
j
uri
dicalactconsi
stsofnot
hingel
sebutt
hedecl
arat
ionofwi
l
lasi
nthecaseofa
t
est
ament
.Somet
imes,howev
er,t
he decl
arat
ion ofwi
l
lmustbe accompani
ed by
anot
heractofoneorsev
eral
oft
hepar
ti
es.

7.
2) RI
GHTSANDDUTI
ES

 Thet
erm“
ri
ght
”isdef
inedas“
somet
hingt
hati
sduet
oaper
sonbyj
ustcl
aim,l
egal
guar
ant
ee,ormor
alpr
inci
ple(
ther
ightofl
i
ber
ty)
.”I
tincl
udesa“
power
,pr
ivi
l
ege,or

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egr
am l
i
nkt
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ethi
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og
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Ser
vice

i
mmuni
tysecur
edt
oaper
sonbyl
aw(
ther
ightt
odi
sposeofone’
sest
ate)
”Fur
thert
he
t
ermi
sdef
inedasa“
legal
l
yenf
orceabl
ecl
aimt
hatanot
herwi
l
ldoorwi
l
lnotdoagi
ven
act
;ar
ecogni
zedandpr
otect
edi
nter
estt
hev
iol
ati
onofwhi
chi
sawr
ong(
abr
eachof
dut
ythati
nfr
ingesone’
sri
ght
)”
 Ri
ghti
sacor
rel
ati
vet
odut
y;wher
ether
eisnodut
yther
ecanbenor
ight
.Butt
he
conv
ersei
snotnecessar
il
ytr
ue.Ther
emaybedut
ieswi
thoutr
ight
s.I
nor
derf
oradut
y
t
ocr
eat
ear
ight
,itmustbeadut
ytoactorf
orbear
.

buts/
hehasnor
ightt
oourl
ove[
JohnChi
pmanGr
ay,
inBl
ack’
s;2004:
1347]
.

 Thet
erm“
dut
y”i
sdef
inedasf
oll
ows:“
alegalobl
i
gat
iont
hati
sowedorduet
oanot
her
and t
hatneeds t
o be sat
isf
ied;an obl
i
gat
ion f
orwhi
ch somebody el
se has a
cor
respondi
ngr
ight
”
 Al
egalr
ight–whati
sal
egalr
ight
?Thet
estf
oral
egalr
ighti
s–i
sther
ightr
ecogni
zed
andpr
otect
edbyt
hel
egalsy
stem i
tsel
f?Thus,
aper
sonmayhav
eal
egalr
ightt
odoan
act
,whi
chi
sunet
hicalandopposedt
othest
andar
dsofposi
ti
vemor
ali
ty.Howev
er,
thi
s
doesnotmeant
hatt
hel
aw i
sunr
ecept
ivet
othegener
alconcept
ionofr
ight
,whi
ch
exi
stsi
nacommuni
ty,
fort
heet
hicalv
iewsandposi
ti
vemor
ali
tyofagi
vencommuni
ty
nat
ural
l
yinf
luencet
hel
awi
nit
sdet
ermi
nat
ionoft
heconduct
,whi
chi
twi
l
lpr
otect
,and
oft
heact
ions,
whi
chi
twi
l
lpr
ohi
bit
.‘Ri
ght
sspr
ingf
rom r
ight
.Pr
inci
plesofl
i
abi
l
ity
,int
he
l
astanal
ysi
s,mustbeder
ivedf
rom t
hemor
alsenseoft
hecommuni
ty.
 Jur
idi
calact
sar
edi
sti
ngui
shedf
rom mat
eri
alact
sint
hatt
hel
att
erconsi
sti
nsome
act
ionofphy
sicalr
elat
ionshi
p,suchascl
aimsf
orcompensat
ionf
oral
i
ter
arywor
k.
Jur
idi
calact
s,aswehav
edi
scussed,ar
ecat
egor
izedi
ntouni
l
ater
alandbi
l
ater
al,t
hose
addr
essedt
oapar
ti
cul
arper
sonandt one,i
oany nter
vivosandmor
ti
scausa,oner
ous
andgr
atui
tous,
obl
i
gat
oryandr
eal
,pr
omi
ssor
yanddi
sposi
ti
ve,
casual
andabst
ract
.
 Wehav
elear
ntt
hatsomeessent
ialel
ement
smustbef
ulf
il
ledf
orav
ali
djur
idi
calact
sto
exi
st.Fi
rstandf
ormost
,wehav
eseent
hatl
egal
capaci
tyi
simpor
tant
:per
sonsmustbe
capabl
eint
heey
esoft
hel
aw t
oper
for
mlegal
l
ybi
ndi
ngj
uri
dicalact
s.I
naddi
ti
on,a
per
sonshoul
dhav
easpeci
fi
clegalcapaci
tyt
hatmeanss/
he/
itshoul
dhav
esanemi
nd;
at
tai
ntheageofmaj
ori
ty;
andsoon.Secondl
y,t
heact
ormustdecl
arehi
s/her
/i
tswi
l
lto

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egr
am l
i
nkt
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ethi
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og
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Ser
vice

cr
eat
ethel
egalconsequencest
ohav
eval
i
djur
idi
calact
s.Thedecl
arat
ion,aswehav
e
seen,maybeei
therexpr
essori
mpl
i
ed.Thet
hir
dpr
e-r
equi
sit
eforv
ali
dit
yofaj
uri
dical
acti
sthatt
her
emustbeconcor
dancebet
weenwhati
smani
fest
ed(
ordecl
ared)and
t
hati
sint
ended.
 Fur
ther
,inor
dert
ohav
eav
ali
djur
idi
calact
,thedecl
arat
ionofi
ntent
ionshoul
dbe
ser
ious.I
naccor
dancewi
tht
hef
our
thpr
e-r
equi
sit
eforav
ali
djur
idi
calact
,thewi
l
l
shoul
dbedecl
aredf
reef
rom v
ices.Accor
dingl
y,t
heper
soni
srequi
redt
odecl
are
hi
s/heri
tswi
l
lwi
thoutf
raud,
viol
enceort
hreat
s.Thef
if
thpr
e-r
equi
sit
eforv
ali
djur
idi
cal
act
s,as we di
scussed,i
sthatt
he j
uri
dicalact
s mustcompl
ywi
tht
he f
ormal
i
ty,
par
ti
cul
arl
ywher
ethel
aw pr
ovi
dest
hef
orm.Fur
thermor
e,wehav
elear
ntt
hat
,the
cont
ent
sofj
uri
dicalact
smustbel
awf
ul.Thus,accor
ding t
o Ar
ti
cle1678 oft
he
Et
hiopi
anCi
vi
lCode,
acont
ract(
andaj
uri
dicalact
)musthav
elawf
ulpur
poseandneed
notcont
rav
enet
hemor
ali
tyoft
hesoci
ety
.
 Wehav
eal
sodi
scussedt
heef
fect
sofj
uri
dicalact
s.Thebasi
cpr
inci
plei
sthatj
uri
dical
act
scr
eat
eri
ght
sandobl
i
gat
ionsonl
yasbet
weenper
sonswhoper
for
mthem.Thus,
t
her
ight
sandobl
i
gat
ionsoft
hir
dpar
ti
esmaynotbeaf
fect
edbyj
uri
dicalact
s.Thi
s
cl
ear
lyshowst
her
elat
iveef
fectofj
uri
dicalact
s.Jur
idi
calact
sper
for
medbysomeone
el
ser
epr
esent
inganot
herper
sonwi
l
lpr
oduceef
fect
stot
heper
sonf
orwhosef
avour
(
name)t
heyar
eper
for
med.
 ETHI
OPI
ANLEGALSYSTEM
 LEGALPLURALI
SM
 l
egalpl
ural
i
sm i
s“aconcomi
tantofsoci
alpl
ural
i
sm;
thel
egalor
gani
zat
ionofsoci
etyi
s
congr
uentwi
thi
tssoci
alor
gani
zat
ion”
.Asar
esul
t,“
Law i
spr
esenti
nev
ery‘
semi
-
aut
onomoussoci
alf
iel
d,andsi
nceev
erysoci
etycont
ainsmanysuchf
iel
ds,l
egal
pl
ural
i
sm i
saf
eat
ureofsoci
alor
gani
zat
ion”[
Gri
ff
it
hs;1986:38]
.Asi
tuat
ionofl
egal
pl
ural
i
sm i
sther
efor
e“onei
nwhi
chl
aw andl
egali
ntui
ti
onsar
enotal
lsubsumabl
e
wi
thi
none‘
syst
em’buthav
ethei
rsour
cesi
nthesel
f-
regul
ator
yact
ivi
ti
esofal
lthe
mul
ti
far
ioussoci
alf
iel
dspr
esent
,act
ivi
ti
eswhi
chmaysuppor
t,compl
ement
,ignor
eor
f
rust
rat
eoneanot
her
”
 On t
hisar
gument
,Af
ri
can soci
eti
esar
e amongstt
he mostpl
ural
i
sti
nthe wor
ld,
compr
isi
ngast
heydoadi
ver
sit
yoft
ri
bal
,et
hni
c,cul
tur
alandr
eli
giousgr
oups,
dif
fer
ent

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egr
am l
i
nkt
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og
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Ser
vice

t
radi
ti
ons,andpeopl
edi
vi
dedal
ongur
banandr
urall
i
ves.I
twoul
dther
efor
eappeart
o
f
oll
ow t
hatAf
ri
can st
ateswoul
d mani
festaheal
thyl
egalpl
ural
i
sm r
efl
ect
ing t
his
di
ver
sit
y-butr
eal
i
tydemonst
rat
est
hatt
hisi
snotnecessar
il
yal
ogi
calconcl
usi
on.
I
ndeed,i
tmaybepossi
blet
oar
guet
hatt
her
eisacl
eav
agebet
weensoci
alpl
ural
i
sm
andr
uleswhi
chi
tgener
atesont
heonehand,
andconst
it
uti
onal
plur
ali
sm ont
heot
her
 Et
hiopi
abei
ngacount
ryofdi
ff
erentnat
ionsandnat
ional
i
ties,t
heConst
it
uti
ongr
ant
s
t
hel
egi
sl
ati
ve,ex
ecut
iveandt
hej
udi
ciar
ypowert
othem.Ther
efor
e,bot
hthef
eder
al
gov
ernmentandt
her
egi
onshav
ethosepower
satt
hesamet
ime.Thi
sist
hesenseof
l
egal
plur
ali
sm i
nEt
hiopi
a.

I
nshor
t,t
heexi
stenceandpr
act
iceofl
awi
nEt
hiopi
aot
hert
hanf
ormal
l
yrecogni
zedonesmay
becat
egor
izedunderi
nfor
mal
legal
plur
ali
sm.

 Ther
ear
etr
adi
ti
onaldi
sput
eset
tl
ementmechani
smsi
nEt
hiopi
a.I
ntr
adi
ti
onaldi
sput
e
set
tl
ementmechani
sm,
cust
omar
ylawsoft
her
espect
edet
hni
cgr
oupappl
y

Legalpl
ural
i
sm i
n Et
hiopi
a,cur
rent
ly,r
ecogni
zes and l
egi
ti
mizes t
he per
sonall
aws of
Et
hiopi
a’
srel
i
giousandcust
omar
ygr
oupsl
egalpl
ural
i
sm i
sthemani
fest
ati
onoff
eder
ali
sm i
n
Et
hiopi
athataccommodat
est
her
ight
sofv
ari
ousmul
ti
cul
tur
alsoci
ety

Legalpl
ural
i
sm maybecl
assi
fi
edf
ormalandnonf
ormal
.Incaseoff
ormall
egalpl
ural
i
sm,
the
l
awcl
ear
lyr
ecogni
zest
heappl
i
cabi
l
ityv
ari
ousl
aws.TheEt
hiopi
anConst
it
uti
onr
ecogni
zedt
he
v
ali
dit
yandappl
i
cabi
l
ityofnonst
atel
awssuchasr
eli
giousandcust
omar
ylawsi
nsomef
iel
ds
ofsoci
alact
ivi
ty(
Art
.34(
5))

 Theex
ist
enceandpr
act
iceofl
awi
nEt
hiopi
aot
hert
hanf
ormal
l
yrecogni
zedonesmay
becat
egor
izedunderi
nfor
mall
egalpl
ural
ism.
 LEGALTRANSPLANTATI
ONFROM FOREI
GNSOURCES
 I
nmostpl
acesatmostt
imesbor
rowi
ngi
sthemostf
rui
tf
ulsour
ceofl
egalchange.The
bor
rowi
ngmaybef
rom wi
thi
nthesy
stem,byanal
ogy
-fr
om negl
i
gencei
ntor
tst
o
negl
i
gencei
ncont
ract
,fori
nst
ance-
orf
rom anot
herl
egalsy
stem.Theactofbor
rowi
ng

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egr
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i
nkt
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og
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Ser
vice

i
susual
l
ysi
mpl
e.Tobui
l
dupat
heor
yofbor
rowi
ng,ont
heot
herhand,seemst
obean
ext
remel
ycompl
exmat
ter
.Recept
ionscomei
nal
lshapesandsi
zes:f
rom t
aki
ngov
er
si
ngl
erul
est
o(t
heor
eti
cal
l
y)al
mostawhol
esy
stem.
 Whati
sthebasi
sforar
ecept
ionofl
aw?
 I
tgoeswi
thoutsay
i hatpr
ngt act
icalut
il
it
yist
hebasi
sformuchofar
ecept
ionofl
aw.
Thepar
amountr
easonf
orr
ecept
ionofl
aw i
seconomi
calf
ort
hebor
rowi
ngcount
ry
becausei
tsav
est
imet
hatcoul
dbespentt
odr
aftanew,or
igi
nall
aw.Thus,i
tav
oidsa
l
aboursomel
awmaki
ngpar
ti
cul
arl
yanewl
aw.
 Apr
obl
em r
elat
edwi
thr
ecept
ioni
smi
sunder
standi
ng.Thepr
inci
pleofal
aw maybe
mi
sunder
stoodi
nthepr
ocessofr
ecept
ion.Forexampl
e,Huber
’st
heor
yofconf
li
ctof
l
awwasaccept
edi
ncommonl
awj
uri
sdi
cti
onsbutnoti
ntheci
vi
llaw.Hi
sthi
rdaxi
om
wasmi
sunder
stood.
 THENEEDFORAUTHORI
TY
 Bor
rowi
ngi
sof
tencr
eat
ive.Howev
er,i
tneedsaut
hor
it
y.Thi
scr
eat
ivi
tymaybev
ery
open.Ul
ri
cusHuber
’sownt
heor
yofconf
li
ctofl
awswhi
chhef
oundsont
hreeaxi
oms
al
lost
ensi
blybasedonRomanl
aw.
 Theenor
mousneedf
orl
egal
aut
hor
it
yforl
egal
deci
sionsandr
easoni
ngi
sunv
eil
ed.I
tis
t
hisneed f
orl
egalaut
hor
it
ythatof
tenl
endsst
rengt
htot
ranspl
ant
s(orappar
ent
t
ranspl
ant
s).

Ther
ear
efouraspect
sofl
egalt
ranspl
ant
ati
on

 Fi
rst
,theyhi
ghl
i
ghtt
he enor
mous i
nfl
uence ofl
egaleducat
ion orl
egalat
ti
tudes.
Sout
her
nAf
ri
canst
udent
seducat
edi
nlawatEdi
nbur
ghi
mpor
tedt
oBot
swana,
Lesot
ho
andSwazi
l
andsomeScot
slaw.Thus,
transpl
ant
ati
oni
nfl
uencest
hel
egaleducat
ion.
 Second,t
heyshow t
hatt
houghpat
ter
nsofdev
elopmentcanbedi
scer
ned,t
hef
utur
e
dev
elopmentcannotbepr
edi
cted.Chancepl
ayst
oogr
eatar
ole.
 Thi
rd,whenf
orei
gnl
aw i
sgi
venhi
ghaut
hor
it
y,t
henwhennew si
tuat
ionsar
ise,j
uri
sts
maynotf
indi
teasyt
odev
elopnewl
awont
hebasi
sofi
rr
elev
antorev
ennon-
exi
stent
sour
ces.
 Four
th,t
hey conf
ir
m t
he cent
ralr
ole ofaut
hor
it
yinl
aw maki
ng by subor
dinat
e

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egr
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i
nkt
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Ser
vice

l
awmaker
s.Judges ci
te wi
th al
lappar
entser
iousness whatar
eregar
ded as t
he
appr
opr
iat
eaut
hor
it
ies,whoar
eunhel
pfulori
rr
elev
ant
,andt
heymayseem t
ofol
l
ow
t
hem whenconst
ruct
ingt
hei
rownr
out
e.

CONFLI
CTBETWEENFEDERALLAWSANDREGI
ONALLAWS

Thel
awst
hatar
eenact
edbyt
hef
eder
alaut
hor
it
iesandt
hest
ateaut
hor
it
iesar
esi
mil
ari
n
f
orm.Thehi
erar
chyofl
awsmani
fest
edateachl
evel(
feder
alandst
ate)i
sal
sot
hesame.But
nowt
hei
ssuei
s,whati
sthehi
erar
chi
cal
rel
ati
onshi
pbet
weent
hef
eder
alandst
atel
aws?

I
naf
eder
alsy
stem,
thepoweroft
hest
atei
sdi
vi
dedbet
weent
het
wogov
ernment
s,whi
char
e
notsubor
dinat
edonet
oanot
herbutcoor
dinat
e,andsov
erei
gnwi
thi
nthei
rownspher
eof
j
uri
sdi
cti
on.Ther
efor
e,si
nceeachoft
hem i
ssov
erei
gnwi
thi
nthespher
eofj
uri
sdi
cti
on
al
l
ott
edt
oit
,wecannotsayt
hatt
hei
deaofsuper
ior
it
yexi
stsbet
weent
hef
eder
alandst
ate
l
awst
hatar
eenact
edonmat
ter
sundert
hef
eder
alandt
hest
atel
i
sts.Thedoct
ri
neof
par
amountbet
weent
hef
eder
alandst
atel
awsi
sunder
stoodi
nrel
ati
ont
otheconcur
rent
power
.Inconnect
ionwi
tht
his,Wher
esay
s“…i
fther
eisaconcur
rentj
uri
sdi
cti
on,t
her
emust
al
soex
istsomepr
ovi
si
onst
odet
ermi
newhi
chaut
hor
it
y,i
ncaseofconf
li
ct,
topr
evai
l
.Because
i
tisi
nthi
sfi
eldt
hatbot
hoft
hel
egi
slat
orsoft
hef
eder
ati
onandoft
hememberst
atesenact
l
awsont
hesamemat
ter
sandt
husconf
li
ctar
isesbet
weent
het
wo.

I
nor
dert
osayt
hatt
her
eexi
stsconf
li
ctofl
awsi
nfeder
alsy
stems,
suchl
awsshoul
dbemade
byt
hef
eder
alandt
hest
atel
egi
slat
orshav
ingt
hesamepower(
concur
rent
).I
naddi
ti
on,t
her
e
shoul
dber
epugnancybet
weent
hecommandorpowercont
ainedi
nthef
eder
alst
atut
esand
t
hecommandorpowercont
ainedi
nthest
atest
atut
es.Thus,i
nsuchacase,t
hest
ate
enact
ment
sshal
l
,tot
heext
entofr
epugnancy
,bev
oid,
andt
hef
eder
alst
atut
eshal
lpr
evai
l
.

Nev
ert
hel
ess,doesAr
t.98oft
heFDREConst
it
uti
oncl
ear
lyi
ndi
cat
ewhet
herornott
hatt
he
l
egi
slat
ors oft
he t
wo gov
ernment
s enactl
aws i
ndependent
lyi
nthe exer
cise oft
hei
r
concur
rentpowerandt
husconf
li
ctar
isesbet
weent
het
wol
aws?Ar
t98oft
heConst
it
uti
oni
s
notcl
earont
hispoi
nt,
andhence,
thi
spr
ovi
sioncanbei
nter
pret
edi
ntwoway
s:

1.Theabov
ear
ti
clecanbei
nter
pret
edt
omeant
hatt
hel
egi
slat
orsoft
het
wocompet
ent

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Ser
vice

gov
ernment
scani
ndependent
lymakel
awswhi
chenabl
ethet
wo gov
ernment
sto
col
l
ectt
hei
rrev
enuef
rom t
het
axesment
ionedher
eunder
.Thi
scanbeunder
stoodf
rom
t
heheadi
ngoft
hear
ti
cle.I
tsay
s“t
heconcur
rentpower
”.Ther
efor
e,si
ncewehav
esai
d
bef
ore,t
hatt
heconcur
rentf
iel
dist
hear
eai
nwhi
chbot
hthegener
al andr
egi
onal
gov
ernment
shav
ecommonj
uri
sdi
cti
on,t
heyenactl
awswi
thr
espectt
othesame
subj
ect
s.I
nsuchacase,
ifconf
li
ctar
isesbet
weent
hef
eder
alandst
atel
aws,
ther
ulei
s
t
hatt
hef
eder
all
awsshoul
dpr
evai
lov
erst
atel
aws.Howev
er,t
hisr
ulei
snotembodi
ed
i
ntheFDREConst
it
uti
on.I
not
herwor
ds,t
heConst
it
uti
onofFDREdoesnotst
ipul
atea
pr
ovi
sion,whi
chshowst
hesuper
iorandi
nfer
iorr
elat
ionbet
weent
hef
eder
alandst
ate
l
aws.Howev
er,i
twoul
dhav
ebeenbet
terhadt
heConst
it
uti
oni
ncor
por
atedapr
ovi
sion
t
osol
vet
hepr
obl
em ofconf
li
ctbet
weenf
eder
alandr
egi
onal
laws.
2.Ar
t98oft
heConst
it
uti
onmayal
sobeunder
stoodt
omeant
hatt
het
wogov
ernment
sby
agr
eement
,concl
udedasbet
weent
hem,mayl
evyandcol
l
ectt
oget
hert
het
axest
hat
ar
eli
stedi
nthesamear
ti
cle.Thet
erm “
joi
ntl
y”asempl
oyedi
nthear
ti
cleunder
di
scussi
on suppor
tst
hisv
eryi
nter
pret
ati
on.I
fthepr
ovi
sion whi
ch deal
swi
tht
he
concur
rentpoweri
sint
erpr
etedi
nthi
sway
,iti
s,t
hei
ragr
eementwhi
chbecomest
he
gov
erni
ngl
awi
ncasedi
sput
ear
isesbet
weent
het
wogov
ernmentandt
hust
her
eisno
needf
ort
het
wol
egi
slat
orsoft
hef
eder
ati
onandoft
hememberst
atest
oenactl
aws
i
ndependent
lyf
ort
hepur
posei
ndi
cat
edi
nar
t98oft
hisConst
it
uti
on.

I
tisdi
ff
icul
ttosayt
heAr
ti
cle98oft
heConst
it
uti
onembodi
esat
rueconcur
rentj
uri
sdi
cti
on.
Becauseaswehav
eseenabov
e,t
heconcur
rentj
uri
sdi
cti
oni
soneunderwhi
chbot
hthe
f
eder
alandt
hest
ategov
ernmentexer
ciset
hepoweri
ndependentofeachot
her
.Howev
er,
thi
s
i
snott
rueundert
heConst
it
uti
onofFDRE.Mor
eov
er,
sincet
heConst
it
uti
ondoesnotst
ipul
ate
apr
ovi
sionwhi
chdeal
swi
tht
hehi
erar
chybet
weent
hef
eder
alandst
atel
aws.I
ncaseconf
li
ct
ar
isesbet
weent
het
wo,suchconf
li
cti
sresol
vedonl
ybyt
heamendmentoft
hepr
ovi
sion
deal
i
ngwi
tht
hisi
ssue.Howev
er,i
nsof
arast
heamendmentoft
heconst
it
uti
onr
equi
resa
speci
alpr
ocedur
e,r
esol
vi
ngsuchconf
li
ctdoesnotbecomeeasy
.

OFFI
CIALNORMSANDUNOFFI
CIALNORMS

 Of
fi
ci
alnor
msar
est
andar
dst
hatemanat
efr
om t
hel
awoft
hegov
ernment
.Anof
fi
cial

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egr
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Ser
vice

i
sexpect
edt
obehav
eaccor
dingt
othosest
andar
dst
hatar
eaccept
edasgui
del
i
nesi
n
per
for
mingof
fi
ci
aldut
ies.

Unof
fi
cialnor
ms,
ont
heot
herhand,
aret
hosest
andar
dsofbehav
iouraccept
edbyt
hesoci
ety
.
Ther
efor
e,t
her
ightorwr
ongnessofagi
venbehav
iouri
stest
edagai
nstt
he“
basi
cnor
ms”t
hat
ar
eaccept
edbyt
hesoci
ety
.Ingener
al,anor
misamodelorst
andar
daccept
edbysoci
ety
agai
nstwhi
chsoci
etyj
udgessomeoneorsomet
hing.Forexampl
e,t
hesoci
etyhasast
andar
d
t
ojudgeagi
venbehav
iourasr
ightorwr
ong

Conf
li
ctcoul
dar
isebet
weenof
fi
cialnor
m andunof
fi
cialnor
ms.I
nsuchacase,t
heof
fi
cial
nor
msshoul
dpr
evai
lov
er,
andt
heof
fi
cershoul
dbej
udgedbyt
hest
andar
dsofhi
s/herof
fi
ce.

I
NSTI
TUTI
ONALFRAMEWORKI
NETHI
OPI
A

THEFEDERALLEGI
SLATURE

TheHouseofPeopl
e’
sRepr
esent
ati
vesex
erci
sesf
eder
all
egi
slat
ivepower
sper
tai
ning
mat
ter
sthatf
oll
ow:

 ut
il
izat
ionofl
and,
 nat
uralr
esour
ces,
 ofr
iver
sandl
akescr
ossi
ngt
heboundar
iesoft
henat
ionalt
err
it
ori
alj
uri
sdi
cti
onor
l
i
nki
ngt
woormor
est
ates;
 i
nter
-st
atecommer
ceandf
orei
gnt
rade;
 ai
r,r
ail
,wat
erandseat
ranspor
t,maj
orr
oadsl
i
nki
ngt
woormor
est
ates,post
aland
t
elecommuni
cat
ionser
vices;
 enf
orcementoft
hepol
i
ticalr
ight
sest
abl
i
shedbyt
heConst
it
uti
onandel
ect
orall
aws
andpr
ocedur
es;
 nat
ional
i
ty,i
mmi
grat
ion,passpor
t,exi
stf
rom andent
ryt
othecount
ry,t
her
ight
sof
r
efugeesandofasy
lum;
 uni
for
m st
andar
dsofmeasur
ementandcal
endar
;pat
ent
sandcopy
right
s;
 t
hepossessi
onandbear
ingofar
ms;

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egr
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nkt
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Ser
vice

 enact
mentoft
hepenal
,l
abourandcommer
cial
codes;
 enact
mentofsuch ci
vi
llaws as ar
e desi
gnat
ed byt
he House ofFeder
ati
on
necessar
ytoest
abl
i
shandsust
ainasi
ngl
eeconomi
ccommuni
ty;
 det
ermi
net
heor
gani
zat
ionofnat
ionaldef
ence,
publ
i
csecur
it
y,andanat
ionalpol
i
ce
f
orce;
 decl
arat
ionofst
ateofemer
gencyandast
ateofwar
;
 enact
mentofst
ateofemer
gencyandast
ateofwar
;
 admi
nist
rat
ionoft
heNat
ional
Bankandf
orei
gnexchange;
 l
evy
ingoft
axesanddut
iesonr
evenuesour
cesr
eser
vedt
othef
eder
algov
ernment
;
 r
ati
fi
cat
ionofi
nter
nat
ional
agr
eement
sconcl
udedbyt
heexecut
ive;
 appr
ovaloft
heappoi
ntment
soff
eder
alj
udges,member
soft
hecounci
l
,mi
nist
ers,
commi
ssi
oner
s,et
c.
 enact
mentofl
awst
odet
ermi
net
hepower
sandf
unct
ionsoft
heHumanRi
ght
Commi
ssi
onandt
heOmbudsman;

THEHOUSEOFFEDERATI
ON

 TheHouseofFeder
atonhast
i hepr
inci
palpowerofi
nter
pret
ingt
heConst
it
uti
on
aut
hor
it
ati
vel
yorbet
terst
il
l,
iti
stheul
ti
mat
eint
erpr
eteroft
heConst
it
uti
on.Thus,
it
canadj
udgewi
thf
inal
aut
hor
it
yanyl
awt
obecont
rar
ytot
heConst
it
uti
onhencewi
th
notl
egal
eff
ectorv
icev
ersa.

I
tsot
herpower
sandf
unct
ionsi
ncl
udet
hef
oll
owi
ng:

 I
tor
gani
zest
heCounci
lofConst
it
uti
onalI
nqui
ry,aki
ndofat
echni
calbodyt
hat
gi
vesi
tsr
ecommendat
ionst
otheHouseofFeder
ati
ononi
ssuesofconst
it
uti
onal
i
nter
pret
ati
onast
heyar
isef
rom anyi
nter
est
edpar
ty.Member
soft
heCounci
l
i
ncl
udet
hePr
esi
dentandVi
ce-
Presi
dentoft
heFeder
alSupr
emeCour
t,si
xot
her
l
egal
exper
ts,
thr
eemember
soft
heHouseofPeopl
es’
Repr
esent
ati
ves.
 Deci
desonmat
ter
srel
ati
ngt
other
ight
sofnat
ions,nat
ional
it
iesandpeopl
est
o
sel
f-
det
ermi
nat
ion.

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egr
am l
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nkt
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og
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Ser
vice

 Det
ermi
nest
hedi
vi
sion ofr
evenuesder
ived f
rom j
ointf
eder
aland st
atet
ax
sour
cesandt
hesubsi
diest
hatt
hef
eder
algov
ernmentmaypr
ovi
det
ost
ates.
 Si
ngl
eoutt
hoseci
vi
lmat
ter
s,whi
chseekenact
mentofl
awsbyt
heHouseof
Peopl
es’
Repr
esent
ati
ves.
 Or
der
sfeder
ali
nter
vent
ioni
ntheev
entofanyst
ate,i
nvi
olat
ionoft
heconst
it
uti
on
endanger
stheconst
it
uti
onal
order
.

 FEDERALJUDI
CIALORGANS

TheConst
it
uti
onenshr
inesabr
oadr
angeofpr
inci
plesofcar
dinali
mpor
tancer
egar
dingt
he
j
udi
ciar
y.Oneoft
hesei
stheest
abl
i
shmentoft
hei
ndependenceoft
hej
udi
ciar
y.Bysodoi
ngi
t
put
sonaf
ir
merpedest
albot
hinst
it
uti
onal
andper
sonal
aut
onomy
.

TheConst
it
uti
onr
ecogni
zesr
eli
giousandcust
omar
ycour
tsandenv
isagest
hei
rest
abl
i
shment
byl
aw,
whi
l
ethoseal
readyf
unct
ioni
ngcont
inuet
oexi
st.

THEEXECUTI
VEORGAN

Theexecut
iveor
gani
stheot
heror
ganofast
ate.Howev
er,
ourdi
scussi
oni
sli
mit
edonl
ytot
he
j
ust
iceor
gan.

A)FEDERALPROSECUTI
ONORGANS

Ther
ear
evar
iouspr
osecut
ionor
gansatt
heFeder
all
evel
.Letusdi
scusst
hem bel
ow.

I
)TheMi
nist
ryofJust
ice

TheMi
nist
ryofJust
icei
spr
inci
pal
l
yandpr
ett
yexcl
usi
vel
yresponsi
blef
ort
hepr
osecut
ionof
f
eder
alcr
imest
hroughoutt
hel
and.I
tsspeci
fi
cpower
sandf
unct
ionsofpr
osecut
ionr
elat
eto
of
fencessubj
ectt
othecr
imi
nalf
ir
sti
nst
anceandappel
l
atej
uri
sdi
cti
onoff
eder
alcour
ts
pr
ovi
dedbyl
aw.TheMi
nist
ryal
soi
nst
it
utes,causest
obei
nst
it
utedori
nter
venesi
nci
vi
l
pr
oceedi
ngsaf
fect
ingt
hepubl
i
candf
eder
algov
ernment
.

I
I)TheFeder
alEt
hicsandAnt
i-
cor
rupt
ionCommi
ssi
on

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egr
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i
nkt
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vice

The commi
ssi
on car
ri
es outexposi
ti
on,i
nvest
igat
ion and pr
osecut
ion ofof
fences of
cor
rupt
ionandi
mpr
opr
iet
yfal
l
ingundert
hej
uri
sdi
cti
onoft
hef
eder
algov
ernment[
ProcNo.
433/
2005.Ar
t6(
3)]
.Accor
dingl
ytheCommi
ssi
onhasgi
vent
hepowert
oinv
est
igat
eorcause
t
hei
nvest
igat
ionofanycompl
aint
sofal
l
egedorsuspect
edser
iousbr
eachesoft
hecodesof
et
hicsf
all
i
ngunderi
tsj
uri
sdi
cti
on[
Proc.No.433/
2005,Ar
t.7(
3)]wi
thr
egar
dtocor
rupt
ion
cr
imes,
theCommi
ssi
onhast
hepowert
oinv
est
igat
eandpr
osecut
eorcauset
hei
nvest
igat
ion
andt
hepr
osecut
ionofanyal
l
egedorsuspect
edcor
rupt
ioncr
imesasspeci
fi
edundert
he
Cr
imi
nalCodef
all
i
ngunderi
tsj
uri
sdi
cti
on[
Proc.No.433/
2005,
Art7(
4)]Si
mil
ari
nst
it
uti
onsar
e
bei
ngest
abl
i
shedi
nther
egi
onal
stat
es.

I
II
)TheSpeci
alPr
osecut
ionOf
fi
ce

I
tappear
sobv
iousf
rom t
he wayi
tisl
abel
l
ed t
hati
tisa pr
osecut
ion i
nst
it
uti
on.I
tis
const
it
utedbyl
awt
oconducti
nvest
igat
ionandpr
osecut
ionofcr
imesofgenoci
deandcr
imes
agai
nsthumani
ty(
whi
char
epuni
shabl
ecr
imesundert
hepenalcodeoft
hecount
ry)by
member
sandof
fi
ci
alsoft
hepr
evi
ousr
egi
me.I
tcar
ri
est
heappel
l
ati
onspeci
albecausei
t
woul
donl
yfunct
ionf
ort
hedur
ati
onoft
hepr
oceedi
ngs.Oncet
hepr
oceedi
ngsar
eov
er(
whi
ch
t
heyappar
ent
lyar
enear
ingcompl
eti
on)i
tshal
lceaset
oexi
stasi
nst
it
uti
on.

I
V)TheEt
hiopi
anRev
enuesandCust
omsPr
osecut
ion

TheEt
hiopi
anr
evenuesandcust
omspr
osecut
ion,j
ustanot
heroft
hef
ewspeci
alpr
osecut
ion
i
nst
it
uti
ons,exer
cisest
hepowerofi
nvest
igat
ionandpr
osecut
ionofcr
imesi
nrespectof
v
iol
ati
onoff
eder
alcust
omsandt
axl
aws[
ProcNo587/
2008,Ar
t6(
10)
].TheAut
hor
it
yshal
l
hav
eit
sowni
nvest
igat
orsandpr
osecut
orsi
nor
dert
ocar
ryoutt
hepoweroni
nvest
igat
ionand
pr
osecut
ion oft
axand cust
omscr
imes[
ProcNo 587/
2008,Ar
t.16]
.The Aut
hor
it
ymay
del
egat
eit
spowerofi
nvest
igat
ionandpr
osecut
iont
oregi
ons[
ProcNo587/
2008,Ar
t.6(
13)
].
Thi
swoul
denabl
etheAut
hor
it
ytocar
ryoni
tspowerpr
oper
ly.

STATEI
NSTI
TUTI
ONS

 STATECounci
l

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i
nkt
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vice

The St
ate Counci
l
s exer
cise excl
usi
vel
egi
slat
ive poweron mat
ter
sfal
l
ing underst
ate
j
uri
sdi
cti
onpr
ovi
dedbyt
heFeder
alConst
it
uti
onandov
ermat
ter
snotexpr
essl
ygi
vent
othe
Feder
aland/
orSt
ateCounci
l
sbyt
heConst
it
uti
on.

 STATECOURTS
 St
atej
udi
ci
alpoweri
svest
ed i
n st
ate cour
ts.The st
ruct
ure oft
he st
ate cour
ts
compr
isesst
atesupr
eme,hi
ghandf
ir
sti
nst
ancecour
ts.Thesecour
tsexer
cisej
udi
cial
aut
hor
it
ywi
thi
nst
atej
uri
sdi
cti
onandt
hej
uri
sdi
cti
onoff
eder
alcour
tsasdel
egat
edby
t
hef
eder
alConst
it
uti
on.

ADMI
NISTRATI
ONOFJUSTI
CEI
NETHI
OPI
A

Cour
tspl
ayagr
eatr
olei
ntheadmi
nist
rat
ionofj
ust
ice.TheFDREConst
it
uti
onmakescl
eart
he
r
oleofcour
ts.Thepr
eambl
eoft
heConst
it
uti
onar
ti
cul
atest
hatt
heNat
ions,Nat
ional
i
tiesand
Peopl
esofEt
hiopi
aar
est
rongl
ycommi
tt
edt
obui
l
dapol
i
ticalcommuni
tyf
oundedont
her
ule
ofl
aw.I
tal
soemphasi
zesont
her
espectofi
ndi
vi
dual
andpeopl
e’
sfundament
alf
reedomsand
r
ight
s[Pr
eambl
e,1stand2ndpar
agr
aphs]
.Thi
sshowst
hecl
oser
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenr
uleofl
aw
andt
her
espectofr
ight
sandf
reedomsi
nEt
hiopi
a.

Thepr
inci
pleofr
uleofl
awandr
espectofr
ight
sisensur
edbyt
heappl
i
cat
ionofl
awsoneach
andev
eryper
sonbyt
hecour
ts.Thegov
ernmenti
srequi
redt
owor
kwi
thi
nthel
i
mit
swi
thout
v
iol
ati
ngt
her
ight
sofi
ndi
vi
dual
sandpeopl
e’
s.Ont
heot
herhand,i
ndi
vi
dual
sar
erequi
redt
o
l
i
veupt
othei
rri
ght
s.Theadmi
nist
rat
ionofj
ust
icemadebycour
tsi
stoadj
udi
cat
eondi
sput
es
soast
oensur
eabal
ancebet
weent
hepowerofst
ateandr
ight
sofi
ndi
vi
dual
s.

I
ngener
al,t
hecour
tisempower
edt
ocheckt
hatt
her
ight
sofi
ndi
vi
dualar
enotabr
idgedor
v
iol
atedbyt
hegov
ernment
.

Lastuni
taboutADR

 Al
ter
nat
ivedi
sput
eresol
uti
oni
samechani
sm t
oset
tl
edi
sput
esoutoft
hecour
tofl
aw.
Ar
bit
rat
ion, medi
ati
on, conci
l
iat
ion ar
e t
ypes of al
ter
nat
ive di
sput
e r
esol
uti
on
mechani
sms.

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vice

 Al
ter
nat
ivedi
sput
emechani
sm of
fer
smor
einf
ormalpr
ocedur
ethant
hatofcour
t i
ti
s, s
expedi
ti
ous,
andl
essexpensi
ve.
 TheEt
hiopi
anpeopl
ear
ever
ymuchaccust
omedt
oset
tl
ethei
rdi
sput
esr
athert
han
goi
ngt
othecour
tsofl
aw.Cust
omar
ylawst
hatar
eeasi
l
yaccessi
blet
othepeopl
ear
e
appl
i
cabl
e.Thus,wehav
eseent
hatset
tl
ingdi
sput
esoutofcour
tisaco-
exi
stent
mechani
sm i
nEt
hiopi
a.
 Cont
radi
cti
onbet
weenf
ormalandt
radi
ti
onmechani
smsofdi
sput
eset
tl
ementi
sver
y
hi
ghi
nEt
hiopi
a.I
nsuchacase,wehav
eobser
vedt
hatt
hef
ormalmechani
smsshoul
d
pr
evai
l
.

end

2.LegalHi
stor
yandTr
adi
ti
ons
UNITONE

Pr
eli
minar
yConsi
der
ati
ons

Defi
ni tionofl egalhi story -iti szst udyoft heor i
ginanddev elopmentofpastl egalsy stems,
bothear lyandmoder nl egal sy stems.
Approachest olegalhi stor y
*uni
tar yori sol
at i
onistappr oach- t hesubj ectofl egalhi storyshouldf ocusont hepast
soci
et iest hemsel ves,t hel egalr ul
es,legalpr inciples,legalstandardsandt hechangest herein
bydi sr egarding factor s such as soci al,pol i
ticaland economi cfort he sole purpose of
under standingthosepastsy st ems.
*holisticort hesoci ol ogicalappr oach-I treferst othei nclusionofeconomi c,r
eligi
ous,soci al
poli
tical inst
it
uti
onsofpastsoci eties.
*techni calapproach- statest hatlegalhi storyshoul dlimititselftogathert helegalproblems
andunder st
andt helegal reasonswhyt hesesol uti
onswer echosenbypastsoci eties.
*mixedappr oachi sacombi nationoft heuni tary ,
thehol i
sticandt echnicalapproaches, bases
i
tselfont heideat hatt het hreeappr oacheshav eposi ti
v eelement s.

Reasonsforst
udyi
nglegalhist
ory
-toclar
if
yt hepresentl
egalsystems,tohelpussolvelegal
pr
oblemsoft oday,al
lowsust obesensit
ivetolegalsystems,asl egalhist
oryr
eveal
st hat
di
ffer
entcommunit
ieshavesolv
edthesamel egal
problemsinquitediff
erentmanner.

Theconceptofl egalsystem-asy ner

gyoflegalr
ules,l
egalpri
nci
ples,l
egalstandar
ds,legal
pol
icies,l
egalst
ructur
es,l egalt
radi
ti
on,l
egalact
ors,legalext
ensi
onandl egalpenet
rati
on
operati
nginagiv
engeogr aphical
area.

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nkt
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Ser
vice

Alegal system mayr efertothepr esentort hepastlegalsystem.

Legalst r
uctur eencompassesl awschool s,barassociati
ons, t
hepol i
ce,cour t
s,thel egisl
ature,
theexecut i
veandpr i
sonadmi nist
r ation.
Classifi
cationofl egalsy stems-Cur rentl
y,thereareaboutt wohundr edlegalsy stemsi nt he
world.
Categor i
zationofl egalsy st
emsoft hewor ldhasacoupl eofi mportance:t echnicaland
authori
ty.Thef i
rstreasoni stechni calbecauset hestudyoft hehistoryofl awsofsoci et
iesis
systemat i
c.
authori
tyi nt hesenset hatthosel egalsy stemst hataregr oupedt ogethercanbor r
ow legal
mat er
ialsfrom oneanot herwher et her earegaps.
Zbasi sofcl assi
fi
cat i
onofal egalsy stem/ l
egaltradi
ti
onr ,Ideol
ogy ,Histori
caldev elopment ,
Disti
nctivelegal modeoft hi
nking,Di stinct
ivelegali
nstit
uti
ons, Sourceoflaw

LegalTr adi
tion-asetofdeepl yr ootedandhi storicall
ycondi ti
onedattit
udeoft hemaj ori
tyof
themember sofagi venlegalsystem towardst heot herelement softhatlegalsyst
em.
Legal t
radit
ionistheabst r
actelementofal egalsystem.
Theat ti
tudedirectedt owardsal egalsystem canbehost i
le,neutralorfavorabl
e.
LegalTr ansplantat i
on-legalbor rowing,legali mportati
on,l egalrecepti
onandl egaltaki
ng.
Legalt r
ansplantationr ef
erstot het r
ansferofl egalr ul
es,legalpri
nciplesandl egalconcepts
from oneormor ethanonel egalsystem toanot herlegalsystem.
Zr easons

-
thel
awsar
eaccessi
blei
nter
msofl
anguage-f
oundoutt
obef
rui
tf
ul

-t
her
eci
pientcount
rydeci
dedt
omoder
nizei
tsl
egal
syst
em

-asar
esul
tofmi
grat
ionorcommer
cial
int
ercour
se

-t
hei
mpor
tantel
i
tesar
eat
tachedt
othel
egal
syst
em andeducat
ionoft
hedonorcount
ry

-
Acount
rymaybef
orcedt
oacceptt
hel
aws

Legalpenet
rat
ion-zaspi
rat
ionorzassumpt
ion

Legalext
ension-t
heex
tentt
owhi
chpeopl
eort
hest
ateact
orsar
eact
ual
l
yfol
l
owi
ngt
he
i
mpor t
edlaws.

Reasonsforthegapr,thei mport
edl awshavenotyetbeensuff
ici
ent
lycommunicatedt
othe
peopl
e,thel
awsar epubli
shedintheEnglishl
anguage,
hugepercent
ageofil
li
ter
atepopul
ati
on,
thel
awswer edefect
ivel
ytranspl
anted.

UNI
TTWO

Anci
entLegalSy
stems
Thr
eeear
lyl
egalsy
stems

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vice

TheBabyl
oni
an( Mesopot
ami
an)legalsy
stem-passedt
hrought
hreest
ages,f
ight
ingb/
n
ki
ngdoms,
comingofHammurabi
,TheCode

Thefi
rstandbasi
cpr
inci
plebehi
ndt
heCodeofHammur
abiwasaney
e-f
or-
aney
epr
inci
pleof
puni
shment.

Thesecondf
eat
ureoft
heCodewast
hati
twasnotsy
stemat
ical
l
ywr
it
ten.

t
heCodewast
heexpr
essi
onoft
heMesopot
ami
anst
hatt
her
uleofl
aw,
ini
tscr
udef
orm

t
heCodel
ast
edf
oral
ongerper
iodoft
ime

2)TheGr eeklegalsy
stem-reached i
tshi gheststagei he5th BC.Thesy
nt st
em star
ted
th nd
decli
ninginthe4 BCandf i
nall
ytocollapseint he2 BCowinglargel
ytot
heconquestof
GreecebytheRomans.

-
theGr
eekdi
dnotbui
l
danempi
re,
unl
i
ket
heRomansandt
heMesopot
ami
ans.

-TheGreekdirect
edt
hei
rener
gyt
oabst
ractt
hinki
ng;t
heywer
enott
echnocr
ats;r
ather
,they
werei
deali
sts.

-TheGr eekci
ty-
stat
eslackedl
egalst
ruct
uressuchascour
ts,pr
osecut
ionof
fi
ces,pol
i
ceand
pr
isons.*sozeyfail
ed2formul
atestr
ongpriv
atelaw.

3)TheRomanl egalsy
stem-Thefir
stphasel
ast
edf
rom 8th BC.t
o2nd BC.I
nthecour
seof
thesecent
uri
es,
Romewasal i
tt
leci
ty.

TheXIITabl
eswasdevel
opedinar esponsetopopul
ardemand;t
hel
owercl
assr
ebel
l
ed
demandi
ngthatt
hel
awhadtobeknowninadvance.

TheXI ITabl
esref
lect
edthebel
i
efont hepartoftheRomansthatl
aw shoul
dbewrit
teni
n
advance,communi
catedt
othegover
nedandthelawhadtobel
efttot
hejudgesal
onet
oappl
y
andinter
pret
.

Pri
ortot
hecr
eat
ionoft
heXI
ITabl
es,
theRomansbel
i
evedt
hatl
awswer
emadeandmodi
fi
ed
bygods.

Thenextst
agel
ast
edf
rom 2ndBCt
hrough2ndAD,
for
medanempi
re.

Forzbi gpoweranel
abor
ateandsoundpri
vat
elaw wasneeded.Thi
swast
heper i
odoft
he
Classi
cRomanPr i
vat
eLaw.Romanpriv
atel
awoftheperi
odwassoundbothtechni
cal
l
yand
phil
osophi
cal
ly.

Romedisi
ntegr
atedaf
t he2nd AD,di
ert vi
dedi
ntotwo:t
heWesternandtheEast
ernpar
ts.The
West
ernRomanpar twasconqueredbytheGer
mant r
ibescal
l
edBarbari
ans&cameupwi th

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egr
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nkt
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Ser
vice

t
hei
rownl
aws.

TheEaster
nRomanempire,al
socal
l
edtheBy
zant
ineEmpir
e,sur
viv
edupto15th cent
uryAD.
EmperorJust
ini
an(
527-
565A. D.
)wasoneofthefamousemperorsoft
heEast ernRoman
Empi
re.

Hesponsor
edacodecal l
edCor
pusJur
isCiv
il
isi
nthe6thC.Thi
scodei
stakenastheori
ginof
t
heci
vil
lawtradi
ti
on.Jur
ist
scoi
nedt
heter
m` j
ust
ice`af
tert
henameofEmperorJust
ini
an.

TheJust
ini
anl
egi
sl
ati
oni
sdi
vi
dedi
ntof
ourpar
ts

*TheCode:TheJustini
anCodecont
ainstheent
ir
ebodyofimperi
all
egi
slat
ion.i
tincl
udes
i
mperi
aldecreesi
ssuedpri
ortotheday sofEmperorConst
ant
ineandaf t
erthedaysof
Emper
orTheodosi
an

*TheDigest:contai
nsfragment
sofclassi
caltext
sdigest
edaccordi
ngtothesubj
ectmat
ter
st t
h
r
egul
ated.1 centuryB.
C.tothe4 cent
uryA.D.
,2000bookswereexamined.

*TheI
nst
it
utes-
arebasi
cal
l
yat
ext
bookenact
edi
ntol
awf
oreducat
ional
pur
poses.

*TheNovel
lae:new i
mper
ialdecr
ees,i
sacollect
ionofdecreesi
ssuedbyJust
ini
an,cont
ain
pr
ovi
si
onsconcerni
ngadmi
nistr
ati
veref
orms,
churchpoli
cies,
andpri
vat
elaw.

CommonFeat
ures

Z3l egalsy
stemsoper atedont heassumpt i
ont hathumanbei ngswer eunequalegslaver
y,
f
oreigner
sdidhav efewri
ght s,hadshownanamazi ngdegreeofstabil
i
ty,assumedthatl
aws
weremadeandmodi fi
edbysuper natur
alenti
ty,
lawsi ni
ti
all
ywerenon-technical
,whi
chmeans
t
helegalrul
eslackeddevelopedprinci
plesanddevelopedinsti
tut
ions.

UNITTHREE
MajorLegalTr
adit
ionsoftheWor
ld
3.
1TheFr enchLegalSyst
em

Civi
llaw-TheFrenchl
egalsy
stem bel
ongst
otheci
vi
llawt
radi
ti
on&hasbor
rowedl
egalst
yle
fr
om Romanl aw.

i
near l
yandcl
assi aw,j
calRomanl usci
vi
lewast
hel
aw gov
erni
ngt
her
elat
ionsofRoman
ci
ti
zens.

I
n moderntimes,theter
m ``ci
vi
llaw`
`referstothosel
egalsy
stems,especi
all
yinthei
r
met
hodologyandter
minol
ogy
,shapeddeci
sivel
ybyt
heRomanlawschol
arsf
rom Middl
eAges
t
h
t
othe19 C.

Theer
aofcust
omar
ylawsi
nFr
ance-Bef
oret
heFr
enchRev
olut
ion,
tradi
ti
onal
cust
omar
ylaws

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vice

prev
ailedinthenort
h.Therul
eswer
eGermani
ccustomswhil
eRomanl
aw i
nfl
uencedt
he
southernpar
tofFr
ance.Romanl
awgr
adual
l
yspr
eadnort
hwar
ds.

Francereceiv
edRomanl awbecauseonthegroundthati
thadbeenaccept
edbycust
om orby
reasonofitsquali
ty.Theexi
stenceofdi
ver
secustomaryr
ulesandedict
scr
eat
edsomedegree
oflegal
uncer t
aint
yinFrance,& needf
orasingl
e,uni
fi
edcodeoflaws.

I
nthei
rmovetoel
i
minat
elegaluncer
tai
nty
,somepr
act
it
ioner
sat
tempt
edt
orecor
dcust
omar
y
l
awsofpar
ti
cul
arr
egi
onsinFrance.

Therecor
dingofcust
omaryrul
essav
edFr
ancef
rom t
hemassi
ver
ecept
ionofRomanl
aw,
whi
chtookplacei
nGermany.

Thedri
vetowar
dscodi
fi
cat
ion-TheCour
tofPari
s,whi
chhadverywidejur
isdi
cti
oni
nthe16th
cent
ury
,wasoneoft
hekeyactor
sinFr
ance’
sef
fortt
ounif
yit
spri
vat
el aw.

Pr
acti
ti
oner
sandr oyaladmi
nist
rat
orsal
sof av
oredunif
icat
ionofl
aw i
nFr
ance.Theki
ng
pl
ayedanimpor
tantr
olebyor
deri
ngcompi
lat
ionofcust
oms.

Ont
heev
eoft
heRev
olut
ion,
all
thei
mpor
tantcust
omar
yrul
eswer
ecodi
fi
ed.

TheRevolut
ionar
yPeri
od(1789–1799)
-TheRevolut
ionar
yleader
sgav
eupt
hei
deaofhav
ing
gener
alcodesandinst
eadtheyi
ntr
oducedpar
ti
alchanges.

Underthegover
nmentofNapol
eon,Franceadopt
edacomprehensiv
ecodeofl
awin1804.The
codeincl
udedmanyoft hevi
ctor
iesobtai
nedduri
ngtheRevol
utionsuchasi
ndi
vi
dualli
bert
y
andequali
tybef
oret
helaw.

i
ncorporat
edmostpar t
sofRomanl aw.Itbecameamodelf orcivi
llaw syst
ems.I
tsmost
i
mpor t
antaspectoft
hecodewasthatt
helawwaswr i
tt
en,asopposedtojudge-
made,andi
na
non-
techni
calstyl
eandthusmoreaccessi
bletothepubl
i
c.Itregul
atedmuchofpr i
vatel
aw
matt
ers.

TheCodeCi vi
lisfoundedontheideaoft
heEnlightenment&asawhol ewashi ghl
yinf
luenced
bythetheoryofnaturall
aw.
OnlyinFrancewast heCodewast hepr
oductofar evolut
ionar
ymov ement
.OnlyinFr ance,
ther
ewascompl et
ehar monybet
weensocialr
ealit
yandt heideaofsociet
yonwhichthecode
wasbased.

Spr
eadofFrenchl aw:Frenchlaw spr
eadfir
sttoEur
ope,then,toAf
ri
ca,Asi
aandLat
in
Ameri
ca&wastransplant
edtoEuropepr
imar
il
ythr
oughmil
i
tar
yf or
ce.

3.2TheGermanLegalSyst
em
Background-bel
ongst
ot heciv
illaw t
radi
ti
on,hasbor r
owedlegalst
ylefrom Romanlaw,
t
hC
emergedinthe11 wit
hthedevelopmentandorgani
zat
ionoft
hecity
-st
atesandpri
nci
pal
i
ties.

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vice

Dur ingthe13th cent ur

y ,Germanl awf oll
owedt hemov ementt owardscompi lat
ionandf urt
her
refinement soft heterri
t ori
alandf eudal l
awoft her egi on.
Ger manycamei ncont actwi thRomanl awr el
ativelylat e( bythemi ddleat15thcentur
y).
Ther educti
onofi mper ialpoweri nf avoroftoomanypr i
ncipalit
ieswasv eryconduciv et othe
recept i
onofRomanl aw.Ther ewasnocommonpr ivatel aw,nocommonGer mancour t s
syst em,andnocommonf rater
ni t
yofl awyers,whi chcoul dhav eopposedanddel ayedt he
i
ntr oducti
onofRomanl aw.
ther ewer enost rongcent r
alcour tsendowedwi thr oy alaut horit
y,noranygr oupofr oyali
st
l
awy erstomaket heeffor tt
opr oduceauni fi
edpr ivat el aw.Romanl awwasnotconsi deredas
af oreignlaw.
Moder nGer manl aw act ual
lybegi nswi thther evi
v edi nteresti nnaturall
aw combi nedwi t
ha
mov ementf ornat i
onal codifi
cation.
ThePadect istSchool :I twast hehi stori
calschoolofl awt hatpr oducedthePandect i
stschool
whoseonl yai m wast hedogmat icandsy stemat i
cst udyofRomanl awmat eri
al.
Thef ir
stmov et owardst hecodi fi
cationsofuni f
iedGer manpr iv
atelaw occurredaboutt he
t
h
middl eof19 ,t hepacemaker sbei ngcommer ci
all awandt hel awofnegot i
ableinstrument s.
Theenact mentoft heGer manci vilcodewasnotaccompl i
shedunt i
l1896.Itcamei nt oforce
on1Januar y1900.

Ithadunnecessaryschol
asti
cstructur
e.Thisstruct
urei
sther esultofthei nf
luenceoft he
abstr
actconcept
uali
sm ofthePandecti
stSchool
.TheCodeusesl egalj
argons.Thecodehasa
complicat
edsyst
em ofcross-
ref
erences.I
tignor
edmanylegal
traditi
onsofGer manicori
gins.

TheGermancodeswerenottr
anspor
tedsoextensi
vel
yast heFrenchcodes.Theywere
tr
anspl
ant
edatt
heendoft
he19t
hcenturyt
oJapanandther
eaf
tert
osomeAf r
icancount
ri
es.

Ger
manydi dhavefewcolonies,asshewasal at
ecomertothescr
ambl efordi
ff
erentpar
tsof
t
hewor l
d,t
hecodeswer eabi t
esophist
icat
edandcomplex,
whent heGermancodeswer eput
i
nplaceatthebeginni
ngofthe20t hcentur
yinGermany,
manycount r
ieshadalr
eadyadopted
l
awsfrom FranceandGreatBri
tain.

3.
3TheCommonLawTr
adi
ti
on-Br
it
ishandAmer
icanl
egalsy
stem gi
ver
ecogni
ti
ont
ojudge-
madel
aws.

TheBri
ti
shl
egalsy
st em-hasmai nt
ainedit
sel
fwit
houtmajori
nter
rupt
i nce11th cent
onsi ury
t
h
whi
let
heAmeri
canlegalsy
stem hassurvi
vedsi
nce17 cent
ury.

i
sdev
otedt
othecar
eful
andr
eal
i
sti
cdi
scussi
onofl
i
vepr
obl
em.

Amer
icanj
udgeHol
mes:
``t
hel
i
feoft
hel
awhasnotbeenl
ogi
c;i
thasbeenexper
ience`
`

Thei
nfl
uenceofRomanl
awont
hecommonl
awofEngl
andhasbeenmi
nor
.

Engl
andcr
eat
edt
hecommonl
awi
nthe14thcent
ury
.

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vice

Equit
yisapartofsubst
antiv
el awdisti
ngui
shedfr
om therestbyt
hef
actt
hati
twasdev
eloped
bythedeci
sionsofa part
icularcourt
,theCour
tofChancell
or.

Therul
esofequi
tydi
dnotseekt
orepl
acet
hecommonl
aw.I
nst
ead,equi
tysuppl
ement
sto
thecommonlaw.

The I
nfluence ofRoman law:Fortwo reasons Engl
and neverr
ecei
ved Roman l
aw in
comprehensiveway.Theclosedor
gani
zati
on,thepr of
essi
onalsol
i
dari
ty,andthepol
it
ical
i
nfl
uencewhi chthecl
assofEngl
i
shl
awyer
s.

SpreadofBri
ti
shlaws:Ori
ginat n11th cent
edi ury
,theEngli
shlegalt
radi
ti
onexpandedi
tself
predomi
nat
elythr
oughcol
onial
ism.Theexpression``
thesunnev
ersetsintheBr
it
ishEmpi
re``

TheAmer icanLegalSy stem-Thecol oniesset tl

eddisputesbypri
estsapplyingt hev ersesof
theHolyBi ble.Thecoloni
eshadhadl ooseconnect i
onwi t
honeanother.
(zageoft heocracy)
Thecol oniesmadei mpor t
antexcept i
onst othecommonl aw.Thecol oniesr efl
ectedt hat
excepti
onbyi ssui
ngspecialstat
utes.
Theemer genceoft heprofessor
sandt heirinfl
uenceledtosomechanges.Fi rst,itresult
edi n
thegradual weakeningoftheextremei ndividual
ist
ici
deasoftheperi
od.
Someoft hel awprofessorsarguedthatl awi snotprecedent
,nortobef oundi nt hestatutes.
Butlawiswhatt hecourtsandoffici
alsdo.Thi stheoryoflawi
sknownasl egal reali
sm.

It
sel
fapr oductof17th and18th cent
uri
estransplantati
onoftheBri
ti
shlegalsyst
em,t helegal
syst
em oftheUnitedSt atesofAmer i
ca(especiall
yconsti
tut
ionall
aw,cri
minalprocedureand
anti
-t
rustl
aw)wast akent oJapani mmediatelyaftertheWW2.

Viatheinf
luenceofint
ernationalor
gani
zat
ionssuchast
heIMFandt heWorl
dBank,some
aspect
sofconstit
uti
onallawoft heUnit
edStat
esofAmer
icawast
ranspor
tedt
ocountr
iesi
n
Lati
nAmerica,Af
ri
caandAsi a.

Shar
edFeaturesoftheWest
ernLegalTr
adi
ti
ons:Themostobv
iousf
eat
ureofmoder
nci
vi
l
l
awisthati
tiscodi
fi
ed.

Anotherpromi
nentf
eat
ureofmoder
nci
vi
llawi
stheshar
pdi
sti
nct
ionbet
weenpubl
i
clawand
pr
ivatelaw.

Moder
nci
vi
llawmakesashar
pdi
sti
nct
ionbet
weensubst
ant
ivel
awandpr
ocedur
e.

3.4TheSoci alistLegalTradit
ion
Origi
n:Thesoci ali
stlegaltr
aditi
onor i
ginatedattheti
meoft heOct oberRevolut
ionof1917.
Beforethatev ent,thedominantlegaltr
aditi
onintheRussi
anEmpirewast heci
vi
l l
aw.
Pri
mi t
ivesociet yversuscommuni sm:Thest at
eofaffai
rsenvi
sageundercommuni sm seems
tobesimi l
artot heconditi
onst hatprevai
ledduri
ngthepri
miti
vesociety.
I
nbot hpr i
mi t
iveandcommuni stsystems,economi ccl
asses,pr
ivatepropert
y,thestateand
l
awar enon- existent.

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vice

To t he Mar xi
st-
Leninist,howev er ,the early societyr epresent
ed notcommuni sm,but
communal i
sm.
Perceptionaboutlaw:Thesoci alistatti
tudeisthatal llawi saninstr
umentofeconomi cand
socialpoli
cy.
Lawemer gedasani nstrumentforr egulati
ngtheext ernalconductoftheev i
lman.
Purposesofsoci al
istlaw:Thehi storicalmissi
onofsoci al
istl
awi stoadvancesoci
etytowards
social
ism andulti
mat el
yt owar
dscommuni sm.
Social
istlawisfeaturedbyt het raditi
onofcodi fi
cation.Itdoesnotr ecogni
zethedivi
sionof
l
awi ntopublicandpr i
vatelaw.Soci ali
stlegalt
radit
ionsconsi derall
lawaspubl i
c.

Spreadofsoci al
istlaws-soci ali
stl aw wasr ootedi nt hephi l
osophyofMar xandEngl e’s;i n
t
h
earl
y20 c,r ev oluti
onar iesinRussi aconv ertedt hisant i
-westerndomi nantthinki
ngaboutl aw
andsoci et ytoaf ul
l-
fledgedl egalsy stem.
3.5TheI slami cLegalTr aditi
on
owesi t
sor igint odi v
inepower -Al l
ah, encompassest hespi ri
tualaswel last hesecul ar
t
h t
h
acti
vit
iesofMusl ims.I ti nt
erplayedwi t hcommonl awandci vill
awsy st
emsi n19 and20 C.
Shari
’a,whi chcanbel i
terall
yt r
ansl atedas" t
her oadt ot hewat eringplace"or" t
hecl earpat h
tobef ollowed, "meansi nt helegalcont ext,"thesacr edl aw ofI slam."I tencompassest he
enti
resy stem ofI slami claw,di ct ati
ngpenall awsanddai l
yr el
igious,social,andper sonal
i
nteractions.
Musliml egal schol arsadmi tthattheShar i
al awi snotputi nacompr ehensiveandor derl
yf or m.
Therear eet hics, hi
st ory,wisdom, sayingsandl egisl
ationi ntheHol yKoran.Itisthetotali
t yof
rul
es,whi chAl lahhasl aiddownandr evealedt oPr ophetMohammedf orgoverningman' s
behavior.
Thef i
rstandmosti mpor t
antsour ceofShar i'
aist heHol yKor an.
Qiyascomest ooper ationwhent heot herthreesour cesofl awbecomei nadequatetoaddr ess
agivenl egal issue.

TheSunaist
hesecondsour
ceofI
slami
claw.I
tist
het
otal
i
tyoft
hei
nspi
redpr
act
icesoft
he
prophet
.

I
jma,
ist
heconsensusofI
slami
clegal
schol
arsonanypar
ti
cul
arpoi
ntofl
aw.

Thefi
nalmajorsour
cei
stheconceptofdeduct
ionbyanal
ogy
,Qi
yas,
whi
chi
nvol
vest
heuseof
l
ogicandreason.

Degr
eeofexter
nalinfl
uence:I
ncaseswher
etheconfl
icthasbeenl
essmani
fest
,accept
ance
ofwest
erncommercialandmari
ti
melawwassuccessf
ul.

SpreadofIslamiclaw-hasbeent akentot
hecoast
alpart
sofWest,Nor
th,EastandSout
hEast
Afri
ca,onsomeoccasi onsalsot odeepint
otheheartofAfri
ca,owingt osuchfact
orsas
commer ci
al i
nter
courseandmi gr
ation.
3.6TheAf r
icanLegalTradi
ti
ons
Thedead,godsandt heli
vi
ngar econsi
der
edtobet heact
orsresponsibl
eformakingthe
Afri
canlaws.

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vice

Ther ul
esgov erningunderdev elopedsocieti
esdealbothwi t
hbehav i
orandwiththesett
lement
ofdisputes.
Features-Afri
canl egislativ
eisinvisi
ble:composedofgodsandancest or
s.
Afr
icanl aw seekst opr eservethegr oupandpeace,seest hewomangener al
lyasinferi
orto
man, Concil
iati
onpl aysav eryimportantpart
,Cust
om ist henatural
source,
unwrit
ten.
Moder nAfri
canl awi sacol l
ecti
onofl awsandhabitsoflegalthought.
Externalcontacts:Africanl awhasnotescapedout sideinfl
uence.

syst
emsofmostAf r
icancount
ri
esal
l
owcour
tst
oappl
yAf
ri
canCust
omar
yLaw,t
houghwi
th
somerest
ri
cti
ons.

LegalConv
ergenceandDi
ver
gence

Legalconv er
gencebri
ngsl egalsyst
emsoft heworld cl
oserto oneanot
herwhilel
egal
di
vergencedrift
sthem apar
t.Itsi
mpli
fi
esl
egalrul
esandinst
it
uti
onsfort
helawyer
s,asl
egal
convergencerest
sonunifor
mity.

Legaldiv
ergence,ontheot
herhand,compl
i
cat
esl
egalr
ulesandi
nst
it
uti
ons,asi
trest
son
essent
ialdi
ff
erences.

Legal
conv
ergencebr
ingsaboutsi
mpl
i
cit
yandcer
tai
ntyi
ntheappl
i
cat
ionofl
aws.

fact
orscontr
ibut
ersinglemarket
,thet
rendtowar
dsconv
ergenceofEur
opeansy
stems,t
he
growingi
nfl
uenceofEuropeanCommuni
tylawonECMemberStates.

Appr
oachest
oDi
ver
genceandConv
ergence

1)
Thejuscommunet heor
y-intheerabef
oret
heri
seofthenati
onSt
ate,t
heent
ir
e‘ci
vi
li
zed
worl
d'wasgov
ernedbyonelegalsy
stem:t
heRoman- cj
Canoni uscommune.

2)
Legalevol
utiontheor
y:pr
oceedsont hebasi
st hatl
egalchangeisanatur
alpr
ocess,whi
ch
wi
llpr
oceedinevi
tabl
yandir
resi
sti
blybecausei
tiscontr
oll
edbyf or
cesbey
ondhumanpower.

3)Natur
allawtheor
y:arguesthatthecommonnatureofhumanbei
ngswi
l
lev
ent
ual
l
yleadt
o
thecr
eati
onofsimil
arsocial
struct
ures,
lawsandl
egalsy
stems.

4)TheMarxistt
heory-arguesthatl
aw ismeresuper
structur
e. Accor
dingl
y,law i
smer
ely
anot
heri
nst
rumentforthefurt
her
anceofcer
tai
neconomic,soci
alandpol
iti
cali
deals.

Modesofconv
ergence

-
Act
ivepr
ogr
amsf
ort
heuni
fi
cat
ionofl
aw -Legal
transpl
ant
ati
on

-Nat
ural
conv
ergence -Cur
rentdev
elopment
s

UNI
TTWO

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egr
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i
nkt
.me/
ethi
olawbl
og
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Ser
vice

Aspect
soft
heLegal
Syst
em ofEt
hiopi
a

Concept
ionsofLaw i
nEthiopi
a-Thefoundati
onofthenatur
allaw t
heor
yisthebeli
eft
hat
l
awisdivinebyi
tsv
erynature,
andt
hatlawissomet
hingcoevalwit
hmankindi
tsel
f.
TheSour cesoftheSixCodes-Alegaldocumentmaybeaconsti
tut
ion,apr ocl
amat
ion,a
regul
ati
on,adi
rect
ive,
atest
amentandanyotherl
egal
document,
Mat
eri
al sour
ce

Zesemaybeobtai
nedfrom publ
i
copi
nion,per
ti
nentbooks,exper
ts,pastl
egi
slat
ion,f
orei
gn
sour
cesandr
esear
ch,
etc.

ZSourcesoft
hesixcodesrequity
,reli
giousper
cept
s,nat
urall
aw,t
heFet
haNagast
,tr
eat
ies,
Cust
omaryLaws,
FeweseMenf esawi,z1930PenalCode,

Cases:Ont wooccasions,Et hi
opiacompiledpastdecisions,i
n1908byEmper orMenilikeII
and1950` sbyEmperorHai l
esel
assi
eI .Thef i
rstatt
emptatcompi l
ati
onofjudgementswas
madef orthepur
poseofenhanci ngpredictabil
i
tyinthel
egalsy st
em ofthecountr
y.Thel att
er
compil
ationofpastdecisionswasmadewi t
hthev i
ewtogi vi
nginformati
ontothedraft
er sof
thesi
xcodes.Andcompi l
ationofpastdecisi
onsimmedi atel
ybeforethecodi
fi
cati
onprojectin
Ethi
opi
awascal l
edtheDi gestoftheOldEthiopianJudgments.

Stat
utes:I
n1920`s,earl
y1930`sand1940`sEthi
opi
apassedsev
eralstat
utes.Thefoll
owing
maybeci t
ed asexampl es:t
henati
onali
tylaw,companylaw,loan l
aw,bankruptcylaw,
busi
nessregist
rat
ionl
awandbankingl
aw.

Justi
ficat
ions:
-Onereasoni
sthecountr
y’sexposuretocodifi
caton.FeweseMef
i esawi,The
FethaNagast,The1930PenalCode,
Ther
ewer eseveralst
atut
esissuedin1920`
s,1930`
sand
1940`s.

-
Pol
i
cyi
nst
ruct
ions

*Amicuscuri
aesuggeststhatint
er est
edi ndi
vidual
sshouldbegivenachancetopart
icipat
ein
t
headminist
rati
onofjust
ice.Thet erm``inter
estedindi
vi
dual
s``i
sv er
ybroadforsur
et heterm
i
ncl
udestheparti
esdi
rectl
yaffectedbyt heout comeofagivenli
ti
gati
on.

Const
it
uti
onalDev
elopmentofEt
hiopi
a-t
he1931,
1955,
1987and1995const
it
uti
ons.

Inthey ear1974/75,EmperorHail
eselassi
eIsponsoredadr af
tconstit
uti
on.Thedraf
twas
fi
nalized.Thepr i
ncipalai
m ofthedraf
tconsti
tut
ionwast ocalm downt hevari
ousupr
isi
ngs
againsthisrule,
amongot her
s,bytr
yingtoputaconsti
tut
ional
monar chyi
nplace.

ስለ-
ሕግ AboutLaw Tel
egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
ethi
olawbl
og
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Ser
vice

3.JURI
SPRUDENCE

UNI
TONE
GENERALCONSI
DERATI
ONS

Whati
sJur
ispr
udence-comesf
rom t
heLat
int
ermj
uri
spr
udent
ia,whi
chmeans"
thest
udy
,
knowl
edge,orsci
enceofl
aw.
"Thi
ssi
gni
fi
est
hatl
i
keanyot
hersoci
alst
udy
,lawcanal
sobe
st
udi
edsci
ent
if
ical
l
yorsy
stemat
ical
l
y.

i
tseekst
oanal
yze,
expl
ain,
classi
fy,
andcr
it
ici
zeent
ir
ebodi
esofl
aw.

I
tcompar
esandcont
rast
slaw wi
thot
herf
iel
dsofknowl
edgesuchasl
i
ter
atur
e,economi
cs,
r
eli
gion,
andt
hesoci
alsci
ences.

I
trai
ses f
undament
alquest
ions aboutt
he l
aw i
tsel
f& f
ocuses on ev
en mor
e abst
ract
quest
ions,
incl
udi
ng,
whati
slaw?

Whywest
udyJur
ispr
udence-i
tdev
elopst
heabi
l
ityt
oanal
yzeandt
othi
nkcr
it
ical
l
yand
cr
eat
ivel
yaboutt
hel
aw.

Atapr
ofessi
onall
evel
,jur
ispr
udencei
sthewayl
awy
ersandj
udgesr
efl
ectonwhatt
heydo
andwhatt
hei
rrol
eiswi
thi
nsoci
ety
.

School
sofJur
ispr
udence
1)Nat
ural
LawSchool 2)Legal
Posi
ti
vi
sm (
Anal
yti
cal
School
)

3)Hi
stor
icalSchool
:vi
ewsl
awasanev
olut
ionar
ypr
ocessandconcent
rat
esont
heor
igi
nand
hi
stor
yoft
hel
egal
syst
em.

4)Soci
ologi
calSchool
:Unl
i
ket
heHi
stor
icalSchoolt
hatconcei
vesanat
ion’
slawast
iedt
othe
pr
imi
ti
veconsci
ousnessofi
tspeopl
e,soci
ologi
calconcept
ionofl
aw l
ocat
ethel
aw i
nthe
pr
esent
-dayi
nst
it
uti
onsofi
tssoci
ety
.

ስለ-
ሕግ AboutLaw Tel
egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
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og
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Ser
vice

5)LegalReal
ism-concei
vesl
awasj
udgemadeandbydoi
ngsoi
tput
sthecour
tatt
hecent
er.

UNI
TTWO

CLASSI
CALNATURALLAW THEORY
TheNoti
onofNat
uralLaw-i
tsadher
ent
sbel
i
evet
hatbey
ond,
andsuper
iort
othel
awmadeby
manar
ecer
tai
nhi
gherpr
inci
ples,
thepr
inci
plesofnat
ural
law.

I
tcompr
isesabodyofper
manent
,et
ernalt
rut
hs,t
rut
hsembody
ingpr
ecept
sofuni
ver
sal
appl
i
cabi
l
ity
,par
tofi
mmut
abl
eor
deroft
hings,unaf
fect
edbychangi
nghumanbel
i
efsor
at
ti
tudes.

Anci
entGreece:Nat
uralLawasSourceofJust
iceandVi
rt
ue
1)
Socrat
es-hisideaoflawasrecor
dedinApologyandCr
it
o,t
wodi
ff
erentwr
it
ingswr
it
tenby
hi
spupi
lPl
ato.Apol
ogyi
sal
laboutSocr
ates’
def
ensei
ncour
t,whi
l
eCr
it
oisadi
scour
semade
bet
weenSocr
atesandhi
sfr
iendCr
it
oinpr
ison.

I
nhi
sapol
ogy,hei
mpor
tant
lysai
dthati
twasgoodt
oobeyt
hel
aw andt
heor
derofa
commandersol
ongast
heyar
ejust
.

Socr
atesj
ust
if
iedt
hecoer
civ
epoweroft
hest
atel
aws(
posi
ti
vel
aw)andt
her
ebyuphol
ding
andr
espect
ingt
hedeci
sionoft
hecour
ts(
nott
oescapef
rom pr
ison)ont
hreegr
ounds.

*onmor
algr
ounds,
todoi
njust
icei
nret
urnf
ori
njust
iceort
oret
urnhar
mforhar
misal
sobad.

*ci
ti
zensar
enotj
ust
if
iedt
oback-
har
mthei
rcount
rywhat
everhar
mthecount
rycausedt
o
t
hem.

*t
her
ewasat
aci
tagr
eementbet
weenSocr
ates(
andot
herci
ti
zensf
ort
hatmat
ter
)andt
he
st
ateofAt
hens

2)Pl
ato-concer
nedt
oredef
inet
henat
ureofj
ust
icebyr
elat
ingi
ttosomet
hingf
armor
e
per
manentandabsol
utet henomos(
hant man-
madel
aws)oft
heci
ty-
stat
e.

3)Ar
ist
otl
e-Ther
ear
etwosor
tsofpol
i
ticalj
ust
ice,
onenat
uralandt
heot
herl
egal
.Thenat
ural
i
sthatwhi
chhast
hesamev
ali
dit
yev
ery
wher
e(asf
ir
ebur
nsbot
hinGr
eekandi
nPer
siaar
e

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egr
am l
i
nkt
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Ser
vice

t
hesame)anddoesnotdependuponaccept
ance;t
hel
egali
sthatwhi
chi
nthef
ir
stpl
acecan
t
akeonef
orm oranot
heri
ndi
ff
erent
ly.

TheSt
oics:Nat
uralLawasaReason-exi
stedf
rom t
hel
i
fet
imeofi
tsf
ounderZeno(
dur
ingt
he
3rd cent
uryBC)downt
oaboutt
hef
our
thcent
uryAD&r
epr
esent
edbyt
hewr
it
ingsofCi
cer
o,
Seneca,
andt
heEmper
orMar
cusAur
eli
us.

 Theconcept
ionofauni
ver
sal
lawf
oral
lmanki
ndunderwhi
chal
lmenar
eequal
;
 Thei
deaofamet
hodofder
ivi
nguni
ver
salpr
inci
plesofl
awf
rom t
heobser
vat
ionoft
he
l
awsofdi
ff
erentpeopl
e;
 Andt
heconcept
ionofal
aw bi
ndi
nguponal
lst
ates,whi
chhasgott
odayt
hename
“
int
ernat
ional
law”
.
St
oicsaddedf
lesht
othebonesofnat
urall
aw.Tol
erance,f
orgi
veness,compassi
on,f
ort
it
ude,
upr
ight
ness,si
ncer
it
y,honest
y–t
hesewer
ethequal
i
tiest
hatt
heSt
oicsbel
i
evedt
hatnat
ural
l
awr
equi
redofmen.

Ci
cer
o-Law i
sthehi
ghestr
eason,i
mpl
ant
edi
nnat
ure,whi
chcommandswhatoughtt
obe
doneandf
orbi
dst
heopposi
te.Tr
uel
aw i
sri
ghtr
easoni
nagr
eementwi
thnat
ure.Tocur
tai
l
t
hisl
awi
sunhol
y,t
oamendi
til
l
ici
t,t
orepeal
iti
mpossi
ble.

Senecahasal
soemphasi
zedt
heneedf
orr
ati
onal
appr
oach,
i.
e.t
hatmanshal
ll
iv
einhar
mony
wi
thnat
ure.

Chr
ist
iani
ty:
Nat
uralLawasMor
ali
ty

St
.August
i ppo-DeCi
neofHi vi
tat
eDei(
theCi
tyofGod)
,thewi
l
lofGodi
sthenseenast
he
hi
ghestl
aw,
eter
nal
law,
foral
lpeopl
e.

Not
hingwhi
chi
sjusti
stobef
oundi
nposi
ti
vel
awwhi
chhasnotbeender
ivedf
rom et
ernal
law.

St nas-SummaTheol
.ThomasAqui ogi
ca,(
1)Et
ernalLaw;(
2)Di
vi
neLaw;(
3)Nat
uralLaw;and
(
4)HumanLaw

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egr
am l
i
nkt
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og
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Ser
vice

Nat
ureofManandJust
if
icat
ionf
orLaw-Themedi
evalpoweroft
hechur
chdi
ssol
vedwi
tht
he
comi
ngofRenai
ssanceandpol
i
ticalwr
it
erssuchHobbes,
LockeandRousseau.
TomasHobbes-Lev
iat
han,post
ulat
esanat
uralcondi
ti
onofmanki
ndi
nor
dert
oexpl
aint
he
or
igi
nandnat
ureoft
hest
ateandt
oshowt
hej
ust
if
icat
ionsbehi
ndast
rongsov
erei
gnpower
.
Hei
magi
nedanat
uralcondi
ti
onofman,
t medasSt
er ateofNat
ure,i
nwhi
cht
her
ewasnol
aw
andgov
ernment
.

JohnLocke-TheSecondTr
eat
iseofCi
vi
lGover
nment
,Unl
i
ket
heHobbessi
anpi
ctur
eofman’
s
nat
uralcondi
ti
on,
whi
chwasast
ateofper
pet
ualwar
far
e,Lockedepi
ctst
hest
ateofnat
ureas
oneofpeacei
nwhi
chmostmenr
espectt
hel
i
ves,l
i
ber
ti
es,andest
atesofot
her
s.Thesear
e
t
henat
uralr
ight
sofman,gi
vent
ohi
m byt
hel
aw ofnat
urewhi
chcommandst
hat“
noone
oughtt
ohar
minhi
sli
fe,
heal
th,
li
ber
ty,
andpossessi
on”
.

Kel
sen’
sCr
it
ici
sm onNat
uralLawTheor
y

-
Nat
urall
awconf
usesv
alueandr
eal
i
ty-Val
uei
snoti
mmanenti
nnat
uralr
eal
i
ty.Hencev
alue
cannotbededucedf
rom r
eal
i
ty.
-
Good/
Badcont
radi
cti
on-Nat
urall
awy
ersj
ust
if
yposi
ti
vel
aw(
man-
madeorhumanl
aw)ont
he
gr
oundt
hatt
hesear
eneededbecauseofman’
sbadness.Att
hesamet
imet
hei
rdoct
ri
ne
r
equi
resanassumpt
iont
hatmani
sgood,
becausei
tisf
rom humannat
uret
hatt
hepr
inci
pleof
nat
ural
lawar
etobededuct
ed.
-
Insi
ncer
it
y-Wher
eal
awoft
hest
ateconf
li
ctswi
thnat
urall
awdonat
urall
awy
ersi
nfactsay
t
hataci
ti
zenshoul
ddi
sobeyi
t?
-
Absol
utev
aluesandRel
ati
vev
alues-knowl
edgei
srel
ati
vet
otheper
sonseeki
ngi
t.Real
i
ty
exi
stsonl
yinr
elat
iont
oourownf
eel
i
ngsandconv
ict
ions.
So,
ther
eisonenat
urebutwehav
edi
ff
erentsy
stemsofl
aw;
dif
fer
entbel
i
efsofgoodnessand
badness.

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egr
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i
nkt
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Ser
vice

UNI
TTHREE

THEREVI
VALOFNATURALLAW

I
ntr
oduct
ion-t
hemassi
vehumandel
i
nquenci
esbyt
heNazi
sdur
ingt
heSecondWor
ldWarand
t
heemer
genceoft
otal
i
tar
ianSt
atesanddi
ctat
orsst
imul
atei
nthe20th ct
her
ethi
nki
ngof
nat
urall
awt
heor
y.Jur
ist
srai
sedquest
ionswhet
herposi
ti
vel
awi
sadequat
eenought
opr
otect
manki
nd.
Pr
ocedur
alNat
uralLaw:LonL.Ful
l -Mor
er ali
tyofLaw,publ
i
shedi
n1963,
Hisf
ir
stst
epwast
o
r
epeal
all
exi
sti
ngl
awsandt
osetaboutr
epl
aci
ngt
hesewi
thanewcode.
I
nal
egalsy
stem t
hel
awsmustbe:Gener
ali
ty(
notmadeadhocorf
ort
empor
arypur
pose
onl
y),Publ
i
shed,Pr
ospect
ive,notr
etr
oact
ive,I
ntel
l
igi
ble(
clearorunder
standabl
e),Consi
stent
,
Capabl
eofbei
ngcompl
i
edwi
th,Endur
ewi
thoutunduechanges,Appl
i
edi
ntheadmi
nist
rat
ion
oft
hesoci
ety

Thesequal
i
tiesmakeupt
he‘
i
nnermor
ali
tyofl
aw’
.
Subst
ant
iveNat
uralLaw:JohnFi s-Nat
nni uralLaw andNat
uralRi
ght
s,t
her
eisast
rong
af
fi
nit
ybet
weenFi
nni
s’v
iewofnat
ural
lawandt
hatofAqui
nas.
t
hemaj
ordi
ff
erencei
sthat
,forFi
nni
s,t
heexi
stenceofGodi
sonl
ypossi
bleexpl
anat
ionf
ort
he
compar
ati
veor
deroft
hatheseekst
opr
ojectonhumanv
alues,nott
henecessar
yreason.
Fi
nni
sinst
eadst
atest
hathi
sgoodsar
esel
f-
evi
dent
.
Fi
nni
s’sev
enbasi
cgoodsrl
i
fe,
knowl
edge,
play
,Aest
het
icexper
ience,
Soci
abi
l
ityorf
ri
endshi
p,
Pr
act
ical
reasonabl
eness&r
eli
gion.
Fi
nni
sasser
tsi
sthatt
hesegoodsar
enott
her
esul
tofspecul
ati
ver
eason.Theyar
enotgoods
becauseofany
thi
ng,
theyar
ejustgood.
UNI
TFOUR

POSI
TIVI
SM

I
ntr
oduct
ion
byr
equi
ri
ngt
hatal
llawbewr
it
tenorsomehowcommuni
cat
edt
osoci
ety
,itensur
est
hatt
he
gov
ernmentwi
l
lexpl
i
cit
lyappr
iset
hemember
sofsoci
etyoft
hei
rri
ght
sandobl
i
gat
ions.

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ሕግ AboutLaw Tel
egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
ethi
olawbl
og
 ስለ-
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Ser
vice

posi
ti
vi
sm r
educest
hepoweroft
hej
udget
otheappl
i
cat
ionofl
aws,i
tdoesnotal
l
owj
udges
t
omakel
aws.
I
nfl
uence ofDav
id Hume-i
twas Hume who f
ir
stopened t
he ey
es ofposi
ti
vi
sts who
chal
l
engedt
hecl
oser
elat
ionshi
pofl
awandmor
ali
ty;t
hatl
awhasnot
hingt
odowi
thmor
ali
ty
orr
eli
gion.Lawshoul
dbei
nvest
igat
edbey
ondanybi
asofmor
ali
ty.

Jer
emyBent
ham-hadmanyspeci
fi
ccompl
aint
saboutcommonl
awt
heor
yandi
tspr
act
ice.
TheCommandTheor
y:JohnAust
in’
sPosi
ti
vi
sm
Lawi
sacommandoft
hesov
erei
gnenf
orcedbysanct
ion.
St
rongl
yinf
luencedbyHumeandBent
ham,
Aust
inwr
otet
hatt
hest
art
ingpoi
ntf
ort
hesci
ence
ofl
awmustbecl
earanal
yti
cal
separ
ati
onofl
awandmor
ali
ty.
posi
ti
vemor
ali
tyi
sdi
sti
ngui
shedf
rom posi
ti
vel
aw;
andi
tisposi
ti
vebecausei
tisl
aiddownby
humanbei
ngsf
orhumanbei
ngs.
Hedev
elopedsepar
ati
ont
hesi
s,t
heexi
stenceofl
aw i
sonet
hing,i
tsmer
itordemer
iti
s
anot
her
.
Hemakesacl
earsepar
ati
onbet
weent
hequest
ionandwhatt awoughtt
hel obe(
iti
spossi
ble
onecanmaker
efer
encet
ohi
gherl
aws)andt
hedet
ermi
nat
ionofwhatt awi
hel s.
oughtcanbei
dent
if
ied(
tosi
mpl
i
fy)wi
thcr
it
eri
afordi
sti
ngui
shi
ngbet
weengoodandbadl
aw.
Al
awmi
ghtbebad,
buti
tisst
il
ll
awandmustbeobey
edbyt
hesubj
ect
ssol
ongasi
tismade
byt
hesov
erei
gn.
I
fyouar
etoobeyt
hel
awi
toughtt
obei
nconf
ormi
tywi
tht
hehi
gherl
aws,
suchasmor
ali
tyor
di
vi
nel
aws(
theBi
bleort
heKor
an.
)Asaposi
ti
vi
st,howev
er,whatcomest
oyourmi
ndf
ir
sti
s
whet
hert
hel
awi
s(meansact
ual
l
yexi
sts)
.

Cr
it
ici
sm onAust
inbyHLAHar
t
-Lawsasweknowt
hem ar
enotl
i
keor
der
sbackedbyt
hreat
s

-
Aust
in’
snot
ionoft
hehabi
tofobedi
encei
sdef
ici
ent
,law shoul
dnotbebasedonone
par
ti
cul
arbody
-Aust
in’
snot
ionofsov
erei
gnt
yisdef
ici
ent
,InAust
in’
stheor
yofl
aw,
ther
eisnol
egall
i
mitona
sov
erei
gn’
spower
Pur
eTheor
yofLaw:HansKel
sen-Hedecl
arest
hatl
aw mustbest
udi
edasapur
esci
ence

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egr
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nkt
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Ser
vice

i
ndependentofot
heri
nci
dent
s,l
i
kemor
ali
tyandj
ust
ice.
Thel
aw,
accor
dingt
oKel
sen,
isasy
stem ofnor
ms.
Thebasi
cnor
m,t
hen,
ist
hemostgener
alnor
m whi
chi
shy
pot
hesi
zedast
henor
m behi
ndt
he
f
inal
aut
hor
it
ytowhi
chal
lpar
ti
cul
arv
ali
dnor
mscanbet
racedback.
H LAHar
t-TheConceptofLaw (
1907-1992)
-Hedi
sti
ngui
shesf
ir
stbet
weensoci
alr
ules
whi
chconst
it
utemer
eregul
ari
tyf
rom soci
alhabi
ts.
Pr
imar
yrul
esofl
awar
esai
dtobet
hosewhi
char
eessent
ialf
oranyki
ndofsoci
alexi
stence,
t
hosewhi
chpr
escr
ibe,pr
eventorr
egul
atebehav
iori
nev
eryar
eawi
thwhi
cht
hel
aw i
s
concer
ned.These ar
e al
lthe r
ules const
rai
ning ant
i-
soci
albehav
ior
;rul
es agai
nstt
hef
t,
cheat
ing,
viol
enceandsoon.
secondar
yrul
esar
ethoset
hatst
ipul
atehow,
andbywhom,
suchpr
imar
yrul
esmaybef
ormed,
r
ecogni
zed,modi
fi
edorext
ingui
shed.Ther
ulest
hatst
ipul
atehow par
li
amenti
scomposed,
andhowi
tenact
slegi
sl
ati
on...

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egr
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nkt
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Ser
vice

Dwor
kin’
scr
it
ici
sm onHar
t/Posi
ti
vi
sm

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egr
am l
i
nkt
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ethi
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Ser
vice

Legalposi
ti
vi
sm env
isaged,
Dwor
kincl
aimed,
thatt
hel
awconsi
stsofr
ulesonl
y.Howev
er,
thi
s
i
saser
iousmi
stake,
sincei
naddi
ti
ont
orul
es,
lawi
spar
tl
ydet
ermi
nedbyl
egal
pri
nci
ples.

UNI
TFIVE
HI
STORICALANDSOCI
OLOGI
CALLEGALTHEORY

Hi
stor
icalSchool
1)
TheSpi
ri
toft
hePeopl
e:Sav
igny
-thepr
inci
plesofl
awder
ivef
rom t
hebel
i
efsoft
hepeopl
e.

2)
TheChangi
ngpr
ocessofAnci
entLaw:Henr
yMai
ne-Mai
nedepar
tedf
rom Sav
ignyi
ntwo
i
mpor
tantr
espect
s:hebel
i
evedi
nst
agesofl
egalev
olut
ion,
inwhi
cht
hepr
imi
ti
vei
deasmi
ght
bedi
scar
ded;andhesoughtt
odi
scov
erbycompar
ati
vest
udi
esofdi
ff
erentsy
stemsofl
aw
t
hei
deaswhi
cht
heyhadi
ncommon.

Soci
ologi
calSchool

1)
Liv
ingLaw:EugenEhr
li
ch-ear
li
erl
egalt
heor
iest
hatr
ecogni
zel
awasasum ofst
atut
esand
j
udgment
sgav
eani
nadequat
evi
ewoft
hel
egal
real
i
tyofacommuni
ty.

2)
Lawi
nAct
ion:RoscoePound-sawal
egalsy
stem asbei
ngaphenomenonwhi
chi
nti
mat
ely
i
nter
act
swi
tht
hepr
eval
entpol
i
tical
,economi
c,andsoci
alci
rcumst
ancesi
nagi
vensoci
ety
andwhi
chconst
ant
lyal
ter
swi
tht
hem i
nal
i
vingpr
ocessofdev
elopment
.

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egr
am l
i
nkt
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Ser
vice

UNI
TSI
X

LEGALREALI
SM

I
ntr
oduct
ion-i
tat
tempt
stodescr
ibet
hel
awwi
thouti
deal
i
zingi
t,t
opor
trayt
hel
awasi
tis–
nothowi
tshoul
dbe

Amer
icanReal
ist
s

1)
Pragmat
istappr
oach-Ol
i
verWondelHol
mesandJohnChi
pmanGr
ayar
ethet
woment
al
f
ather
soft
heAmer
icanLegal
Real
i
sm.

I
tst
hemei
showt
her
uleofl
awwor
ks,
notwhatt
heyar
eonpaper
.

2)Lawaspr
ophesyoft
hecour
t:Ol
i
verW.Hol
mes-Theact
ual
li
feoft
hel
awhasnotbeenl
ogi
c:
i
thasbeenexper
ience.

But
,Thi
sappr
oachdi
sregar
dst
her
ulesandl
awst
hatest
abl
i
sht
hej
udi
ciar
yit
sel
f.

3)Cent
ral
i
tyoft
hej
udge:
JohnChi
pmanGr
ay-i
tisnotal
awunt
ili
thadbeeni
nter
pret
edbyt
he
cour
ts,
for“
thecour
tsputl
i
fei
ntot
hedeadwor
dsoft
hest
atut
es.
”

4)Rul
eSkept
ici
sm:
Kar
lLl
ewel
l
yn

UNI
TSEVEN

RADI
CALLEGALTHEORI
ES

1)
Cri
ti
calLegalSt
udi
es-
Thecr
it
icall
egalst
udi
esmovement
,wasi
nit
ial
l
yemer
gedi
nthe
Uni
tedSt
atesi
nthe1970si
npar
tasasuccessort
otheAmer
icanr
eal
i
stmovement
,

Theov
eral
lai
m ofcr
it
icalt
heor
yist
odest
royt
henot
iont
hatt
her
eisonesi
ngl
e't
rut
h',
andt
hat
bydi
scl
osi
ngt
heal
l
-per
vasi
vepowerst
ruct
uresandhi
erar
chi
esi
nthel
awandl
egalsy
stem,a
mul
ti
tudeofot
herpossi
bil
i
tieswi
l
lber
eveal
ed,
all
equal
l
yval
i
d.

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egr
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nkt
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vice

TheCr
it
iqueoft
heLi
ber
alLegalTr
adi
ti
onf
rom cr
it
icall
egalschol
ars-Thel
awi
spor
tray
ed
as r
ati
onal
,coher
ent
,necessar
yand j
ustbyl
i
ber
all
egalschol
arshi
p,when i
nfact
,
accor
ding t
othe cr
it
icall
egalschol
ars,i
tis ar
bit
rar
y,cont
ingent
,unnecessar
yand
pr
ofoundl
yunj
ust
.

Theconst
it
uti
vet
heor
yofl
aw-i
tist
rendi
nthecr
it
icall
egalst
udi
esmov
ementi
nw/
claw
pl
aysani
mpor
tantr
olei
nshapi
ngsoci
etyi
spar
toft
hewi
derpost
-moder
nistper
spect
ivet
hat
i
deas,
andnott
heeconomi
cbase,
const
it
ute(
for
m ormakeup)soci
ety
.
2)
Cri
ti
calLegalSt
udi
esandFemi
nistLegalTheor
y-Femi
ni
stl
egalt
heor
iesr
epr
esenta
mosti
mpor
tantmoder
ndev
elopmenti
ntheanal
ysi
sofl
aw,
c oncer
nedwi
tht
het
reat
ment
ofwomenbyt
hel
egals
yst
emandt
heper
cept
ion,orl
ackofper
cept
ion,ofwomen'
s
ex
per
ienceandneedsi
nlegal
prov
isi
on.

Femi
nism andcr
it
icall
egalst
udi
esar
e,ofcour
se,
twoent
ir
elydi
ff
erentcr
eat
ures.Femi
nism i
s
onl
ypar
ti
all
yandper
ipher
all
yconcer
nedwi
thacademi
ctheor
isi
ng.I
tismot
ivat
edbyt
he
di
ssat
isf
act
ionsofawi
despect
rum of.
..womenandbyt
heev
ery
dayexper
ienceofsuch
women.

Thev
alueofcr
it
icalmet
hodol
ogi
esi
nthedi
spl
ayandanal
ysi
sofsuchgenderdi
stor
ti
onsi
n
l
awandl
egal
admi
nist
rat
ionshoul
dbeev
ident
.

Thekeyendeav
oroff
emi
nistl
egal
theor
ymayr
atherbet
oident
if
yaf
actofsoci
al,
pol
i
tical
and
l
egalhi
stor
ywhi
ch i
n manyi
mpor
tantr
espect
sfai
l
sadequat
elyt
otakeaccountoft
he
exper
ienceofsomewhatmor
ethanhal
foft
hehumanpopul
ati
on.

3)
Post
moder
nLegalTheor
y-t
hel
atestr
adi
calt
heor
ytochal
l
enget
hel
i
ber
alor
thodoxi
est
hat
soci
etyhasanat
uralst
ruct
ureandt
hathi
stor
yissi
mpl
yapr
ocessofevol
uti
ont
owar
dst
hat
t
rut
h.

Li
ber
ali
sm andcapi
tal
i
sm ar
enott
heendoft
her
oadbutar
esi
mpl
ythemaj
orcomponent
sof
whatt
hepost
moder
nist
scal
l'
moder
nit
y'
.

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egr
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i
nkt
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Ser
vice

ACr
it
iqueoft
heEnl
ight
enment
-TheEnl
i
ght
enmentsoughtt
ofr
eehumani
tyf
rom t
hechai
ns
ofunt
hink
ingt
radi
ti
onandr
eli
giousbi
got
ry.I
tsoughtt
omast
ert
hewor
ldt
hroughsci
ence
andr
emak
ethewor
ldaccor
dingt
othedi
ctat
esofr
eason.

Theemanci
pat
ionwenowr
equi
recannotbeont
hesamet
ermsast
hosepr
oposedbyt
he
Enl
i
ght
enment
.Itmust
,atl
easti
npar
t,bear
eject
ionoft
het
ermsbywhi
chwef
reed
our
sel
vesf
rom pr
e-Enl
i
ght
enmentt
hinki
ng.

I
nessence,
post
moder
nism i
snotant
i-
moder
nism,
forasLy
otar
d'sexampl
eil
l
ust
rat
es'
awor
k
canonl
ybecomemoder
nifi
tisf
ir
stpost
moder
n',sot
hatpost
moder
nism i
sdef
ini
tel
y'apar
t
oft
hemoder
n',
notahi
stor
ical
per
iodbey
ondmoder
nit
y.

I
dent
it
yandt
he'
Other
'-t
he'
other
'(egwomenandr
aci
almi
nor
it
ies)appear
sto bet
he
i
ndi
vi
dual
whoi
sout
sidet
hesy
stem,
whoi
sdi
sadv
ant
agedbyi
t.

post
moder
nism i
sincl
usi
vei
nthati
tpur
por
tst
oembr
acet
he'
other
'.Zpost
moder
nistconcer
n
wi
tht
he'
other
',t
hel
aw shoul
dseekt
oaccommodat
ethei
rcl
aimsbutt
owhatext
entandi
n
whatmannercannotbedet
ermi
ned.

Post
moder
nism andFundament
alVal
ues-whet
hercul
tur
esandmi
nor
it
ieswi
l
ldi
sappear
becauseofpossi
blepost
-st
ruct
ural
i
st'
enl
i
ght
enment
'.

UNI
TEI
GHT

JUSTI
CE

I
ntr
oduct
ion-Just
iceconcer
nst
hepr
operor
der
ingoft
hingsandper
sonswi
thi
nasoci
ety
.

JohnRawl
s:Just
iceasFai
rness-“
Theor
yofJust
ice”(
1972)
,Rawl
smakesadi
sti
nct
ion
bet
weent
heconcept
sofj
ust
iceandconcept
ionofj
ust
ice.Hecl
aimst
hatanyt
heor
yofj
ust
ice
mustdeal
wit
hbot
hoft
hese.

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egr
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i
nkt
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Ser
vice

Byaconceptofj
ust
ice,Rawl
smeanst
her
oleofi
tspr
inci
plesi
nassi
gni
ngr
ight
sanddut
ies
andi
ndef
ini
ngt
heappr
opr
iat
edi
vi
sionofsoci
aladv
ant
age.

Theconcept
ionofj
ust
icef
orRawl
scanbest
atedi
nthef
orm oft
wopr
inci
plesasf
oll
ows:f
ir
st,
eachper
sonpar
ti
ci
pat
ingi
napr
act
ice,oraf
fect
edbyi
t,hasanequalr
ightt
othemost
ext
ensi
vel
i
ber
tycompat
ibl
ewi
thal
i
kel
i
ber
tyf
oral
l
,pr
ovi
dingev
ery
onewi
thbasi
chuman
f
reedomssuchasf
reedom oft
hought
,rel
i
gion,
bel
i
ef,
expr
essi
on…et
c.and

Second,i
nequal
i
tiesar
ear
bit
rar
yunl
essi
tisr
easonabl
etoexpectt
hatt
heywi
l
lwor
koutf
or
ev
ery
one'
s adv
ant
age,equaldi
str
ibut
ion ofpr
imar
y soci
alr
esour
ces t
o ev
ery
one and
i
nequal
i
tiesar
ear
bit
rar
y.

Thef
ir
stpr
inci
plehasabsol
utepr
ior
it
yov
ert
hesecond

Wi
llKy
mli
cka:Just
iceandMi
nor
it
yRi
ght
s-f
ormsofgr
oup-
speci
fi
cri
ght
s:(
1)sel
f-
gov
ernment
r
ight
s;(
2)pol
yet
hni
cri
ght
s;and(
3)speci
alr
epr
esent
ati
onr
ight
s.

Onemechani
sm f
orr
ecogni
zi
ngcl
aimst
osel
f-
gov
ernmenti
sfeder
ali
sm,
whi
chdi
vi
despower
s
bet
weent
hecent
ral
gov
ernmentandr
egi
onal
subuni
ts.

‘
pol
yet
hni
cri
ght
s’-ar
eint
endedt
ohel
pet
hni
cgr
oupsandr
eli
giousmi
nor
it
iesexpr
esst
hei
r
cul
tur
alpar
ti
cul
ari
tyandpr
idewi
thouti
thamper
ingt
hei
rsuccessi
ntheeconomi
candpol
i
tical
i
nst
it
uti
onsoft
hedomi
nantsoci
ety
.

unl
i
kesel
f-
gov
ernmentr
ight
s,pol
yet
hni
cri
ght
sar
eusual
l
yint
endedt
opr
omot
eint
egr
ati
oni
nto
t
hel
argersoci
ety
,notsel
f-
gov
ernment
.

TheEqual
it
yAr
gument
-et
hni
candnat
ionalmi
nor
it
iesar
eneededt
oensur
ethatal
lci
ti
zens
ar
etr
eat
edwi
thgenui
neequal
i
ty.

equal
i
ty-
basedar
gumentwi
l
lonl
yendor
sespeci
alr
ight
sfornat
ional
minor
it
iesi
fther
eact
ual
l
y
i
sadi
sadv
ant
agewi
thr
espectt
ocul
tur
almember
shi
p,andi
fther
ight
sact
ual
l
yser
vet
orect
if
y
t
hedi
sadv
ant
age.

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egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
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og
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vice

TheRol
eofHi
stor
icalAgr
eement
s-suchast
het
reat
yri
ght
sofi
ndi
genouspeopl
es,ort
he
agr
eementbywhi
cht
woormor
epeopl
esagr
eedt
ofeder
ate.

Wher
ehi
stor
icalagr
eement
sar
eabsentordi
sput
ed,
groupsar
eli
kel
ytoappealt
otheequal
i
ty
ar
gument
.

Rawl
sRev
isi
ted-Li
ber
alscanandshoul
dacceptawi
der
angeofgr
oup-
dif
fer
ent
iat
edr
ight
sfor
nat
ionalmi
nor
it
iesandet
hni
cgr
oups,
wit
houtsacr
if
ici
ngt
hei
rcor
ecommi
tment
stoi
ndi
vi
dual
f
reedom andsoci
alequal
i
ty.

Manypol
yet
hni
cli
ber
alst
ateshav
eadopt
edv
ari
ousf
ormsofpol
yet
hni
cpol
i
ciesandgr
oup-
speci
fi
cri
ght
s.

CHAPTERNI
NE

LIBERTY
Intr
oduct
ion-Li
ber
tyi
sgener
all
yconsi
der
edasaconceptofpol
i
ticalphi
l
osophyt
hati
dent
if
ies
t
hecondi
ti
oni
nwhi
chani
ndi
vi
dual
hast
heabi
l
ityt
oactaccor
dingt
ohi
sorherownwi
l
l.

l
i
ber
tyandequal
i
tyar
epr
inci
plesofj
ust
ice.

I
sai
ahBer
li
n:TwoConcept
sofLi
ber
ty

t
he'
negat
ive'
sense,
isi
nvol
vedi
ntheanswert
othequest
ion'
Whati
sthear
eawi
thi
nwhi
cht
he
subj
ect-aper
sonorgr
oupofper
sons-i
sorshoul
dbel
eftt
odoorbewhathei
sabl
etodoor
be,
wit
houti
nter
fer
encebyot
herper
sons?
'

Thesecond,‘
posi
ti
ve’sense,i
sinv
olv
edi
ntheanswert
othequest
ion'
What
,orwho,i
sthe
sour
ceofcont
rolori
nter
fer
encet
hatcandet
ermi
nesomeonet
odo,orbe,t
hisr
athert
han
t
hat
?'

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egr
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i
nkt
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ethi
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Ser
vice

CHAPTERTEN

EQUALI
TY

Equal
i
ty:Def
ini
ngt
heConcept
-‘Equal
i
ty’(
or‘
equal
’
)si
gni
fi
escor
respondencebet
weena
gr
oupofdi
ff
erentobj
ect
s,per
sons,pr
ocessesorci
rcumst
ancest
hathavet
hesamequal
i
ties
i
natl
eastoner
espect
,butnotal
lrespect
s,i
.e.
,regar
dingonespeci
fi
cfeat
ure,wi
thdi
ff
erences
i
not
herf
eat
ures.di
sti
ngui
shedf
rom ‘
i
dent
it
y’

Pr
inci
plesofEqual
it
yandJust
ice

1)
For
malEqual
i
ty-Whent
woper
sonshaveequalst
atusi
natl
eastonenor
mat
ivel
yrel
evant
r
espect
,theymustbet
reat
edequal
l
ywi
thr
egar
dtot
hisr
espect
.

2)
Propor
ti
onalEqual
i
ty-pr
opor
ti
onalorr
elat
ivel
yequalwheni
ttr
eat
sal
lrel
evantper
sonsi
n
r
elat
ion t
ot rdue.Justnumer
hei icalequal
i
tyi
sa speci
alcase ofpr
opor
ti
onalequal
i
ty.
Numer
icalequal
i
tyi
sonl
yjustunderspeci
alci
rcumst
ances,
viz.whenper
sonsar
eequali
nthe
r
elev
antr
espect
ssot
hatt
her
elev
antpr
opor
ti
onsar
eequal
.
3)
Mor
alEqual
i
ty-Thi
spr
inci
plei
stooabst
ractandneedst
obemadeconcr
etei
fwear
eto
ar
ri
veatacl
earmor
alst
andar
d.

4)
Presumpt
ionofEqual
i
ty-r
equi
rest
hatev
ery
one,r
egar
dlessofdi
ff
erences,shoul
dgetan
equalshar
eint
hedi
str
ibut
ionunl
esscer
tai
nty
pesofdi
ff
erencesar
erel
evantandj
ust
if
y,
t
hroughuni
ver
sal
l
yaccept
abl
ereasons,
unequal
dist
ri
but
ion.

4. ENVI
RONMENTALLAW

CHAPTER1

I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOENVI
RONMENTALLAW
Meani
ngof“
Env
ironment
”-i
tincl
udest
heaggr
egat
eofnat
ural
,soci
alandcul
tur
alcondi
ti
ons

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egr
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i
nkt
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olawbl
og
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Ser
vice

t
hati
nfl
uencet
hel
i
feofani
ndi
vi
dual
orcommuni
ty.

I
ntr
oduct
ion t
o Env
ironment
alLaw:Fr
om I
nter
nat
ionaland Nat
ionalLaw Per
spect
ives-
i
nter
nat
ionalenv
ironment
all
awi
snot
hingmor
e,orl
ess,
thant
heappl
icat
ionofi
nter
nat
ional
l
awt
oenv
ironment
alpr
obl
ems.
Nat
ionalenv
ironment
all
aw i
ncl
udest
hepr
ovi
sionsconcer
ningt
heenv
ironmenti
nthe1995
FDREconst
it
uti
on;di
ff
erentenv
ironment
alt
reat
ies,f
eder
alandr
egi
onall
awsconcer
nedwi
th
t
heenv
ironment(
For
est
ry,
Land,
Wat
eruseandot
hersect
oral
laws)
.

Fact
orst
hatGav
eRi
set
oEnv
ironment
alLaw:Nat
ionalandI
nter
nat
ionalPer
spect
ive

-zexi
stenceofanext
ensi
ver
angeofenv
ironment
alpr
obl
ems.

-t
hequest
ionoft
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
hepr
otect
ionoft
heenv
ironmentandt
heneedf
or
economi
cdev
elopment(
cor
rectbal
ancebet
ween)

Hi
stor
icalDev
elopmentofI
nter
nat
ional
Env
ironmentLaw-Rome,
London,
...

Fol
l
owi
ngt
heUni
tedNat
ionsConf
erenceont
heHumanEnv
ironment
,hel
dinSt
ockhol
min
1972,t
heUNest
abl
i
shedt
heUni
tedNat
ionsEnv
ironmentPr
ogr
amme(
UNEP)ast
hewor
ld’
s
pr
inci
pal
int
ernat
ional
env
ironment
alor
gani
zat
ion.

HistoricalDev
elopmentofEnv i
ronment
alLaw inEthi
opi
a-atthewakeof1974and1984
draughtbecausei twasbel
iev
edthatt
hedraughtwasther
esul
tofagr
icul
tur
aldegr
adat
ionor
environmentalmismanagement.

i
nter
nat
ional
pressur
efr
om t
hei
nter
nat
ional
communi
ty,
li
ket
heRi
oConf
erencei
n1992

FDRECar
t44,
92,
TheEnv
ironment
alPol
i
cyofEt
hiopi
a

Lev
els of Env
ironment
al Law- i
nter
nat
ional decl
arat
ions, conv
ent
ions, and t
reat
ies,
st
atut
ory
—i.
e.,encompassed i
ntheenact
ment
sofl
egi
slat
ivebodi
es—and r
egul
ator
y—i
.e.
,
gener
atedbyagenci
eschar
gedbygov
ernment
swi
tht
hepr
otect
ionoft
heenv
ironment
.

TheRol
eofI
nter
nat
ional
andNat
ional
Lawsi
nthePr
otect
ionoft
heEnv
ironment
-i
tpr
ovi
desmechani
smsandpr
ocedur
esf
ornegot
iat
ingt
henecessar
yrul
esandst
andar
ds,
set
tl
ingdi
sput
es,
andsuper
visi
ngi
mpl
ement
ati
onandcompl
i
ancewi
tht
reat
iesandcust
omar
y

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egr
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i
nkt
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og
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Ser
vice

r
ules.
-i
tisconcer
nedwi
thr
egul
ati
ngenv
ironment
alpr
obl
ems,set
ti
ngcommonst
andar
dsand
obj
ect
ivesf
orpr
event
ionormi
ti
gat
ionofhar
m,andpr
ovi
dingaf
lexi
bler
ule-
maki
ngpr
ocess
t
hatal
l
owsf
oreasyandr
egul
aramendmenti
nthel
i
ghtoft
echnol
ogi
caldev
elopment
sand
adv
ancesi
nsci
ent
if
icandot
herknowl
edge.
-r
einst
atementoforcompensat
ionf
orenv
ironment
aldamagei
samor
eli
mit
edbutst
il
l
i
mpor
tantf
unct
ion.
-i
tbenef
it
sorkeepsaccount
abl
eindi
vi
dual
s.
Foundat
ionsofEnv
ironment
alLaw
1)
Rel
i
giousTr
adi
ti
ons-pr
ohi
bitki
l
li
ngofani
mal
s&degr
adi
ngofl
and,
plant
s

2)
Tradi
ti
onalCommuni
ti
es-hav
elongengagedi
nsust
ainabl
epr
act
icesanddev
elopeduni
que
knowl
edgeaboutt
hei
renv
ironment
sandt
hei
rresour
ces.

TheSour
cesandt
heLawMaki
ngPr
ocessofEnv
ironment
alLaw
A)
Const
it
uti
onal
Law B)
Env
ironment
alLegi
slat
ion

C)
Admi
nist
rat
iveRegul
ati
ons D)I
ndust
rySt
andar
dsandCodesofConductE)
cust
omar
y
l
aws

TheLawMaki
ngPr
ocessofEnv
ironment
alLawi
nEt
hiopi
a
TheLaw Maki
ngPr
ocessofI
nter
nat
ionalEnv
ironment
alLaw-noi
nter
nat
ionall
egi
slat
ure,
compar
abl
etot
henat
ionalpar
li
ament
,butt
her
ear
egener
all
yaccept
edsour
cesf
rom whi
ch
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw der
ives,and a v
ari
ety ofi
nter
nat
ionalpr
ocesses t
hrough whi
ch new
i
nter
nat
ional
lawi
smadeorexi
sti
ngl
awchanged.
Nat
ureofEnv
ironment
alPr
obl
ems-manyoft
hedamagesdonet
otheenv
ironmentmayhav
e
l
ongt
erm ef
fect
sort
heymayi
nvol
vei
mpor
tantsy
ner
gism i
ntheenv
ironmentormaynotbe
ef
fect
ivel
yrev
ersi
ble

env
ironment
aldangercoul
dpossi
blyj
eopar
diz
ethev
eryexi
stenceoft
hepr
esentgener
ati
on
aswel
last
hef
utur
e.

Toky
oDecl
arat
ionr
eveal
sthatt
hecur
rentenv
ironment
alpr
obl
emsar
ecausedbyf
act
ors
r
elat
edt
ou Today
,env
ironment
alpr
obl
emsar
eser
iousandi
mmi
nentt
hreat
s,whi
chsuggest

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egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
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og
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Ser
vice

a need f
or dr
ast
ic or emer
gency act
ion sust
ainabl
e use of nat
uralr
esour
ces,and
unpr
ecedent
edgr
owt
hofpopul
ati
on,

Pol
lut
iont
oEnvi
ronmentasI
nter
nat
ional
,Regi
onalandNat
ionalConcer
n
Someenvi
ronment
alpr
obl
ems,f
orexampl
ecl
i
mat
echangeordepl
eti
onoft
hest
rat
ospher
ic
ozonel
ayer
,ar
einher
ent
lygl
obali
nchar
act
er
Ther
ear
eal
sor
egi
onalenvi
ronment
alpr
obl
emsl
i
keai
rorwat
erpol
l
uti
onandconser
vat
ionof
mi
grat
oryani
mal
s.
TheRat
ional
efort
hePr
otect
ionoft
heEnvi
ronment
-i
ndustr
ialdev
elopment
shadnotspawnedpol
l
uti
onanddamaget
otheenv
ironmentonav
ery
l
argescale

-publ
i
copi
nionwasnoty
etsensi
ti
vet
othepot
ent
ialdanger
sofi
ndust
ri
alandmi
l
itar
y
dev
elopment
stoaheal
thyenv
ironment
.

Nat
ureofEnv
ironment
alDamages-damaget
otheenv
ironmentdoesnotonl
ycov
erdamage
t
otheenv
ironmentperse,buti
tal
socov
ersdamaget
opr
ivat
epr
oper
tyandconsequent
ial
l
ossest
hatar
iset
her
efr
om ori
nconnect
ionwi
th.

DamagesFor
mingNewandAddi
ti
onal
Cat
egor
yofDamaget
otheEnv
ironment

damaget
othepubl
i
clyownedandpubl
i
clypossessednat
ural
resour
ces,
andt
opubl
i
clyowned
butpr
ivat
elypossessednat
uralr
esour
cest
hathav
eapar
ti
cul
arv
aluet
othepubl
i
c,i
sdamage
ofacol
l
ect
ivenat
ureandbecausenoconcr
etei
ndi
vi
dual
int
erest
sar
ehar
med

damagesf
ort
hist
ypeofi
njur
yar
einpr
inci
plenotr
ecov
erabl
eundert
het
radi
ti
onal
tor
tlaw.

I
nrespectt
othescopeoft
ortl
awi
nrel
ati
ont
otheenv
ironment
,ther
eexi
stsaf
undament
al
di
ff
erencebet
weent
heenv
ironment
-r
elat
edt
ypeofdamagesanddamaget
otheenv
ironment
perse.

t
ortl
awcov
ersonl
yenv
ironment
alr
elat
edt
ypeofdamages.

Summar
yp.
45

CHAPTER2

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egr
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vice

BASI
CPRI
NCI
PLESOFENVI
RONMENTALLAW
Pr
event
ion-t
heGol
denRul
efort
heenv
ironment
,f hecol
orbot ogi
calandeconomi
creasons.

i udespr
ncl iorassessmentofenvi
ronment
alhar
m,andl
i
censi
ngoraut
hor
izat
ionst
hatsetout
t
hecondi
ti
onsf
oroper
ati
onandt
her
emedi
alconsequencesf
orv
iol
ati
onoft
hecondi
ti
ons.

Pr
ecaut
ion-sci
ent
if
icuncer
tai
ntyshoul
dnotbeusedasar
easonnott
otakeact
ionwi
th
r
espectt
oapar
ti
cul
arenv
ironment
alconcer
n;

-
act
ionshoul
daf
fi
rmat
ivel
ybet
akenwi
thr
espectt
oapar
ti
cul
arenv
ironment
alconcer
n;

-t
hoseengagi
ngi
napot
ent
ial
l
ydamagi
ngact
ivi
tyshoul
dhav
ethebur
denofest
abl
i
shi
ngt
he
absenceofenv
ironment
alhar
m;and

-aSt
atemayr
est
ri
cti
mpor
tsbasedonast
andar
dinv
olv
ingl
esst
hanf
ullsci
ent
if
iccer
tai
ntyof
env
ironment
alhar
m.

Pol
lut
erPay
s-Hi
stor
ical
l
y,pol
l
uti
oncont
rolcost
shav
ebeenbor
nebyt
hecommuni
tyatl
arge,
r
athert
hanbyt
hosewhopol
l
ute.

I
tisi
nter
nal
i
zingext
ernal
i
ties,Thosewhobenef
itf
rom ai
rmadecl
eanerhav
eaposi
ti
ve
ext
ernal
i
tyi
ftheydonotpayf
ort
hecl
eanup.Wher
eai
risf
oul
edbyapr
oducerwhobear
sno
cost
,iti
sanegat
iveext
ernal
i
ty;t
hosewhobuyt
hepr
oductal
soar
efr
eer
ider
sift
hef
oul
i
ngi
s
notr
efl
ect
edi
nthepr
iceoft
hegoods.

Env
ironment
alJust
iceandEqui
ty

env
ironment
alj
ust
iceseekst
oensur
ethataut
hor
it
iesf
air
lyal
l
ocat
eandr
egul
atescar
ce
r
esour
cest
oensur
ethatt
hebenef
it
sofenv
ironment
alr
esour
ces,t
hecost
sassoci
atedwi
th
pr
otect
ingt
hem,andanydegr
adat
iont
hatoccur
s(i
.e.al
lthebenef
it
sandbur
dens)ar
e
equi
tabl
yshar
edbyal
lmember
sofsoci
ety
.

Theconceptofpubl
i
ctr
ustexpr
essest
hei
deat
hatt
hepr
esentgener
ati
onhol
dst
henat
ural
r
esour
cesoft
heear
thi
ntr
ustf
orf
utur
egener
atons.
i

TheI
ntegr
ati
onPr
inci
ple-t
hei
ntegr
ati
onofenv
ironment
al,economi
c,cul
tur
al,andsoci
al

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egr
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Ser
vice

consi
der
ati
ons

ThePubl
ic-
Par
ti
cipat
ion Pr
inci
ple-I
nmanycount
ri
esci
ti
zensmaychal
l
engegov
ernment
deci
si
onsaf
fect
ingt
heenv
ironmenti
ncour
torbef
oreadmi
nist
rat
ivebodi
es.

TheObl
igat
ionofSt
atesNott
oCauseDamaget
otheEnv
ironmentbey
ondThei
rJur
isdi
cti
on-
i
tisadut
ytopr
event
,reduceandcont
rol
trans-
fr
ont
ierenv
ironment
alhar
m.

St
ates’
Obl
igat
ionst
oCooper
ate,
toI
nfor
m andt
oConsul
twi
thOt
herSt
ates-t
hesepr
inci
ples
ar
eref
lect
ionsoft
hepr
inci
plesofgoodnei
ghbor
li
ness,
anddi
l
igence.

Shar
edNat
uralResour
ces,CommonPr
oper
tyandCommonHer
it nd-“
ageofManKi Shar
ed
Nat
uralr
esour
ces”i
susedwhenonenat
uralr
esour
cecomesundert
hej
uri
sdi
cti
onofsev
eral
st
ates.
alakel
ocat
ed@ zbor
derov2ormor
est
ates

Commonpr
oper
tyr
efer
smai
nlyt
othel
i
vingr
esour
cesout
sidenat
ionalj
uri
sdi
cti
on,suchas
f
ishst
ocksandot
herl
i
vingr
esour
cesont
hehi
ghseas.f
reef
ort
hel
egi
ti
mat
eandr
easonabl
e
usebyal
lst
ates.

I
napopul
armeani
ng,commonher
it
ageofmanki
ndi
sof
tenusedasat
erm f
orgl
obal
env
ironment
alr
esour
ces,such as t
he Ear
th’
s bi
odi
ver
sit
y,t
he t
ropi
calf
orest
s ort
he
at
mospher
e.

t
heconcepthasast
ri
ctermeani
ng,i
tref
erst
otwospeci
fi
cnon-
li
vi
ngr
esour
cesout
side
nat
ional
jur
isdi
cti
on:
thesea-
bedmi
ner
alr
esour
cesandt
hemoon.

ThePr
inci
pleofSust
ainabl
eDev
elopment
-begunt
oemer
gepr
iort
otheUNConf
erenceon
Env
ironmentandDev
elopmenti
n1992

I
snotexcl
usi
vel
yconcer
ned wi
th nar
row economi
cneeds,butencompasses a br
oader
env
ironment
alper
spect
ive.

i
sint
endedt
oser
venotsi
mpl
ytheneedsoft
heenv
ironment
,butent
ail
sar
eor
ient
ati
onoft
he
wor
ld’
seconomi
csy
stem i
nwhi
cht
hebur
densofenv
ironment
alpr
otect
ionwi
l
lfal
lmor
e
heav
il
yont
hedev
eloped

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egr
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nkt
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olawbl
og
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Ser
vice

i
tssubst
ant
iveel
ement
sar
emai
nlysetouti
npr
inci
ples3-
8and16oft
heRi
oDecl
arat
ion,
sust
ainabl
eut
il
izat
ionofnat
uralr
esour
ces;t
hei
ntegr
ati
onofenv
ironment
alpr
otect
ionand
economi
c dev
elopment
;the r
ightt
o dev
elopment
;the pur
sui
tofequi
tabl
e al
l
ocat
ion of
r
esour
cesbot
hwi
thi
nthepr
esentgener
ati
onandbet
weenpr
esentandf
utur
egener
ati
ons
(i
ntr
a-andi
nter
-gener
ati
onal
equi
ty)
,

i
tspr
ocedur
alel
ement
sar
efoundi
npr
inci
ples10and17deal
i
ngwi
thpubl
i
cpar
ti
cipat
ioni
n
deci
si
on-maki
ngandenv
ironment
ali
mpactassessment
.

Summar
yp.73

CHAPTER3

ENVI
RONMENTALRI
GHTS

TheRi
ghtt
oInf
ormat
ion-i
sapr
erequi
sit
etoef
fect
ivepubl
i
cpar
ti
cipat
ioni
ndeci
sion-
maki
ng
andt
omoni
tor
inggov
ernment
alandpr
ivat
esect
oract
ivi
ti
es.

Publ
icPar
ti
cipat
ion-i
sbasedont
her
ightoft
hosewhomaybeaf
fect
edt
ohav
easayi
nthe
det
ermi
nat
ionoft
hei
renv
ironment
alf
utur
e.

Non-
gov
ernment
alor
gani
zat
ions(
NGOs)andgr
oupssuchast
radeuni
onsormanuf
act
urer
s’
associ
ati
onsar
eanor
gani
zedmeansofpubl
i
cpar
ti
cipat
ioni
nenv
ironment
aldeci
sion-
maki
ng.

Accesst
oJust
ice-ef
fect
iver
emedyandr
edr
ess,
canbef
oundi
nbot
hhumanr
ight
slawandi
n
env
ironment
all
aw.

I
tisnotnecessar
il
yli
mit
edt
onat
ional
sofast
ate.Somei
nter
nat
ionalagr
eement
scont
ain
obl
i
gat
ionst
ogr
antanyi
njur
edper
son.

Env
ironment
alQual
it
y-Ev
eryper
sonhast
her
ightt
oasaf
eandheal
thyenv
ironment
andt
ocompensat
ionf
ordamagesr
esul
ti
ngf
rom t
hev
iol
ati
onoft
hisr
ight
.

nogl
obalhumanr
ight
str
eat
ypr
ocl
aimsar
ightt
oenv
ironment
alqual
i
ty,al
though
heUDHRandot
t herhumanr
ight
sinst
rument
scont
ainar
ightt
oanadequat
equal
i
ty
ofl
i
feandar
ightt
oheal
th.

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egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
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olawbl
og
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Ser
vice

he1981Af
t ri
canChar
teronHumanandPeopl
esRi
ght
swast
hef
ir
sti
nter
nat
ionalhuman
r
ight
sinst
rumentt
ocont
ainanexpl
i
citguar
ant
eeofenv
ironment
alqual
i
ty.

Summar
yp.
84

Chapt
er4

COMMONLEGALMECHANI
SMSOFENVI
RONMENTALPROTECTI
ON

Pr
ohi
bit
ingandRest
ri
cti
ngAct
ivi
ti
esandSubst
ances

1)Pol
l
uti
ngAct
ivi
ti
es-act
ivi
ty,
productorpr
ocesspr
esent
sasubst
ant
ialr
iskofenv
ironment
al
har
m,st
ri
ctmeasur
escanbei
mposedi
nanef
for
ttor
educeorel
i
minat
ethehar
m.

2)UseofBi
ologi
calResour
ces-Hunt
ingandcol
l
ect
ingr
est
ri
cti
ons,
tempor
arysuspensi
onsand
per
manentbansoni
mpor
tsandexpor
tsar
ecommonl
yut
il
izedf
ort
hepr
otect
ionofwi
l
dfl
ora
andf
auna.

Pr
oductandPr
ocessSt
andar
ds-St
andar
dsar
epr
escr
ipt
ivenor
mst
hatgov
ernpr
oduct
sor
pr
ocessesorsetl
i
mit
sont
heamountofpol
l
utant
soremi
ssi
onspr
oduced.

1)
ProcessSt
andar
ds-speci
fydesi
gnr
equi
rement
soroper
ati
ngpr
ocedur
esappl
i
cabl
etof
ixed
i
nst
all
ati
onssuchasf
act
ori
esormaydesi
gnat
eper
missi
blemeansandmet
hodsofact
ivi
ti
es
l
i
kehunt
ingorf
ishi
ng.

1)
ProductSt
andar
ds-i
temst
hatar
ecr
eat
edormanuf
act
uredf
orsal
eordi
str
ibut
ion(
phy
sical
orchemi
calcomposi
ti
on,handl
i
ng,pr
esent
ati
onandpackagi
ng,par
ti
cul
arl
ythoset
hatar
e
t
oxi
c)

3)
Emi
ssi
onSt
andar
ds-speci
fyt
hequant
it
yorconcent
rat
ionofpol
l
utant
sthatcanbeemi
tt
ed
i
ndi
schar
gesf
rom aspeci
fi
csour
ce.

4)
Ambi
entQual
i
tySt
andar
ds-Ambi
entqual
i
tyst
andar
dsf
ixt
hemaxi
mum al
l
owabl
elev
elof
pol
l
uti
oni
nanenv
ironment
alsect
ordur
ingnor
mal
per
iods.

Aqual
i
tyst
andar
dmaysett
hel
evelofmer
cur
yper
missi
blei
nri
ver
s,t
hel
evelofsul
furdi
oxi
de
i
ntheai
rornoi
sel
evel
ofai
rpl
anesi
nthepr
oxi
mit
yofr
esi
dent
ial
areas.

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egr
am l
i
nkt
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olawbl
og
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Ser
vice

Pr
iorLi
censi
ngandPer
mit
s-hazar
dousi
nst
all
ati
onssuchasnucl
earpl
ant
s,mi
nes,nat
ural
gasorpet
rol
eum wor
ksar
eli
kel
ytohav
emor
est
ri
ngentl
i
censi
ngr
equi
rement
sthanot
her
oper
ati
ons.

Ar
ti
cle3oft
heEnv
ironment
alAssessmentPr
ocl
amat
ionNo299/
2002

I
nter
nat
ionalr
equi
rement
sforl
i
censi
ngar
eincr
easi
ngaspar
toft
hest
rongt
rendt
owar
ds
t
ranspar
encyat
tendi
ngt
het
rans-
boundar
ymov
ementanduseofsubst
ances,pr
oduct
sand
act
ivi
ti
est
hatmi
ghthav
eanegat
ivei
mpactont
heenv
ironment
.

Pr
iorI
nfor
medConsent-i
sapr
ocedur
almechani
sm ut
il
izedi
nadv
anceofact
ivi
ti
esi
nor
dert
o
av
oidpot
ent
ial
conf
li
ctandr
educet
her
isksofenv
ironment
alorsoci
alhar
m.

Env
ironment
alI
mpactAssessment-i
s‘apr
ocedur
eforev
aluat
ingt
hel
i
kel
yimpactofa
pr
oposedact
ivi
tyont
heenv
ironment
.’

I
tisf
undament
alt
oanyr
egul
ator
ysy
stem whi
chseekst
opr
eventormi
nimi
zeenv
ironment
al
har
m,ort
opr
omot
esust
ainabl
edev
elopment
.

Moni
tor
ing-apr
ocesswher
ebyst
ates‘
obser
ve,
measur
e,ev
aluat
eandanal
yze,
byr
ecogni
zed
sci
ent
if
icmet
hods,
ther
isksoref
fect
s’ofpol
l
uti
onorenv
ironment
alhar
m af
tert
hepr
ojecthas
begun.

I
tspur
posei
stochecki
nit
ialEI
Apr
edi
cti
onsanddet
ermi
newhet
herf
urt
hermeasur
esar
e
neededi
nor
dert
oabat
eorav
oidpol
l
uti
onorenv
ironment
alhar
m.

LandUseRegul
ati
on-t
hroughzoni
ngphy
sical
planni
ngandt
hecr
eat
ingofpr
otect
edar
eas.

Zoni
nghel
psdi
str
ibut
eact
ivi
ti
eshar
mfult
otheenv
ironmenti
nor
dert
oli
mitpot
ent
ialdamage
andal
l
owsappl
i
cat
ionofdi
ff
erentl
egal
rul
esf
rom zonet
ozonef
ormor
eef
fect
ivepr
otect
ion.

aci
ty,ar
egi
onort
heent
ir
eter
ri
tor
yofacount
ryi
ntobr
oadl
andusecat
egor
iessuchas
r
esi
dent
ial
,i
ndust
ri
al,
agr
icul
tur
al,
for
est
,ornat
ureconser
vat
ion.

LandUseRegul
ati
onsandPr
oper
tyRi
ght
smaybecomei
nconf
li
ct.

Summar
yp.100

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egr
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nkt
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Ser
vice

CHAPTER5

THELEGALFRAMEWORKOFENVI
RONMENTALPROCEEDI
NG

1)
LegalPer
sonal
it
yandSt
andi
ng;
theEnv
ironmentasaLegal
Ent
it
yinI
tsel
f

1)
Ant
hropocent
ri
c Theor
y-i
tref
erst
he r
elat
ionshi
p bet
ween human bei
ngs and t
he
env
ironment
,asar
elat
ionshi
pinwhi
chenv
ironmenti
sval
uabl
eonl
ytot
he ext
entt
owhi
ch
t
heycanbeusedandexpl
oit
edbyhumanbei
ngs.

humansandnat
ureassepar
ate,andhumanbei
ngspl
acedi
nthecent
er;sucht
hat
,the
env
ironmentbei
ngi
nst
rument
alt
othei
nter
estofman,

t
heenv
ironmentbei
ngi
nst
rument
alt
othei
nter
estofman,l
egalper
sonal
i
tycanbebest
owed
onl
ytohumanbei
ngs.

2)
Ecocent
ri
cvi
ew-f
undament
all
yrej
ect
ssepar
ati
onofhumanbei
ngsf
rom nat
ure.I
tconsi
der
s
manasi
nti
mat
elyconnect
edandassuchpar
toft
henat
ural
env
ironment
.

acknowl
edgest
heconf
err
ingofl
egal
per
sonal
i
tyt
oeachdi
sti
nctpar
toft
heenv
ironment

t
he l
egalor
ient
ati
on oft
he Et
hiopi
an env
ironment
all
aw,i
tsounds haphazar
d and t
hus
ambi
guous;whi
l
ether
ightt
oli
vei
nacl
eanandheal
thyenv
ironmentunderAr
t.
44ofFDREC,
t
heant
hropocent
ri
cappr
oach.

t
heenv
ironment
alpol
i
cyr
ecogni
zest
hatt
hespeci
esandt
hei
rvar
iant
shav
ether
ightt
o
cont
inueexi
sti
ng,
ecocent
ri
cvi
ew.

LegalPer
sonal
it
yandSt
andi
ngv
is-
à-v
ist
heFut
ureGener
ati
ons

-
preser
vingnat
uralsy
stemsf
orf
utur
egener
ati
onssot
hatt
hehumanspeci
escanper
pet
uat
e
i
tsel
fatt
hesamequal
i
tyofl
i
feandst
andar
dofl
i
vingast
hepr
esentgener
ati
on.

-
preser
vingar
eaofnat
ionalsi
gni
fi
canceduet
othei
raest
het
icappeal
,hi
stor
icat
tr
ibut
es,or
ecol
ogi
cal
signi
fi
cancef
ort
heuseandenj
oymentoff
utur
egener
ati
ons.

I
nli
newi
tht
heconst
it
uti
onalandEnv
ironment
alpol
i
cycogni
zanceofi
nter
gener
ati
onalequi
ty,

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vice

t
heEnv
ironment
alLawofEt
hiopi
adef
inespr
otect
ionoft
heenv
ironmentt
omeansust
aini
ngof
t
heessent
ial
char
act
eri
sti
cofnat
ure.

2)
Liber
ali
zat
ion ofSt
andi
ng i
n Env
ironment
alPr
oceedi
ng t
hatLed t
o Publ
ici
nter
est
Li
ti
gat
ion

Undert
het
radi
ti
onalt
ortl
aw,i
ndi
vi
dualci
ti
zenshav
ear
ightt
osueonl
yift
hei
rownper
sonal
i
nter
esti
sinf
ri
nged.

per
sonalact
ionwoul
dcer
tai
nlyhel
pini
mpl
ement
ingandenf
orci
ngenv
ironment
all
awsand
coul
dbev
itali
ncaseswher
ethegov
ernmenti
sunwi
l
li
ngt
ocl
aim damagesf
ori
njur
ytot
he
env
ironment
.

i
fdemocr
acyi
sforal
l
,ift
her
uleofl
awi
sforal
l
,andi
fjust
icei
sforal
lthenst
andi
ngshoul
dbe
f
oral
laswel
l
.

pr
inci
ple10oft
he1992Ri
oDecl
arat
ionandAgenda21t
owhi
chEt
hiopi
aispar
tysuppor
tsa
r
olef
ori
ndi
vi
dual
sinenf
orci
ngnat
ionall
awsandobl
i
gat
ionsbef
orenat
ionalcour
tsand
t
ri
bunal
s.

Ci
ti
zenSt
andi
ngi
nCasesofEnv
ironment
alAut
hor
it
ies’
Inact
ionorAbuse:Judi
cialRev
iew

i
fenv
ironment
alaut
hor
it
yact
ingi
l
legal
l
ycausesaspeci
fi
clegali
njur
ytoaper
sonoraspeci
fi
c
gr
oupofper
sons,apr
ivat
eact
ionf
orr
edr
esswoul
dli
eundert
het
radi
ti
onaldoct
ri
neof
st
andi
ng.

t
he HPR expanded t
he st
andi
ng i
n env
ironment
alpr
oceedi
ng t
o enabl
e ev
eryci
ti
zen t
o
chal
l
engesuchenv
ironment
alaut
hor
it
iesi
nact
ionorabusei
nthei
nter
estoft
hepubl
i
c,t
hough
t
heci
ti
zenhasnoty
etsust
ainedper
sonal
inj
ury
.

Ci
ti
zen St
andi
ng t
o Chal
lenge t
he Const
it
uti
onal
it
y ofEnv
ironment
alLaws-i
ssues of
const
it
uti
onal
i
tyar
etobef
inal
l
ydeci
dedonl
ybyt
heHoFupont
her
ecommendat
ionoft
he
counci
l
.

per
sonchal
l
engi
ngt
heconst
it
uti
onal
i
tyofanadmi
nist
rat
iveact
ioni
snotr
equi
redt
opr
oceed
t
oadmi
nist
rat
iveof
fi
ci
alsandr
egul
arcour
ts.hecandi
rect
lyt
akehi
scaset
otheHoFi
fhe

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Ser
vice

pr
ovest
hathei
sani
nter
est
edpar
ty.
FDREAr
t44(
1),92(
4),Ar
t.11oft
heEnv
ironment
al
pol
l
uti
oncont
rol
procl
.

ev
eryonehast
her
ightt
oli
vei
nacl
eanandheal
thyenv
ironment
,andt
hedut
ytopr
otectt
he
env
ironment
.(
presumed2‘
vev
est
edi
nter
est
)

Ci
ti
zenSt
andi
ngBef
oreI
nter
nat
ionalCour
tsandTr
ibunal
s-Thedoct
ri
neofexhaust
ionof
l
ocal
remedi
esi
sapr
inci
pleappl
i
cabl
e.

t
hedoct
ri
negi
vescogni
zancet
osat
es’
sov
erei
gnt
ybybest
owi
ngt
hem t
hef
ir
stoppor
tuni
tyt
o
sol
vet
hei
rpr
obl
emsbyt
hemsel
ves.

Recommendat
ions f
or t
he Real
izat
ion of Publ
ic I
nter
est Li
ti
gat
ion i
n Rel
ati
on t
o
Env
ironment
alPr
oceedi
ng

1.
Mushr
oomi
ngCo-
oper
ati
veandCol
l
abor
ati
veef
for
t-Publ
i
cint
erestl
i
tigat
ioni
sessent
ial
l
ya
co-
oper
ati
veandcol
l
abor
ati
veef
for
tont
hepar
tofpet
it
ioner
,thest
ate[
publ
i
caut
hor
it
y]and
t
hecour
ttosecur
eobser
vanceoft
heconst
it
uti
onorl
egal
right
sconf
err
edupont
hev
ulner
abl
e
sect
ionoft
hecommuni
ty.

2.Real
i
zingConduci
veEnv
ironmentt
oPubl
i
cInt
erestGr
oups-Ther
eisapr
act
icalpr
obl
em of
f
undsf
orpubl
i
cint
erestl
i
tigat
ionpet
it
ionst
obebr
oughtbef
oret
hecour
ts.

3.Managi
ngConf
li
ctofI
nter
est
,andWor
kingasHandandGl
ove-

4.Re-
for
m ont
heLawwhi
chGov
ernsCour
tFee

5.Fr
eedom ofI
nfor
mat
ionandt
heRi
ghtt
oKnow

6.TheRol
eofLawyer
sinPubl
i
cInt
erestl
i
tigat
ion-maki
ng pr
o bono ar
equi
rementf
or
r
enewi
ngpr
act
icecer
ti
fi
cat
emaybeoneadmi
nist
rat
ivemechani
sm t
oensur
ecompl
i
ance.

7.TheCr
eat
ionofSepar
ateandI
ndependentEnvi
ronment
alCour
ts

8.TheRol
eofCour
ts-shoul
dbecaut
iousandsel
ect
iveenoughi
naccept
ingpubl
i
cint
erest
l
i
tigat
ionpet
it
ionssoast
ocheckmassi
vei
nfl
owoff
ri
vol
ouspet
it
ions.

ስለ-
ሕግ AboutLaw Tel
egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
ethi
olawbl
og
 ስለ-
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Ser
vice

9.PseudoPubl
i
cSpi
ri
tedI
ndi
vi
dual
s-publ
i
cint
erestl
i
tigat
ioncoul
dbemi
susedbypeopl
e
agi
tat
ingf
orpr
ivat
egr
iev
ancesi
nthegr
abofpubl
i
cint
erestandseeki
ngpubl
i
cit
yrat
hert
han
espousi
ngpubl
i
ccauses.

10.Needf
orMassPubl
i
cPar
ti
cipat
ion 11.Enact
mentofEnabl
i
ngLegi
slat
ions

12.For
mingaSpeci
alEnv
ironment
alPubl
i
cPr
osecut
orOf
fce 13.Conduct
i ingPr
essRel
ease

14.Upgr
adi
ngAssessmentMachi
ner
y-Thepr
ivat
elossesduet
othei
njur
ytot
hesame
r
esour
cesar
enoti
ncl
udedbecausewecanaddr
essi
tot
her
wiset
hrought
het
ortl
aw.

15.Reshuf
fl
ingEnv
ironment
alI
nst
it
uti
ons16.Mai
ntai
ningt
heSaf
etyofPubl
i
cInt
erestGr
oups

17.Ent
renchi
ng Ful
l
-fl
edged LegalAct
ion-t
he l
egalact
ion shoul
d be agai
nstbot
hthe
Env
ironment
alAut
hor
it
y,andt
hepol
l
uter
'sbyandt
hroughappl
yi
ngt
hel
aw ofj
oinderof
def
endant
s.

Judi
cialAct
ivi
sm,
andEnv
ironment
alRi
ght
sPr
otect
ion

I
tisal
egalpr
ocessbywhi
chr
eli
efi
spr
ovi
dedt
othedi
sadv
ant
agedandaggr
iev
edpar
tyand
t
huswher
ether
eisagapi
nthel
egi
slat
ionort
hel
awi
ssi
l
entonaspeci
fi
cpoi
ntandpr
ompt
r
edr
essi
sneeded,
thej
udi
ciar
yexer
cisesi
tsi
nher
entpowerbyv
irt
ueofbei
ngacust
odi
anand
wat
chdogsoft
heconst
it
uti
on.

Oneoft
hei
mpor
tantj
ust
if
icat
ionsf
orj
udi
cialact
ivi
sm i
sthatt
hel
egi
slat
urei
suni
nter
est
edi
n
r
efr
ami
ngt
hel
awandt
hatt
hej
udgesshoul
dther
ef eassume,
or takeov
erz,
thatt
ask.

Theot
herj
ust
if
icat
ioni
spr
otect
ingt
hei
nter
est
soft
heweaker
,downt
rodden,unnot
icedor
r
elegat
edsect
ionsoft
hesoci
ety
.

t
hecour
tsi
nIndi
a,par
ti
cul
arl
yoft
heSupr
emeCour
t,cr
eat
edanewr
egi
meofnor
mat
iver
ight
s
byst
ati
ngt
hat‘
thest
atecannotactar
bit
rar
il
ybuti
nst
eadmustactr
easonabl
yandi
nthe
publ
i
cint
erestont
hepai
nofi
tsact
ionbei
ngi
nval
i
dat
edbyj
udi
cial
int
erv
ent
ion.

A)
Rightt
oPr
otect
ionofConst
it
uti
onal
Right
sB.Ri
ghtt
oEnv
ironment
alPr
otect
ion

Judi
cialAct
ivi
sm Undert
heEt
hiopi
anLegalSy
stem:Emphasi
sonEnv
ironment
al

ስለ-
ሕግ AboutLaw Tel
egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
ethi
olawbl
og
 ስለ-
ሕግየሕግአገልግሎት/AboutLawLegal
Ser
vice

Pr
otect
ion

-
cri
ti
cism r
aisedwer
ethef
actt
hatsi
nceEt
hiopi
aisacodebasedandadher
ent
sto
t
hepr
inci
pleofl
egal
i
tywhi
chcompel
sev
eryi
nter
pret
ati
onofl
awgi
venorf
orwar
ded
byourj
udgest
obepr
edi
ctabl
eanduni
for
m

-i
tisnott
hef
unct
ionofaj
udget
odev
iat
efr
om t
hecl
ear
lyst
ipul
atedwor
dingsofa
gi
venl
egalpr
ovi
si
onundert
hegui
seofj
udi
cialact
ivi
sm andt
odeci
deagi
vencase
handedt
ohi
m.

Summar
yp.
156

CHAPTER6

REMEDI
ESI
NENVI
RONMENTALPROCEEDI
NG

SomeGui
del
inesf
orAssessi
ngSanct
ionsi
nEnv
ironment
alCases-

-
Ser
iousnessoft
heof
fence -
Economi
cgai
n -
Pol
l
uterpay
s

-
Abat
ementcost
s-ensur
ingpay
mentofcost
sofcl
eanup,
rest
orat
ionorr
emedi
ati
on

-
Abi
l
ityt
opay

Const
it
uti
onalLawRemedi
es-Ar
ti
cle37(
2)(
b)oft
heFDREConst
it
uti
onensur
est
hatt
hedoor
i
swi
deopenf
ort
hepubl
i
cint
erestgr
oupst
osaf
eguar
dtheenv
ironment
,Ar
ti
cle44(
2)

i
ncasewhenanyst
atepr
ogr
am af
fect
sthei
nter
estofanyper
son,t
hei
nter
est
edpar
tyorany
publ
i
cint
erestgr
oupcoul
ddemandadequat
e,pr
omptandef
fect
ivecompensat
ionasal
egal
r
emedy
.

Admi
nist
rat
ive Remedi
es- z est
abl
i
shment of t
he Env
ironment
al Pr
otect
ion
Aut
hor
it
y&ozeror
gani
zat
ionsi
smade2f
aci
l
itat
e.

For
mul
ati
onofpol
i
cies,st
rat
egi
es,l
aws,andst
andar
ds,whi
chf
ost
ersoci
alandeconomi
c
dev
elopmenti
n a mannert
hatenhances t
he wel
far
e ofhumans and t
he saf
etyoft
he
env
ironmentsust
ainabl
e,andt
ospear
headi
nensur
ingt
heef
fect
ivenessoft
hepr
ocessof

ስለ-
ሕግ AboutLaw Tel
egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
ethi
olawbl
og
 ስለ-
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Ser
vice

t
hei
rimpl
ement
ati
on.

Ci
vi
lLi
abi
li
ty-,
li
abi
l
ityf
orat
ortar
iseswhenawr
ongf
ulactcompl
ainedofamount
s
ei
thert
oani
nfr
ingementofal
egalpr
ivat
eri
ghtorabr
eachorv
iol
ati
onofal
egal
dut
y(whent
her
eispubl
i
corpr
ivat
enui
sance.
)

Nui
sance-t
ohur
tort
oannoy

Publ
i
corCommonNui
sancei
sanactaf
fect
ingt
hepubl
i
catl
argeorconsi
der
abl
e
por
ti
onofi
t;andi
tmusti
nter
fer
ewi
tht
her
ight
swhi
chmember
soft
hecommuni
ty
mi
ghtot
her
wiseenj
oy.

Pr
ivat
eNui
sancei
susi
ngoraut
hor
izi
ngt
heuseofone’
spr
oper
tyorofany
thi
ng
underone’
scont
rolsoast
oinj
uri
ousl
yaf
fectanowneroroccupi
erofpr
oper
tyby
phy
sical
l
yinj
uri
nghi
spr
oper
tyorbyi
nter
fer
ingmat
eri
all
ywi
thhi
sheal
th,
comf
ortor
conv
eni
ence.

Remedi
esf
orNui
sancei
nEnv
ironment
alPr
oceedi
ngar
e,abat
ement
,damages&
i
njunct
ion.

I
njunct
iver
eli
efi
sal
ong-
standi
ng r
emedy t
hatcan abat
e pol
l
uti
on orot
her
env
ironment
alhar
m.

Cr
imi
nalLi
abi
li
ty-i
tisencompassedi
ntheCr
imi
nalCode,andot
herenabl
i
ngenv
ironment
al
st
atut
es.

i
tist
oexpr
esscommuni
tyr
eject
ionoft
heconductandsendamessageof“
det
err
ence”t
hat
di
scour
agessi
mil
armi
sconducti
nthef
utur
e.

Enf
orcementofJudi
cialDeci
sion-Theor
deroft
hecour
tinexecut
ionpr
oceedi
ngsconst
it
utes
af
inal
judgmentwi
thi
nthemeani
ngofAr
t.320(
1).

I
nEt
hiopi
awher
ethej
udgment
-debt
orr
efuseswi
thoutgoodcauset
ocompl
ywi
tht
hedecr
ee;
ort
hecour
tissat
isf
iedt
hatt
hej
udgment
-debt
or,
alt
houghabl
etocompl
ywi
tht
hedecr
ee,
has
wi
l
lful
l
yfai
l
edt
odoso,
thecour
tmayor
dert
hear
restoft
hej
udgment
-debt
orandhi
sdet
ent
ion
i
ntheci
vi
lpr
isonf
oraper
iodnotexceedi
ngsi
xmont
hs.

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egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
ethi
olawbl
og
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Ser
vice

Summar
yp.183

5GENDERANDTHELAW

CHAPTERONE

Genderandhi
stor
y

Genderdef
ined-Genderi
sasoci
alat
tri
but
eascr
ibi
ngsomechar
act
eri
sti
csornor
msand
modesofbehav
iort
othef
emal
eandot
hert
othemal
esex.

I
tist
her
esul
toft
hei
nter
playofcul
tur
e,r
eli
gion,
andsi
mil
arf
act
orofasoci
ety
.

Sexi
sanat
ural
att
ri
but
ehel
pingust
oident
if
yaper
sonasmal
eorf
emal
e.

Genderr
olesr
efert
otheexpect
eddut
iesandr
esponsi
bil
i
ties,r
ight
sandpr
ivi
l
egesofmen-
women,
gir
ls-
boy
s,et
c.t
hatar
especi
fi
edbysoci
o-r
eli
giousandcul
tur
alf
act
ors.

Gl
obalandhi
stor
icalper
spect
iveont
hel
egalst
atusofwomen

Hi
stor
icalPer
spect
ive-Fourwor
ldconf
erencesonwomenconv
enedbyt
heUNf
rom1975-
1995
hav
ebeeni
nst
rument
ali
nel
evat
ingt
hecauseofgenderequal
i
tyt
othev
erycent
reoft
he
gl
obal
agenda.

-
Thef
ir
stwor
ldconf
erenceont
hest
atusofwomenwasconv
enedi
nMexi
coCi
tyt
ocoi
nci
de
wi
tht
he1975I
nter
nat
ionalWomen'
sYear
,obser
vedt
oremi
ndt
hei
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
ty
t
hatdi
scr
imi
nat
ionagai
nstwomencont
inuedt
obeaper
sist
entpr
obl
em i
nmuchoft
hewor
ld.

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ሕግ AboutLaw Tel
egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
ethi
olawbl
og
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Ser
vice

TheConf
erencecal
l
edupongov
ernment
stof
ormul
atenat
ionalst
rat
egi
esandi
dent
if
ytar
get
s
andpr
ior
it
iesi
nthei
ref
for
ttopr
omot
etheequal
par
ti
cipat
ionofwomen.

-
Ther
ewasagener
alconsensust
hatsi
gni
fi
cantpr
ogr
esshadbeenmadeasr
epr
esent
ati
ves
of145MemberSt
atesmeti
nCopenhageni
n1980f
ort
hesecondwor
ldconf
erenceonwomen
t
orev
iewandappr
aiset
he1975Wor
ldPl
anofAct
ion.TheRev
iewPr
ocessbegi
ns

-
Themov
ementf
orgenderequal
i
tyhadgai
nedt
ruegl
obalr
ecogni
ti
onast
het
hir
dwor
ld
conf
erenceonwomen,
TheWor
ldConf
erencet
oRev
iewandAppr
aiset
heAchi
evement
soft
he
Uni
tedNat
ionsDecadef
orWomen:Equal
i
ty,
Dev
elopmentandPeace,
wasconv
enedi
nNai
robi
n1985.TheBi
i rt
hofGl
obalFemi
nism

-
theFour
thWor
ldConf
erenceonWomenhel
dinBei
j
ingi
n1995,t
hatanew chapt
eri
nthe
st
ruggl
eforgenderequal
i
tycant
rul
ybesai
dt ebegun.LegacyofSuccess
ohav
t
he r
ecogni
ti
on oft
he need t
o shi
ftt
he f
ocus f
rom women t
othe conceptofgender
,
r
ecogni
zi
ngt
hatt
heent
ir
est
ruct
ureofsoci
ety
,andal
lrel
ati
onsbet
weenmenandwomen
wi
thi
nit
,hadt
ober
e-ev
aluat
ed.
.TheConf
erenceunani
mousl edt
yadopt heBei
j
ingDecl
arat
ionandPl
atf
ormf
orAct
ion,whi
ch
wasi
nessenceanagendaf
orwomen'
sempower
ment
.
Hi
stor
icalper
spect
ivesont
hel
egalst
atusofwomeni
nEt
hiopi
a
TheEt
hiopi
ansoci
etycanber
egar
dedasa“
tradi
ti
onal
,anci
entandconser
vat
iveone.
Et
hiopi
ahasr
ati
fi
edbot
htheUNChar
ter&ozerHRsbi
l
ls,
TheFDRECadopt
edi
n1995
Manyoft
heconcer
nst
hatwer
eincl
udedi
ntheBei
j
ingPl
atf
orm hadbeenconsi
der
edand
pl
acedatt
hepr
ior
it
yli
stoft
heEt
hiopi
angov
ernment
,TheMDGi
sanot
heri
nst
rumentt
hat
Et
hiopi
arat
if
ied wi
tht
he ai
m ofr
educi
ng pov
ert
y,LaborLaw Pr
ocl
amat
ion,Pol
i
tical
Par
ti
cipat
ion
Nat
ionalpol
ici
esandi
nput
sonpr
omot
ionofgenderequal
it
y
t
orehabi
l
itat
ethe soci
aland economi
cinf
rast
ruct
ure and cr
eat
e an env
ironmentf
or
sust
ainabl
edev
elopment
.
economi
cPol
i
cyal
ongwi
thi
tsst
rat
egy
,theAgr
icul
tur
alDev
elopmentLedI
ndust
ri
ali
zat
ion
(
ADLI
),t
heNat
ionalPol
i
cyofEt
hiopi
anWomen,t
heNat
ionalPopul
ati
onPol
i
cy,t
heEducat
ion
andTr
aini
ngPol
i
cy,Heal
thPol
i
cy,Dev
elopment
alSoci
alWel
far
ePol
i
cy,Env
ironment
alPol
i
cy,

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egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
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olawbl
og
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vice

Cul
tur
ePol
i
cy,
Pol
i
cyonNat
ural
Resour
cesandEnv
ironment
,andot
her
s.
I
mpactofgl
obal
izat
iononwomen
Wi
tht
he est
abl
i
shmentofi
nter
nat
ionalf
ree t
rade pol
i
cies,such as NAFTA and GATT,
t
ransnat
ionalcor
por
ati
ons ar
e usi
ng t
he pr
ofi
tmot
ivet
o gui
de t
hei
rfact
ori
es t
owar
d
dev
elopi
ngnat
ionsi
nsear
chof“
cheap”f
emal
elabor
.
I
tsposi
ti
vei
mpact
srEmpl
, oymentoppor
tuni
ti
es,
Educat
ionandknowl
edge.

I
nEt
hiopi
ather
ear
ethr
eemaj
orconst
rai
ntst
o womenspeci
fi
cal
l
yand t
hesoci
etycan
gener
all
ybenef
itf
rom gl
obal
i
zat
ion:
-

-
lackofpr
operi
nfr
ast
ruct
ureorot
hercommuni
cat
ionchannel

-
lowl
evel
ofeducat
ionand -
languagebar
ri
er

Gendersoci
ali
zat
ion

Soci
ali
zat
ioni
sconsi
sti
ngof“
compl
expr
ocessofi
nter
act
iont
hroughwhi
cht
hei
ndi
vi
dual
l
ear
nst
hehabi
ts,bel
i
efs,ski
l
lsandst
andar
dsofj
udgmentt
hatar
enecessar
yforef
fect
ive
par
ti
cipat
ioni
nsoci
algr
oupsandcommuni
ti
es.
”

I
ndi
vi
dual
sar
econv
ert
edf
rom bi
ologi
calmal
eandbi
ologi
calf
emal
eint
omanandwoman
r
espect
ivel
ywi
tht
hepr
ocessofsoci
ali
zat
ion.

Genderconst
ruct
ion:apsy
choanal
yti
cvi
ew

Thel
ear
ningofgenderdi
ff
erencesi
ninf
ant
sandt
hey
oungchi
l
dreni
scent
eredont
he
pr
esenceorabsenceofpeni
s.“
Ihav
eapeni
s’i
sequi
val
entt
o‘Iam aboy
’

Cul
tur
alconst
ruct
ionofmascul
ini
tyandf
emi
nini
ty-Thi
ssoci
ali
zat
ionpr
ocessi
ssost
rongi
n
men,
thef
emi
ninet
hati
sassoci
atedwi
thwomani
schar
act
eri
zedaspassi
ve.

Pat
ri
archyandi
tsst
ruct
ures-Pat
ri
archyr
efer
stomal
edomi
nat
ionandf
emal
e’
saccept
ance
andi
nter
nal
i
zat
ionoft
hatdomi
nance.

Mostoft
hei
nst
it
uti
onsoft
hesoci
etyar
epat
ri
archali
nnat
ure,r
egar
dlessofwhet
heri
tist
he
st
ate,
rel
i
gion,
educat
ional
inst
it
uti
ons,
fami
l
yort
hemedi
a.

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egr
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nkt
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Ser
vice

Nat
urev
ersuscul
tur
e-Whenachi
l
disbor
n,t
hemot
heri
nmostcul
tur
esi
susual
l
yinchar
geof
br
eastf
eedi
ngt
hebaby
,taki
ngcar
eandsoci
ali
zi
ngi
t.

phy
sicalandsoci
alr
olesofwomenandmenhav
eext
endedt
hei
rassoci
ati
onwi
thnat
ureand
cul
tur
erespect
ivel
y.

Pr
ivat
ever
suspubl
ic-Thepr
ivat
espher
epopul
arl
yknownast
hedomest
ichasnoeconomi
c,
pol
i
tical
orhi
stor
ical
signi
fi
cance.I
tdoesnotcont
ri
but
etoone’
ssoci
all
i
fe.

Thepubl
i
cspher
eisacompet
it
ivewor
ld,whi
chr
equi
resbei
ngaggr
essi
ve,r
easonabl
eand
ambi
ti
ouswi
thnot
raceofemot
ions.

Genderandwor
kpl
ace-Occupat
ionalsegr
egat
ionhast
wodi
mensi
ons,
ver
ti
calandhor
izont
al.
“
Ver
ti
calsegr
egat
ion”r
efer
stot
het
endencyofwoment
oremai
nint
hesecondposi
ti
on,
wher
easmenr
emai
nini
nfl
uent
ial
posi
ti
on.

“
Hor
izont
alsegr
egat
ion”r
efer
stot
het
endencyofmen and women t
o occupydi
ff
erent
cat
egor
iesofj
obs.

Genderi
ntheMedi
aandI
nfor
mat
ionTechnol
ogy
-Thei
ssueofwomenandmedi
acanbe
l
ookedatf
rom t
hreeper
spect
ives:women’
spor
tray
al,t
hecont
ent
,andwomenasmedi
a
consumer
s.
Ther
ear
eanumberofconst
rai
ntswomenencount
eri
naccessi
ngi
nfor
mat
ion,especi
all
y
accessi
ngi
nfor
mat
ionusi
ngI
CTs.
Thef
ormat
ionoft
heEt
hiopi
anMedi
aWomenAssoci
ati
on(
EMWA)
,wi
tht
heobj
ect
ivesof
t
rai
ningandexchangi
ngexper
iencef
orcapaci
tybui
l
dingi
sanat
temptt
oaddr
esspr
obl
emsof
genderandt
hemedi
a.
Chapt
erTwo

Theor
eti
calf
oundat
ionofgenderequal
it
ytheor
y

Soci
ali
nequal
it
y

-
Womenandmenusual
l
yhav
edi
ff
erentr
olesandr
esponsi
bil
i
tiesi
nthei
rdai
l
yli
ves.

-Womenhav
eunequal
accesst
oeducat
ionandheal
thser
vices.

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egr
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i
nkt
.me/
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vice

-
Soci
alcust
omst
hatencour
ageorf
orcegi
rl
sint
oteenagemar
ri
ages

Economi
cinequal
it
y

-
Near
ly70%oft
hewor
ldspoorar
efemal
e.

-
Womenhav
eunequal
accesst
oeconomi
cresour
ces

-
Femal
eshav
eunequal
accesst
oeducat
ionandt
rai
ningoppor
tuni
ti
es

Pol
it
icalandl
egal
inequal
it
y

-
Womenar
ever
ypoor
lyr
epr
esent
edatal
ll
evel
s

-
discr
imi
nat
esagai
nstwomeni
nzar
easofi
nher
it
ance,pr
oper
ty,andl
andowner
shi
pand
cr
imi
nal
law

Model
sofequal
i
tyandappr
oaches

1)
Thef
ormalmodelofequal
i
ty-r
egar
dsmenandwomenasbei
ngt
hesameandt
her
efor
eset
s
outt
otr
eatwoment
hesameasmen.

Thepr
obl
em wi
tht
hismodeli
sthati
tdoesnott
akei
ntoconsi
der
ati
ont
hebi
ologi
calandgender
di
ff
erencesbet
weenwomenandmen.

2)
Thesubst
ant
ivemodelofequal
i
ty-st
ressest
hei
mpor
tanceofequal
i
tyofoppor
tuni
tyi
n
t
ermsofwomen’
saccessonequal
ter
mswi
thmen.

Summar
y p.43

Chapt
ert
hree
Genderandf
ami
ly
Tr
adi
ti
onalmar
ri
ageandi
tsconsequenceonwomen
1)
Chi
l
dmar
ri
age-anymar
ri
ageofachi
l
dyoungert
han18y
ear
sol
d,i
naccor
dancet
oAr
ti
cle1
oft
heCRC,
gir
lsar
edi
spr
opor
ti
onat
elyaf
fect
ed.
Tr
adi
ti
on,
rel
i
gionandpov
ert
ycont
inuet
ofuel
thepr
act
iceofchi
l
dmar
ri
age.
i
nEt
hiopi
aiti
ncl
udespr
omi
ssor
ymar
ri
age,wher
ebyav
erbalpr
omi
sei
smadeati
nfancyor

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egr
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Ser
vice

ev
enchi
l
dbi
rt
hbyt
hepar
ent
stohav
ethei
rchi
l
drenmar
ri
ed.
2)Chi
l
dandf
orcedmar
rage-amar
i ri
age"
conduct
edwi
thoutt
hev
ali
dconsentofoneorbot
h
par
ti
esandi
samar
ri
agei
nwhi
chdur
ess-whet
herphy
sical
oremot
ional
-isaf
act
or"
.
*Causesofear
lymar
ri
age
-t
hedesi
reorneedt
omai
ntai
nthef
ami
l
y’sgoodnameandsoci
alst
andi
ng(
not
ionsof
mor
ali
tyandhonor
)pl
acedonagi
rl
'
svi
rgi
nit
y
-Pov
ert
yandeconomi
ctr
ansact
ions,
bri
depr
ice
-I
tisat
radi
ti
on,
tost
rengt
henr
elat
ionshi
ps,
dif
fi
cul
ttogetmar
ri
edi
fol
der
Consequencesf
orheal
thandwel
l-
bei
ng-phy
sical
,Psy
chol
ogi
cal
andsoci
al
-Mar
it
ali
nst
abi
l
ity -I
nabi
l
ityt
opl
anormanagef
ami
l
ies
-Ter
minat
ionofeducat
ion -I
mpactonsexual
heal
thofwomenandgi
rl
s
-Vul
ner
abi
l
ityt
oHI
Vinf
ect
ion
Cust
odyandsuppor
tofchi
ldr
en-Ani
mpor
tanti
ncl
usi
oni
nther
evi
sedPenalCodei
sthe
cr
imi
nal
i
zat
ionoff
emal
eci
rcumci
sionandgeni
talst
it
chi
ng,
Ombudsman&HRsCom.
Ther
oleofwomeni
nthesuccessoft
hei
rhusband-Despi
tesi
gni
fi
cantgai
nsi
neducat
ional
at
tai
nmentandat
ti
tudest
owar
dwomen,womencont
inuet
olagbehi
ndmeni
neconomi
cand
l
abormar
ketsuccess.
Chapt
erFour
Gl
obalandcompar
ati
veappr
oachest
ovi
olenceagai
nstwomenwi
thi
nand out
sidef
ami
ly
Def
ini
ngVi
olenceagai
nstWomen
DEVAW “
anyactofgender
-basedv
iol
encet
hatr
esul
tsi
n,ori
sli
kel
ytor
esul
tin,phy
sical
,
sexual
,orpsy
chol
ogi
calhar
m orsuf
fer
ingt
owomen,i
ncl
udi
ngt
hreat
sofsuchact
s,coer
cion
orar
bit
rar
ydepr
ivat
ionofl
i
ber
ty,
whet
heroccur
ri
ngi
npubl
i
corpr
ivat
eli
fe.
”
ScopeandCont
ext
VAW occur
sinal
lgeogr
aphi
cregi
ons,
count
ri
es,
cul
tur
es,
andeconomi
ccl
asses.
Soci
alandHeal
thConsequences-ser
ioussoci
alst
igmaandci
vi
lhur
t,sev
erephy
sicaland
ment
alheal
thconsequences-bot
himmedi
ateandl
ong-
ter
m.
Pr
eval
enceandCi
rcumst
ances-VAW canoccuri
nthehomeaswel
lasi
npubl
i
candpr
ivat
e
i
nst
it
uti
ons,
incl
udi
ngt
hewor
kpl
ace,
school
s,uni
ver
sit
ies,
andst
atei
nst
it
uti
ons.
Cust
odi
alVAW i
ncl
udesv
iol
encei
npr
isons,i
mmi
grat
iondet
ent
ioncent
ers,soci
alwel
far
e
i
nst
it
uti
ons.

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egr
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nkt
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vice

Ty
pesofVi
olence-phy
sical
,psy
chol
ogi
cal
,orsexual
innat
ure
Har
mfulTr
adi
ti
onalPr
act
ices-gener
all
yconsi
der
edsoci
all
yaccept
abl
e;i
nsomecases,t
hey
ar
eencour
agedbyf
ami
l
ymember
sandt
hecommuni
ty.
-
Abduct
ion-usedt
otakeagi
rlaswi
febyf
orce.abduct
ionandr
apear
ecr
imi
nal
off
encesunder
t
heEt
hiopi
anl
aw.
-
Rape-wi
thoutherconsent
,ef
fect
edbyf
orce,dur
ess,i
nti
midat
ion,ordecept
ionast
othe
nat
ureoft
heact
.'
I
tscausesrper
sonalandcul
tur
albel
i
efsaswel
laseconomi
cst
atus,i
nequal
i
tyi
ngender
powerr
elat
ionsandt
heangerandsadi
sm oft
her
api
sts,
cul
tur
e(mendomi
nance)
,war
,pov
ert
y
-
Mar
it
alr
ape-non-
consensual
sexual
assaul
tinwhi
cht
heper
pet
rat
ori
sthev
ict
im'
sspouse.
Sex
ual
cont
actgai
nedt
hroughf
orce,
coer
cion,
mani
pul
ati
onorf
earofhar
misr
ape.
ButSomesoci
etal
bel
i
efsandmi
sconcept
ionscont
ri
but
ingt
othet
oler
anceofmar
it
alr
ape,
-
Sexualhar
assment
-“qui
dpr
oquo”occur
swhenasuper
visororf
acul
tymember
,oraper
son
act
ing wi
th aut
hor
it
y,wi
th hol
ds,demands and/
orpr
omi
ses a benef
itbypr
essur
ing an
empl
oyeeorst
udentt
osubmi
ttounwel
comesexual
conduct
.
“
Host
il
eenv
ironment
”unr
easonabl
yint
erf
ereswi
thaper
son’
swor
koracademi
cper
for
mance
-
FGM-av
erypai
nful
oper
ati
ont
hatdepr
ivesawomanofav
ital
par
tofhersexual
organs.
-
For
cedpr
ost
it
uti
on-i
sacr
ime&i
tvi
olat
eshumanr
ight
sofemot
ional
andphy
sical
int
egr
it
y.
-
For
cedmar
ri
age-oneormor
eoft
hepar
ti
esi
smar
ri
edwi
thouthi
sorherconsentoragai
nst
hi
sorherwi
l
l.
i
nvol
vev
ary
ingdegr
eesoff
orce,coer
cionordecept
ion,r
angi
ngf
rom emot
ionalpr
essur
eby
f
ami
l
yorcommuni
tymember
stoabduct
ionandi
mpr
isonment
.

I
nar
rangedmar
ri
ages,t
hepar
ent
sandf
ami
l
iespl
ayal
eadi
ngr
olei
nar
rangi
ngt
hemar
ri
age,
butt
hei
ndi
vi
dual
sget
ti
ngmar
ri
edcannonet
hel
esschosewhet
hert
omar
ryornot
.

Par
ent
swho f
orcet
hei
rchi
l
drent
o mar
ryof
tenj
ust
if
ythei
rbehav
ioraspr
otect
ingt
hei
r
chi
l
dren,
bui
l
dingst
rongerf
ami
l
iesandpr
eser
vingcul
tur
alorr
eli
gioust
radi
ti
ons.

t
her
eisnospeci
fi
ccr
imi
nal
off
enceoff
orci
ngsomeonet
omar
ry
-
Dowr
yabuse-A dowr
yist
hemoney
,goods,orest
atet
hatawomanbr
ingst
ohernew
husband.

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vice

Br
idepr
icei
spai
dtot
hebr
ide'
spar
ent
s,anddowerwhi
chi
spr
oper
tyset
tl
edont
hebr
ide
her
sel
fbyt
hegr
oom att
het
imeofmar
ri
age.
Dowr
yabuseoccur
swhent
hehusband'
sfami
l
ycont
inuest
opr
esst
hewi
fe'
sfami
l
y

-
Traf
fi
cki
ng-Bot
hmenandwomenmaybev
ict
ims,butTr
aff
icker
spr
imar
il
ytar
getwomen
becauset
heyar
edi
spr
opor
ti
onat
elyaf
fect
edbypov
ert
yanddi
scr
imi
nat
ion.
The t
raf
fi
cki
ng ofwomen f
orsexualexpl
oit
ati
on i
s an i
nter
nat
ional
,or
gani
zed,cr
imi
nal
phenomenon.

Chapt
erFi
ve

WomenandEducat
ion

Educat
ionandi
tsi
mpor
tance
Thei
mpor
tanceofeducat
ionf
ori
ndi
vi
dualgr
owt
hofgi
rl
s-Educat
edgi
rl
shav
emor
eli
fe
choi
ceandoppor
tuni
ti
est
opar
ti
cipat
eincommuni
tyl
i
feanddeci
sion-
maki
ng
-Educat
edwoment
endt
omar
ryl
aterandhav
efewer
,heal
thi
erandbet
ter
-nour
ishedchi
l
dren
-
Educat
edwomeny
iel
dthehi
ghestr
etur
nineconomi
cter
msand
-
Educat
edwomenhav
emor
eexposur
etoi
nfor
mat
ion;
-
Womenwi
thf
ormal
school
i
ngr
esi
stdomest
icv
iol
encemor
eli
kel
ythant
hosei
l
li
ter
ates
-
Educat
edwomenhav
egr
eat
erwageear
ningoppor
tuni
ty
I
mpor
tanceofwomeneducat
ionf
ort
hesoci
etyatl
arge
-r
educewomen’
sfer
ti
li
tyr
ates, -l
ower
sinf
antandchi
l
dmor
tal
i
tyr
ate, -
l
ower
smat
ernalmor
ali
tyr
ates, -r
educesv
ulner
abi
l
ityofgi
rl
stoHI
V, -
--
i
ncr
easeswomenl
aborf
orcepar
ti
cipat
ionr
atesandear
ning, -
-
cr
eat
esi
nter
gener
ati
onal
educat
ionbenef
it
s
I
sEducat
ionRi
ghtorPr
ivi
lege?
-
Educat
ionasaHumanRi
ght
-
TheUDHR-Ar
ti
cle20,
"Ev
ery
onehast
her
ightt
oeduca¬t
ion.
” 
-
TheI
CESCR-Ar
ti
cl
es13&14-ev
ery
onehast
her
ightt
oeducat
ionandt
hatedu¬cat
ionshoul
d
cont
ri
but
etot
hef
ull
dev
elopmentoft
hehumanper
sonal
i
ty.
 
-
CRC-Ar
ti
cles28and29oft
heCRCdeal
wit
hther
ightoft
hechi
l
dtoeducat
ion.
 

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vice

-
UNESCOConv
ent
ionagai
nstDi
scr
imi
nat
ioni
nEducat
ion-st
ipul
atest
hatst
atespar
ti
esmust
under
taket
ofor
mul
ate,
dev
elopandappl
yanat
ionalpol
i
cywhi
chwi
l
ltendt
opr
omot
eequal
i
ty
ofoppor
tuni
ty and t
reat
ment
,and,i
n par
ti
cul
ar,t
o make pr
imar
y educat
ion f
ree and
compul
sor
y. 
-
CEDAW-Ar
ti
cl
e10
*
Regi
onali
nst
rument
s-ACHPR(
art
icl
e17)
,PACHPRWA(
Prot
ocolt
otheACHPRont
her
ightof
womeni
nAf
ri
caAr
ti
cl
e,13)
,SDGEA(
Art
icl
e8)
,ACRWC

*
Nat
ional
Const
it
uti
ons-Ar
ti
cle41(
3),
36(
1)dofFDREC.
Cont
entoft
heRi
ghtt
oEducat
ionandSt
ateObl
igat
ions-r
eli
giousandmor
al

el
ement
soft
hest
ate’
sobl
i
gat
ionswi
thr
espectt
other
ightt
oeducat
ion,(
1)av
ail
abi
l
ity
,(2)
accessi
bil
i
ty,
(3)accept
¬abi
l
ityand(
4)adapt
abi
l
ity
.

Def
ini
ti
onofGenderBasedDi
scr
imi
nat
ioni
nEducat
ion-causedwhendi
sti
nct
ion,
excl
usi
onor
r
est
ri
cti
oni
smadeont
hebasi
sofsex
-thef
actofbei
ngf
emal
eormal
e

Addr
essi
ngDi
scr
imi
nat
ioni
nEducat
ionwi
thTempor
arySpeci
alMeasur
es-pr
ogr
ams,
pol
i
tics,
andl
awst
hatpl
acet
hem i
nasi
tuat
ionofcompar
ati
veadv
ant
aget
omenf
oral
i
mit
edper
iod,
CEDAW

Zj
ust
if
icat
ionsront
hegr
oundof
,

-compensat
oryj
ust
ice -
dist
ri
but
ivej
ust
ice

-
Soci
alut
il
it
y(mobi
l
izi
ngt
heeconomi
candsoci
alpot
ent
ialofwomenf
ort
hecommongoodof
soci
ety
,andencour
agi
ngandf
aci
l
itat
ingt
hesoci
alt
ransf
ormat
ionandt
hepr
omot
ionof
di
ver
sit
y)
-
accesst
ori
ght
s
SomeTempor
arySpeci
alMeasur
esTakenbyt
heEt
hiopi
anGov
ernment

-emphasi
stowomeneducat
ionbyensur
ingpol
i
cyr
efor
m,enr
oll
mentandcompl
eti
onr
ate

-hast
akenaf
fi
rmat
iveact
iont
oincr
easeenr
olment

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egr
am l
i
nkt
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vice

-r
ewar
dingi
ndi
vi
dual
sandi
nst
it
uti
onsf
ort
hei
rnobl
econt
ri
but
ion

-appr
opr
iat
epol
i
cyi
nst
rument
sandst
rat
egi
cmeasur
eshav
ebeeni
nit
iat
ed

-Thei
ncr
easei
ntheconst
ruct
ionofschool
int
her
ural
areas

Chapt
erSi
x

WomenandEmpl
oyment

Gener
alov
erv
iew-Women’
slowereducat
ionalat
tai
nmentduet
olackofaccesst
oeducat
ion
andt
rai
ningoppor
tuni
ty,
theexi
sti
ngmi
sconcept
ionaboutt
her
oleandcont
ri
but
ionofwomen
i
nempl
oymentandt
hecont
ri
but
ionofwomeni
nfami
l
ylabor
.
Thosewomenwhohav
eaccesst
oempl
oymentf
acemanyobst
acl
es.
i
tsnegat
ivei
mpactont
heeconomyoft
hev
ict
im,t
hev
ict
im’
sfami
l
y,t
hev
ict
im’
scount
ryand
t
hatoft
hewor
ld
GenderBasedDi
scr
imi
nat
ioni
nEmpl
oyment
Accor
dingt
othe1958Di
scr
imi
nat
ion(
Empl
oymentandOccupat
ion)Conv
ent
ion,i
tisany
di
sti
nct
ion,excl
usi
onorpr
efer
encebasedondesi
gnat
edcr
it
eri
asuchasr
ace,col
or,sex,
r
eli
gion,pol
i
ticalopi
nion,nat
ionalext
ract
ion,soci
alor
igi
norot
herdesi
gnat
edcr
it
eri
awhi
ch
hav
etheef
fectofnul
l
ify
ingori
mpai
ri
ngequal
i
tyofoppor
tuni
tyort
reat
menti
nempl
oymentor
occupat
ion.
maybedef
act
o(i
nreal
i
ty,
pract
ice)ordej
ure(
inl
aw)
.
Ri
ghtt
oEmpl
oyment
,aHumanr
ightofwomen,
Int
ernat
ionalst
andar
ds
-
UDHR-Ar
ti
cle23(
1) -I
CESCR-Ar
ti
cle6
Regi
onal
standar
d,ACHPRAr
ti
cle15,
PACHPRWAAr
ti
cle13
Nat
ional
laws,
TheFDRECar
t34
WomenRi
ghtt
oEqualr
emuner
ati
on-UDHRar
t23(
2),I
CESCRar
t7,ACPHRar
t15,PACH
PRWAar
t13(
b),
Equal
Remuner
ati
onConv
ent
ion,
1951ar
t1&2
Mat
erni
typr
otect
ion-i
ncl
udet
her
ightt
oheal
thpr
otect
ion,t
her
ightt
omat
erni
tyl
eav
e,t
he
r
ightt
oleav
eincaseofi
l
lnessandcompl
i
cat
ionandt
her
ightt
oempl
oymentpr
otect
ionand
non-
discr
imi
nat
ion,
Art
icl
e4(
5)oft
heI
LOConv
ent
ion

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egr
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i
nkt
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vice

Sexualhar
assmenti
nwor
kpl
ace-af
fect
sthei
rpr
oduct
ivi
tyl
evel
s,andsubsequent
lyl
eadt
o
t
hei
rdi
smi
ssal
thusdeny
ingt
hem t
her
ightt
oempl
oymentandl
i
vel
i
hood.
encompass act
srangi
ng f
rom sexualassaul
t.
,di
spl
ay ordi
str
ibut
ion ofpor
nogr
aphy
,
suggest
ive gest
ures,phy
sicalcont
act
,repeat
ed pr
oposi
ti
on f
ordat
ers orsexualf
avor
s,
comment
sonappear
anceorcomment
sofsexual
nat
urer
elat
ingt
othev
ict
imt
oat
hir
dpar
ty
-
Qui
d pr
o quo Har
assment
-maki
ng condi
ti
ons ofempl
oyment(
hir
ing,f
ir
ing,pr
omot
ion,
r
etent
ionet
c.)cont
ingentont
hev
ict
im pr
ovi
dingsexual
fav
ors.

-
Host
il
eWor
kingEnv
ironmentHar
assment
-ver
bal
,phy
sicalorv
isual
,hasbeenacknowl
edged
asaf
fect
ingandunr
easonabl
yint
erf
eri
ngwi
thani
ndi
vi
dual
’
sjobper
for
manceorcr
eat
ingan
i
nti
midat
ing,
host
il
eorof
fensi
vewor
kingenv
ironment
.

I
nter
nat
ionalHumanRi
ght
sSt
andar
dsonhar
assment-Ar
ti
cle1oft
heCEDAW,I
CESCRar
t7,
I
CCPRar
t17,I
LODi
scr
imi
nat
ion(
Empl
oymentandoccupat
ion)Conv
ent
ion(
1958)
,UDHRar
t
2,
3&23,
The1993UNDecl
arat
iononVi
olenceagai
nstWomenst
ates,
TheBei
j
ingDecl
arat
ionandt
heBei
j
ingPl
atf
ormf
oract
ioni
ncl
udesi
nit
sli
stofcr
it
ical
areasof
concer
n“v
iol
enceagai
nstwomen,andi
nequal
i
tyi
neconomi
cst
ruct
uresandpol
i
cies,i
nal
l
f
ormsofpr
oduct
iveact
ivi
ti
es.
f
ull
yimpl
emental
lmeasur
esnecessar
ytosecur
eforwomen,saf
e,heal
thyandequi
tabl
e
wor
kingenv
ironment
s,pr
osecut
ingof
fender
s...

Chapt
erSev
en

Polit
icalPar
tici
pati
onofWomen
Background-poli
ti
calpar
ti
cipat
ionr
efer
sto“
women’
sabi
l
ityt
opar
ti
cipat
eequal
l
ywi
thmen,
at
al
ll
evel
s,andi
nal
laspect
sofpol
i
tical
li
feanddeci
sionmaki
ng.
”
Women’
sri
ghtt
opar
ti
cipat
einpol
it
icsasahumanr
ight
I
nter
nat
ionalst
andar
dUDHRAr
ti
cle21,I
CCPRar
t25,Bei
j
ingPl
atf
ormf
orAct
ion,Regi
onal
i
nst
rumentPACPHRWA,
Nat
ional
Inst
rumentTheFDREC.
Thet
womai
nreasonst
hatj
ust
if
ythepr
omot
ionofwomen’
spar
ti
cipat
ioni
npubl
icl
if
e
1)
int
ri
nsi
c ar
gument-equalpar
ti
cipat
ion ofwomen i
n pol
i
tics f
orms t
he human r
ight
s
per
spect
ive.womenconst
it
utehal
foft
hewor
ldpopul
ati
on.

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egr
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nkt
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vice

2)i
nst
rument
ali
stl
i
neofar
gument-st
ressest
hatwomenhav
edi
ff
erentv
isi
onandconcept
s
ofpol
i
ticsowni
ngt
othei
rsexandt
hei
rgenderr
oleasamot
her&assumet
hatwomeni
n
pol
i
ticswi
l
lbr
ingaspeci
alcar
ingf
ocusandf
emal
eval
uest
opol
i
tics.

Fact
orsHi
nder
ingWomen’
sPol
it
ical
par
ti
cipat
ion
-
Ideol
ogi
calf
act
ors-Pat
ri
archyasasy
stem ofmal
edomi
nat
ionshapeswomen’
srel
ati
onshi
p
i
npol
i
tics.
Pol
i
ticalFact
ors-Mal
edomi
nat
ionofpol
i
tics,pol
i
ticalpar
ti
esandcul
tur
eoff
ormalpol
i
tical
st
ruct
ures
-
Soci
o-Cul
tur
alFact
or-Genderr
olei
deol
ogyonl
ycr
eat
esdual
i
tyoff
emi
nini
tyandmascul
i
nit
y,
butal
sopl
acest
hem i
nahi
erar
chalf
ashi
oni
nwhi
chf
emal
esexi
sgener
all
yval
uedl
esst
han
mal
esex
-
Economi
cFact
ors-Womenl
ackaccesst
oandowner
shi
pofpr
oduct
iver
esour
ce
-
LackofSoci
alCapi
talandPol
i
ticalCapaci
ti
es-l
acksoci
alcapi
talbecauset
heyar
eof
tennot
headofcommuni
ti
es,
tri
besorki
nshi
pgr
oups.
absenceofconst
it
uencybasef
ort
hem andmeansofpol
i
ticalpar
ti
cipat
ionsuchaspol
i
tical
ski
l
ls,
economi
cresour
ces,
educat
ion,
trai
ningandaccesst
oinf
ormat
ion.

St
rat
egi
esf
orwomen’
spol
it
ical
par
ti
cipat
ion
1)
Quot
asAr
gumentf
orandagai
nst
-genderquot
aisanef
fect
ivet
ooli
naddr
essi
ngwomen’
s
excl
usi
onandensur
ingt
hei
rpr
esencei
nfor
mal
str
uct
ureofpol
i
tics.
-Wi
thoutaddr
essi
ngt
hest
ruct
uralconst
rai
ntst
owomen’
spol
i
ticalexcl
usi
on,t
hei
rincl
usi
on
t
hroughgenderquot
acannotl
eadt
oanef
fect
iver
epr
esent
ati
on.
2)Enabl
i
ngenv
ironmentf
orwomenpar
ti
cipat
ioni
npol
i
ticsanddev
elopment
-Thegoalof
equalpar
ti
cipat
ionofwomeni
npol
i
ticscanbeachi
evedwhensoci
o-cul
tur
al,pol
i
ticaland
economi
cst
ruct
ural
bar
ri
ersar
echanged.

Humancapaci
ti
esar
edependentont
heav
ail
abi
l
ityofr
esour
cessuchaseducat
ion,
heal
thand
empl
oymentt
hatbui
l
dcapabi
l
iti
esandenl
argehumanchoi
ces.
Par
ti
cipat
ionofEt
hiopi
anWomeni
nPubl
icLi
feandDeci
sionMaki
ng
FDREr
ati
fi
edt
heCEDAW,
art38,
35ofFDREC

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egr
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nkt
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vice

Chapt
erEi
ght

Reproduct
iveRi
ghtsofwomen
Repr
oducti
veRight
sdefi
ned-Ar
ti
cle14ofPACHPRWA
rr
ight
srel
atedt
osexual
repr
oduct
ionandr
epr
oduct
iveor
gan.
r
epr
oduct
iveheal
thas“
ast
ateofcompl
etephy
sical
,ment
alandsoci
alwel
l
bei
ngandnot
mer
elyt
heabsenceofdi
seaseori
nfi
rmi
ty,i
nal
lmat
ter
srel
ati
ngt
other
epr
oduct
ivesy
stem
andt
oit
sfunct
ionandpr
ocess.
Repr
oduct
iveHeal
thRi
ghtasaHumanRi
ght
I
nter
nat
ional
standar
d-Teher
anDecl
arat
ionar
t16,
CEDAW Ar
ti
cle11(
1)Fand(
2)
Thei
deaofr
epr
oduct
iveheal
thr
ight
saspar
tofhumanr
ight
swasf
ir
stdi
scussedatt
heUni
ted
Nat
ionI
nter
nat
ional
Conf
erenceonHumanRi
ght
sinTeher
an,
1968.
8.
1.1 Regi
onal
Standar
d-PACPHRWA,
Nat
ional
standar
d-TheFDRECar
t35(
9)

Abor
ti
onasHumanRi
ght
s-womenhav
ear
ightt
oindependent
lydeci
dei
nal
lmat
ter
sin
r
elat
iont
othei
rrepr
oduct
iver
ighti
ncl
udi
ngt
hei
ssueofabor
ti
on.
Wher
eabor
ti
oni
ssaf
eandl
egal
noonei
sfor
cedt
ohav
eone.
Unsaf
eabor
ti
on,accor
dingt
otheFDREgov
ernmentr
epor
t,i
sthef
if
thl
eadi
ngcauseof
hospi
taladmi
ssi
onandt
hesecondl
eadi
ngcauseofdeat
hamonghospi
tal
i
zedwomeni
n
Et
hiopi
a.
Et
hiopi
a appr
oved a numberofl
egalr
efor
ms and t
ook pol
i
cymeasur
es t
hatai
med at
pr
omot
ingwomen’
srepr
oduct
iveheal
thandr
ight
s.
undert
he1957PenalCodeofEt
hiopi
a,abor
ti
onwasconsi
der
edasacr
imi
nalactwhi
chi
s
puni
shabl
eunl
essi
nsomest
atedexcept
ional
sit
uat
ions.
Si
mil
arl
yAr
ti
cl
e545(
1)oft
her
evi
sedCr
imi
nal
Codeof2004consi
der
edi
ntent
ional
ter
minat
ion
ofpr
egnancyasacr
imi
nalact
.Howev
er,t
heexcept
ionalsi
tuat
ionshav
ebeenputi
nwi
der
cont
ext
.

6LEGALPROFESSI
ONANDETHI
CS

CHAPTERONE

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vice

I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOLEGALPROFESSI
ONANDETHI
CS

I
ntr
oduct
ion

Thesetofr
ulest
hatr
egul
atet
heconductofmember
soft
hel
egalpr
ofessi
onar
ecal
l
edl
egal
et
hics.

Hi
stor
icalBackgr
ound

Legalpr
ofessi
oni
nit
srudi
ment
aryf
ormi
str
acedbackt
oanci
entGr
eece.Ther
ewer
eno
speci
alcl
assofpeopl
ewhoadopt
edadv
ocacyasapr
ofessi
oni
nanci
entGr
eece. The
At
heni
ancour
tsal
l
owedt
hel
i
tigant
stohav
ethehel
poft
hei
rrel
ati
vesorf
ri
endsoraper
son
i
ndi
rect
lyi
nter
est
edi
ntheout
comeoft
hecase.Theygr
adual
l
ybeganr
equi
ri
ngf
eesf
ort
hei
r
ser
vice

Anci
entRome,
theor
igi
nofci
vi
llaw,
isr
enownedf
ort
hel
egacyofi
tsdev
elopedl
egalsy
stem.
Lawy
ersoccupi
edf
oremostpl
acei
nRome.Thepr
ofessi
onofanadv
ocat
ewasof
tena
passpor
ttot
hehi
gherof
fi
cei
nthest
ate.

I
nEt
hiopi
a,l
egalpr
ofessi
onexi
stedi
nthecust
omar
ylaw ofdi
ff
erentet
hni
cgr
oups.Bef
ore
1934E.
C.,ev
eryper
soncoul
drepr
esentpar
ti
est
othel
i
tigat
ionasanadv
ocat
e.Ther
ewasno
l
i
censi
ngsy
stem.

Nosour
ceshowst
heexi
stenceofadv
ocat
es’
codeofconductbef
oreRegul
ati
onNo.57/
1999

Et
hics,
Prof
essi
on,
Prof
essi
onal
Ethi
csandLegalEt
hics

Et
hicsi
sthest
udyoft
hegener
alnat
ureofmor
alsandoft
hespeci
fi
cmor
alchoi
cest
obe
madebyi
ndi
vi
dual
sinhi
sther
elat
ionshi
pwi
thot
her
s.

Pr
ofessi
oni
sav
ocat
ionr
equi
ri
ngadv
ancededucat
ionandt
rai
ning.Pr
ofessi
onali
saper
son
whobel
ongst
oal
ear
nedpr
ofessi
onorwhoseoccupat
ionr
equi
reshi
ghl
eveloft
rai
ningand
pr
ofi
ciency
.

Pr
ofessi
onal
ethi
csi
s“t
her
uleorst
andar
dgov
erni
ngt
heconductofmember
sofapr
ofessi
on”

l
egalet
hicsi
s“t
hest
andar
dofmi
nimal
l
yaccept
abl
econductwi
thi
nthel
egalpr
ofessi
on,

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egr
am l
i
nkt
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vice

i
nvol
vi
ngt
hedut
iest
hati
tsmember
soweoneanot
her
,thei
rcl
i
entandt
hecour
t”

t
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenhonoranddi
gni
tyofl
egalpr
ofessi
ont
othepr
omot
ionofj
ust
ice-
Thel
ossofhonoranddi
gni
tyofpr
ofessi
onofl
aw r
esul
tsi
ndi
srespectf
orcour
tandl
aw.
Peopl
eloseconf
idencei
ncour
ts.

Mor
alI
ssuesandMor
alDi
lemmas-Mor
ali
ssuesar
eissuest
hatr
aisequest
ionsofv
alue
aboutr
ight
s,char
act
erandwel
far
eofaper
son.

Mor
ali
ssuesi
nvol
vev
aluedi
l
emmas(
mor
aldi
l
emmas)
.Mor
aldi
l
emmasi
nvol
vesi
tuat
ionsi
n
whi
chonecannotescapedeci
dingi
nwhi
chnott
odeci
dei
stodeci
deandi
nwhi
chdoi
ng
not
hinghast
hemor
alst
atusofdoi
ngsomet
hing.

TheTheor
yofMor
alObl
i
gat
ion

1)
Uti
li
tar
iani
sm-anact
ioni
sri
ghti
fitt
endst
opr
omot
ehappi
nessandwr
ongi
fitt
endst
o
pr
oducet
her
ever
seofhappi
ness

whati sut
sgoodi il
it
y.Ut
il
it
yishumanwel
l
-bei
ngorwel
far
e.

ActUt
il
it
ari
ani
sm,
anactUt
il
it
ari
ani
sm hol
dst
hatanact
ioni
sri
ghti
fandonl
yifi
tpr
oducest
he
bestconsequences.

Rul
eUt
il
it
ari
ani
sm,anact
ioni
sri
ghti
fandonl
yifi
tisi
naccor
dancewi
thasetofr
ules
conf
ormi
tywhi
chpr
oducest
hebestconsequences.Ar
uleUt
il
it
ari sm doesnotdependon
ani
i
tsconsequences.

TheGol
denRul
e-Ther
ear
eexpr
essi
onsoft
hegol
denr
ulei
ngr
eatr
eli
gionsoft
hewor
ld.

CHAPTERTWO
THELEGALPROFESSI
ON
Meani
ngandNat
ureofLegalPr
ofessi
on-Legalpr
ofessi
oni
sthecol
l
ect
ivenamegi
vent
o
l
awy
ers&i
tisanoccupat
iont
hatr
equi
resadv
ancedt
rai
ningi
nlaw.
Legalpr
ofessi
oni
sapr
ofessi
on,notabusi
ness,b/
cbusi
nessdoesnotr
equi
ret
rai
ning,t
he

ስለ-
ሕግ AboutLaw Tel
egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
ethi
olawbl
og
 ስለ-
ሕግየሕግአገልግሎት/AboutLawLegal
Ser
vice

mot
ivei
nlegalpr
ofessi
oni
ssaf
eguar
dingl
i
ber
tyandat
tai
ningj
ust
ice,wor
kfort
hewel
far
eof
t
hesoci
ety
,nocompet
it
ions&char
act
eri
zedbycooper
ati
on.
Admi
ssi
ont
otheLegalPr
ofessi
on
Canada-l
egaleducat
ioni
sty
pical
l
yasev
ent
oei
ghty
earpr
ogr
am pr
iort
oadmi
ssi
ont
o
pr
act
ice
Aper
iodi
nar
ti
cleswi
thanexper
iencedl
egalpr
act
it
ioner
,al
soknownasar
ti
cli
ngorar
ti
clesof
cl
erkshi
p,i
saf
orm ofappr
ent
iceshi
pwi
thal
egal
pract
it
ionerf
orusual
l
ytwel
vemont
hs.
Sout
hAf
ri
ca–z1stst
agei
suni
ver
sit
yeducat
ionf
or4y
ear
sleadi
ngt
oanL.
L. ee.Z2nd
B.degr
st
agei
sat
tendanceatapr
act
icall
egalt
rai
ningschool
.z3r
dst
agei
sser
viceofar
ti
clesof
cl
erkshi
punderapr
act
ici
ngat
tor
ney&z4t
hst
agei
sempl
oymenti
napubl
i
cint
erestl
awf
ir
m.
Uni
tedSt
ates-admi
ssi
ont
othebarandl
awy
erdi
sci
pli
nehast
radi
ti
onal
l
ybeent
hemat
ter
sof
st
ate(
regi
ons)concer
n.Lawy
ersar
enotadmi
tt
edt
opr
act
icei
ntheUS,t
heyar
eadmi
tt
edt
o
pr
act
icei
napar
ti
cul
arst
ate/
s.Separ
ater
ulesgov
ernadmi
ssi
ont
othev
ari
ousf
eder
alcour
ts.
I
nmostst
ates,
admi
ssi
ont
opr
act
icel
awi
sgai
nedbygr
aduat
ingf
rom l
awschool
,passi
ngt
he
st
ate’
sbarexami
nat
ion,
anddemonst
rat
ingt
haty
oupossessgoodmor
alchar
act
er.
Et
hiopi
a-si
mil
art
oUS.Topr
act
icebef
oref
eder
alcour
ts,
anyEt
hiopi
anshoul
dhol
doneoft
he
t
hreet
ypesofl
i
censesi
ssuedbyt
heMi
nist
ryofJust
ice.Ar
ti
cle3and7Pr
ocNo.199/
2000.
Const
it
uti
onalRi
ghtt
oExer
ciseLegalPr
ofessi
on-Ar
ti
cle41(
2)ofFDRECpr
ovi
dest
hat
:“Ever
y
Et
hiopi
anhast
her
ightt
ochoosehi
sorhermeansofl
i
vel
i
hood,
occupat
ionandpr
ofessi
on”
.
Di
ssat
isf
act
ionwi
thLegalPr
ofessi
on-t
heabuseofadv
ersar
ysy
stem,
prof
essi
onal
sfor
getor
negl
ectt
hei
ret
hical
dut
ytor
espectt
hei
rcol
l
eagues
Lawschool
scont
ri
but
edt
othepr
obl
em ofabusi
ngadv
ersar
ysy
stem.Theycondi
ti
onedt
hei
r
st
udent
stol
ookf
oradebat
abl
eissue.Theydonott
rai
nort
eacht
hei
rst
udent
stosear
chf
ora
j
ustandequi
tabl
esol
uti
ont
olegal
probl
emsoracommongr
oundbet
weencont
endi
ngpar
ti
es.
Adv
ocat
est
urnedl
egal
prof
essi
oni
ntobusi
ness.
BarAssoci
ati
onsandt
hei
rrol
einLegalPr
ofessi
on
Amer
icanBarAssoci
ati
on(
ABA)wasf
oundedi
n1878t
oimpr
ovel
egaleducat
ion,t
oset
r
equi
rement
stobesat
isf
iedt
ogai
nadmi
ssi
ont
othebar
,andt
ofaci
l
itat
etheexchangeof
i
deasandi
nfor
mat
ionamongi
tsmember
s.
I
nrecenty
ear
s,t
heABAhasbeenpr
omi
nent
lyi
nvol
vedi
nther
ecommendat
ionandsel
ect
ion

ስለ-
ሕግ AboutLaw Tel
egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
ethi
olawbl
og
 ስለ-
ሕግየሕግአገልግሎት/AboutLawLegal
Ser
vice

ofcandi
dat
esf
ort
hef
eder
alj
udi
ciar
y,t
heaccr
edi
tat
ionofl
awschool
s,andt
her
efi
nementof
r
ulesofl
egal
andj
udi
ci
alet
hics.
TheEt
hiopi
anBarAssoci
ati
on(
EBA)conduct
sthr
eeact
ivi
ti
es:Cont
inui
ngLegalEducat
iont
o
adv
ocat
es,
LawRef
orm andAdv
ocacy
,andLegal
AidSer
vices.
EBA par
ti
ci
pat
es i
n Adv
ocat
e’s Di
sci
pli
nar
y Counci
l
,Li
cense Ev
aluat
ing Commi
tt
ee and
Adv
ocacyEnt
ranceExami
nat
ionSet
ti
ngandCompet
enceCer
ti
fyi
ngBoar
d.
Unaut
hor
izedPr
act
icei
nLegalPr
ofessi
on-i
tis“
thepr
act
iceofl
aw byaper
son,t
ypi
cal
l
ya
nonl
awy
er,
whohasnotbeenl
i
censedoradmi
tt
edt
opr
act
icel
awi
nagi
venj
uri
sdi
cti
on”
Li
ke ot
hercount
ri
es,unaut
hor
ized pr
act
ice ofl
aw i
s a cr
ime i
n Et
hiopi
a,Ar
ti
cle 31 of
Pr
ocl
amat
ionNo.
199/
2000.

CHAPTERTHREE
JUDI
CIALCONDUCT
Et
hicalDut
iesofJudgesi
nJudi
cial
act
ivi
ti
es

1)
Independence-i
njudi
cialsel
ect
ion,compensat
ion and r
etent
ion ofof
fi
ce.I
ndependent
j
udi
ciar
yisapr
e-r
equi
si
tef
ordemocr
ati
candi
mpar
ti
aladmi
nist
rat
ionofj
ust
ice.

Ar
ti
cle78(
1)ofFDRECest
abl
i
shesi
ndependentj
udi
ciar
ybot
hatf
eder
alandst
atel
evel
.Ar
ti
cle
79(
2)decl
arest
hatj
udgesar
efr
eef
rom i
nter
fer
enceofanyki
nd.

2) Account
abi
l
ity
-Ar
ti
cle 12 of t
he const
it
uti
on,“
any publ
i
c of
fi
cial
” oran “
elect
ed
r
epr
esent
ati
ve”i
saccount
abl
eforf
ail
urei
nof
fi
cial
dut
ies.

Accor
dingt
otheAust
ral
i
anhi
ghcour
tjudge,Mi
chaelKi
rby
,Judgesar
eaccount
abl
eont
hree
gr
ounds.

-
judgesr
enderdeci
sioni
npubl
i
c -
deci
sionofj
udgesi
srev
iewedbyt
heappel
l
atecour
t.

-
Judgesar
eappoi
ntedbyexecut
ivesorl
egi
slat
urewhoi
saccount
abl
etot
hepeopl
e.

FDRECspeci
fi
cal
l
yempower
sjudi
cialadmi
nist
rat
ioncounci
ltor
emov
eaj
udgef
orv
iol
ati
ng
di
sci
pli
nar
yrul
es(
Art
icl
e79(
4)(
a))
.judgesar
eimmunef
rom di
sci
pli
nar
ypr
oceedi
ngs.

Egr
egi
ousl
egaler
rori
saser
iousl
egaler
rorpar
ti
cul
arl
yinv
olv
ingt
hedeni
alt
oindi
vi
dual
sof

ስለ-
ሕግ AboutLaw Tel
egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
ethi
olawbl
og
 ስለ-
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Ser
vice

t
hei
rbasi
corf
undament
alr
ight
s.

3)
Impar
ti
ali
ty-I
ndependencei
sthenecessar
ypr
econdi
ti
ont
oimpar
ti
ali
tyandi
sapr
erequi
sit
e
f
or at
tai
ning i
mpar
ti
ali
ty(
Ibi
d).I
mpar
ti
ali
ty cannot exi
st wi
thout i
ndependence but
i
ndependencecanexi
stwi
thouti
mpar
ti
ali
ty.Thus,ani
ndependentj
udgewhoi
sfr
eef
rom any
i
nfl
uencewhet
herf
rom ot
herwi
ngsofgov
ernment(
execut
ive& l
egi
slat
ure)oranyot
her
per
sonscoul
dbepar
ti
alduet
ohi
sownper
cept
ionori
nter
est
.

Subj
ect
iveorr
eali
mpar
ti
ali
tyexi
stswhenaj
udgehaspr
ejudi
ceorbi
ast
owar
dsonesi
deor
anot
herorapar
ti
cul
arr
esul
t.

Obj
ect
iveorper
cei
vedi
mpar
ti
ali
tyexi
stswhenar
easonabl
eobser
veri
sfr
eef
rom l
egi
ti
mat
e
doubti
nthei
mpar
ti
ali
tyoft
hecour
t.

Bi
asi
sacondi
ti
onorst
ateofmi
ndanat
ti
tude,orpoi
ntofv
iew whi
chsway
s orcol
ors
j
udgmentand r
ender
saj
udgeunabl
etoexer
cisehi
sor herf
unct
ions i
mpar
ti
all
y i
na
par
ti
cul
arcase

-Rel
ati
onwi
thPar
ti
esort
hei
rAdv
ocat
es -Rel
ati
onwi
tht
heMat
ter
-soci
alorbusi
nessr
elat
ionshi
pofaj
udge,
per
sonal
knowl
edgeofev
idence

4)
Compet
enceandDi
l
igence-I
ncompet
enceandi
nef
fi
ciencyi
sagr
oundofr
emov
alofj
udges
asperar
ti
cle79(
4)FDREC.

The et
hicaldut
y of compet
ence r
equi
res “
legalknowl
edge,ski
l
l,t
hor
oughness and
pr
epar
ati
on”

Di
l
igencecanbeaf
fect
edbyt
hebur
denofwor
k,adequacyofr
esour
ces,t
imef
orr
esear
ch,
del
i
ber
ati
onandwr
it
ing,
andj
udi
cial
dut
iesot
hert
hansi
tt
ingi
ncour
ts.

Pat
ience,di
gni
tyandcour
tesyar
eessent
ialat
tri
but
esof et
hicaldut
yofcompet
enceand
di
l
igence.

5)Equal
i
ty-aj
udgeshal
lequal
l
ytr
eatal
lli
ti
gant
sbef
oret
hecour
tsandpr
otectt
hei
rri
ght
.
(
fami
l
y,r
eli
gion,
nat
ion,
nat
ional
i
ty,
pol
i
tical
,soci
alorot
herr
elat
ionshi
p)

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egr
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i
nkt
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olawbl
og
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Ser
vice

6)Ci
vi
li
tyamongJudges-Ci
vi
li
tyi
sapol
i
tenessorcour
tesy
.Int
emper
atecr
it
ici
sm ofaf
ell
ow
j
udgei
sinci
vi
li
ty.I
nci
vi
li
tyi
mpl
i
esl
ackofr
espectandcooper
ati
onamongj
udges.

Et
hicalRequi
rement
s ofJudges i
n Ext
ra Judi
cialAct
ivi
ti
es-Ext
raj
udi
cialact
ivi
ti
es ar
e
act
ivi
ti
est
hathav
enoconnect
ionwi
thj
udi
cialdut
ies.Judgesar
ehumanbei
ngsTheyhav
e
economi
c,soci
al,
pol
i
tical
,rel
i
gious,
commer
cial
andot
herr
elat
ionshi
pwi
thot
herper
sons.

Feder
alcodeofj
udi
ci
alconductdoesnotpr
ohi
bitpar
ti
cul
arbusi
nessorot
heract
ivi
ti
es.

-
Passi
veI
nvest
ment
s-I
nUS,zesear
eal
l
owedf
orj
udges.i
tincl
udest
heowner
shi
pofst
ocks,
bonds,
mut
ual
fundshar
es,
andot
herf
inanci
ali
nst
rument
s.
Passi
vei
nvest
menti
snott
imeconsumi
ngbecausej
udgescanmanagepassi
vei
nvest
ment
ei
theraf
terhour
sordur
ingbr
eaks,
inj
udi
cial
day
.

-
Act
iveManagementandI
nvol
vementi
nBusi
ness-I
nUSj
udgesar
epr
ohi
bit
edf
rom ser
vingas
of
fi
cer
,di
rect
or,
manager
,adv
isororempl
oyeeofanybusi
ness.

-
Pract
iceofLaw-I
nUS,
whatAr
ti
cle2ofpr
ocl
amat
ionNo.199/
2000cal
l
sadv
ocacyser
vicei
s
pr
ohi
bit
edf
orj
udges.
ext
endst
omi
norr
epr
esent
ati
onofcl
osef
ami
l
ymember
s.Theonl
yexcept
ioni
nthi
sregar
dis
t
hej
udgeswhor
epr
esentt
hemsel
ves.
-
Ser
vingasaFi
duci
ary
-Judgesar
ebar
redf
rom ser
ving“
asexecut
ors,
admi
nist
rat
ors,
trust
ees,
guar
diansorot
herf
iduci
ari
es.
Theonl
yexcept
iont
othepr
ohi
bit
iont
oser
veasaf
iduci
aryi
sthe casesoff
ami
l
ymember
andcl
osef
ri
ends.
-Ar
bit
rat
ionandmedi
ati
on-I
nUs.ABAmodelofcodeofj
udi
cialconductbar
sjudgesf
rom
act
ingasanar
bit
rat
orormedi
ator
.
Becauset
hear
bit
rat
ionpr
oceedi
ngcoul
dcomebef
oret
hecour
tonwhi
cht
hej
udgesi
ts
-
Educat
ion-
Judgesmaypar
ti
cipat
eincommuni
tyand/
orl
egal
educat
ion.
Aj
udgemaycont
ri
but
etol
egalandpr
ofessi
onaleducat
ionbydel
i
ver
ingl
ect
urespar
ti
cipat
ing
i
nconf
erenceandsemi
nar
sjudgi
ngst
udentt
rai
ninghear
ingsandact
ingasexami
ner
&asan
aut
hororedi
tor
.
-
Pol
i
tical Act
ivi
ti
es-Judgesshoul
dnotpar
ti
cipat
einpol
i
ticalact
ivi
ti
es,member
shi
pina

ስለ-
ሕግ AboutLaw Tel
egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
ethi
olawbl
og
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Ser
vice

pol
i
tical
organi
zat
ion.
-Member
shi
pinOr
gani
zat
ion-Judges,l
i
keanyot
herci
ti
zens,hav
efr
eedom ofassoci
ati
oni
n
exer
cisi
ngt
his.
Judi
cialAppoi
ntment
-Incount
ri
eswi
thcar
eerj
udi
ciar
ies,t
hesel
ect
ion,appoi
ntment
,and
pr
omot
ionofj
udgesar
emadef
rom wi
thi
naj
udi
cial
car
eersy
stem orci
vi
lser
vice.
Non-
car
eerj
udi
ci
alsel
ect
ionandpr
omot
ionpr
ocedur
esar
emadet
hroughappoi
ntmentbyt
he
execut
ive,
legi
slat
ure.
Judges’Tenur
eandRemov
alMechani
sms-Judgesneednotbeassur
edofl
i
fe-
ti
met
enur
e,
butt
ool
i
mit
edt
ermsofof
fi
cemayi
mpai
rthedev
elopmentofj
udi
cial
independence.

j
udi
cialt
enur
est
hatar
etooshor
t;mandat
oryr
eti
rementatr
elat
ivel
yyoungages;andadhoc,
ar
bit
rar
yandopaquepr
ocedur
esf
ordi
sci
pli
ningandr
emov
ingj
udgesmayunder
minet
he
pr
est
igeofj
udgeshi
psandt
hei
nst
it
uti
onal
independenceoft
hecour
ts.

Appoi
ntment
,Wi
thdr
awal
andRemov
alofJudgesi
nEt
hiopi
a
*
Feder
alJudi
ci
alAdmi
nist
rat
ionCounci
l
-TheFeder
alj
udi
cialadmi
nist
rat
ioncounci
lconsi
sts
ofni
nemember
s.
I
nEt
hiopi
a,al
lthet
hreebr
anchesofgov
ernmentpar
ti
cipat
eint
heappoi
ntmentofj
udgest
o
anyEt
hiopi
ancour
test
abl
i
shedbyt
heconst
it
uti
onofFDRE.
Thej
udi
ciar
yhasnosayont
heappoi
ntmentoft
hepr
esi
dentandv
icepr
esi
dentoft
her
egi
onal
supr
emecour
tsorf
eder
alSupr
emeCour
t(Ar
ti
cle81(
1)&(
3))
.
Feder
alj
udgesofanyl
evel
areappoi
ntedbyHPRamongt
hel
i
stsubmi
tt
edbyt
hePM.Thi
sli
st
cont
ainscandi
dat
essel
ect
edbyf
eder
alJudi
cial
Admi
nist
rat
ionCounci
l
.
St
ate execut
ives ar
eless i
nvol
ved i
njudi
cialappoi
ntmentwhen compar
ed wi
thf
eder
al
gov
ernment
.Inf
eder
algov
ernment
,thePr
imeMi
nist
eri
sinv
olv
edi
ntheappoi
ntmentofev
ery
f
eder
alj
udge.Chi
efexecut
ivesofst
atecanpar
ti
cipat
eonl
yint
heappoi
ntmentofpr
esi
dent
s
andv
ice-
presi
dent
sofsupr
emecour
tsofr
egi
onal
stat
es.

Al
ljudgesoft
hesat
ecour
tsexceptpr
esi
dent
sandv
ice-
presi
dent
sofsupr
emecour
tsar
e
appoi
ntedbyt
hest
atecounci
luponr
ecommendat
ionoft
hest
atej
udi
cialadmi
nist
rat
ion
counci
l
.

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egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
ethi
olawbl
og
 ስለ-
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Ser
vice

Cr
it
eri
aforJudi
cialAppoi
ntment
-Nat
ional
i
ty,Loy
alt
ytot
heConst
it
uti
on,LegalTr
aini
ngor
Legal
Ski
l
ls,
Dil
i
gence,
SenseofJust
iceandGoodConduct
,Consent
,Age
Af
tert
hesel
ect
ion byt
hecounci
l
,thechai
rper
son oft
hecounci
lpr
esent
sthesel
ect
ed
candi
dat
e-j
udgest
othepr
imemi
nist
er.
Fact
orst
hatI
nfl
uenceEt
hicalRequi
rementofJudges-r
emuner
ati
on,r
esour
ceoft
hecour
t,
wor
kloadandof
fbenchact
ivi
ti
es.
Li
abi
li
ty(
Responsi
bil
it
y)f
orBr
eachofRul
esofConduct

-Di
sci
pli
ningAgency
-Feder
alJudi
cialAdmi
nist
rat
ionCounci
lisv
est
edwi
tht
hepowerof
di
sci
pli
ningj
udgest
hatv
iol
atet
heFeder
alCodeofJudi
cialConduct
.Or
dinar
ycour
tsdonott
ry
di
sci
pli
nar
y mat
ter
s.Ev
en t
hey hav
e no appel
l
atej
uri
sdi
cti
on orpowerofr
evi
ew ov
er
di
sci
pli
nar
ymat
ter
s.
-
Disci
pli
nar
yMeasur
es-Or
alwar
ning,
Wri
tt
enwar
ning,
Finenotexceedi
ngt
hreemont
hssal
ary
,
Demot
ionoft
hepostandcuti
nsal
ary
,Remov
alf
rom of
fi
ce.

-
Procedur
es of Di
sci
pli
nar
y Pr
oceedi
ngs- I
nit
iat
ion (
Any per
son no v
est
ed i
nter
est
),
I
nvest
igat
ion,
Hear
ing

CHAPTERFOUR

ADVOCATES’
ETHI
CS

Thepr
ofessi
on,
theJust
iceSy
stem,
Cour
tandt
heCount
ry

-
Thef
ir
standf
ormostdut
yist
ouphol
drespectf
ort
hepr
ofessi
oni
ngener
al.
-
Secondl
y,hehast
hedut
ytoser
vej
ust
ice,hehast
ocooper
atef
orj
ust
icebyshowi
ngspeci
al
endeav
orf
ort
headmi
nist
rat
ionoft
hej
ust
icemachi
ner
y.

-
hehast
opr
ovi
decommuni
tyser
vice.Thegoodexampl
eoft
hesei
spr
obonopubl
i
cser
vice.
Ar
t20(
5)oft
heFRDEC
Et
hicalRequi
rement
sofAdv
ocat
esi
nrel
ati
ont
othei
rCl
ient
s

Oncet
her
elat
ionshi
pisest
abl
i
shedt
her
eisanol
dandofcour
set
ruesay
ingt
hat“
acl
i
enti
sa
ki
ng”
,whi
chconnot
est
hatcl
i
ent
sdeser
veduer
espect
,thei
rint
erestmustbepr
eser
vedand

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ሕግ AboutLaw Tel
egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
ethi
olawbl
og
 ስለ-
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Ser
vice

pr
otect
ed.

ahi
ghdegr
eeoft
oler
ance,
far
sight
ednessandconsci
ousunder
standi
ngi
sexpect
edf
rom t
his
adv
ocat
e,hemustbeDi
l
igentandCompet
entRepr
esent
ati
on,
Thor
oughnessandPr
epar
ati
on,
Mai
ntai
ningCompet
ence,Communi
cat
ion,Wi
thhol
dingI
nfor
mat
ion,Dut
yofconf
ident
ial
i
ty,
Cont
ractofAdv
ocacy
,ScopeofRepr
esent
ati
on,
Loy
alt
ytoaCl
i
ent
.

Non-
prof
essi
onalSubsi
diar
yAct
ivi
ti
es

Anadv
ocat
eisnott
otal
l
ypr
ohi
bit
edf
rom i
nvol
vi
ngi
nnon-
prof
essi
onal
subsi
diar
yact
ivi
ti
es.As
anymemberoft
hesoci
ety
,butl
i
mit
edt
othoseconsi
stentwi
thr
ules&pr
inci
plesoft
he
pr
ofessi
on.

CHAPTERFI
VE

ETHI
CSOFTHEPUBLI
CPROSECUTOR

El
igi
bil
it
y

 Age; Nat
ional
i
ty/
cit
izenr
ieshi
p/;Bei
ngal
awy
er;
 Loy
alt
yandaccept
anceofnat
ionall
awsoft
heconcer
nedst
ate;
especi
all
ythe
const
it
uti
on;
 Et
hicalr
equi
rement
s,mai
nly honest
y,i
ntegr
it
y,l
oyal
ty,i
mpar
ti
ali
ty,l
egal
i
ty,
di
l
igenceandhav
inggoodpubl
i
cimage;
 Hav
ingnocr
imi
nalr
ecor
dexceptpet
tyof
fencesandof
fencespuni
shabl
eupon
compl
aintorconv
ict
edbutr
einst
ated;
and
 Somer
equi
reexper
ience.
LegalBasi
s-t
hel
egalbasi
sofact
ivi
ti
esoft
hepubl
i
cpr
osecut
orshal
lbet
henat
ionall
awsof
t
hecount
ryconcer
nedespeci
all
ytheConst
it
uti
on.

Pr
inci
ples

*I
ndependence *I
mmuni
ty(
pri
vi
legeorexempt
ionf
rom r
esponsi
bil
i
ty)

*Conf
ident
ial
i
ty *Compet
enceandDi
l
igence

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egr
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i
nkt
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ethi
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og
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Ser
vice

*Loy
alt
yandAv
oidanceofConf
li
ctofI
nter
est

I
nrel
ati
ont
otheAccused,
theCour
tandOt
herI
nst
it
uti
ons

Whenev
erheconduct
sinv
est
igat
ion,t
hepubl
i
cpr
osecut
ori
sexpect
edt
ocl
ear
lydi
scl
oset
he
r
ight
soft
hesuspectr
ecogni
zedbyt
hel
aw.

Wher
ethepubl
i
cpr
osecut
orhasi
nst
it
utedachar
geagai
nstacer
tai
nper
sonsuspect
edof
commi
tt
ingcr
ime,
heshoul
dal
way
sbepr
esenti
nthecour
t.

Et
hical
l
y,whati
sexpect
edf
rom t
hepubl
i
cpr
osecut
ori
sthatheshoul
drespectadj
our
nment
s.

Thepubl
i
cpr
osecut
ori
sal
soexpect
edt
orespectt
hepr
inci
plesofadv
ersar
ial
debat
e(f
airt
ri
al
i
nthatbot
hoft
hepar
ti
est
othecasear
epr
oper
lyhear
d)

Heshoul
dal
way
sobser
vet
heobl
i
gat
ionoft
imel
ycommuni
cat
ionofev
idencest
otheper
son
pr
osecut
edorhi
srepr
esent
ati
ve.

Ther
eisnosi
tuat
ionofenmi
tybet
weent
heaccusedandt
hepubl
i
cpr
osecut
or.

I
nhi
sday
-to-
dayr
elat
ionswi
tht
hej
udgesi
nthecour
t,t
hepubl
i
cpr
osecut
orshoul
drespectt
he
i
ndependenceoft
hej
udges.

Thepubl
i
cpr
osecut
orassuper
iorshoul
dtr
eatet
hical
l
yandshoul
dacceptt
hef
actt
hatpol
i
ce
hi
sassi
stantespeci
all
yheshoul
dn’
thar
asst
oobeyhi
sunr
easonabl
eor
der
.

Engagi
ngi
nAct
ivi
ti
esOut
sideOf
fi
cial
Dut
ies

Hemayt
each,
trai
nandgi
vel
ect
urewi
thr
egar
dingt
othel
awandst
il
lcanwr
it
eaboutt
hel
aw
wi
thouter
odi
ngt
heof
fi
cer
esponsi
bil
i
ty.Buti
ndoi
ngsot
hepubl
i
cpr
osecut
orshoul
dfi
rst
secur
etheper
missi
onoft
heMi
nist
eroft
heMi
nist
ryofJust
ice.

Ot
herEt
hical
Consi
der
ati
ons

Thepubl
i
cpr
osecut
orhast
odr
esssoci
all
yaccept
abl
ecl
othes,r
ecr
eat
eindi
gni
fi
edpl
aces
out
sidehi
sof
fi
ce,atal
lthet
imeexhi
bitgoodbehav
iorandconducti
nandout
sideof
fi
cei
n
or
dert
owi
nther
espectandconf
idenceoft
hepubl
i
c.

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egr
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i
nkt
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og
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Ser
vice

Heshoul
dnotbor
row moneyper
sist
ent
lyandi
sst
ri
ctl
ypr
ohi
bit
edf
rom bor
rowi
ngmoneyor
at
tempt
ingt
obor
row moneyf
rom amemberoft
hepubl
i
cwi
thwhom t
hepr
osecut
orhas
cont
acti
nchar
geofhi
sof
fi
cial
dut
ies.

Li
abi
li
tyf
orVi
olat
ionofCodesofConductf
orPr
osecut
ors

*Admi
nist
rat
ive(
Disci
pli
nar
y)Li
abi
l
iti
es-Thesi
mpl
eonesar
e:wr
it
tenwar
ning,af
inenot
exceedi
ngonemont
h’ssal
ary
,anddi
sal
l
owanceoft
henexti
ncr
ementpay
.Gr
avedi
sci
pli
nar
y
penal
ti
es;
theser
iousonesar
edemot
ionanddi
smi
ssal
.

*Cr
imi
nalLi
abi
l
ity
-may exceed bey
ond t
his scope i
ncl
udi
ng r
est
ri
cti
on ofl
i
ber
tyl
i
ke
i
mpr
isonment
.

*Ci
vi
lLi
abi
l
ity
-he has t
oredr
ess t
he l
oss sust
ained i
n addi
ti
on t
o hi
s cr
imi
naland
admi
nist
rat
ivel
i
abi
l
iti
esasf
arast
heydeser
vei
tbasedonci
vi
llaw pr
ovi
sions;f
ori
nst
ance
ar
ti
cle2027andseq.ofCC.

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egr
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i
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og
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Ser
vice

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egr
am l
i
nkt
.me/
ethi
olawbl
og