Contents

1.what are the Principles of xray.................................................................................................................2

2.what are the imaging procedures for Thyroid ,pancreas ,spleen ,respiratory system, skeletal system....2
3.Classification of tumors(short).................................................................................................................3
4.define Kilovolts and every units in radio therapy.....................................................................................4
5.write down Therapeutic uses of radio isotopes........................................................................................5
6.what are the uses of Gamma camera, and reflectors............................................................................6
7.what is Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA),role of DSA in medicine...................................................7
8.define Tomography..................................................................................................................................8
9.draw Cell cycle diagram............................................................................................................................8
10.what are radio resistant and sensitive tumors.......................................................................................9
11.draw and lable linear accelerator.........................................................................................................11
12.uses of Bracheotherapy,tele therapy...................................................................................................11
13.define Mass spectrometer....................................................................................................................12
14.what are Sealed Radio active devices...................................................................................................13
15. Use of Radio active detectors in radio imaging....................................................................................15
16.write down normal tissue tolerance doses...........................................................................................15
17.what are the priciples of Radio therapy (8 principles)..........................................................................15
18.Define Radio therapy............................................................................................................................15
19.what are the uses of Volume implants.................................................................................................15
20.role of Digital Subtraction Angiography in medicine............................................................................15
21.define Rotational therapy....................................................................................................................15
22.what are the tumour suppresor genes.................................................................................................15
23.draw and lable xray machine................................................................................................................15
24.is cesium used in Radio therapy...........................................................................................................15
25.what are the uses of Renograph...........................................................................................................15
26.write down about Wedge filters...........................................................................................................15
 Radio Imaging

1.what are the Principles of xray

The principle of X-ray production is based on the phenomenon of Bremsstrahlung.
Bremsstrahlung is German for "braking radiation". It occurs when a high-energy electron
is decelerated when it enters the electric field of an atom.

The deceleration of the electron causes it to emit a photon of electromagnetic radiation.

The energy of the photon is equal to the difference in the kinetic energy of the electron
before and after the deceleration.

In an X-ray tube, a high-voltage power supply is used to accelerate electrons from a

filament to a metal target. The target is usually made of tungsten, which has a high
atomic number and therefore absorbs X-rays well.

When the electrons strike the target, they are decelerated and emit X-rays. The X-rays
are then directed through the body to be detected by a sensor.

The amount of X-rays that are emitted by the target depends on the following factors:

 The voltage of the power supply: The higher the voltage, the more energetic the
electrons and the more X-rays will be emitted.
 The current of the power supply: The higher the current, the more electrons are
accelerated and the more X-rays will be emitted.
 The type of target: The type of target material affects the energy of the X-rays
that are emitted. Tungsten is a good target for X-ray production because it emits
X-rays with a wide range of energies.

2.what are the imaging procedures for

Thyroid ,pancreas ,spleen ,respiratory system, skeletal system
1. Thyroid Imaging:
- Thyroid Ultrasound: Non-invasive imaging using sound waves to visualize the thyroid gland, helpful
for evaluating thyroid nodules and enlargement (goiter).
- Thyroid Scintigraphy: A nuclear medicine procedure using a radioactive tracer to assess thyroid
function and detect conditions like hyperthyroidism or thyroid nodules.

2. Pancreas Imaging:
- Abdominal Ultrasound: Non-invasive imaging to visualize the pancreas and surrounding structures to
detect pancreatitis, cysts, tumors, or abnormalities.
- Abdominal CECT: Contrast-enhanced CT scan of the abdomen is commonly used to image the
pancreas and surrounding abdominal structures, aiding in the diagnosis of pancreatitis, pancreatic
cancer, and other pancreatic disorders.
3. Spleen Imaging:
- Abdominal Ultrasound: Non-invasive imaging to visualize the spleen and detect splenomegaly
(enlargement) or other abnormalities.
- Abdominal CECT: Contrast-enhanced CT scan of the abdomen is valuable for imaging the spleen and
surrounding structures, helping diagnose conditions like splenic trauma, abscesses, tumors, or splenic
infarcts.

4. Respiratory System Imaging:

- Chest X-ray: Commonly used to evaluate the lungs and chest cavity, aiding in the diagnosis of
conditions such as pneumonia, lung infections, and lung tumors.
- Chest HRCT: High-resolution CT scan of the chest is used to assess lung parenchyma and is
particularly useful for diagnosing and characterizing lung diseases such as interstitial lung diseases,
pulmonary fibrosis, and bronchiectasis.
- Chest CECT: Contrast-enhanced CT scan of the chest is helpful for evaluating blood vessels,
mediastinal structures, and identifying vascular abnormalities or tumors, including pulmonary embolism
and thoracic malignancies.

5. Skeletal System Imaging:

- X-rays: Imaging bones and joints using X-rays is the primary method for diagnosing fractures,
dislocations, arthritis, and other skeletal abnormalities.
- Standard CT Scan: CT scans provide detailed images of bones and joints, helpful for assessing
fractures, bone tumors, and joint disorders.
- HRCT of Bones and Joints: High-resolution CT scan is useful for visualizing intricate bone structures
and joint surfaces, particularly beneficial in assessing complex fractures or joint abnormalities.

Again, I apologize for any confusion, and I appreciate your attention to detail. If you have any further
questions or need additional information, please feel free to ask.

3.Classification of tumors (short)

Tumors are classified based on their origin, behavior, and cell type.

 Origin: Tumors can be classified as either benign or malignant. Benign tumors

are non-cancerous and do not spread to other parts of the body. Malignant
tumors are cancerous and can spread to other parts of the body.
 Behavior: Tumors can also be classified as either indolent or aggressive. Indolent
tumors grow slowly and are not likely to spread to other parts of the body.
Aggressive tumors grow quickly and are more likely to spread to other parts of
the body.
 Cell type: Tumors can be classified based on the type of cell from which they
originate. For example, a tumor that originates from epithelial cells is called an
epithelial tumor.
Here is a table that summarizes the key classifications of tumors:

Classification Definition

A non-cancerous tumor that does not spread to other parts of the

Benign tumor
body.

Malignant tumor A cancerous tumor that can spread to other parts of the body.

A tumor that grows slowly and is not likely to spread to other parts of
Indolent tumor
the body.

A tumor that grows quickly and is more likely to spread to other parts
Aggressive tumor
of the body.

Epithelial tumor A tumor that originates from epithelial cells.

Mesenchymal
A tumor that originates from mesenchymal cells.
tumor

Neural tumor A tumor that originates from neural cells.

Hematopoietic
A tumor that originates from hematopoietic cells.
tumor

4.define Kilovolts and every units in radio therapy

Sure. Here are the definitions of some of the key units used in radiation therapy:

 Kilovolts (kV): The unit of energy used to accelerate electrons in a linear

accelerator. The higher the kV, the more penetrating the beam of radiation.
 Rem (roentgen equivalent man): The unit of absorbed dose of radiation. It is
used to measure the amount of radiation that is deposited in tissue.
 Gray (Gy): The SI unit of absorbed dose of radiation. It is equal to 100 rem.
  Sievert (Sv): The SI unit of equivalent dose of radiation. It is used to measure the
amount of radiation that is deposited in tissue and the biological damage that it
causes.
 Curie (Ci): The unit of radioactivity. It is defined as the amount of radioactive
material that decays at a rate of 3.7 × 1010 becquerels per second.
 Becquerel (Bq): The SI unit of radioactivity. It is defined as the number of decays
per second.
 Gray equivalent (GyE): The unit of dose equivalent. It is equal to the product of
the absorbed dose in grays and the quality factor of the radiation.
 Quality factor (Q): A dimensionless quantity that is used to account for the
different biological effects of different types of radiation.
 Linear energy transfer (LET): The average amount of energy that is transferred to
an electron or atom as it passes through tissue.
 Half-life (T1/2): The time it takes for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to
decay.

These are just some of the key units used in radiation therapy. There are many other
units that are used in more specialized applications.

5.write down Therapeutic uses of radio isotopes

Sure. Here are some of the therapeutic uses of radioisotopes:

 Radiation therapy: Radioisotopes are used to deliver radiation to tumors. The

radiation kills cancer cells by damaging their DNA. Radiation therapy can be
used to treat a variety of cancers, including breast cancer, lung cancer, and
prostate cancer.
 Radioactive iodine therapy: Radioactive iodine is used to treat thyroid cancer.
The radioactive iodine is taken by mouth and accumulates in the thyroid gland,
where it kills cancer cells.
 Bone marrow transplant: Radioisotopes are used to kill cancer cells in the bone
marrow before a bone marrow transplant. This is done to make room for healthy
bone marrow cells that will be donated from a ;lhealthy donor.
  Pain management: Radioisotopes can be used to relieve pain from cancer that
has spread to the bones. The radioactive isotope is injected into the bone, where
it kills cancer cells and relieves pain.
 Infertility treatment: Radioisotopes are used to treat infertility in men and women.
In men, radioactive iodine is used to kill sperm cells. In women, radioactive
phosphorus is used to kill eggs.
 Cancer detection: Radioisotopes can be used to detect cancer by imaging the
body. For example, radioactive iodine is used to image the thyroid gland for
cancer.
 Radioimmunoassay: Radioimmunoassay is a laboratory test that uses
radioisotopes to measure the amount of a specific substance in the blood or
urine. For example, radioimmunoassay is used to measure the level of thyroid
hormone in the blood.

These are just some of the therapeutic uses of radioisotopes. There are many other
applications for radioisotopes in medicine and research.

6.what are the uses of Gamma camera, and reflectors

The gamma camera is a critical medical imaging device used in the field of nuclear medicine to visualize
and detect gamma rays emitted by radioactive tracers within the human body. It is a non-invasive and
safe imaging tool that helps physicians diagnose and evaluate various medical conditions. Here are the
primary uses of gamma cameras:

 Scintigraphy: Scintigraphy is a type of nuclear medicine imaging that uses gamma cameras to create
images of the distribution of radioactive tracers in the body. Tracers are substances that are injected into
the body and emit gamma rays. The gamma rays emitted by the tracers are detected by the gamma
camera and used to create images of the organs or tissues in which the tracers have accumulated.
 Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT): SPECT is a type of nuclear medicine
imaging that combines the use of gamma cameras with computer tomography (CT) to create three-
dimensional images of the body. SPECT scans can be used to diagnose a variety of medical conditions,
including cancer, heart disease, and Alzheimer's disease.
 Positron emission tomography (PET): PET is another type of nuclear medicine imaging that uses
gamma cameras to create images of the distribution of radioactive tracers in the body. However, PET
tracers emit positrons rather than gamma rays. Positrons are particles that are similar to electrons, but
they have a positive charge. When a positron encounters an electron, the two particles annihilate each
other, releasing two gamma rays. The gamma rays emitted by the annihilation event are detected by the
gamma camera and used to create images of the organs or tissues in which the tracers have
accumulated.
 Radionuclide therapy: Gamma cameras can also be used to deliver targeted doses of radiation therapy
to tumors. In this type of therapy, a radioactive tracer is injected into the body and accumulates in the
tumor. The gamma rays emitted by the tracer then kill the cancer cells.

7.what is Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA),role of DSA in

medicine.
Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA) is a medical imaging technique used to visualize blood vessels and
blood flow within the body, particularly in the arteries and veins. DSA is a form of X-ray angiography that
employs digital imaging technology to enhance the contrast between blood vessels and surrounding
tissues, providing clearer and more detailed images. It is commonly used in the diagnosis and evaluation
of vascular conditions and abnormalities.

The DSA procedure involves the following steps:

1. Contrast Agent Injection: A contrast medium, often iodine-based, is injected into the blood vessels of
interest. The contrast agent is radio-opaque, meaning it appears white on X-ray images and enhances
the visibility of blood vessels.

2. X-ray Imaging: X-ray images are taken before and after the injection of the contrast agent. The "mask"
or baseline images are captured before the contrast agent reaches the blood vessels of interest.

3. Digital Subtraction: The subsequent images taken after the contrast agent injection are digitally
subtracted from the mask images. This process eliminates the static structures (bones, soft tissues) that
do not contain contrast, leaving only the contrast-filled blood vessels visible in the final images.

4. Image Enhancement: The digital subtraction process enhances the contrast and allows for better
visualization of blood vessels, including those with slow or turbulent blood flow.

Role of DSA

 Diagnosis and treatment of vascular diseases: DSA is used to diagnose and treat a variety of vascular
diseases, including atherosclerosis, aneurysms, and vascular malformations. It can also be used to guide
interventional procedures, such as angioplasty and stenting.
 Neurovascular imaging: DSA is used to image the blood vessels of the brain and spine. This can be
helpful in diagnosing and treating a variety of neurological conditions, such as stroke, aneurysms, and
vascular malformations.
 Preoperative Planning: DSA aids surgeons in planning complex vascular surgeries by providing detailed
anatomical information. It allows them to visualize the vascular anatomy, identify the best approach, and
assess potential risks before the actual procedure.
 Postoperative Assessment: After vascular interventions or surgeries, DSA is used to evaluate the success
of the procedure, assess vascular patency, and detect potential complications, such as restenosis or vessel
occlusion.
Advantages of Digital Subtraction Angiography:
1. Enhanced Visualization: DSA provides high-resolution images with excellent contrast, enhancing the
visibility of blood vessels and vascular abnormalities.

2. Reduced Radiation Exposure: Digital subtraction allows for fewer X-ray exposures compared to
conventional angiography, reducing the overall radiation dose to the patient.

3. Real-Time Imaging: DSA allows dynamic imaging of blood flow, making it particularly valuable in
assessing vascular conditions that involve rapid blood flow changes.

8.define Tomography
Tomography is a medical imaging technique used to create detailed cross-sectional images of the body's
internal structures. It allows healthcare professionals to visualize the anatomy of organs, tissues, and
bones with high precision. The word "tomography" originates from the Greek words "tomos" (meaning
"slice") and "graphein" (meaning "to write" or "to draw").

tomography, specifically computed tomography (CT), plays a crucial role in modern medicine by offering
valuable insights into the internal structures of the human body and aiding in the diagnosis and treatment
of various medical conditions.

9.draw Cell cycle diagram

The cell cycle is the series of events that a cell undergoes as it divides and produces two daughter cells.
It is a highly regulated process that allows cells to grow, replicate their genetic material, and distribute
the duplicated chromosomes equally into the daughter cells. The cell cycle can be divided into four main
phases: G1 (Gap 1), S (Synthesis), G2 (Gap 2), and M (Mitosis).

1. G1 Phase (Gap 1):

- The G1 phase is the first phase of the cell cycle and follows cell division (mitosis or meiosis) when two
daughter cells are produced.
 - During G1, the cell grows in size, synthesizes proteins, and carries out its normal functions.
- It is also a checkpoint phase where the cell checks for DNA damage and verifies that conditions are
favorable for cell division.

2. S Phase (Synthesis):
- The S phase follows the G1 phase and is where DNA synthesis or replication occurs.
- During S phase, the cell's DNA is duplicated to form two identical copies of each chromosome, known
as sister chromatids.
- By the end of S phase, the cell has twice as much DNA as it had in the G1 phase.

3. G2 Phase (Gap 2):

- The G2 phase comes after the S phase and serves as another period of growth and preparation for
cell division.
- The cell synthesizes more proteins and organelles to ensure there are enough resources for the
upcoming mitosis phase.
- Another checkpoint occurs during G2, where the cell checks for any errors in DNA replication before
proceeding to mitosis.

4. M Phase (Mitosis):
- The M phase, also known as mitosis, is the phase where the cell actually divides into two daughter
cells.
- Mitosis can be further divided into several stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
- During prophase, the chromosomes condense, the nuclear envelope breaks down, and the mitotic
spindle forms.
- In metaphase, the duplicated chromosomes align at the cell's equatorial plane, called the metaphase
plate.
- In anaphase, the sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles of the cell.
- Telophase marks the end of mitosis, where two new nuclei form around the separated sets of
chromosomes.
- Finally, cytokinesis occurs, where the cytoplasm divides, and two daughter cells are formed.

After cytokinesis, the two daughter cells enter the G1 phase, and the cell cycle starts again. The duration
of the cell cycle varies depending on the cell type and its specific functions. In rapidly dividing cells, such
as skin cells and cells in the gastrointestinal tract, the cell cycle is relatively short. In contrast, cells that
perform specialized functions, like nerve cells, may not divide at all once they reach maturity. The cell
cycle is tightly regulated to maintain tissue homeostasis, ensure proper growth, and prevent
uncontrolled cell proliferation, which can lead to diseases like cancer.

10.what are radio resistant and sensitive tumors

Radioresistant and radiosensitive tumors refer to the response of tumors to radiation therapy. Radiation
therapy is a common treatment modality for various types of cancer, where high-energy radiation is
directed at the tumor to kill or damage cancer cells. However, different types of tumors have varying
sensitivities to radiation, leading to differences in their response to treatment. Let's explore the
concepts of radioresistant and radiosensitive tumors:

1. Radioresistant Tumors:
- Radioresistant tumors are those that show relatively low sensitivity to radiation therapy.
 - These tumors have a higher capacity to repair radiation-induced damage to their DNA and recover
from the effects of radiation.
- As a result, higher doses of radiation may be required to effectively kill or control these tumor cells.
- Examples of radioresistant tumors include certain types of brain tumors (glioblastoma multiforme),
melanoma, sarcomas, and some subtypes of lung cancer.

2. Radiosensitive Tumors:
- Radiosensitive tumors are those that exhibit high sensitivity to radiation therapy.
- These tumors are more susceptible to radiation-induced damage, and lower doses of radiation can be
effective in controlling or eradicating them.
- Radiosensitive tumors tend to have a faster and more profound response to radiation treatment.
- Examples of radiosensitive tumors include lymphomas, seminomas (testicular cancer), early-stage
breast cancer, and some types of leukemias.

Factors affecting radiosensitivity:

 Rate of cell proliferation - Faster dividing tumors more sensitive

 Oxygenation - Well-oxygenated cells more sensitive
 DNA repair capacity - Enhanced repair makes cells more radioresistant
 Cell type - Different sensitivities inherent to cell histology

Ways to overcome radioresistance:

 Higher doses of focused radiation

 Combining with radiosensitizing chemotherapy
 Altering tumor oxygenation through hyperbaric oxygen
 Inhibiting DNA damage repair enzymes

It is important to note that the classification of tumors as radioresistant or radiosensitive is not absolute,
and it can vary depending on individual patient factors, tumor location, stage, and other treatment
modalities being used. The goal of radiation therapy is to deliver an effective dose to the tumor while
sparing surrounding healthy tissues as much as possible. Radiation oncologists carefully plan the
treatment based on the tumor's characteristics and the patient's overall health to achieve the best
possible outcome.

Additionally, some tumors may exhibit a mixed response to radiation, with certain parts being more
sensitive or resistant than others. In such cases, combination therapies, including surgery,
chemotherapy, and targeted therapies, may be employed to optimize treatment results and improve
patient outcomes. The selection of the most appropriate treatment approach for each patient's specific
tumor type and stage is a critical aspect of personalized cancer care.
11.draw and lable linear accelerator

12.uses of Bracheotherapy,tele therapy

Brachytherapy is a type of internal radiation therapy that uses radioactive material to destroy cancer
cells and shrink tumors. The radiation is often delivered in the form of seeds, ribbons, or wires that are
placed in or near the tumor. Brachytherapy can be used to treat a variety of cancers, including prostate
cancer, breast cancer, cervical cancer, and head and neck cancer.

Here are some of the uses of brachytherapy:

Prostate cancer: Brachytherapy is a common treatment for prostate cancer. The radioactive seeds are
placed directly into the prostate gland, where they deliver a high dose of radiation to the cancer cells.
This can help to shrink the tumor and improve the chances of survival.
Breast cancer: Brachytherapy can be used to treat breast cancer that has spread to the lymph nodes.
The radioactive seeds are placed near the lymph nodes, where they deliver a high dose of radiation to
the cancer cells. This can help to prevent the cancer from spreading further.
Cervical cancer: Brachytherapy can be used to treat cervical cancer that has not spread to other parts of
the body. The radioactive seeds are placed directly into the cervix, where they deliver a high dose of
radiation to the cancer cells. This can help to shrink the tumor and improve the chances of survival.
Head and neck cancer: Brachytherapy can be used to treat head and neck cancer that has not spread to
other parts of the body. The radioactive seeds are placed directly into the tumor, where they deliver a
high dose of radiation to the cancer cells. This can help to shrink the tumor and improve the chances of
survival.
Brachytherapy is a safe and effective treatment for a variety of cancers. It can be used alone or in
combination with other cancer treatments, such as surgery and chemotherapy.
Teletherapy, also known as telepsychology or online therapy, refers to the provision of psychological
counseling, psychotherapy, or mental health services through telecommunications technologies such as
video conferencing, phone calls, or online messaging platforms. Teletherapy offers numerous benefits
and has become increasingly popular for mental health professionals and patients alike.
Some of the key uses of teletherapy include:

1. **Increased Accessibility:** Teletherapy allows individuals living in remote or underserved areas to

access mental health services. It eliminates geographical barriers and makes therapy available to people
who may have limited access to in-person counseling.

2. **Convenience and Flexibility:** Teletherapy provides greater flexibility in scheduling sessions,

allowing individuals to have therapy sessions from the comfort of their homes or any private space. This
convenience can be especially helpful for individuals with busy schedules or mobility issues.

3. **Anonymity and Privacy:** Teletherapy offers a sense of anonymity and privacy, which may be
appealing to individuals who are uncomfortable with face-to-face interactions or fear social stigma
associated with seeking mental health support.

4. **Continuity of Care:** Teletherapy ensures continuity of care for individuals who may need ongoing
mental health support, even during travel or relocation. They can maintain their therapeutic
relationships with the same therapist regardless of their physical location.

5. **Accessibility for Special Populations:** Teletherapy is beneficial for individuals with physical
disabilities, agoraphobia, or social anxiety, as it eliminates the need for physical travel and potential
triggers associated with going to a therapy office.

6. **Cost-Effectiveness:** Teletherapy can be cost-effective, as it eliminates the need for commuting

expenses and may have lower session fees compared to in-person therapy.

7. **Emergency Situations and Crisis Intervention:** Teletherapy can be utilized for crisis intervention
and support during emergency situations, providing immediate assistance to individuals in distress.

8. **Therapeutic Options:** Teletherapy expands the therapeutic options available to clients, as they
can choose from a broader range of therapists regardless of location.

9. **Cultural Sensitivity:** Teletherapy can be particularly valuable for individuals from diverse cultural
backgrounds who may have difficulty finding therapists with specific cultural competencies in their area.

It is essential to note that teletherapy may not be suitable for everyone, and in some cases, in-person
therapy may be more appropriate. The effectiveness of teletherapy can vary depending on the
individual's needs and the type of therapeutic approach required. Additionally, the use of teletherapy
must adhere to relevant laws, regulations, and ethical guidelines to ensure the security, confidentiality,
and quality of the therapeutic process.

13.define Mass spectrometer

A mass spectrometer is a scientific instrument used to measure and analyze the mass-to-charge ratio of
ions. It is a powerful tool for identifying and characterizing molecules based on their mass and can be
 applied in various fields such as chemistry, biochemistry, physics, and environmental science. The basic
principles of a mass spectrometer involve ionization, mass analysis, and detection. Here's a brief
overview of its functioning:

1. **Ionization:** The process begins with the sample being introduced into the mass spectrometer.
The sample can be a gas, liquid, or solid. In the ionization stage, the sample is bombarded with high-
energy electrons or other types of ionizing radiation, which causes the atoms or molecules in the sample
to lose one or more electrons and become positively charged ions. The ions formed represent different
molecules present in the sample.

2. **Mass Analysis:** The positively charged ions are then accelerated by an electric field and passed
through a magnetic field. The magnetic field causes the ions to move in curved paths depending on their
mass and charge. Lighter ions with a higher mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) will be deflected less, while
heavier ions will be deflected more. This separation based on mass and charge is the core principle of
mass spectrometry.

3. **Detection:** After the ions are separated based on their mass, they reach a detector. The detector
measures the number of ions hitting it, generating an electrical signal proportional to the abundance of
each ion. This data is recorded as a mass spectrum, which shows the distribution of ions based on their
mass-to-charge ratio.

4. **Analysis:** The mass spectrum obtained provides valuable information about the composition and
structure of the molecules present in the sample. The mass-to-charge ratio of each ion can be used to
identify the molecular weight of compounds, determine the presence of specific elements or isotopes,
and even infer the chemical structure of unknown substances.

Mass spectrometers can be highly sophisticated instruments with various configurations, including time-
of-flight (TOF), quadrupole, ion trap, and magnetic sector analyzers. They have applications in diverse
fields, including drug discovery, proteomics, environmental analysis, forensics, and more. Mass
spectrometry is a powerful and versatile analytical technique, providing valuable insights into the
composition and properties of various substances.

14.what are Sealed Radio active devices

Sure. Sealed radioactive devices are used in radio imaging to produce a beam of radiation that can be
used to image the inside of the body. The devices are sealed so that the radiation cannot escape and
harm the patient or operator.

There are many different types of sealed radioactive devices used in radio imaging, but the most common
are:

 Gamma cameras: Gamma cameras are used to image the distribution of radioactive tracers in the body.
The tracers are injected into the bloodstream or swallowed, and they emit gamma rays as they travel
through the body. The gamma rays are detected by the gamma camera, which produces an image of the
distribution of the tracer.
 Positron emission tomography (PET) scanners: PET scanners are used to image the metabolism of
cells in the body. The scanner uses a radioactive tracer that emits positrons, which are positively charged
 particles. When a positron collides with an electron, it produces two gamma rays that are detected by the
PET scanner. The PET scanner produces an image of the distribution of the tracer, which can be used to
map the metabolism of cells in the body.
 Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) scanners: SPECT scanners are similar to
gamma cameras, but they use a different type of radioactive tracer. The tracer emits single photons,
which are detected by the SPECT scanner. The SPECT scanner produces an image of the distribution of
the tracer, which can be used to map the distribution of blood flow or other processes in the body.

Sealed radioactive devices are a safe and effective way to produce images of the inside of the body. The
devices are sealed so that the radiation cannot escape and harm the patient or operator. The radiation
dose from sealed radioactive devices is very low, and the risks are outweighed by the benefits of the
imaging.

Here are some additional details about the different types of sealed radioactive devices used in radio
imaging:

 Gamma cameras: Gamma cameras are made up of a detector and a computer. The detector is a large,
flat plate that is covered with a scintillator material. The scintillator material converts the gamma rays into
light, which is then detected by the computer. The computer uses the data from the detector to produce
an image of the distribution of the radioactive tracer.
 Positron emission tomography (PET) scanners: PET scanners are also made up of a detector and a
computer. The detector is a ring of detectors that surround the patient. The detectors detect the gamma
rays that are produced when the positrons from the radioactive tracer collide with electrons. The computer
uses the data from the detector to produce an image of the distribution of the radioactive tracer.
 Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) scanners: SPECT scanners are similar to
gamma cameras, but they use a different type of detector. The detector is made up of a scintillator
material that is coupled to a photomultiplier tube. The scintillator material converts the gamma rays into
light, which is then detected by the photomultiplier tube. The photomultiplier tube amplifies the signal from
the scintillator material, which is then sent to the computer. The computer uses the data from the detector
to produce an image of the distribution of the radioactive tracer.
15. Use of Radio active detectors in radio imaging

16.write down normal tissue tolerance doses

17.what are the priciples of Radio therapy (8 principles)

18.Define Radio therapy

19.what are the uses of Volume implants

20.role of Digital Subtraction Angiography in medicine

21.define Rotational therapy

22.what are the tumour suppresor genes

23.draw and lable xray machine

24.is cesium used in Radio therapy

25.what are the uses of Renograph

26.write down about Wedge filters

15. Use of Radioactive Detectors in Radio Imaging

Radioactive detectors play a crucial role in various radio imaging techniques, allowing the visualization
and detection of radiation emitted from radioactive sources or tracers. Some common radio imaging
techniques that use radioactive detectors include:

1. Gamma Camera in Nuclear Medicine:

 A gamma camera is a specialized imaging device used in nuclear medicine to detect

gamma rays emitted by radioactive tracers.

 Radioactive isotopes are introduced into the body, and their distribution is imaged by
the gamma camera, providing functional information about organs and tissues.

2. Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT):

 SPECT is a nuclear medicine imaging technique that uses radioactive tracers and gamma
cameras to create 3D images of various structures in the body.

 The gamma camera rotates around the patient, capturing multiple images from
different angles to reconstruct the final 3D image.

3. Positron Emission Tomography (PET):

 PET is a nuclear imaging technique that uses positron-emitting radionuclides (e.g., FDG)
to visualize metabolic processes in tissues.

 PET detectors detect pairs of gamma photons created by the annihilation of positrons
emitted by the radioactive tracer.

4. Brachytherapy Imaging:

 In brachytherapy, radioactive sources are placed directly into or near the tumour site for
targeted radiation treatment.

 Radioactive detectors ensure accurate placement and monitoring of the radiation dose
delivered to the tumour.
16. Normal Tissue Tolerance Doses

In radiotherapy, it is essential to limit the radiation dose to normal tissues surrounding the target
area to minimize potential side effects. The tolerance doses for various normal tissues are
specified below:

Spinal Cord:
 Maximum Tolerance Dose: 45 Gy (Gray) over the entire treatment course.
 Doses exceeding this limit may lead to irreversible damage, resulting in paralysis or
neurological deficits.

Lungs:
 Maximum Tolerance Dose: 20 Gy for whole lung irradiation.
 For partial lung irradiation, the tolerance dose can go up to 30-35 Gy.

Liver:
 Maximum Tolerance Dose: 30-35 Gy.
 The liver can tolerate higher doses when delivered in smaller fractions to minimize the
risk of radiation-induced liver disease (RILD).

Kidneys:
 Maximum Tolerance Dose: 18-23 Gy for each kidney.
 Kidneys are highly sensitive to radiation, and efforts are made to minimize the dose to
these organs during treatment.

Heart:
 Maximum Tolerance Dose: Mean dose of 40-50 Gy or V25 (volume receiving 25 Gy) <
10-30%.
 Cardiac sparing is crucial, especially in left-sided breast cancer treatment, to avoid
cardiac complications.

Brain:
 Maximum Tolerance Dose: 50-60 Gy, depending on the fractionation schedule.
 The brain's tolerance dose is relatively low due to the risk of radiation-induced cognitive
impairment.

Note: Tolerance doses may vary based on treatment techniques, fractionation schedules,
patient factors, and treatment goals.
17. 8 - Principles of Radiotherapy

Principle Description
Targeted Radiation Precisely delivering radiation to the tumor while sparing
Delivery surrounding normal tissues.

Fractionation Dividing the total radiation dose into multiple smaller doses
(fractions) for safety and effectiveness.

Time-Dose Relationship Considering the overall treatment time and radiation dose to
optimize treatment efficacy.

Radiotherapy Simulation Accurate imaging and planning before treatment to determine

tumor location and treatment field.

Radiation Field Design Shaping the radiation beam to match the tumor's dimensions
while minimizing exposure to normal tissues.
Treatment Verification Using real-time imaging to ensure accurate patient positioning
and Imaging and radiation delivery.

Radiobiology Understanding how radiation affects cancer and normal cells for
optimal treatment planning.

Combination Therapy Integrating radiotherapy with other treatment modalities

(surgery, chemotherapy, etc.) for better outcomes.

17. Principles of Radiotherapy

Radiotherapy is a medical treatment that uses high-energy radiation to target and destroy cancer cells
or to shrink tumors. It is based on several principles that ensure the safe and effective delivery of
radiation to the tumor while minimizing damage to surrounding healthy tissues.

1. Tumor Dose Optimization:

 The primary objective of radiotherapy is to deliver a sufficient radiation dose to the
tumor to achieve tumor control or eradication.
 Radiation oncologists carefully plan the treatment, considering the tumor size, location,
and sensitivity to radiation, while sparing nearby normal tissues.

2. Fractionation:
 Radiation is typically delivered in multiple small doses (fractions) rather than a single
large dose.
  Fractionation allows healthy cells to repair between treatments, reducing the risk of
severe damage to normal tissues.
3. Time-Dose Relationship:
 The overall effectiveness of radiotherapy depends on the total dose and the time taken
to deliver it.
 The biological effect of radiation is influenced by factors like dose rate, overall
treatment time, and tumor proliferation.

4. Radiotherapy Simulation:
 Precise planning is essential before treatment delivery.
 Imaging techniques, such as CT, MRI, and PET, are used to accurately locate the tumor
and nearby critical structures for treatment planning.

5. Radiation Field Design:

 The radiation beam is shaped to match the tumor's dimensions while minimizing
exposure to surrounding normal tissues.
 Techniques like Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy (IMRT) and Volumetric
Modulated Arc Therapy (VMAT) allow for highly conformal treatment fields.

6. Treatment Verification and Imaging:

 Image-guided radiotherapy (IGRT) allows real-time imaging before or during treatment
to verify patient positioning and ensure accurate radiation delivery.
 Cone Beam CT and other imaging methods provide valuable information for on-the-spot
adjustments.

7. Radiobiology:
 Understanding the biological response of tumor cells and normal tissues to radiation is
crucial for treatment planning.
 Different types of tumors have varying radiosensitivity, and this is considered when
designing the treatment.

8. Combination Therapy:
 Radiotherapy is often used in combination with surgery, chemotherapy, or
immunotherapy to improve treatment outcomes.
 Combining treatments can target cancer cells through different mechanisms, enhancing
their effectiveness.
18. Definition of Radiotherapy

 Radiotherapy is a medical treatment that uses ionizing radiation (e.g., X-rays, gamma rays) to
manage diseases, primarily cancer.
 The main goal of radiotherapy is to deliver targeted radiation to the tumor, damaging cancer
cells' DNA and preventing their growth and division.
 Precise treatment planning ensures that the radiation dose is maximized for the tumor while
minimizing exposure to nearby healthy tissues.
 Radiotherapy can be used as a standalone treatment or in combination with surgery,
chemotherapy, or immunotherapy.
 It is an essential component of cancer management, benefiting approximately 50% of cancer
patients.
 Advancements in technology have improved treatment precision and outcomes, making
radiotherapy a cornerstone of modern oncology.

19. Uses of Volume Implants

 Volume implants are used in brachytherapy, a type of radiation therapy that delivers
high doses of radiation directly to tumors. Used in brachytherapy to deliver radiation
dose to tumors from within the body
 Radioactive sources like iodine-125, iridium-192 are placed inside/next to tumor using
techniques like intracavitary inserts, interstitial inserts.

 This allows for a more precise delivery of radiation, which can help to spare
surrounding healthy tissue.

 Used to treat a variety of cancers like cervix, uterus, vagina, rectum, prostate, breast
cancer etc.

 They can be temporary or permanent implants.

Benefits of Volume Implants

 High Dose: Volume implants can deliver a high dose of radiation to the tumor, which
can help to improve treatment outcomes.
 Sparing of Healthy Tissue: Volume implants can help to spare surrounding healthy
tissue, which can reduce the risk of side effects.
  Convenient: Volume implants can be a convenient treatment option for patients, as
they often require fewer treatment sessions than external beam radiation therapy.

20. Role of Digital Subtraction Angiography in Medicine

Digital subtraction angiography (DSA) is a medical imaging technique used to visualize blood
vessels and blood flow in various parts of the body. It involves the use of X-ray technology and a
contrast agent to enhance the visibility of blood vessels. DSA has several essential roles in
medicine, including:

 Diagnosis of vascular disorders: DSA is commonly used to diagnose and evaluate

various vascular conditions, such as arterial stenosis, aneurysms, and vascular
malformations. By visualizing the blood vessels in real-time, DSA provides detailed
information about the location, size, and extent of vascular abnormalities.
 Guidance for interventional procedures: DSA is an invaluable tool for interventional
radiologists and surgeons performing minimally invasive procedures on blood vessels. It
provides real-time imaging during procedures like angioplasty, stent placement,
embolization, and catheter-directed thrombolysis.
 Assessment of tumor vascularity: DSA can be used to assess the vascularity of tumors,
including both benign and malignant lesions. It aids in treatment planning, determining
the feasibility of embolization or other locoregional therapies.
 Evaluation of cerebral vasculature: In neurology, DSA is used to visualize the cerebral
vasculature, helping to diagnose conditions such as cerebral aneurysms, arteriovenous
malformations (AVMs), and intracranial stenosis.
 Endovascular Aneurysm Repair (EVAR): DSA plays a crucial role in pre-operative
planning and post-operative evaluation of EVAR procedures, a minimally invasive
treatment for abdominal aortic aneurysms.
 Peripheral Vascular Disease (PVD) Assessment: DSA is used to assess peripheral arterial
disease, such as in the lower extremities. It helps determine the location and severity of
arterial blockages and guides treatment decisions.
 Renal and Hepatic Angiography: DSA is employed to assess blood flow in the renal and
hepatic arteries. It aids in the diagnosis of renal artery stenosis and assessment of
hepatic tumors.
 Vascular Malformation Embolization: DSA is used to guide the embolization of vascular
malformations, such as arteriovenous fistulas and vascular tumors. Embolization
involves blocking blood flow to the abnormal vessels, leading to their shrinkage and
potential resolution.

DSA is a valuable imaging modality that helps clinicians accurately diagnose and treat various
vascular conditions, contributing to improved patient outcomes.
21. Rotational Therapy

 Definition: Rotational therapy is a type of radiotherapy that uses a rotating machine to

deliver radiation to a tumor. The machine rotates around the patient, delivering a beam
of radiation from different angles. This helps to ensure that the tumor receives a
uniform dose of radiation, while minimizing the dose to the surrounding healthy tissue.
 Advantages:
o Rotational therapy can deliver a more conformal dose to the tumor, which
means that the dose is more concentrated in the tumor and less concentrated in
the surrounding healthy tissue. This can help to reduce the risk of side effects.
o Rotational therapy can be used to treat tumors that are difficult to reach with
traditional radiotherapy techniques.
o Rotational therapy can be delivered quickly, which can help to reduce the overall
treatment time.
 Disadvantages:
o Rotational therapy can be more expensive than traditional radiotherapy
techniques.
o Rotational therapy may not be suitable for all patients.

22. What are the tumor suppressor genes.

 Tumor suppressor genes are genes that help to prevent cancer by controlling cell
growth and division. When tumor suppressor genes are mutated, they can no longer
function properly, which can lead to cancer.
 Tumor suppressor genes act as guardians against uncontrolled cell growth and the
development of cancer. When these genes are mutated or inactivated, it can lead to a
loss of cell cycle control and contribute to tumorigenesis.

1. p53 (TP53):
 p53 is often referred to as the "guardian of the genome."
 It regulates the cell cycle, induces cell cycle arrest, initiates DNA repair, or
triggers apoptosis (programmed cell death) in response to DNA damage or
cellular stress.
2. BRCA1 and BRCA2:
 BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are involved in repairing damaged DNA and maintaining
genomic stability.
  Mutations in these genes significantly increase the risk of breast, ovarian, and
other cancers.

3. PTEN (Phosphatase and Tensin Homolog):

 PTEN acts as a tumor suppressor by inhibiting cell proliferation and promoting
cell death.
 It also plays a role in regulating cell migration and adhesion.
4. RB1 (Retinoblastoma 1):
 RB1 regulates the cell cycle and prevents excessive cell growth.
 Mutations in RB1 are associated with retinoblastoma and an increased risk of
other cancers.
5. APC (Adenomatous Polyposis Coli):
 APC helps control cell growth and is involved in the Wnt signaling pathway.
 Mutations in APC are associated with familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) and
colorectal cancer.
6. NF1 (Neurofibromin 1):
 NF1 regulates the activity of the Ras oncogene and inhibits cell proliferation.
 Mutations in NF1 cause neurofibromatosis type 1, a condition associated with
tumor formation in the nervous system.

23. Diagram and Label of an X-ray Machine

Components of an X-ray Machine:

1. X-ray Tube:
o The X-ray tube is the heart of the X-ray machine and generates X-rays.
o It consists of a cathode (negatively charged electrode) and an anode (positively
charged electrode) separated by a vacuum.
o When a high voltage is applied across the cathode and anode, electrons are
emitted from the cathode and accelerated towards the anode.
o When the high-speed electrons strike the anode, X-rays are produced.
2. Control Panel:
o The control panel allows the radiologic technologist to set and adjust various
parameters of the X-ray machine.
o Parameters include X-ray tube voltage (kV), X-ray tube current (mA), exposure
time, and other imaging settings.
3. Collimator:
o The collimator is a device that shapes and restricts the X-ray beam to a specific
size and shape.
o It helps limit unnecessary radiation exposure to the patient and improves image
quality by reducing scatter radiation.
4. X-ray Table and Bucky Tray:
 o The X-ray table is where the patient lies during the X-ray procedure.
o It can be adjusted to various positions to allow imaging of different body parts.
o The Bucky tray is located under the X-ray table and holds a special grid to
improve image quality by reducing scatter radiation.
5. Detector (Image Receptor):
o The detector, often in the form of a digital flat-panel detector or X-ray film,
receives the X-rays that pass through the patient.
o In digital X-ray machines, the detector converts X-rays into electrical signals that
are processed to create digital images.
6. Tube Stand (Ceiling or Floor-Mounted):
o The tube stand supports the X-ray tube and allows it to be positioned accurately
over the patient.
o The radiologic technologist can adjust the tube's position and angle to obtain the
desired X-ray view.
7. High Voltage Generator:
o The high voltage generator supplies the high voltage required to operate the X-
ray tube.
o It converts standard electrical power into the high voltages (in kilovolts) needed
for X-ray production.
8. Patient Shielding Devices:
o Patient shielding devices, such as lead aprons and gonadal shields, are used to
protect specific areas of the patient's body from unnecessary radiation exposure.

24. Use of Cesium-137 in Radiotherapy.

cesium-137 is used in certain types of radiotherapy. Cesium-137 is a radioactive isotope of

cesium, a metallic element. It emits gamma rays, which are a form of ionizing radiation used in
radiation therapy for cancer treatment. The use of cesium-137 is part of a broader category of
internal radiation therapy known as brachytherapy.

Brachytherapy with Cesium-137:

 In brachytherapy, radioactive sources, such as cesium-137, are placed directly within or

close to the tumor site.
 The cesium-137 sources emit gamma rays, which damage the DNA of cancer cells,
leading to their destruction.
 Brachytherapy with cesium-137 is commonly used to treat gynecological cancers,
including cervical and uterine cancer, as well as certain types of skin cancers.

25. Uses of Renography (Reno graph)

Renography, commonly referred to as a renal scan or renogram, is a nuclear medicine imaging
technique used to evaluate the function and blood flow to the kidneys. It involves the use of a
radiopharmaceutical, usually technetium-99m diethylene triamine pentaacetic acid (Tc-99m
DTPA) or mercaptoacetyltriglycine (Tc-99m MAG3), which is injected into the patient's
bloodstream. The radiopharmaceutical is then filtered and excreted by the kidneys, allowing
their function to be assessed.

Uses of Renography:

1. Assessment of Kidney Function:

o Renography provides valuable information about the overall function of the
kidneys, including glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and tubular function.
o It helps diagnose kidney diseases and assess their severity.
2. Detection of Obstructions:
o Renography can identify obstructions or blockages in the urinary tract.
o It is particularly useful in detecting ureteral obstructions or post-surgical
complications.
3. Evaluating Kidney Transplants:
o Renography is used to monitor kidney transplant function and detect any
complications or rejection.
4. Assessment of Hydronephrosis:
o Renography is effective in evaluating hydronephrosis, a condition where there is
a build-up of urine in the kidney due to obstruction or reflux.
5. Management of Hypertension:
o In some cases of hypertension (high blood pressure), renography can be used to
identify renal artery stenosis as a potential cause.
6. Preoperative Evaluation:
o Renography may be used to assess kidney function before certain surgical
procedures to ensure safe anesthesia and optimal surgical outcomes.
7. Evaluation of Renovascular Hypertension:
o Renography helps determine if hypertension is due to renal artery stenosis or
other renal abnormalities.

Renography is a valuable non-invasive imaging technique that aids in the diagnosis and
management of various kidney-related conditions.

26. Wedge Filters

Wedge filters are specialized radiation beam modifiers used in external beam radiotherapy.
They are designed to shape the radiation beam's intensity across its field, creating a gradient of
radiation dose. This gradient is useful for compensating for irregularities in patient anatomy or
optimizing dose distribution for certain treatment scenarios.
Uses of Wedge Filters:

1. Compensating for Uneven Body Contours:

o In some cases, the patient's body may have irregular contours, such as in the
case of concave or convex surfaces.
o Wedge filters can be used to compensate for these irregularities and deliver a
more uniform dose to the target area.
2. Breast and Chest Wall Treatments:
o In breast radiotherapy, a wedge filter can be used to deliver a higher radiation
dose to the chest wall, where cancer is more likely to recur.
o This helps spare healthy lung tissue while ensuring adequate dose coverage to
the target area.
3. Therapeutic Boosts:
o Wedge filters can be employed to provide a radiation boost to specific regions
within the treatment field.
o This allows for higher doses to be delivered to the tumor or areas at high risk of
recurrence.
4. Customized Dose Distribution:
o Depending on the tumor shape and location, a wedge filter can be used to create
a customized dose distribution that conforms to the tumor's contour.
5. Superficial Treatments:
o In superficial radiotherapy, where the target is close to the skin surface, wedge
filters can help achieve a more uniform dose distribution and reduce hotspots.