REVIEW

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Bioelectric Interface Technologies in Cells and Organoids

Zhaoguo Xue and Jianzhong Zhao*

nanostructured bioelectronics, owing

The past two decades have witnessed breakthroughs in cellular-scale to their versatile, miniaturized de-
bioelectronics and their widespread applications in life sciences, creating signs and capabilities of in vivo (or in
many powerful platforms for studying organisms directly and efficiently. vitro) sensing of cell activities, have
These advanced devices can integrate seamlessly and intimately onto/into emerged as a very promising direc-
tion of next generation cell interfaces.
target cells and organoids, providing unprecedented functions and To better fulfill the requirements of cell
revolutionary capabilities. Bioelectronics with nanostructured designs are electrophysiology recording, the long-
developed to allow for long-term, stable monitoring of electrophysiological term stability, high spatial and tem-
activities. This review summarizes nanostructured bioelectronics for cell poral resolution, design versatility and
electrophysiology recording, emphasizing the crucial roles of structural device miniaturization, represent four
key design considerations of nanostruc-
designs on functions and capabilities, e.g., intracellular access, high-density
tured bioelectronic devices. In these de-
multiplexed recording, multifunctional interfaces and the conformability to vices, the most important components
curvy biological shapes. Finally, the remaining challenges and opportunities in are the nanostructured electrodes[21–27]
nanostructured bioelectronics are identified, and perspectives on the future or field-effect transistors (FETs).[28–38] In
developments toward their practical applications are provided. the recording of cell membrane and
transmembrane potential, the electrodes
have advantages in high-density and
low-cost fabrication, but have difficul-
1. Introduction ties in low-amplitude cell signals and
picking up subthreshold, because of
Cells serve as the basic building blocks that make up all living the intrinsically large impedance.[21] A variety of nanostructured
organisms. Versatile forms of life activities are based on the in- architectures with strategically designed layout of integrated elec-
tracellular organization[1] and intercellular communication.[2–5] trodes or FETs have been developed to offer conformal and stable
The recordings of cell activities are therefore of pivotal impor- interfaces with diversely shaped cells/organoids, and to provide
tance for the understanding and prediction of advanced life be- long-term, continuous recording of biophysiological signals with
haviors. In recent years, there has been growing interest in de- high sensitivity and high fidelity.[39–56] For example, many differ-
velopments of electrical,[6–9] optical,[10–12] chemical,[11] and ther- ent forms of needle type architectures were developed for cell
mal interfaces technologies for sensing and monitoring of cells interfacing, ranging from nanoprobes,[57–61] nanopillars,[42,62–65]
and organoids.[13–20] Among these bioelectronic interfaces, the nanotubes,[66] nanocrowns,[24] to nanovolcanos.[67] Aside from
these 1D nanostructured configurations, 2D planar type,[68–71]
as well as diverse 3D architectures have been devised to allow
Z. Xue
National Key Laboratory of Strength and Structural Integrity
monitoring with higher spatial resolutions.[10,39–49,72] Therefore,
Institute of Solid Mechanics the cell electrophysiology activities can be displayed in real-time
School of Aeronautic Science and Engineering for biological and biomedical studies. It is noteworthy that the
Beihang University structural designs of such bioelectronics play vital roles on their
Beijing 100191, P. R. China performances and capabilities. However, reviews systematically
J. Zhao elaborating the relationship between structural designs and func-
Applied Mechanics Laboratory
Laboratory of Flexible Electronics Technology tions of representative nanostructured bioelectronics are still
Department of Engineering Mechanics insufficient.
Tsinghua University In this review, we highlight the representative nanostruc-
Beijing 100084, P. R. China tured bioelectronics (Figure 1) for cell electrophysiology record-
E-mail: jianzhongzhao@tsinghua.edu.cn
ing, with an emphasis on their structural designs, functions
The ORCID identification number(s) for the author(s) of this article and potential applications. The next section summarizes nee-
can be found under https://doi.org/10.1002/admi.202300550 dle type bioelectronics with a diversity of architectural designs.
© 2023 The Authors. Advanced Materials Interfaces published by The content then shifts to planar type for cells, and scaffold,
Wiley-VCH GmbH. This is an open access article under the terms of the conformal and implantable type bioelectronics for organoids.
Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution The summary and outlook section outline opportunities and
and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly challenges that exist for future developments of nanostructured
cited.
bioelectronics.
DOI: 10.1002/admi.202300550

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Figure 1. A summary of nanostructured bioelectronics for cells and
organoids.
2. Needle Type Bioelectronics for Cells
As a class of most wide-used structures of nanomaterials, needle
type devices have become a powerful tool for studying biologi-
cal interfaces.[9,73–85] The development of such devices could not
only meet the growing demand for highly sensitive and selec-
tive detection of single cells, but also provide an ideal platform to
penetrate the cell membrane for intracellular detection, which is
difficult to achieve with other structural configurations.[74,86] The
existing penetration methods for intracellular access can be clas-
sified into two main categories,[87–90] , i.e., spontaneous penetra-
tion and assisted penetration. The spontaneous penetration usu-
ally relies on the sharp physical geometry of the nanostructure or
the gravity/adhesion forces of cells, while the aided penetration
requires additional chemical, electrical, or optical processes.
2.1. Nanoprobes
With conventional array-based recording devices, the contact-
ing surfaces are typically confined to regions only near the bot-
tom of cells. These issues could be addressed by integrating
needle type nanoelectronics in a support of operating platform
(e.g., atomic force microscope (AFM) cantilever, glass pipette and
nanomanipulator).[91–94] This kind of nanoprobes could be em-
ployed for probing intracellular environment with a high spa-
tial resolution (single cell level). Due to the nanoscale size and
semi-implantable property, the nanoprobe could greatly reduce
the damage of cell during membrane penetration, allowing the
precise and long-term positioning into cells.[95,96]
Tian et al.[57] developed a novel nanoprobe based on kinked
NW FETs, which allowed the localization of a point-like FET de-
tector at the kinked tip for the realization of facile intracellular
recordings (Figure 2a). The kinked Si NW modified with phos-
pholipid modification enable spontaneous penetration of the cell
membrane, without applying any external forces.[98] Meanwhile,
the high surface-to-volume ratio of NWs and their operation as
FETs afford excellent sensitivity to voltage signals, which ensured
the real-time electrical recording of the spontaneous penetration
process.[99,100] Based on a similar principle, a scalable U-shaped
Si NW FET-based nanoprobe with the ability to record full am-
plitude intracellular action potentials was proposed,[58] as shown
in Figure 2a. A key advancement is an assembly method to real-
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ize NW FET nanoprobe arrays with controllable tip geometry and
FET size, enabling the study of the impact of the nanoprobe size
and geometry on the intracellular recording.[101] It was shown
that the nanoprobes with the smallest radii of curvature and FET
channel lengths could facilitate the recording of full amplitude
intracellular action potentials and subthreshold features.[102] In
addition, arrays of these nanoprobes can be exploited to allow
multiplexed recording from single cells and cell networks.[103,104]
Based on the AFM platform, the electroporation of nanofoun-
tain probe technology can deliver molecules into cells in a man-
ner that is highly efficient and gentler to cells.[105,106] The electro-
poration of single HeLa cells was demonstrated. Furthermore, a
system for combined optical, force, and electrical measurements
based on the AFM nanoprobe was developed,[107] which consists
of a nanovolcano probe at the tip of a suspended microcantilever.
Impedance measurements on mechanically stimulated neona-
tal rat cardiomyocytes were achieved using these nanovolcano
probes. The nanoprobes can also be constructed with various
materials and nanodevices, such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs),
Si NWs, and gold nanopillars.[77,78,108] Owing to their high me-
chanical strength and high electrical conductivity, CNTs are at-
tractive for cell probing, noticing that the dimensions of CNTs
would potentially allow the interrogation of submicrometresized
organelles deep within the cell, without causing evident damage.
Singhal et al.[108] developed a multiwalled CNT-based endoscope
for interrogating cells, which could transport fluids and perform
optical and electrochemical diagnostics without disrupting the
cell at the single organelle level.
2.2. Nanopillars
Nanopillar array-based devices can penetrate the cell membrane
and enter the intracellular compartment, allowing the transfer of
various biological molecules and detection of intracellular electri-
cal and biochemical signals.[77,78] To obtain a high-fidelity intra-
cellular signal, it is essential for the nanopillar structure to pene-
trate the cell membrane and form a tight coupling with the mem-
brane. This coupling is highly dependent on the shape and size
of the contact region. Generally, it has been shown that an easier
intracellular access via spontaneous penetration can be achieved
by decreasing the tip diameter or increasing the height.[109,110]
As shown in Figure 2b-i, a vertical ultrasharp nanopillar (with
a tip diameter below 10 nm) was reported to enable long-term
recordings of intracellular potentials.[63] A high-performance
intracellular access is crucial for the high-quality and long-
term recording, while maintaining cell viability. In addition to
the spontaneous poration, the electroporation (Figure 2b-ii) is
the most widely-used method to facilitate the cell membrane
penetration.[62,111] Due to the sharp tip (≈100 nm) of the verti-
cal nanopillar tightly coupled to the cell membrane as shown in
Figure 2b-iii, a large electric field can be generated with only a
small voltage (e.g., ≈1–3 V) to locally increase the permeability
of the cell membranes.[64] When a low voltage electroporation
was applied on the nanopillars, nanopores were introduced in the
cell membrane, and high-quality intracellular potentials could be
recorded continuously for several minutes.[112] Furthermore, the
optoporation was also developed as an effective method to im-
prove the penetration, where focused high-power laser pulses
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Figure 2. Needle type bioelectronics for cells. a) Nanoprobes. i) Kinked NW-based probes. Reproduced with permission.[57] Copyright 2010, American
Association for the Advancement of Science. ii) U-shaped NW FET probe. Reproduced with permission.[58] Copyright 2019, Nature Publishing Group.
b) Nanopillars. i) Ultra-sharp nanopillars. Reproduced with permission.[63] Copyright 2021, Wiley-VCH. ii) Membrane poration mechanisms. Reproduced
with permission.[62] Copyright 2019, Wiley-VCH GmbH. iii) Vertical electrode arrays. Reproduced with permission.[64] Copyright 2012, Nature Publishing
Group. iv) 3D vertical electrode arrays. Reproduced with permission.[42] Copyright 2022, Nature Publishing Group. c) Quasi-1D tubes. i) Hollow nanotube
electrode. Reproduced with permission.[66] Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society. ii) Nanocrown electrodes. Reproduced with permission.[24]
Copyright 2022, Nature Publishing Group. iii) Nanovolcano electrode. Reproduced with permission.[67] Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society.
iv) Patch clamp technique. Reproduced with permission.[97] Copyright 2019, Nature Publishing Group.

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were introduced at the interface to penetrate the cell membrane,
allowing simultaneously recording of both extracellular and in-
tracellular potentials.[113–116] When comparing to the electropora-
tion, the optoporation does not interfere with spontaneous cell
activity, does not imply any recording blind time, and enables a
very long-term observation.
To fulfill the requirements of high-fidelity transmembrane
potential recording in single cells or multicellular networks,
Gu et al. reported a scalable 3D FET device (Figure 2b-iv)
transformed from a 2D precursor for intra- and inter-cellular
recording.[42] The 3D geometry allows the FETs to penetrate the
cell membrane and record low-amplitude subthreshold signals
inside the cell. On the basis of the developed devices, the intracel-
lular action potentials and intercellular signal conductions were
accurately recorded in real time. An array of the 3D FET devices
with different structural designs was also demonstrated, which
could interrogate cells at three different depths in a 3D microtis-
sue.
2.3. Quasi-1D Tubes
The complex vertical quasi-1D nanotubes have been demon-
strated, thanks to the fast developments of advanced manufac-
turing technologies at nanoscale.[24,66,67,97] Methods for intracel-
lular delivery of molecules or nanoparticles (e.g., DNA plasmids,
drug molecules, quantum dots, and gold nanoparticles) are es-
sential for the development of modern biological and biomed-
ical techniques, and have been widely used in single-cell stud-
ies, drug delivery, disease diagnosis, pharmaceutical therapeu-
tics, gene regulation, and intracellular imaging.[117,118] Different
from nanopillars, the hollow nanotube structures can provide a
unique nanochannel that bridges the extracellular and intracel-
lular microenvironments, facilitating the delivery of bio-cargoes
into cells through the nanochannel.
Hollow nanotubes have been exploited to serve as reliable
means of delivery with high cell viability.[119–122] For example,
an electrophoretic system based on vertical hollow nanotubes
(Figure 2c-i) was developed to enable intracellular delivery of in-
dividual nanoparticles and real-time monitoring of the single-
particle delivery process.[66] The hollow tubular nanoelectrodes
were shown to be able to delay the resealing of the cell mem-
branes and induce the active membrane fusion, thereby im-
proving the sealing resistance and prolonging the intracellu-
lar recording time.[123] Jahed et al.[24] proposed semi-hollow
nanocrown electrodes with mechanical robustness, which could
achieve high electroporation success rates (≈99%) with high ac-
curacy and signal strength for cardiomyocyte intracellular ac-
cess (Figure 2c-ii). The nanocrown structures could induce the
cell membrane to wrap around the outer surface and adhere
to the inner core, which stabilizes the membrane-electrode in-
terface. Similarly, volcano-shaped nanoelectrode (nanovolcano)
was also proposed[67] for long-term electrophysiological record-
ings (Figure 2c-iii). The 100-nm-thick nanovolcano wall has a
nanopillar-like shape, which could induce high-curvature re-
gions in the cell membrane, thereby increasing the chance
of intracellular access. The patch-clamp technique which is
originally developed to record currents of ions flowing in the
cell membranes (Figure 2c-iv), has become a true stalwart of
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the neuroscience toolbox.[97] As the gold standard device for
electrophysiology,[124,125] patch clamps could provide high-quality
action potential recordings by adsorbing cell membranes to form
a coupling interface with the intracellular environment.[126]
Needle type bioelectronics have great advantages in penetrat-
ing the cell membrane for intracellular detection (i.e., sponta-
neous penetration and assisted penetration), which is difficult to
achieve with other configurations of bioelectronics. Three types
of needle type bioelectronics are classified due to their geome-
tries, such as nanoprobes, nanopillars and quasi-1D nanotubes.
Nanoprobe devices can detect the entire cell membrane and in-
tracellular domain with a high spatial resolution in support of
the operating platform, while such nanoprobe is inadequate in
simultaneous multisite measurements. Nanopillar and quasi-1D
tube devices are specially made for recording multicellular net-
work, while the contacting surfaces are typically confined to the
bottom of cells. Further advances will follow from the develop-
ment of routes to high spatial resolution, multiplexed, intracellu-
lar and intercellular recording bioelectronics.
3. Planar Type Bioelectronics for Cells
With the fast developments of micro/nanofabrication and pro-
cessing technologies, 2D bioelectronics with a high-density
integration have been devised to achieve a noninvasive,
long-term, and multiplexed extracellular recording of cell
electrophysiology.[127–130] The planar microelectrode array is a
conventional tool for the electrophysiological investigation of
cells, with the advantages of low-cost fabrication, minimal in-
vasiveness to cells and high-throughput recordings.[131–134] How-
ever, due to the 2D geometry of the electrode, it is basically not
capable of directly recording the intracellular action potential. Be-
sides, the micron-sized electrode usually records the electrical po-
tentials of the cell population rather than a single cell, which can
be well addressed by introducing nanoscale 2D structures.[135]
3.1. Nanowells
A bioelectronic system consisting of a planar microelectrode and
five patterned nanowells was proposed to record the intracellu-
lar action potential of a single cardiomyocyte,[136] as shown in
Figure 3a. The electroporation of nanowell electrodes could gen-
erate electric fields across the cardiomyocytes, and then pene-
trate the cell membrane to allow a good electrical coupling be-
tween the microelectrode and cardiomyocytes for the intracel-
lular monitoring. The micron-sized nanowell array enabled the
penetration point to stay under a single cell for the recording of
permeability and action potential. Compared to those of the ex-
tracellular recording by conventional planar microelectrode array,
the nanowell microelectrode array could measure the intracellu-
lar potential with higher quality, reduced noise root-mean-square,
and higher signal-to-noise ratio.
3.2. Planar FETs
The function of biological organs relies on the dynamics of con-
stituent cells and their coupling, and thus the simultaneous ob-
servation of a large number of cells over long time is essential for
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Figure 3. Planar type bioelectronics for cells. a) Nanowells. Nanowell-based microelectrode for penetrating the cardiomyocyte membrane by electro-
poration and recording intracellular action potentials. Reproduced with permission.[136] Copyright 2022, Nature Publishing Group. b) Planar FETs. i)
Colorized electron micrograph image of a neuron on a silicon chip with a linear array of buried-channel FETs. Reproduced with permission.[137] Copyright
2005, Wiley-VCH. ii) Optical image of a cortex neuron connected to a NW device. Reproduced with permission.[138] Copyright 2006, American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science. iii) Schematic illustration of graphene-based solution gated FETs for the detection of cell signals. Reproduced with
permission.[139] Copyright 2011, Wiley-VCH.

the biological research.[140] Based on the complementary metal
oxide silicon (CMOS) technology, Voelker et al.[137,141] demon-
strated low-noise electrolyte–oxide–silicon FETs for parallel mon-
itoring of neurons at high spatial and temporal resolution. Dur-
ing the transistor recording, a neuron was directly placed onto
to the exposed gate oxide of a FET, as illustrated in Figure 3b-
i. The source–drain current could be directly modulated by the
change in the local extracellular potential in the electrolyte of the
cleft between the cell and transistor. The cell–transistor junction
could be regarded as a type of amplifier without interference of
the electrolyte–metal contact or stray capacitances.
In addition, planar FETs based on semiconductor nanoma-
terials (such as Si NWs,[142–144] CNTs[145–147] and graphene,[148]
MoS2 [149] ) have attracted widespread attention, because of their
capabilities of highly-sensitive and label-free detections. The ap-
plication of Si NW FETs for extracellular recording from cul-
tured neurons was first reported by the Lieber group in 2006. As
shown in Figure 3b-ii, the as-fabricated Si NW FET array could
be selectively passivated by patterning polylysine to promote the
guided neuronal growth over Si NW FETs. Then a highly local-
ized synapse-like junction could be formed at regions where the
neuronal axon or dendrite crosses the NW device.
Moreover, the graphene electrolyte-gated FET array was de-
veloped for the detection of the cell electrophysiological activity
(Figure 3b-iii), using large-area graphene films grown by chem-
ical vapor deposition on copper foil.[139] The action potentials of
these cardiomyocyte-like HL-1 cells could be effectively detected
and resolved by culturing cells on the FET array. Due to the low
noise and the large transconductive sensitivity, these graphene
transistors offer an outstanding advantage of high signal-to-noise
ratios. Through the entire transistor array, the propagation of the
cell signals across the layer was successfully tracked by analyzing
the multiplexed data. Integration of different types of devices to
measure the same cell is also possible. The simultaneous record-
ing of electrophysiological signals from the same cardiomyocyte
was carried out by both graphene and Si NW FETs.[150]
The research on planar type bioelectronics remains insuffi-
cient. Planar type bioelectronics are relatively low-cost because

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of their compatibility with state-of-art large-scale integrated pla-
nar fabrication techniques, thereby being applicable to high-
throughput recordings. Similar to nanopillar and quasi-1D tube
devices, the recording area is typically confined to the bottom of
cells. The 2D geometry of the electrodes lead to a weak coupling
interface. Opportunities may exist in the multiplexed extracellu-
lar recording of cell electrophysiology, which are useful for un-
derstanding intercellular communications, such as neurons.
4. Scaffold Type Bioelectronics for Organoids
Organoid, as a miniaturized and simplified version of an
organ, can self-organize in 3D culture, owing to their self-
renewal and differentiation capacities.[10,13,43–45,151] 3D nanos-
tructured bioelectronics have advantages in native state of
cells, as well as multisite, concurrent electrophysiological
monitoring.[10,18,23,43,44,46,48,152–156] In this section, the rep-
resentative scaffold type bioelectronics for organoids are
introduced.[40,152,157–159] Owing to the geometrical features,
such bioelectronics can provide the platforms for the struc-
tural support and growth of cells, while accommodating the
spatially distributed electrodes capable of recording the cell
activities. Hence, scaffold type bioelectronics have potentials in
integrating a higher density of electrodes. Such potentials com-
bined with structural designs and functionalized materials can
serve as a multifunctional platform in exploring the generation
and conduction of electrical impulse in cells or intercellular
networks.[39,40,42,156,160]
4.1. Assembled Scaffolds
The mechanically guided 3D assembly methods provide a power-
ful route to 3D electronic devices over different length scales, with
a rich diversity of accessible 3D geometric configurations.[161–171]
The excellent compatibility of such assembly methods with well-
established planar nanofabrication and processing techniques al-
lows their applicability to a broad set of high-performance materi-
als. Besides, the development of routes to complex 3D structures
with feature sizes in the mesoscopic range is of increasing. The
purpose is to establish methods for controlling the structural de-
signs for applications as metamaterials, offering engineered be-
haviors with optical, thermal, acoustic, mechanical that do not
occur in the natural world, which can be summarized folding,
rolling and mechanical assembly.[166]
Yan et. al. reported a mechanically guided assembled strat-
egy for advanced 3D designs in micro/nanomanufacturing which
have potentials in many fields including biomedical engineering,
metamaterials, electronics, electromechanical components.[156]
Sophisticated cell scaffolds can leverage high-performance com-
ponents to allow interaction and communication with live cells
and tissues. The developed electronic scaffolds were used for en-
gineered dorsal root ganglion neural networks. As a demonstra-
tion, 3D bilayer nested cages of epoxy transferred onto optical-
quality glass to enable high-resolution, in situ imaging, serve
as growth platforms for neural networks of dorsal root ganglion
cells dissociated from explants from rats.
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4.2. Porous Foams
The emerging 3D cell culture systems have boosted the de-
velopment of many fields, such as pathophysiological study,
tissue regeneration, and drug screening. Among the various
3D cell culture systems, scaffold-based 3D cell culture sys-
tems have attracted extensive attention,[40,69,72,126,157–159,172] be-
cause such porous scaffolds can simultaneously offer mechanical
support and 3D microenvironments for the cell attachment and
tissue formation in tissue engineering.
Qin et al. developed a stretchable and multifunctional scaffold
type platform capable of 3D cell culture, mechanical loading, and
electrochemical sensing.[40] The scaffold type 3D bioelectronics
were fabricated by attaching the networks of gold nanotubes (Au
NTs) on porous polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), and linking Gly-
Arg-Gly-Asp (GRGD) with Au NTs via covalent bond (Figure 4b).
Such scaffold type 3D bioelectronics offered very good biocom-
patibility, excellent stretchability, and stable electrochemical sens-
ing performance, with capabilities of mimicking the mechan-
otransduction of articular cartilage and monitoring the stretch-
induced signaling molecules in real time.
4.3. Vertical Electrode Arrays
The shape morphing between free-standing 3D frameworks
and their 2D precursors can be achieved by introduc-
ing plastic strain programming. Unlike the 3D assembly
methods,[161,162,165,166,168,169] such strategy could provide free-
standing 3D geometries. By exploiting the plastic deformations,
Soscia et al. developed a 3D flexible spike-like multi-electrode ar-
rays (Figure 4c), where the hinges were plastically deformed by a
customized apparatus, allowing the probes to stand upright with-
out additional supports.[39] The developed 3D multi-electrode
devices containing 10 probes and 80 electrodes can be used
to non-invasively interrogate the suspended neurons, with a
capability of visualizing the spatial and temporal mapping of
electrophysiological data across a 3D volume.
Such vertical 3D multi-electrode arrays with precisely con-
trolled configurations can easily integrates with standard com-
mercially available electrophysiology hardware.[39] To precisely
control the bending location during actuation, a hinge region was
incorporated into the structural designs. The bending region fea-
tures a void in the polyimide, resulting in an inherently flexible
region compared to the rest part. Polyimide was chosen as the
main structural component of the probes due to its flexibility and
biocompatibility. To ensure rapid and reproducible actuation of
the probes, a costumed actuation apparatus was also developed.
Such customized platforms are important step in facilitating non-
invasive electrophysiological characterization of 3D networks of
electroactive cells in vitro.
The rich diversity of accessible 3D geometric configurations
is crucial to the culture of organoids. Three techniques are de-
tailly discussed to show their design strategies, such as 3D assem-
bly, porous foam, and plastic deformation methods. Integration
of functional components (metal electrodes or FETs) on the 3D
scaffold structures, enables multisite, concurrent electrophysio-
logical monitoring within organoids. Such bioelectronics provide
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Figure 4. Scaffold type bioelectronics for organoids. a) Assembled scaffolds. 3D mesostructures as electronic cell scaffolds. Reproduced with
permission.[156] Copyright 2017, National Academy of Sciences. b) Porous foams. Stretchable scaffold-like 3D bioelectronics. Reproduced with
permission.[40] Copyright 2021, Wiley-VCH. c) Vertical electrode arrays. 3D multi-electrode arrays transformed from a 2D precursor by plastic defor-
mations of the hinges. Reproduced with permission.[39] Copyright 2020, The Royal Society of Chemistry.

reliable, advanced platforms for studying the mechanism of self-
renewal and differentiation capacities of organoids.
5. Conformal Type Bioelectronics for Organoids
To allow conformal wrapping around 3D organoids, the bioelec-
tronics should be well designed to offer high degree of flexibility
and shape morphing capability (e.g., transformable from 2D to
3D).[10,43–45,151,155,160,173–175] In this section, several conformal type
bioelectronics for organoids and issues are introduced. The ad-
vanced devices consist of multilayered stacks of ultrathin active
components, including sensors that have dimensions compara-
ble to those of a single cell. For example, these systems can mon-
itor specific collections of neurons in the central and peripheral

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Figure 5. Conformal 3D bioelectronics for organoids. a) Self-bending leaflets. 3D shell microelectrode arrays composed of self-bending polymer leaflets
with metal coating for electrophysiology recording of brain organoids. Reproduced with permission.[43] Copyright 2022, American Association for
the Advancement of Science. b) Assembled frameworks. 3D frameworks as compliant, multifunctional interfaces for spheroids. Reproduced with
permission.[10] Copyright 2021, American Association for the Advancement of Science. c) Self-rolling/-twining shells. i) 3D self-rolled biosensor arrays.
Reproduced with permission.[44] Copyright 2019, American Association for the Advancement of Science. ii) 3D microchannels of the cuff-type implant.
Reproduced with permission.[154] Copyright 2015, Wiley-VCH. iii) 3D twining electrode. Reproduced with permission.[176] Copyright 2019, American
Association for the Advancement of Science.

nervous systems, as means to elaborate connections to complex
behavioral responses.
5.1. Self-Bending Leaflets
Conformal multielectrode arrays can provide noninvasive record-
ing and network mapping of extracellular potential for organoids.
Inspired by the shape of electroencephalography caps, Huang
et al. developed 3D shell microelectrode arrays composed of self-
bending polymer leaflets with metal coating for electrophysiology
recording of brain organoids.[43] The solvent exchange between
acetone and water for the gradient cross-linked SU8 triggers the
controlled bending of leaflets, resulting in the 2D-to-3D transfor-
mation of shell microelectrode arrays (Figure 5a). The thickness
and extent of cross-linking extent are two key design parameters

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for achieving different bending angles. By tuning the bending an-
gle, shape, and electrode pattern, a customizable conformability
can be realized for organoids with different sizes.
When comparing to conventional planar microelectrode ar-
rays, such 3D microelectrode arrays can address the limitations
that the recording contact area is restricted to the bottom of the
3D organoids. For a better signal-to-noise ratio, the needle type
electrodes are used to provide recording access to the interior of
the measured cell via penetration, while such 3D microelectrode
arrays have advantages in providing noninvasive and high-speed
recording and network mapping of extracellular electric field
potential.
5.2. Assembled Frameworks
Mechanically-guided 3D assembly methods typically involve the
2D-to-3D geometric transformation of a patterned high-modulus
thin film on a low-modulus elastomer substrate much thicker
than the film, driven by compressive buckling.[162] Park et al.
developed a class of compliant 3D electrical interfaces, through
compressive buckling of patterned 2D electrode array consist-
ing of polymer support and metal electrode/interconnect.[10] In
particular, the 2D precursor pattern can be customized to al-
low the resulting 3D electronics to be matched with various dif-
ferent shapes of organoids, highlighting the design versatility
(Figure 5b). Two examples of 3D electrical interfaces are provided
to study the spreading of coordinated bursting events of an iso-
lated cortical spheroid and of a pair of such spheroids. The multi-
functional interface is capable of simultaneous electrophysiolog-
ical monitoring of 16 spheroids.
With the tailored geometric features and low bending stiff-
nesses, the assembled 3D framework can gently envelop and hold
an individual neural spheroid, with multifunctional devices on
the individual wings, such as electrical, optical, chemical, and
thermal interfaces. These design features, together with soft,
proximity contacts to the surface of the spheroid, yields high per-
formance in recording of neural activity.[10] Based on finite ele-
ment analysis (FEA), the optimized selection of design parame-
ters to ensure contact with extremely low forces at the soft tissue
interfaces can be easily realized. Besides, the elastomeric sub-
strate can be reversibly compressed or stretched to alter the 3D
geometry to accommodate dynamic, natural changes in the size
of the spheroid as it evolves and grows.
5.3. Self-Rolling/-Twining Shells
3D rolled-up nanomembrane bioelectronics can be robustly at-
tached to a tissue to enable the enclosure of neuronal cells or
nervous fibers. The rolled-up nanomembrane structures can be
actuated from planar configurations mainly by light, pH, tem-
perature, electrical or magnetic stimuli.[154,177,178] Kalmykov et al.
reported 3D self-rolled biosensor arrays through use of residual
stresses in the metal/polymer support bilayer structure.[44] The
3D FETs and microelectrodes were implemented to interface hu-
man cardiac spheroids for electrophysiological monitoring and
investigation of the complex signal transduction in 3D cell assem-
blies toward an organ-on-an-electronic-chip (Figure 5c-i). The ra-
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dius of curvature can be controlled by the geometric design and
the residual stress level.
Karnaushenko et al. reported mechanically adaptive mi-
crochannels of the cuff-type implant with integrated high-
performance electronics (Figure 5c-ii), including signal ampli-
fiers and logic circuitry based on indium gallium zinc oxide
(IGZO) transistors.[154] The device can be bent, or self-assembled
into a swiss roll like microtube,[178–180] by adjusting the envi-
ronmental conditions, including the solution composition and
pH. The diameter of the tubular structures can be tuned over a
wide range from 50 μm to 1 mm. The differentiation and guided
growth of neural stem cells in the microchannels of the 3D device
were demonstrated. The integrated electronics allowed the detec-
tion of tiny amounts of ionic liquids in the microchannel, mim-
icking the detection of polarization/depolarization processes in
neural microconduits.
Peripheral neuromodulation has been widely used both in
clinical practices and neuroscience research.[181–184] However, the
mechanical and geometrical mismatches at electrode nerve inter-
faces and surgical implantation often induce irreversible neural
damage. Zhang et. al. reported climbing-inspired twining elec-
trodes for peripheral nerve stimulation and recording.[176] The
reported 3D twining electrode has permanent shape reconfigura-
bility, distinct elastic modulus controllability (from ≈100 MPa to
≈300 kPa), and shape memory recoverability at body tempera-
ture (Figure 5c-iii). Importantly, the 3D twining electrode is also
compatible with traditional 2D planar processing. Similar to the
climbing process of twining plants, the 2D stiff twining elec-
trode can naturally self-climb onto nerves driven by 37 °C normal
saline.
Conformal type bioelectronics are designed to offer high de-
gree of flexibility and shape morphing capability. The electrodes
or FETs are distributed on the surface of organoids, capable of
monitoring the multisite potentials. Importantly, the 3D shape
of such bioelectronics can be tailored by changing the geome-
tries and bending stiffnesses, thereby showing potential in on-
demand design for versatile organoids. The challenges and op-
portunities remain in morphing capability and miniaturization
of such bioelectronics.
6. Implantable Type Bioelectronics for Organoids
By matching the subcellular feature sizes and mechanical prop-
erties of cells, the 3D implantable bioelectronics could be seam-
lessly integrated with organoids and tissues to achieve recording
of neural activities in brain,[7,25,48,185–191] as well as mapping of the
action potential propagation in cardiac tissues.[49,192–195]
6.1. Porous 3D Mesh
To address the dimensional and mechanical mismatch of probes
with the brain tissue, Xie et al. developed a 3D ultra-flexible bio-
electronic network consisting of NW FET sensors to serve as
minimally invasive brain probes.[48] The high flexibility of such
probes precludes direct insertion into tissue, hence, rapid freez-
ing provides sufficient rigidity to allow controlled insertion into
neural tissue. Due to the high flexibility of the network configu-
ration, the porous network probes (Figure 6a-i) can be integrated
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Figure 6. Implantable type bioelectronics for organoids. a) Porous 3D mesh. 3D nanoelectronic networks serve as minimally invasive brain probes.
Reproduced with permission.[48] Copyright 2015, Nature Publishing Group. b) Nanofilm. Self-assembled 3D nanofilm electrode arrays as long-term
neural interfaces. Reproduced with permission.[47] Copyright 2021, Wiley-VCH. c) Neuron-like probes. Bioinspired neuron-like electronics as 3D neural
probes for stable, long-term recording. Reproduced with permission.[46] Copyright 2019, Nature Publishing Group.

with the brain tissue without inducing large mechanical con-
straints. The biocompatible porous probes were implanted into
rodent brains with minimal surgical tissue damage, with capabil-
ities of long-term stable recording.
Floch et. al. developed 3D mesh nanoelectronics consisting
of highly stretchable serpentine wires(Figure 6a-ii), which can
be naturally deformed to conform to the entire surface of brain
organoids for long-term, multisites, continuous recording.[45]
The stretchable mesh nanoelectronics can well match the me-
chanical properties of brain organoids and be folded by the
organogenetic process of progenitor or stem cells. The inte-
grated stretchable electrode arrays show no interruption to brain

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organoids, adapt to the volume and morphological changes. The
seamless and noninvasive coupling of electrodes to neurons en-
ables long-term stable recording.
6.2. Nanofilm
Gao et al. presented high-density, free-standing gold nanofilm
electrode arrays as a stable electrode-tissue interface.[47] The 2D
nanofilm electrode arrays (10 nm in thickness) were encapsu-
lated by biodissolvable polymer carriers, enabling their reliable
implantation into deep brain tissues. After implantation and dis-
solution of polymer carriers, the ultrathin electrode array was re-
leased and assembled into 3D configurations to interface with
neural tissues (Figure 6b). Chronically implanted nanofilm elec-
trode arrays can form intimate and innervated interfaces with
neural tissue, enabling stable recordings across multiple brain
regions over several months.
Neural electrodes based on free-standing nanoscale materi-
als offer unique opportunities to interrogate neural systems at
unprecedented spatiotemporal scales, such as nanowires, nan-
otubes, and nanofilms. However, such ultra-flexible materials
have precluded their direct implantation into the brain tissues.
The methods of dissolution of polymer carriers can be extended
to assemble a variety of free-standing nanoscale materials into
implantable, high-density neural probes, which offer important
opportunities in basic neuroscience and biomedical applications.
6.3. Neuron-Like Probes
To study the brain, bioinspired and biomimetic strategies have
begun to be applied to the development of neural probes. In-
spired by the structural features and mechanical properties of
neurons, Yang et al. developed neuron-like electronics (NeuE) as
neural probes with negligible immune responses, which exhibit
seamless interpenetrating interfaces with the brain.[46] NeuE
probes demonstrated a stable single-unit recording of individ-
ual cells in the nearly native physiological context without loss in
recording quality (Figure 6c). NeuE are capable of mimicking the
structural features (e.g., shape and size) and mechanical prop-
erties (e.g., flexibility) of neurons, representing a key advance
of this work. In this biomimetic design, the sizes of the metal
recording electrode and interconnect match those of the soma
and neurite of the typical pyramidal neuron. The interconnect
and axon have similar and the thin polymer insulation is analo-
gous to the myelin sheath. Time-dependent histology and electro-
physiology studies also reveal a functionally stable interface with
the neuronal and glial networks, thus opening opportunities for
next-generation brain–machine interfaces.
Implantable type bioelectronics capable of multisite long-term
monitoring of tissue culture with negligible mechanical con-
straints. Such flexible bioelectronics are compatible with in vivo
tissues and organoids with minimal surgical tissue damage, with
capabilities of long-term stable recording. By customizing the
structural features and mechanical properties, such implantable
bioelectronics could serve as biomimetic cells, capable of electro-
physiological monitoring inside in vivo tissues and organoids.
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7. Summary and Outlook
This review summarizes the developments of three general
classes of nanostructured bioelectronics for cells (Table 1), high-
lighting their structural designs, device functions and potential
applications. First, the representative architectures (needle type)
of 1D nanostructured bioelectronics are demonstrated for highly
sensitive and selective intracellular detection of single cells by
penetrating the cell membrane. While these 1D nanostructured
bioelectronic devices offer tight coupling interfaces with cells, the
invasiveness could affect the long-term recording of cell activities.
Based on the well-established planar nanofabrication and pro-
cessing techniques, large-area, 2D nanostructured bioelectronics
with high-density integration of electrodes/FETs have been de-
veloped for multisite recording of cells, which are useful for un-
derstanding of intercellular communications. In addition, three
types of representative architectures of 3D nanostructured bio-
electronics are discussed, including scaffold, conformal, and im-
plantable types. The scaffold type bioelectronics can be effectively
used for studying the intercellular communication, whereas the
reported devices all had a relative low electrode/FET density as
compared to 2D nanostructured bioelectronics due to the compli-
cated fabrication. The architecture of conformal type bioelectron-
ics can be exploited to non-invasively wrap around the organoids
with diverse shapes. However, it remains challenging to scale
down such devices for single cell monitoring, based on the exist-
ing fabrication/assembly methods. The implantable nanostruc-
tured bioelectronics consisting of highly flexible network archi-
tecture allow for multisite long-term monitoring of tissue cul-
ture with negligible mechanical constraints. But it is difficult to
achieve a precise positioning of recording sites in the implanted
condition.
Bioelectric interface technologies aspire to explore the under-
lying mechanism of life activities in cells and organoids by bring-
ing together the most important advances in the discipline, en-
hancing the comprehensive performance excellence that cov-
ers various metrics/aspects. The needle type bioelectronics have
great potentials in the fields of intracellular monitoring, such
as the silicon nanoprobes can be exploited to record intracel-
lular electrical signals of a single living cell. In contrast, the
patch-clamp technique could provide high-quality action poten-
tial recordings at the cell membranes. The 2D and 3D bioelec-
tronics have more advantages in studying intercellular commu-
nications within organoids. Such platforms with unprecedented
functions and revolutionary capabilities enable in vivo (or in
vitro) sensing of cell activities, showing potential in revealing the
fundamental mechanisms.
Looking to the future, many challenges and opportunities re-
main in developing and improving nanostructured bioelectron-
ics for cells. For examples, the development of novel, efficient
and low-cost methods for nanofabrication and/or assembly is
the key to promote nanostructured bioelectronics toward prac-
tical applications. In view of the current research status of bio-
logical nanodevices, the design optimization of device architec-
ture with enhanced cell-device interface coupling and fabrica-
tion feasibility still requires further efforts. Opportunities exist in
the incorporation of artificial intelligence (AI) techniques to as-
sist the design and fabrication of nanostructured bioelectronics
devices.
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Table 1. Summary of nanostructured bioelectronics.
Dimensions Architectures
1D Needle • Intracellular recording
• High sensitivity and selectivity
• Tight coupling interface
2D Planar • Low-cost fabrication with large-area and high-density integration
• Non-invasiveness
• Intercellular communication
3D Scaffold • Spatial integration
• Multisite recording
• Long-term stability
Conformal • Programmable 3D shapes
• Multisite recording
• Long-term stability
Implantable • Spatial integration
• Multisite in vivo recording
• Negligible mechanical constraints
• Long-term stability
A comprehensive performance excellence that covers vari-
ous metrics/aspects (e.g., high selectivity, high sensitivity, high
signal-to-noise ratio, long-term stability, high density, and etc.)
remains a long-term goal pursued in the development of bio-
electronics. Additionally, the ability to simultaneously monitor a
large number of cells over long time is essential for the biological
and pathophysiological studies, but quite a few CMOS-based de-
vices could achieve simultaneous, high-fidelity, high-throughput
and large-scale intracellular recordings. Opportunities exist in
the combination of cell nanoelectronics with CMOS integrated
circuits, which cannot only improve the signal quality, but also
provide a feasible strategy for building a large-scale, parallel mon-
itoring platform.
To explore the diversity and complexity of life activities from
cells and tissues to organisms, 3D bioelectronic devices are pow-
erful tools for multiplexed signal collection and multi-modality
studies. Multifunctional nanostructured bioelectronics that can
achieve electrical/optical/chemical monitoring/stimulation as
well as cell screening and intracellular delivery/extraction also
represent a promising area for further explorations. The devel-
opment of bioelectric interface technologies could promote the
emerging of advanced nanofabrication technologies and power-
ful studying platforms, which are crucial to potential biomedi-
cal applications. The bioelectronics could also provide support of
fundamental breakthroughs in life science.
Acknowledgements
Z.X. acknowledges support from the National Natural Science Foundation
of China (grant No. 12272023) and the Fundamental Research Funds for
the Central Universities. J.Z. acknowledges support from the National Nat-
ural Science Foundation of China (grant No. 12202233) and China Post-
doctoral Science Foundation (grant No. 2022M711832).
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Advantages Disadvantages
• Invasiveness
• Restricted contact region
• Single site monitoring
• Extracellular detection
• Weak coupling interface
• Low sensitivity
• Complicated fabrication
• Low spatial resolution of multisite monitoring
• Extracellular detection
• Low sensitivity
• Difficult to achieve precise positioning of
recording sites
Keywords
bioelectronics, electrophysiology recording, nanoprobes, nanostructures,
structural designs
Received: June 26, 2023
Revised: July 21, 2023
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Zhaoguo Xue is an associate professor at Beihang University. He received his Ph.D. degree from Nan-
jing University in 2018, and worked as a postdoctoral fellow at Tsinghua University from 2018 to 2020.
His research interests include mechanically-guided 3D assembly, stretchable and flexible nanoelec-
tronics, and semiconductor nanomaterials.

Jianzhong Zhao received his Ph.D. degree from Shanghai University in 2021. He is now a postdoctoral
fellow at Tsinghua University. His research interests focus on mechanically-guided 3D assembly and
mechanics of flexible electronics.

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