Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Metrology Chapter 2
Metrology Chapter 2
ME 503
Lecture 2
23-May-21
PRShakya 1
Metrology and Measurement
Lecture 2
Errors in Measurement
Types and Sources of Errors
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
Error Propagation
Effect of Averaging Results
Method of Least Squares
Calculations of Error
Assignment
23-May-21 1
Errors in Measurements
It is never possible to measure the true value of a dimension,
there is always some error. So, measurement is merely an estimated
value of dimension.
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
23-May-21 3
Errors in Measurements
Absolute Error
Apparent absolute error: If the series of measurement are made then the
algebraic difference between one of the result of measurement and the
arithmetical mean is known as apparent absolute error.
It is the quotient of the absolute error and the value of comparison (may
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
Method of measurement
Temperature variations
23-May-21 7
Errors in Measurements
Sources of Errors
i. Calibration Error
Each measures instrument should be calibrated with a standard one at certain time
interval (may be once in a year or once in every 6 months.)
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
If the above procedure is not followed the instrument may give erroneous result, it
is called calibration errors.
23-May-21 10
Errors in Measurements
Sources of Errors
v. Error due to Alignment
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
The length recorded will be more than the true length. This error is called “Cosine
error”. In many case the angle 𝜃 is very small and the error will be negligible.
23-May-21 11
Errors in Measurements
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
For least error d should be minimum possible, value of θ can be reduced to zero by
placing mirror behind the pointer which ensures normal reading scale.
23-May-21 13
Errors in Measurements
Sources of Errors
vii. Error due to Dust
Presence of dust in the atmosphere change reading in the order of fraction of
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
23-May-21 17
Types of Errors
Systematic Error Random Error
• These errors are repetitive in nature and are of • These are non-consistent. The sources giving
constant and similar form. rise to such errors are random.
• These errors result from improper conditions • Such errors are inherent in the measuring
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
Reading errors.
Characteristic errors.
Environment errors.
Dynamic errors:
23-May-21 19
Types of Errors
Static errors
These errors result from the physical nature of the various components of
measuring system. Static errors result from the intrinsic imperfections or
limitations in the hardware and apparatus compared to ideal instruments. There
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
23-May-21 21
Types of Errors
Instrument loading errors
Instrument loading error is the difference between the value of the measurand
before and after the measuring system is connected/contacted for measurement.
Example: a soft or delicate component is subjected to deformation during
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
Dynamic errors
Dynamic errors are caused by time variations in the measurand and results
from the inability of a measuring system to respond faithfully to a time-varying
measurand.
Usually the dynamic response is limited by inertia, damping, friction or other
physical constraints in the sensing or readout or display system.
23-May-21 22
Propagation of Errors
Propagation of Errors
The method of determining an uncertainty in a function of the given
independent variables each with an uncertainty is propagation of errors.
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
Hence, error in z; z x y
23-May-21 23
Propagation of Errors
Propagation of Errors during Subtraction
Let; z=x–y
Let the error in measurement of x and y be δx and δy respectively.
Then, measured value of z; z z ( x x) (y y )
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
z z ( x y) x y
z x y
Hence, error in z; z x y For example, z 3 x 4 y
z (3 x 4 y)
For, z 3 x 4 y
z (3 x 4 y)
23-May-21 24
Then, measured value of z;
Propagation of Errors z z ( x x).(y y )
during Multiplication z x y
z 1 x(1 ).y(1 )
Let; z x y
z = x.y z x y x y
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
1 1 .
Let the error in z x y x y
measurement of x, y and z x y
But, . 0.
be δx, δy and δz x y
respectively. z x y
Then,
z x y
Hence, maximum probable relative error in z is;
z x y
z x y
23-May-21 25
Then, measured value of z is;
Propagation of Errors z z ( x x).(y y ) 1
during Division z x 1 y 1
z 1 x(1 ).y (1 )
Let; z x xy 1 z x y
y z x 1 y
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
z w x y
1 (1 ) (1
l
) (1
m
)n
z w x y
If w, x, y are very small, then binomial expansion results;
z w x y
w x x y
1 1 l m n As, 0
z w x y w x x y
Hence, maximum probable relative error in z is;
z w x y
l m n
23-May-21 z w x y 27
Propagation of Errors
The general method of getting formulas for propagating errors involves the
total partial differential of a function.
Suppose, z f ( w, x, y,...) , where w, x, y,….etc. are the independent variables.
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
f f f
f w x y .........
w x y
Here, δz, δw, δx, δy……. etc are the error in z, w, x, y……….etc.
23-May-21 28
Propagation of Errors
Let z be a quantity dependent on three other variables w, x, y as,
z kwl x m y n where k is a constant.
Error in z by method of partial differential is given by,
z z z
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
z w x y
w x y
z lkwl 1 x m y n w mkwl x m1 y n x nkwl x m y n1 y
z w x y
l m n
z w x y
Hence, maximum probable relative error in z is;
z w x y
l m n
z w x y
23-May-21 29
Propagation of Errors
Let z be a quantity dependent on three other variables w, x, y as,
z kwl x m y n where k is a constant.
Taking ln on both sides,
ln z ln k l ln w m ln x n ln y
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
z x y
1 1 1 2 4
In case, = + z x y
z x y
Then, the error is calculated using For example, z 3 x 2 y 4
formula; z x y
2 4
z x y z x y
= +
z 2
x 2
y2 z x y
2 4
z x y
23-May-21 31
Propagation of Errors
Example Example
1 What is the error in
4a 3b 2
Let, p 4a 3b 2c 1d 2 perimeter of a room with
c d
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
lengths;
Then, maximum probable error in
L1 5.0 0.5cm, L2 6.0 0.3cm
p is given by;
The perimeter is;
p a b
1 d c
3 2 1 P L1 L2 L1 L2 22cm
p a b c 2 d
The error is;
p a1 d b c
3 2 P L1 L2 L1 L2 1.6cm
p a b c 2 d
23-May-21 32
Propagation of Errors
Examples What is the error in circumference of
a circle with radius R = 2.15 0.08 cm?
What is the error in area C 2 R 2 0.08 0.50cm
of a room? What is the error in volume
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
h
4h 100 8h 2 200
d2 1 d2 1
R 2 h
400h 2 8h 200 Relative Error;
50 2
1 50 2
5 d 2 h 502 5
R R 65mm
8h 2 8 5 2
400 5 2 8 52 200
R 1.55
5 3 2.3846%
R 1.55mm R 65
4 10
23-May-21 35
Propagation of Errors
Example: Determine the compound error in angle θ determined by a sine bar by
measuring height of a slip gauge and the length between rollers of sine bar such that,
h
sin .
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
l dh dl
d tan
h h l
Given, sin
l dh dl h dl 1
Taking log; d dh h
h l l h
2 2 l l h
2 2
from the true size by any fraction of the accuracy of determination. There is no
way of knowing other than using a method of measurement with a better accuracy
of determination.
The statistical parameters of arithmetic mean and standard deviation may be used
to assess random errors by taking a series of repeated measurements. Thus, the
complete measurements are repeated a great many times, then frequency
distribution is obtained by plotting a tally chart of these values.
23-May-21 37
The Effect of Averaging Results
Let a series of measurement be denoted by, x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ,............., xn
Then,
x1 x2 x3 x4 .......... xn
Arithematic Mean, x
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
Standard deviation,
i
( x x ) 2
n
99.27% of observations lie within 3 .
95% of observations lie within 2 . So, for all practical purposes the
65% of observations lie within . estimated accuracy of
determination is equal to δ = ± 3σ
23-May-21 . 38
The Effect of Averaging Results
If now we take the observations and divide them into random sub-groups of n
and for each sub-group calculate its mean size, we can produce a frequency
distribution for the values of mean. It can be shown that
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
m
n
It follows that the accuracy of
where, m = standard deviation
determination of the mean size
of mean x .
of a sample of n observations is,
= standard deviation of the
3
individual observations. 3 m
n
n = sub-group size or sample size.
23-May-21 39
The Effect of Averaging Results
If we apply this to the mean size of n observations, we see that,
3
99.27% confidence limits=
n n To do this with accuracy we should
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
23-May-21 41
Graphical Methods
If an experiment is carried out to find the law relating two measured variables x
and y, it is usual to plot a graph of the readings and determine the law of graph
by plotting a mean line, i.e. we are averaging out the errors in the individual
observations.
This is obviously a tedious process and a better method is known as the method
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
of least squares.
Method of Least Squares
The least square principle states that the most probable value of observed
quantities is that which renders the sum of the squares of residual errors to
minimum.
(a) A series of Observed Values
Deviation of any particular observed value
x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ,............., xn
x from the most probable value X is,
X the most probable value
x X
23-May-21 42
Method of Least Squares
From least square principle;
x X should be minimum.
2
d x X
2
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
i.e., =2 x X 0.
dx
x - nX 0
X
x
= Arithmetic mean
n
23-May-21 43
Method of Least Squares
(b) A Series of Observed Values of Two Dependent Variables
Let the observed values be given by xi , yi where i varies from 1 to n.
The equation of straight line is given by,
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
y ax b, a is the slope or gradient of the line and b is the the intercept on y axis.
x y
xy
i i
a
i
x x yi y
i i
n
xi x xi
2 2
i
x 2
y ax b, where y
y
,i
x
xi
23-May-21
n n 44
Method of Least Squares
Errors by using Standard Deviations
z x y or z x y z xm y n
or z x y w z 2
x y
2
m n ....
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
z x 2
y w
2 2
z x y
z xy z
2
z z
2 2
zx y z x y w ...
2 2 2 2
x y w
z 2
x y w
2 2
....
z x y w
23-May-21 45
Assignment
A cylinder of 80 mm diameter was placed between the micrometer anvils. Due
to inaccurate placement, the angle between the micrometer and cylinder axis
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
23-May-21 46
Assignment
An error in measuring outside diameter D, inside diameter d and length of a
hollow cylinder was found to be 2%, 3% and 5% respectively. Determine the
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
511 1
2 D 0.025 1
D= 1 1L L
w w
2
w 512 32
8 4L
D 0.02495 0.03125 mm
w2 w
D= 1 2 L w
8L 4L
502 50
D= 1 0.025 (1)
8 400 4 400
2
23-May-21 48
Assignment
The diameter of a steel ball is measured five times with a micrometer giving the following
results: 8.011, 8.005, 8.009, 8.014 and 8.011 mm.
(a) Calculate the most probable value of the diameter and its standard deviation and
parameters of the infinite population of similar measurements from which these are supposed
L. Motra & P. R. Shakya
to have come.
(b) Another measurement yields 8.021 mm. Is it wrong? If wrong, comment the reason
of measurement being wrong.