Hydroelectric Power Plant

Working principle:
Dam is built through the river at the higher altitude and water is stored, from that hydroelectric
power plant operates to develop the potential energy. Due to gravity it provides the force which
allows the water to flow, in this water the stored energy is known as gravitational potential
energy. The potential energy is first converted into the kinetic energy by flowing it through the
canal or tunnel and then the penstock pipe to the turbine. In the water turbine the developed
kinetic energy is converted into the mechanical energy. Here, to the electric generator the turbine
is coupled. In the turbine at the shaft the mechanical energy is converted into the electrical
energy with the help of generator.

Output Power:
Let water is stored at the certain height ‘H’, is also called head. It is the vertical difference of
height between headrace and tailrace.

Output Power of Water

Here, density of water is considered as 1000 kg/m3.

Hence, Water Power

Gross Head and Net Head:

Gross head (H) is the vertical difference of height between headrace and tailrace. Net head or
effective head (Hef) is less than gross head due to head loss. Head loss is considered in the
followings:

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 i. Head loss due to friction, bending and turbulence of water (say h1)
ii. Head loss due to the kinetic energy remained in water in the tailrace, i.e., the kinetic
energy of water not used by the turbine (say h2). It is usually determined as:

where, v= Velocity of water at the tailrace

g= Acceleration due to gravity

Hence effective water power equation becomes,

Efficiency of the System:

Components of the plants such as turbine and generator do not have 100 percent efficiency
because there is some power loss in these components. Let ηT is the efficiency of turbine and ηG
be the efficiency of the generator. Then overall efficiency of turbine and generator is given by

Hence electrical output power becomes,

Merits of Hydroelectric Power Plant

1. Elimination of the cost of fuel. So operating cost is very low.

2. Longer economic lives than fuel-fired generation, with some plants now in service which
were built 50 to 100 years ago.
3. Operating labor cost is also usually low.
4. No green house gas (CO2) emission during power generation. Hence it is environmentally
clean source of electrical energy.
5. Plants can be started and loaded instantly.
6. Multiple purpose plants such as for flood control, irrigation, navigation and tourism can
be built.

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Demerits of Hydroelectric Power Plant

1. This project can be disruptive to surrounding aquatic ecosystems both upstream and
downstream of the plant site.
2. Initial investment cost is high.
3. It needs to relocate the people living where the reservoirs are planned.
4. Power generation varies with seasonal variation of water flow in the river.
5. Cost of transmission line is higher since hydro source is normally available at the remote
areas.
6. Project construction duration is long.
7. Dams may be subject to enemy bombardment during wartime, sabotage and terrorism.

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Layouts of hydroelectric power plant:
 Dam
 Water reservoir
 Gate
 Spillway
 Surge tank
 Pressure tunnel or canal
 Penstock
 Water turbine
 Draft tube
 Tail race level
 Power house
Dam:
The main purpose of the dam is to store the water and to control the outgoing run of water. All
the incoming water is stored in the dam. The water head is increased with the help of the dam,
which is essential when an enough head is available.

Water reservoir:
During rainy season in a reservoir water is collected from the watershed and stored behind the
dam. Nonstop accessibility of water to be used in dry season is an elementary requirement for a
hydroelectric power plant. In the reservoir the level of surface water is called head water level.
The available water head for power generation hang on the reservoir height

Gate:
The main purpose of the gate is used to control the flow of water from dam.

Spillway:
High amount of water in the reservoir leads to the damage of the reservoir so that a stable state of
water is maintained in the dam. During rainy seasons spillways are provided to avoid the water
flow and to release the water outside. So the risk factor must be reduced and the water level in
the dam also comes down. The excess water present in the storage area is allowed outside by
using the spillways.

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Surge Tank
It is a small tank or a reservoir in which the water level falls or rises due to sudden pressure
change. It serves the purpose of reducing water hammering in pipes which can cause damage to pipes.
The rapid rise of pressure in the penstock pipe is called as water hammer. The sudden surge of
water in penstock is taken by the surge tank, and when the water requirements increase, it supplies the
collected water thereby regulating water flow and pressure inside the penstock.
The surge tank is situated between the turbine and dam to serve the water at the time of need.

Pressure tunnel or Canal

By using the pressure tunnel or canal the water passes from the reservoir to the penstock pipe.
Pressure tunnel is the closed conduit which has low head loss but is costlier compared to canal
(open conduit).

Penstock
The main aim of the penstock is to bring the water from the dam to the hydraulic turbine. The
pipes are made up of reinforced concrete or steel. In the dam at low level the turbines are to be
installed. At the inlet, gate is delivers to the penstocks in order to close the water supply. To
control the water flow rate it delivers gate valve at the inlet to totally close by the water supply. It
has a regulator valve to switch the water flow rate into the turbine

Water turbine
The water turbine is also known as hydraulic turbine. The turbine converts the water energy into
the mechanical energy. On the turbine shaft the available mechanical energy, this is joined to the
shaft for the electrical generator which produces the electrical energy. The water present in the
turbine blade is discharged through the draft tube. The prime motivators which are in mutual use
are Kaplan turbine, Pelton wheel and Francis turbine.

Draft tube
Draft tube is linked to the exit of the turbine. It exchanges the kinetic energy offered in the water
into pressure energy in the differing portion. It retains a pressure of impartial in the atmospheric
at exist of the draft tube to run the water into a tail race. From the tail race water is usually
released to the original river or for the irrigation purposes.

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Tail race level
Tail race is a water path to lead the water exiting from the turbine to the canal or river. In the tail
race the water detained is called Tailrace water level

Power house
The power houses provide accommodations for the water turbine, generator and its accessories
along with control room. Turbine is coupled to a generator. The water brought to the power station
(power house) rotates the turbine producing torque. This rotational torque is transferred to the generator
and is converted into electricity. The used water is released through the tail race.
Classification of Hydroelectric Plant
The classification of hydro electric plants based upon:
(a) Size of plant
(b) Storage of water available
(c) Available head
(d) Nature of load
According to the size of the plant hydroelectric plants are classified as:
(i) Large- hydro: More than 100 MW and usually feeding into a large electricity grid
(ii) Medium-hydro: 15 - 100 MW - usually feeding a grid
(iii)Small-hydro: 1 - 15 MW - usually feeding into a grid
(iv) Mini-hydro: Above 100 kW, but below 1 MW; either stand alone schemes or more often
feeding into the grid.
(v) Micro-hydro: From 10 kW up to 100 kW; usually provided power for a small
community or rural industry in remote areas away from the grid.
(vi) Pico-hydro: From a few hundred watts up to 10 kW
(1 kW (kilowatt) - 1000 Watts; 1 MW (megawatt) - 1000000 Watts or 1000 kW)

According to the storage of water available hydroelectric plants are classified as:
(i) Run-off River plants without pondage (ROR type): These plants do not store water;
the plant uses water as it comes. The plant can use water as and when available. Since
these plants depend for their generating capacity primarily on the rate of flow of
water, during rainy season high flow rate may mean some quantity of water to go as

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 waste while during low run-off periods, due to low flow rates, the generating capacity
will be low.

Figure: Layout of Run-off-River type hydroelectric plant

(ii) Run-off River plants with pondage (Peaking Run-off River or PROR type): In these
plants pondage permits storage of water during off peak periods and use of this water
during peak periods. Depending on the size of pondage provided it may be possible to
cope with hour to hour fluctuations. This type of plant can be used on parts of the
load curve as required, and is more useful than a plant without storage or pondage.
When providing pondage, tail race conditions should be such that floods do not raise
tail-race water level, thus reducing the head on the plant and impairing its
effectiveness. This type of plant is comparatively more reliable and its generating
capacity is less dependent on available rate of flow of water.
(iii)Reservoir Plants: A reservoir plant is that which has a reservoir of such size as to permit
carrying over storage from wet season to the next dry season. Water is stored behind
the dam and is available to the plant with control as required. Such a plant has better
capacity and can be used efficiently throughout the year. Its firm capacity can be
increased and can be used either as a base load plant or as a peak load plant as
required. It can also be used on any portion of the load curve as required.

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According to the working head, hydroelectric plants are classified as:
(i) Low-Head (less than 30 meters) plant: Low head hydro-electric plants are power plants
which generally utilize heads of only a few meters or less. Power plants of this type
may utilize a low dam or weir to channel water, or no dam and simply use the run of
the river. Run of the river generating stations cannot store water, thus their electric
output vary with seasonal flows of water in a river. A large volume of water must
pass through a low head hydro plant's turbines in order to produce a useful amount of
power. Surge tank is usually not required for such type of plant. Figure below shows
the arrangement of such type of plant.

Fig: Low head plant

(ii) Medium-head (30 meters - 300 meters) plant: These plants consist of a large dam in a
mountainous area which creates a huge reservoir. The forebay provided at the
beginning of penstock serves as water reservoir for such plants. In such plants water
is generally carried in open channels from main reservoir to the forebay and then to
the power house through the penstock. The forbay itself work as surge tank in this
case. The common type of prime mover used in these plants is Francis. General
arrangement of such a plant is shown in the figure.

Fig: Medium head plant

(iii)High-head (Above 300 meters) plant: High head power plants generally utilize a dam
to store water at an increased elevation. The use of a dam to impound water also

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 provides the capability of storing water during rainy periods and releasing it during
dry periods. This results in the consistent and reliable production of electricity, able to
meet demand. Most large hydro-electric facilities in the world are of the high head
variety. High head plants with storage are very valuable to electric utilities because
they can be quickly adjusted to meet the electrical demand on a distribution system. A
typical arrangements for this type of plant is shown in the figure in such plants first of
all water is carried from the main reservoir by a tunnel up to the surge tank and then
from the surge tank to the power house in penstocks. Pelton wheels are normally used
for such type of plant.

Fig: High head plant

According to nature of load the classification is:

(i) Base load plants: A base load power plant is one that provides a steady flow of power
regardless of total power demand by the grid. These plants run at all times through the
year except in the case of repairs or scheduled maintenance.
Power plants are designated base load based on their low cost generation, efficiency
and safety at set outputs. Base load power plants do not change production to match
power consumption demands since it is always cheaper to run them rather than
running high cost combined cycle plants or combustion turbines. Typically these
plants are large enough to provide a majority of the power used by a grid, making
them slow to fire up and cool down. Thus, they are more effective when used
continuously to cover the power base load required by the grid.

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 Each base load power plant on a grid is allotted a specific amount of the base load
power demand to handle. The base load power is determined by the load duration
curve of the system. For a typical power system, rule of thumb states that the base
load power is usually 35-40% of the maximum load during the year. Load factor of
such plants is high.
Fluctuations, peaks or spikes in customer power demand are handled by smaller and
more responsive types of power plants.
(ii) Peak load plants: Power plants for electricity generation which, due to their operational
and economic properties, are used to cover the peak load. Gas turbines and storage
and pumped storage power plants are used as peak load power plants. The efficiency
of such plants is around 60 -70%.
(iii)Pumped-Storage Plants: Pumped-storage plants are usually used for load balancing in
electric power systems. At the time of less load in the system, the plant stores energy
in the form of gravitational potential energy of water, pumped from a lower
elevation reservoir (tailrace pond) to a higher elevation (headrace pond). Low-cost
off-peak electric power is used to run the pumps. During periods of high electrical
demand, the stored water is released through turbines to produce electric power.
Although the losses of the pumping process makes the plant a net consumer of energy
overall, the system increases revenue by selling more electricity during periods
of peak demand, when electricity prices are highest.

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 With its ability to pump back water from the lower into the higher reservoir, the plant
acts like a giant rechargeable battery, using readily available power to provide reliable
and flexible power to cover peak demand. Instead of using separate turbine, pump,
generator and motor, most pumped storage system use one pump/turbine unit and a
motor/generator unit (i.e., Reversible Pump-Turbine and Reversible Motor- Generator), a
shift able unit selectively displaceable to achieve alternatively, either an energy
generation or an energy accumulation mode.

Advantages of Pumped Storage Plants:

Pumped storage hydropower can provide energy-balancing, stability, storage capacity,

and ancillary grid services such as network frequency control and reserves. This is due to
the ability of pumped storage plants, like other hydroelectric plants, to respond to
potentially large electrical load changes within seconds. Pumped storage historically has
been used to balance load on a system, enabling large nuclear or thermal generating
sources to operate at peak efficiencies.

Pumped storage projects also provide ancillary benefits such as firming capacity
(increasing firm or primary energy) and reserves, reactive power, black start capability,
and spinning reserve. In the generating mode, the turbine-generators can respond very
quickly to frequency deviations just as conventional hydro generators can, thus adding to
the overall balancing and stability of the grid. In both turbine and pump modes,
generator-motor excitation can be varied to contribute to reactive power load and
stabilize voltage. When neither generating nor pumping, the machines can be also be
operated in synchronous condenser mode, or can be operated to provide spinning reserve,
providing the ability to quickly pick up load or balance excess generation. Grid-scale
pumped storage can provide this type of load-balancing benefit for time spans ranging
from seconds to hours with the digitally controlled turbine governors and large water
reservoirs for bulk energy storage.

Selection of Site of Hydropower Plant

Some point that should be given importance while selecting a site for Hydro-electric power
station is given below.

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 1. Availability of Water: Since the primary requirement for a hydro electric power station,
is the availability of huge amount of water such plants should be built at a place (such as
river, canal) where adequate water is available at a good head.
2. Availability of Head: Site with high head is suitable to generate high amount of power.
The availability of water head depends upon the topography of the area. Water head has
considerable effect on the cost and economy of power generation.
3. Storage of Water: There are wide variations in water supply from a river or canal during
the year. This makes its necessary to store water by constructing a dam in order to ensure
the generation of power throughout the year. The storage helps in equalizing the flow of
water so that any excess quantity of water at a certain period of the year can be made
available during times of very low flow in the river. This leads to the conclusion that site
selected for hydro electric plant should provide adequate facilities for erecting a dam and
storage of water.
4. Distance from Load Center: Hydro source is usually available at far away from the load
center. Length of transmission lines required is usually large. Hence for economical
transmission or evacuation of power, the routes and the distances from either the load
center or the existing grid should be as less as possible.
5. Cost and Type of Land: The land for the construction of plant should be available at a
reasonable price. Further, the bearing capacity of the soil should be adequate to withstand
the installation of heavy equipment.
6. Transportation Facilities: The site selected for the hydro-electric plant should be
accessible so that necessary equipment and machinery could be easily transported.
It is clear from the above mentioned factors that ideal choice of site for such a plant is near a
river in hilly areas where dam can be conveniently built and large reservoirs can be obtained.

Hydraulic Turbine
A rotary machine that converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy is called hydraulic
turbine. Mechanical energy is used in running an electric generator which is coupled to turbine
shaft. Hydraulic Turbines have a row of blades fitted to the rotating shaft or a rotating plate.
Flowing water, when pass through the hydraulic turbine it strikes the blades of the turbine and
makes the shaft rotate. While flowing through the hydraulic turbine the velocity and pressure of

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the liquid reduce, these result in the development of torque and rotation of the turbine shaft.
There are different forms of hydraulic turbines in use depending on the operational requirements.
For every specific use a particular type of hydraulic turbine provides the optimum output.
Classification of Hydraulic Turbines
1. Based on Flow Path (Direction of Flow of Water)
Water can pass through the hydraulic turbines in different flow paths. Based on the flow path of
the liquid hydraulic turbines can be categorized into three types.
a. Axial Flow Turbines: This category of hydraulic turbines has the flow path of the liquid
mainly parallel to the axis of rotation. Kaplan turbines have liquid flow mainly in axial
direction.
b. Radial Flow Turbines: Such hydraulic turbines have the liquid flowing mainly in a plane
perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
c. Tangential Flow Turbines: These types of hydraulic turbines have liquid flowing in
tangential direction to the runner of the turbine. Pelton turbine is an example of this type
of turbine.
d. Mixed Flow Turbines: Most of the hydraulic turbines used there is a significant
component of both axial and radial flows. Such types of hydraulic turbines are called as
Mixed Flow Turbines. Francis Turbine is an example of mixed flow type, in Francis
Turbine water enters in radial direction and exits in axial direction.
2. Based on Pressure Change (Action of Water on Moving Blades)
This classification of hydraulic turbines is whether the pressure of liquid changes or not while it
flows through the runner (rotor) of the hydraulic turbines. Based on the pressure change
hydraulic turbines can be classified as of two types.
a. Impulse Turbine: The pressure of liquid does not change while flowing through the
rotor of the machine. In Impulse Turbines pressure change occur only in the nozzles of
the machine. The energy available at the inlet of the turbine is only kinetic energy. The
pressure at the inlet and outlet of the turbine is atmosphere. This turbine is used for high
heads. One such example of impulse turbine is Pelton Wheel.
b. Reaction Turbine: The pressure of liquid changes while it flows through the rotor of the
machine. The change in fluid velocity and reduction in its pressure causes a reaction on

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 the turbine blades; this is where from the name Reaction Turbine may have been derived.
Francis and Kaplan Turbines fall in the category of Reaction Turbines.
3. Based on the head at the inlet of the turbine
a. High head turbine: Example-Pelton turbine.
b. Medium head turbine: Example-Francis tubine.
c. Low head turbine: Example-Kaplan turbine, propeller turbine.
4. Based on the specific speed of the turbine
The Specific Speed ‘NS’ of a turbine is the speed (in rotations per minute (r.p.m.)) at which
a similar model of the turbine would run under a unit head (i.e. 1 feet) to develop unit power
(i.e. 1 H.P.). It is given by

Here,
N = Actual speed in rpm
P = Power in H.P. (Horse Power), 1 H. P. =746 W
H= Head in feet
According to the specific speed turbines are classified as:
a. Low specific speed turbine: Example-Pelton turbine, specific speed in the range of (10-
50) rpm.
b. Medium specific speed turbine: Example-Francis turbine, specific speed in the range of
(50-300) rpm.
c. High specific turbine: Example-Kaplan turbine, Propeller turbine, specific speed above
300 rpm.

Pelton Turbine
Construction
A Pelton wheel consists of a rotor, at the periphery of which is mounted equally spaced double
hemispherical or double ellipsoidal buckets. Water is transferred from a high head source
through penstock which is fitted with a nozzle, through which the water flows out as a high
speed jet. A needle spear moving inside the nozzle controls the water flow through the nozzle
and at the same time provides a smooth flow with negligible energy loss. All the available

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potential energy is thus converted into kinetic energy before the jet strikes the buckets of the
runner. The pressure all over the wheel is constant and equal to atmosphere, so that energy
transfer occurs due to purely impulse action.
The Pelton turbine is provided with a casing the function of which is to prevent the splashing of
water and to discharge water to the tail race. When the nozzle is completely closed by moving
the spear in the forward direction the amount of water striking the runner is reduced to zero but
the runner due to inertia continues revolving for a long time. In order to bring the runner to rest
in a short time, a nozzle (brake) is provided which directs the jet of water on the back of buckets;
this jet of water is called braking jet. Speed of the turbine runner is kept constant by a governing
mechanism that automatically regulates the quantity of water flowing through the runner in
accordance with any variation of load.

Figure: Pelton turbine

Figure above shows a schematic diagram of a Pelton wheel. The jet emerging from the nozzle
hits the splitter symmetrically and is equally distributed into the two halves of hemispherical
bucket as shown.

Working Principle of Pelton Turbine

Water at high pressure from the penstock pipe enters the nozzle provided with a spear. The
pressure energy of water is converted into velocity energy, as it flows through the nozzle. By
rotating the hand wheel, the spear is moved to control the quantity of water flowing out of the

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nozzle. When the spear is pushed forward into the nozzle, the amount of water striking the
buckets is reduced.
The jet of water at high velocity from the nozzle strikes the buckets at the center of the cup. The
impulsive force of the jet striking on the buckets causes the rotation of the wheel in the direction
of the striking jet. Thus, pressure energy of the water is converted into mechanical energy. The
pressure inside the casing is atmospheric. The Pelton wheel operates under a high head of water.
Therefore it requires less quantity of water.
Francis Turbine
The Francis turbine is mixed flow reaction turbine. This turbine is used for medium heads with
medium discharge. This is the mostly used turbine in Nepal. Water enters the runner and flows
towards the centre of wheel in the radial direction and leaves parallel to the axis of the turbine.
Francis turbine consists mainly of the following parts
i. Spiral or scroll casing
ii. Guide mechanism
iii. Runner and turbine main
iv. Draft tube
Spiral casing: The casing of the Francis turbine is designed in a spiral form with a
gradually increasing area. The advantages of this design are
 Smooth and even distribution of water around the runner.
 Loss of head due to the formation of eddies is avoided.
 Efficiency of flow of water to the turbine is increased.
In big units stay vanes are provided which direct the water to the guide vanes. The casing is also
provided with inspection holes and pressure gauge connection. The selection of material for the
casing depends upon the head of water to be supplied.
Guide Mechanism: The guide vanes or wicket gates are fixed between two rings. This
arrangement is in the form of a wheel and called guide wheel. Each vane can be rotated about its
pivot centre. The opening between the vanes can be increased or decreased by adjusting
the guide wheel. The guide wheel is adjusted by the regulating shaft which is operated by
a governor. The guide mechanism provides the required quantity of water to the runner
depending upon the load conditions. The guide vanes are in general made of cast steel.

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Runner and Turbine main shaft: The flow in the runner of a modern Francis turbine is partly
radial and partly axial. The runners may be classified as slow, medium and fast according to the
rated speed. The runner may be cast in one piece or made of separate steel plates welded
together. The runner made of CI (cast iron) for small output, cast steel or stainless steel
or bronze for large output. The runner blades should be carefully finished with high degree of
accuracy. The runner may be keyed to the shaft which may be vertical or horizontal. The shaft is
made of steel and is forged it is provided with a collar for transmitting the axial thrust.
Draft Tube: The water after doing work on the runner passes on to the tall race through a tube
called draft tube. It is made of riveted steel plate or pipe or a concrete tunnel. The cross-section
of the tube increases gradually towards the outlet. The draft tube connects the runner exit to
the tail race. This tube is drowned below (approximately 1 meter) the tail race water level.

Figure: Francis Turbine

Working Principle of Francis turbine
The water is admitted to the runner through guide vanes or wicket gates. The opening between
the vanes can be adjusted to vary the quantity of water admitted to the turbine. This is done to
suit the load conditions.
The water enters the runner with a low velocity but with a considerable pressure. As the water
flows over the vanes the pressure head is gradually converted into velocity head. This kinetic
energy is utilized in rotating the wheel. Thus the hydraulic energy is converted into mechanical
energy. The outgoing water enters the tail race after passing through the draft tube. The draft

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tube enlarges gradually and the enlarged end is submerged deeply in the tail race water. Due to
this arrangement a suction head is created at the exit of the runner.

Figure: Francis turbine (with draft tube)

Kaplan Turbine
Kaplan turbine is a low head reaction turbine, in which water flows axially. It was developed by
German Engineer Kaplan in 1916. All the parts of the Kaplan turbine (viz, spiral casing, guide
wheel and guide blades) are similar to that of the Francis turbine, except the runner blades,
runner and draft tube. The runner and runner blades of the Kaplan turbine resemble with the
propeller of the ship. Hence, Kaplan turbine is also called as Propeller Turbine.
Working Principle of Kaplan Turbine

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Water at high pressure enters the spiral casing through the inlet and flows over the guide blades.
The water from the guide blades strokes the runner blades axially. Thus, the kinetic energy is
imparted by water to the runner blades, causing the rotation of the runner. The runner has only 4
or 6 blades.
The water discharges at the center of the runner in the axial direction into the draft tube. The
draft tube is of L shape with its discharging end immersed into the tail race.

Figure: Kaplan Turbine

Propeller Turbine

It is similar in construction and working to the Kaplan turbine. The difference between the two
turbines is that the pitch of the blades can be changed in the Kaplan that means blades are
adjustable according to the flow of water in order to improve the results of the process, unlike the
Propeller turbine, which is not capable of that. Due to adjustable blades of the turbine, Kaplan
turbine has highest part load efficiency whereas Propeller turbine has least part load efficiency.

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However, Propeller turbine is cheaper than Kaplan turbine and is typically suitable in the plants
where discharge of water is high and constant amount.

Difference of impulse turbine and reaction turbine:

S.No. Impulse turbine Reaction turbine

There is no pressure change in the runner.
In the impulse turbine first all pressure
energy of water convert into the kinetic
energy (energy conversion at a single
1
stage) through a nozzle and generate a
high speed jet of water. This water jet
strikes the blade of turbine and rotates it.
There is pressure change in the fluid as it
passes through runner of the turbine.
Pressure change of water occurs when it
passes through the rotor of turbine (at
multiple stages). So it uses kinetic
energy as well as pressure energy to
rotate the turbine. Due to this it is known
as reaction turbine.

3 Without loss flow regulation is possible. With loss flow regulation is possible.

Below the tailrace the unit is kept

4 Above the tail race unit is installed.
entirely submerged in water.

Blades are only the action when they are

5
in front of the nozzle. At the time blades are in action.

Selection of Hydraulic Turbine

The following points should be considered while selecting right type of hydraulic turbines for
hydroelectric power plant.
1. Specific speed: High specific speed is essential where the head is low and output is large,
because otherwise the rotational speed will be low which means cost of turbo-generator
and powerhouse will be high. On the other hand there is practically no need of choosing a

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 high value of specific speed for high installations, because even with low specific speed
high rotational speed can be attained with medium capacity plants.
2. Rotational speed: Rotational speed depends upon specific speed. Also the rotational
speed of an electrical generator with which the turbine is to be directly coupled depends
on the frequency and number of pair of poles. The value of specific speed adopted should
be such that it will give the synchronous speed of the generator.
3. Efficiency (full-load efficiency): The efficiency selected should be such that it gives the
highest overall efficiency of various conditions. Reaction turbines such as Francis turbine
and Kaplan turbine have high efficiency compared to impulse turbines.
4. Part load operation (part load efficiency): In general the efficiency at part loads and
overloads is less than that with rated (design) parameters. For the sake of economy the
turbine should always run with maximum possible efficiency to get more revenue. When
the turbine has to run at part or overload conditions Deriaz turbine is employed.
Similarly, for low heads, Kaplan turbine will be useful for such purposes in place of
propeller turbine.

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 Fig: Efficiency Curves of Commonly used Turbines
5. Deposition of turbine shaft: Experience has shown that the vertical shaft arrangement is
better for large-sized reaction turbines; therefore, it is almost universally adopted,
whereas, in case of large size impulse turbines, horizontal shaft arrangement is
preferable.
6. Available head and its fluctuation:
a. Very high (350 m and above): for heads greater than 350 m, Pelton Turbine is
generally employed and practically there is no any choice except in very special
cases.
b. High heads (150 m to 350 m): in this range either Pelton or Francis turbine may
employ. For higher specific needs Francis turbine is more compact and economical
than the Pelton turbine that for the same working conditions would have to be much
bigger and rather weighty.

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 c. Medium heads (60 m to 150 m): Francis turbine is usually employed in this range.
Whether a high or low specific speed would be used depends on the selection of the
speed.
d. Low heads (below 60 m): between 30 m to 60 m both Kaplan and Francis turbines
may be used. Francis is more expensive but yields higher efficiency at part loads and
over loads. It is therefore preferable for variable loads. Kaplan turbine is generally
employed less than 30 m. Propeller turbines are however, commonly used for heads
up to 15 m. They are adopted only when there is practically no load variation.
7. Available Discharge: For high discharge and low head Kaplan or Propeller turbine is
suitable. For medium discharge Francis turbine is commonly used whereas for low
discharge and high head Pelton turbine is more suitable.
8. Cost: Reaction turbine such as Francis turbine is costlier compared to Pelton turbine for
same application. However, performance (efficiency) Francis turbine is better than that of
Pelton turbine.
Auxiliaries in Hydroelectric Power Plants
Some of the major auxiliaries required for hydro-electric plants are as follows:
 Different types of valves, including the gate valve, the globe valve, the control valve, the
butterfly valve, the spherical ball valve, bypass valves, check valves, and the pressure
relief valve.
 Vents and drains on piping systems and equipment.
 Centrifugal pumps (both horizontal and vertical), positive displacement pumps, including
the reciprocating pump, the screw type pump, and the gear pump.
 Compressors, including compressor cooling and water extraction from compressed air.
 Strainers and filters.
 The lubrication system and its equipments.
 Raw water and service water systems, cooling water systems
 De-watering and drainage systems
 High-pressure water for fire protection systems, including sprinkler deluge systems
 Fire protection systems, i.e. CO2 or Halon cylinders.
 Compressed air systems, including service air, instrument air, high-pressure governor
accumulator air, and blow down air for synchronous generator operation.

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  Oil storage and cleaning systems.
 Ventilation systems including cooling fans for the powerhouse.
 Storage batteries and battery charging system.
 Cranes to lift the heavy parts.

Essential Features of Hydroelectric Alternators

The majority of hydroelectric installations utilize salient pole synchronous generators. Salient
pole machines are used because the hydraulic turbine operates at low speeds, requiring a
relatively large number of field poles to produce the rated frequency.
Synchronous Speed is given by, Ns = 120f/p; lesser the speed more poles ‘p’ are required for the
constant frequency, ‘f’.
To accommodate more no. of poles hydroelectric generators usually have large diameters but
less axial length compared to generators used in thermal plants.
Furthermore, salient pole rotor type synchronous generators are economical than cylindrical rotor
type generators.

Choice of Size and Number of Generating Units

The size/rating and number of generating units in a power plant shall be selected with proper
care in the design. Following are the major considerations to be taken for the selection:
 At least two units are taken in the power plants, whether it is isolated or interconnected,
for the reliability of the system.
 The size/rating and number of generating units in such way that they approximately
match with the load curve/load duration curve as closely as possible. Higher no. of units
(with less size) can match the load curve with more perfection.
 In order to calculate the size of the units, the station auxiliary load should be taken in to
account.
 To estimate the size of the plant, the transmission line losses should also be considered.
The future demand and expansion should also be considered as the load on the station
always increases.
 The plant must have some reverse capacity which may be 15-20 % more than maximum
demand under abnormal conditions.

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  Select size/rating of generating units in such way that reliability to maintain supply will
be more.
 Select size/rating of generating units in such way that the plant capacity factor, load
factor diversity factor, plant use factor will be more.
 Select size/rating of generating units in such way that unit almost run at full load or at
load which gives maximum efficiency.
 Select size/rating of generating units in such way that power generation will be
economical.
 Initial and operating cost also to be taken in to account. Higher no. of units less capacity
will incur more initial cost. Larger units are economical due to their size.
 Space required also to be considered. Higher the no. of units with less capacity, more
space will require.
 As far as possible, the units of equal capacities are selected which will have following
advantages. i) The parts can be interchanged. ii) The maintenance will be easier. iii) The
working time of each plant regulated. iv)The spare parts required to be stored are less.

In summary, load on the power system is variable where reliability of supply is important so it is
neither practicable nor economical to use a single unit of large capacity. But, if power plant is
connected to grid system then generating units of higher capacity can be installed. However,
capacity of a unit of the plant is usually not more than 10% of the installed capacity of the
overall system in order to maintain stability of the interconnected system.

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