ED/EPS/2005/REVIVAL EDUCAT AFGHANI

SUPPORTED by UNESCO
 BISMILLAH IR-RAHMAN IR-RAHIM

‘IN THE NAME OF GOD, MOST GRACIOUS, MOST MERCIFUL’

The Message from His Excellency, Hamid Karzai, The President of the
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan to The Independent High Commission
of Education for Afghanistan

Professional debate and the exchange of information among intellectuals and

experts in Afghanistan, and the national authorities of the Transitional Islamic
State of Afghanistan, are not only the best means of facilitating the
identification of problems, and the immediate needs of the country, but are
also the most appropriate and fruitful mechanism for searching for ways and
means of finding solutions to the present and future issues confronting the
Afghan nation.

The revival, renewal and development of all types and levels of education is
one of the urgent needs of the country, with emphasis on general education,
curriculum development, teacher education, adult education, technical and
vocational education, and higher education. This national undertaking needs
the immediate and sincere participation, help and cooperation of Afghan
experts, intellectuals and professionals.

In order to achieve the above, especially through deep reflection and scientific
thinking about the immediate and long-term needs of education in
Afghanistan, and for initiating exchanges of views for a comprehensive
agreement, searching for ways and means, determining the Education
Objectives, Policy and functional Strategies for the revival of education in all
domains, types and levels, it is decided that the Independent High
Commission of Education for Afghanistan, composed of intellectuals, experts
and experienced Afghan educators and professionals, be established to work
on the following objectives and submit their views, deliberations and proposals
to the state:

To identify the immediate needs and problems of education in Afghanistan.

To formulate educational objectives, education policy, and to develop
strategies for the revival and development of education in Afghanistan.
To propose ways and means for achieving the above objectives.
To guide and advise on ways of funding the immediate renewal and long-term
development of education in Afghanistan.
To prepare a consolidated Education Report on educational objectives, policy
and strategies for inputs into the new Constitution for Afghanistan.

I am pleased that, on the basis of the proposal of the Permanent Delegate of

Afghanistan to UNESCO, and the agreement of the Ministers of Education
and Higher Education, the first meeting of the Independent High Commission
of Education for Afghanistan, is organized at the United Nations Scientific
Educational and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in Paris.

I pray to Almighty God for your success in this noble action.

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 PREFACE

It gives me immense pleasure to witness the steady stride of

Afghanistan towards peace and democracy and its determined effort to join
the family of democratic nations. The new national Constitution and the
democratic elections are important milestones on the difficult road towards the
country’s reconstruction and development. UNESCO has the privilege of
being closely associated with our Afghan partners in this dynamic process
through our Organization’s support to the national education policy dialogue
and their efforts to forge a comprehensive vision for their country’s future
development. To this end, UNESCO has attached high priority to the
Government’s actions aimed at strengthening the capacities of the Ministries
of Education and Higher Education in order to be able to address their
daunting challenges effectively.

The successful completion of the work of the Independent High

Commission of Education for Afghanistan is an example from which many
other countries in similar situations can learn. The Afghan scholars who took
part in this Commission, both from outside the country as well as from within,
constituted a rich forum for the cross-fertilization of ideas and trends. The
Commission symbolized an intrinsic continuity in the intellectual and cultural
patterns of thought that Afghanistan has known for centuries, and which
makes their country a crossroad of civilizations. The Commission’s work has
already contributed significantly to the new Afghan Constitution and the era of
democracy it heralds.

The international community can pride itself at being invited to contribute

to this determined drive of the Afghan people to lay down the foundations of a
modern and democratic nation within which citizens can build a prosperous
and peaceful future. In this endeavour, education and a skilled labour force
will play a pivotal role in transforming and modernizing the society. Indeed,
this is fast becoming a reality, though much remains to be done.

This report of the Independent High Commission provides the first

sector-wide strategic vision and framework for the revival and development of
education in Afghanistan. It highlights the educational priorities and goals to
be met immediately as well as in the medium- and long-term. The report
recognizes the importance of these aspirations not only for nation-building but
also for promoting peace and renewal in the region.

The principal priorities of the report are in close alignment with the
Education for All (EFA) goals to which the international community committed
itself at the World Education Forum in Dakar, Senegal (April 2000). The
extension and improvement of basic education constitutes a broad-based
foundation for the development of all other levels of the education system.

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 A fully developed education system is vital for consolidating democracy
and the peace process underway. I therefore call upon the international
community and all friends of Afghanistan to remain steadfast in their support
for the national authorities in meeting the priorities identified by the High
Commission. For its part, UNESCO remains fully committed to this national
endeavour, and will continue to work closely with the Afghan Government and
its partners to ensure that their expectations are fulfilled.

Koïchiro Matsuura
Director-General of UNESCO

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................1
CHAPTER ONE: THE PRINCIPLES, POLICIES AND OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION........7
1.1 THE PRINCIPLES ..........................................................................................................................7
1.2 EDUCATION POLICIES ...............................................................................................................10
1.3 THE OBJECTIVES .......................................................................................................................13
CHAPTER TWO: THE POLICY ON EDUCATIONAL GOVERNANCE ..................................19
2.1 EDUCATIONAL GOVERNANCE ...................................................................................................19
2.2 EDUCATIONAL GOVERNANCE IN AFGHANISTAN .......................................................................20
2.3 RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................................................21
CHAPTER THREE: STRATEGIES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION ..............27
3.1 A NATIONAL INFRASTRUCTURE FOR PLANNING, RESEARCH, AND EDUCATION
DEVELOPMENT ....................................................................................................................27
3.2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN AFGHANISTAN ...........................................37
3.3 BASIC EDUCATION..............................................................................................................45
3.4 PRIMARY EDUCATION .......................................................................................................50
3.5 GENERAL SECONDARY EDUCATION..............................................................................55
3.6 THE CURRICULUM FOR GENERAL EDUCATION ..........................................................57
3.7 TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING.................................65
3.8 TEACHER EDUCATION .......................................................................................................79
3.9 HIGHER EDUCATION ..........................................................................................................90
3.10 DISTANCE EDUCATION................................................................................................... 103
3.11 EDUCATION FOR PEACE AND HUMAN RIGHTS ......................................................... 108
CHAPTER FOUR: EDUCATION FOR AFGHAN GIRLS AND WOMEN............................... 113
4.1 THE NEED FOR THE EXPANSION OF EDUCATION AND LITERACY FOR AFGHAN GIRLS AND
WOMEN .................................................................................................................................. 113
4.2 STRATEGY............................................................................................................................... 115
4.3 RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................................... 116
CHAPTER FIVE: THE FINANCING OF EDUCATION............................................................. 119
5.1 THE EXISTING FUNDING OF EDUCATION ................................................................................. 119
5.2 POLICIES AND STRATEGIES OF POTENTIAL INTERNATIONAL AGENCIES .................................. 120
5.3 MEASURES FOR REDUCING THE COST OF EDUCATION AND IMPROVING THE EFFICIENCY OF THE
EDUCATION SYSTEM ................................................................................................................ 121
5.4 PROPOSAL FOR THE MOBILIZATION OF RESOURCES FOR EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN
AFGHANISTAN ........................................................................................................................ 124
5.5 ASSESSING THE FINANCIAL CONSEQUENCES OF EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ..................... 125
5.6 CONCLUSIONS: ISSUES TO CONSIDER ...................................................................................... 125
RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................................................... 129
ANNEXE: INDEPENDENT HIGH COMMISSION OF EDUCATION FOR AFGHANISTAN
.............................................................................................................................................................. 135

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 INTRODUCTION

Afghanistan has seen many flourishing eras of learning and civilization in its
history. Many centres and circles of learning were established in Afghan cities,
which produced scholars in philosophy, literature and science, to serve the
people of the region and beyond.

The development of modern education in Afghanistan was limited due to

political and social conditions and financial and technical constraints. During
the 1950s and 1960s, in accordance with social and economic development
plans, steps were taken for the expansion of modern education. In the 1970s
Afghanistan had a functioning national education system, with over a million
students. Unfortunately the war, and the conflicts of the last two decades of
the twentieth century, inflicted serious damage on the country’s social and
economic infrastructure, including schools and educational institutions.
According to a UNESCO report, at the end of the twentieth century in 1999
there were 875,000 students, including 64,100 females in 3,100 schools and
education centres throughout the country. The average enrolment rate was
29.4 per cent (52.6 for boys and 4.5 per cent for girls) for an estimated
population of 25.8 million people. Adult literacy for fifteen-year olds and above
was estimated to be at 20 to 30 per cent.

The task of providing education for all children (boys and girls), and
establishing a national system of education, is of great importance for the
social, economic and cultural development of Afghanistan. Since 2002, the
government of Afghanistan has made serious efforts to rehabilitate the
education services in the country. In the National Development Framework
(April 2002), the government’s priority programmes included the provision of
education, with particular focus on teacher training and vocational education.
The importance of good quality education, as the foundation for poverty
reduction and economic growth, was underlined. A ‘Back to School’ campaign
generated enormous interest and hope. The goal of this campaign was ‘to get
all children back to school and ensure that they get good quality education’.

In order to reflect on the educational needs of Afghan society and to propose

policies and strategies, the government established, in November 2002, an
Independent High Commission of Education, composed of twenty-three
Afghan experts in education, science, law and administration. The President
of the Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan, H.E. Hamid Karzai, in a
message addressed to the Commission, stressed the urgent need for the
renewal and development of education in the country. He indicated that such
an undertaking required the immediate and sincere participation, help and
cooperation of Afghan experts, intellectuals and professionals. For this
purpose, the Independent High Commission was requested to study the
educational needs of the country, and to submit proposals to the government
related to the following:

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• To identify the needs and problems of education in Afghanistan.
• To formulate principles, policies, and strategies for the development of
education.
• To propose the defined objectives, policies and implementing strategies.
• To suggest the means of funding the development of education.
• To prepare a report on the educational objectives and policies for the new
Constitution of Afghanistan.

At the invitation of the Director General of UNESCO, Mr. Koichiro Matsuura,

the first session of the Commission was held at UNESCO in Paris, from 16 to
21 December 2002. In the presence of H.E. Mr. M.Y Qanooni, The Minister of
Education, and H.E. Dr. S. Fayez, the Minister of Higher Education, the
Commission elected Dr. S.R. Samady as Chairman, and Dr. A.G. Ghaznawi
as Secretary General. Following the adoption of the agenda by the
Commission, the Minister of Education and the Minister of Higher Education
made comprehensive statements on the current educational situation and
priorities in Afghanistan, and had a preliminary exchange of views with
members of the Commission. In a special meeting on the 17 December 2002,
the Director General of UNESCO introduced the Commission to the
international community. At the invitation of the Commission, the UNESCO
Assistant Director General for Education, and a number of experts from
UNESCO, France, Germany, the United Kingdom, Italy, Japan and India,
made presentations to the Commission. Representatives from The World
Bank, the Islamic Development Bank and UNICEF also attended the meeting.

Following extensive discussions the Commission set up working groups to

prepare draft reports and proposals for the different agenda items, based on
the preliminary agreement of the Commission. The coordinators of the
working groups met with the Chairman of the Commission from 20 to 27
March 2003 in Paris to review the drafts, which were prepared on the basis of
the contributions of the members of the working groups. The draft report,
containing the revised texts of the working groups, was submitted to the final
meeting of the High Commission of Education for Afghanistan in Kabul from
28 June to 3 July 2003. At the conclusion of its work President Hamid Karzai
received members of the Commission and expressed his satisfaction with
what they had accomplished.

The Commission in its first session devoted a considerable amount of time to

educational policies and proposals for the new Constitution of Afghanistan. A
member of the Commission, Professor Abdul Salam Azimi, submitted the
recommendations of the Commission, which appear in this report, to the
drafting committee of the Constitution. These proposals concerned the right to
free education for all citizens, (males and females without discrimination), the
geographically balanced development of education, the principle and duration
of compulsory formal education, the teaching of the mother tongues in primary
schools, the expansion of secondary and vocational education, the
development of higher education, the eradication of illiteracy, the development
of a national curriculum, decentralization and community participation, the
promotion of the education of girls and women, and private education.

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The report of the Commission covered the following topics:

1. The Principles, Policies and Objectives of education

2. Educational Governance
3. The National Infrastructure for Educational Development
4. The Development of Education in Afghanistan
• Basic, Primary, Middle, General Secondary, and Higher Education
• Curriculum Development
• Technical and Vocational Education
• Teacher Training
• Distance Learning and Non-formal Education
• Peace and Human Rights Education
5. The Education of Girls and Women
6. The Financing of Education
7. Recommendations

The Commission considered both the short-term and the long-term needs of
educational rehabilitation and development. In particular it focused on
proposals for building a national education system for Afghanistan today,
relevant to social, economic and political reforms, and the development of
Afghan society, taking into account past experiences, the cultural background,
scientific principles, and international standards. The promotion of education
for all, and the contribution of education to human development, are the basic
objectives of modern education. Improvements in educational governance,
and the empowerment of communities to participate in educational
management, contribute to the relevance and development of education.

It is recognized that education is the collective responsibility of society, and

interaction among education authorities, civil society, and business and
industry, at the policy, planning and implementation stages, will contribute to
the development of education and training facilities. Furthermore, education is
a multi-sectorial enterprise, requiring cooperation among those responsible for
education, agriculture and rural development, industry, labour and social
affairs, health, etc. To ensure wide consultation and cooperation among the
different groups in educational development at the national and regional
levels, the Commission recommended the establishment of a High Council of
Education and Provincial Education Committees.

The importance of the promotion and development of education for Afghan

girls and women was stressed, both as a human right and as a basic
requirement for the improvement of family life, and the social and economic
progress of the nation. The Commission recommended that all discriminatory
legal, educational and technical constraints regarding the education of girls
and women should be eliminated, and measures should be taken to provide
them with equal educational and training opportunities at all levels. In this

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regard national, regional and local committees need to be established, to
encourage equal access to education, and to develop suitable programmes
for girls and women.

The Commission considered the duration of formal compulsory education for

Afghan children. It recognized that children and young people should receive
adequate general education and training, and have access to further
education, depending on the availability of secondary schools, or join the
world of work. In addition to acquiring the necessary primary and middle
school education, they should also be physically and mentally mature, in order
to be able to work effectively, e.g. on a farm, in crafts or in industry. It is,
therefore, recommended that at least nine years of primary and middle school
education, which provides literacy and numeracy instruction, basic knowledge
and skills training and vocational orientation, should be compulsory for Afghan
children from the ages of seven to fifteen.

Teacher education, curriculum development and the production of textbooks

and other reading materials, are areas of high priority. The provision of
sufficient numbers of trained teachers, and the upgrading of the qualifications
of existing teachers, and the improvement of their economic conditions, are
basic elements for the advancement of education. Steps have recently been
taken by the national authorities to reinforce the institutional structures for
teacher education by the establishment of the University of Teacher
Education. Efforts should be made to coordinate and expand teacher-training
programmes in the country. The school curriculum should meet the needs of
Afghan children and youth for living and working in both rural and urban
areas, and for the promotion of human rights, democracy and a culture of
peace. The Commission has recommended the establishment of a national
centre for curriculum and textbook development.

Leadership training programmes, including key personnel for educational

planning and management, should be given priority. The Commission
proposed the setting up of a National Institute for Educational Policy, Planning
and Management. Technical and vocational education in agriculture, industry,
construction, commerce and the service sector should be developed. These
are important for employment, reconstruction and economic development, and
educational facilities for them should be expanded. A flexible programme and
courses, combining institutional work and work-related training, need to be
developed.

Provision should also be made for vocational subjects as electives in general

secondary schools. In higher education attention needs to be paid to the
management of institutions and the diversification of programmes, the
provision of teaching facilities, and the training of academic staff. Higher
education should meet the needs of Afghan society, as far as possible in the
fields of science, culture and the training of personnel. Quality, relevance and
standards should be important criteria.

The Commission considered a national literacy campaign for men and women
to be one of the basic requirements of Afghan society, and it should be

4
developed in close cooperation with governmental and non-governmental
organizations, institutions and communities. Continuing education and the
training of adults, through post-literacy and other programmes should be
encouraged. The importance of a programme for early childhood learning and
pre-school education was emphasized, and needs to be encouraged and
supported by the state, communities, the social services and parents. The
educational and vocational needs of out-of-school young people, including ex-
combatants, by means of formal and non-formal training, and their integration
into social and economic life, are a priority. With regard to handicapped
children, it is proposed to integrate them as far as possible in the regular
schools, and provide special educational and training facilities for them as
necessary.

The Commission proposed that, in order to improve the quality of education,

the establishment of an appropriate national infrastructure for research,
innovation and development, should be considered. It recognized the
importance of science education and new technologies, including computers
and distance learning, for the improvement of educational quality and the
expansion of educational opportunities. A national policy of book development
and the preparation and publication of reading materials contribute to the
promotion of education for all, and increase the general knowledge of literate
adults. The development of printing facilities in the country, in cooperation with
the private sector, will facilitate and increase the production of books and
reading materials.

The provision of laboratory and workshop equipment for secondary and

vocational schools is essential, and should be produced, as far as possible, in
appropriate centres and production units in technical schools, and by the
private sector. The Commission proposed the reinforcement of the National
Centre for Science and Technology Education, and the establishment of a
National Institute for Technical and Vocational Education, which will contribute
to the design and development of prototype laboratory and workshop
equipment, and the training of key personnel for practical work. For the
construction of new schools and school furniture, prototype plans and models
need to be developed, based on locally available materials, for the use of
provincial authorities, communities and construction companies.

The financing of educational development in Afghanistan, in the present

circumstances, is a challenge for educational planners, and requires
appropriate legislation and resources, which are not yet available. It is
important to establish both short-term and long-term priorities, based on
existing available resources, to develop relevant education programmes,
increase the internal and external efficiency of the system, and improve the
management of education. Appropriate standards and the optimal use of
resources, education personnel and facilities, are essential. Resources need
to be mobilized through funding, the participation of the private sector, and
international aid. The provision of funds for education is an investment in
human development. The state budget should give high priority to education
as a basic means of ensuring social and human development.

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While the provision of compulsory primary and middle school education is the
responsibility of the state, the private sector should be involved in the
development of technical, vocational and higher education. Measures to
promote and improve the participation of communities in educational
development, including school construction, will increase the facilities
available for education. Projects for resource generation, and self-financing by
schools and educational institutions, should be encouraged. A concerted
effort to mobilize and facilitate the participation of Afghan teachers,
professors, specialists and associations abroad, will make additional technical
and financial resources available for educational development.

Afghanistan has benefited from international cooperation in the field of

education in the past. In the present circumstances, foreign aid, bilateral
assistance, the participation of the United Nations and other international and
regional organizations, and the contributions of NGOs, are essential for the
development of education and training in Afghanistan. National Afghan
agencies, organizations and the international community, particularly
UNESCO, should take measures to mobilize such assistance. Efforts should
be made to utilize external technical and financial assistance efficiently in
national development plans for education. In this regard the government will
need to provide the necessary information and advice on educational plans to
donors, and ensure the coordination of foreign aid.

The Commission report and recommendations are intended to assist the

national authorities in their efforts to renew and establish a national education
system. After consideration and approval of the proposals by the national
authorities, measures need to be taken for their implementation. While some
of the recommendations can be implemented in a short period of time, others
may be considered as part of a long-term plan. It will be necessary to set up a
follow-up mechanism for implementation. Some recommendations will require
legislation, and need to be considered in the drafting of the new education law
and related regulations.

It is hoped that the Commission’s report will also provide a framework for the
participation and contribution of the international community in the
development of education in Afghanistan.

On behalf of the Commission, I wish to express my appreciation to UNESCO

for its technical and financial support for the organization of the Commission.
Special thanks are due to the Education Sector, UNESCO, the International
Institute of Educational Planning, and the UNESCO office in Kabul for their
contributions to the work of the Commission. We are grateful to H.E.
M.Y.Qanooni and H.E. Dr. S. Fayez, for their guidance and support to the
Commission and its secretariat.

Saif R. Samady
Chairman of the Commission

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 CHAPTER ONE:
THE PRINCIPLES, POLICIES AND OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION

1.1 The Principles

The development of education in Afghanistan today should be based on the

following guiding principles:

Islam
Afghan history, culture and arts
Social, economic and political reform
The alleviation of poverty and sustainable development
The application of science and technology to development
Globalization and modernization
International understanding
The development of the potential of the Afghan people, both men and women
Adaptability to change
The promotion of human rights
Multi-ethnic comprehension and a culture of peace

Islam provides the spiritual, philosophical and cultural background for the
Afghan people. The Islamic tradition permeates every aspect of Afghan
society and way of life, and is an important consideration for education.
Islamic principles provide the ethical and moral values of the people. They
promote fraternity and tolerance and are a unifying force in society. The
teaching of religion is an essential part of general education for children and
young people. The part of religious education in the school curriculum and the
methods of teaching, are determined in accordance with national traditions
and the experience of other Islamic countries. Efforts should be made to
translate teaching materials, with the help of scholars, into the Afghan
languages, as much as possible, in order to increase the understanding of the
Holy Quran and the Arabic texts.

Afghan history, culture, values and way of life are important elements of
education, and should be incorporated in educational objectives and methods.
Afghanistan has seen many flourishing eras of learning and civilization in its
history. The Islamic period produced many scholars in philosophy, literature
and science, who served the region and beyond. The climate, natural beauty
and civilization of Afghanistan, and its creative people produced magnificent
arts and crafts throughout history. Afghan children and young people should
learn about their history, literature and arts. The Afghan traditions of honour,
pride and self-respect, ambition and hard work, family values, hospitality,
friendship and generosity, etc., should be taken into account in the framing of
educational objectives. The rich cultural values and ethnic diversity of the
Afghan people should be reflected in its education. Education should also
emphasize the historical bonds, shared values, common interests and destiny
of the Afghan nation.

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Social structures influence the pace of development in Afghanistan. The
conflicts of the last two decades transformed Afghan society. The
demographic changes that occurred, including millions of refugees and
displaced persons, the thousands of handicapped people, and a generation of
Afghan youth without a proper education and training, now require special
efforts for their rehabilitation and development. Poverty, disease and illiteracy
continue to undermine progress and development. The country is faced with
important social and economic problems and the enormous task of
reconstruction. Short-term rehabilitation programmes and long-term strategies
are needed for the construction of a modern society. Education can play an
important part in contributing to social progress and development. It can train
people for jobs, help to improve productivity, stimulate creativity, and train the
manpower required for agriculture, industry, business, and the service sector.
It will be through good quality education, training and employment that young
people will be reintegrated into society.

Afghanistan is in the process of political reform and the preparation of a new

Constitution. The Afghan traditional Grand Assembly, known as the Loya
Jirga will decide, and approve, the Constitution in December 2003, which will
ensure Afghanistan’s territorial integrity, will establish national goals and
aspirations, and draw up the framework for a democratic government, with the
appropriate political and administrative structures. The new Constitution will
lead to elections and the formation of a government. New laws will govern the
social, economic, educational, cultural, political and legal policies of the
country. It is hoped that all government institutions will be organized and
administered through democratic and legal processes. It is important that
people understand the meaning of democracy, in order to exercise their rights,
and assume their responsibilities and obligations peacefully within the law.
Education for understanding democracy and its structures is crucial for the
future good governance of Afghanistan. The importance of respect for the rule
of law and order, security, and peaceful means of resolving conflicts, should
be reflected in the educational objectives.

The role of education in alleviating poverty, and preserving a healthy

environment and promoting sustainable development, is of paramount
importance. Afghanistan has rich and fertile land, and resourceful people for
economic development. However, the country needs to be rebuilt. The rural
areas and urban centres need to be cleared of landmines, abandoned military
transport and hardware, and damaged buildings. The natural resources,
including water and forests, should be preserved, developed, and exploited
efficiently. Afghanistan was formerly self-sufficient in food production. Formal
and non-formal agricultural programmes will help to revitalize farming and
increase food production. Attention should be given to the development of
the economic infrastructure and the modernization of agriculture and
industries. Human resources development is crucial for social and economic
progress. Education programmes for men and women should include
environmental education and skills training, which will improve their living
standards and contribute to sustainable development.

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Science and technology play an important part in social and economic
development. The twenty-first century will be one of increased knowledge,
information and economic development. Technological innovations will have
to be adapted to meet the needs of different societies. The application of
science and technology to agriculture and industrial development will
accelerate economic growth and progress. The development of a national
infrastructure for science and technology, and the promotion of applied
research, are important elements in educational development. Science and
other programmes dealing with agriculture, nutrition, health and the family,
and the environment, contribute to increased productivity, and subsequently to
improvements in the lives of the people. Young people should have access to
learning about science and technology as part of a modern culture, in order to
develop scientific thinking and the development of the skills of observation
and carrying out experiments. Science and technology education should be
an integral part of general education.

With rapid globalization of the economy, and new communication

technologies, and a growing interdependence among nations, there is an
increasing need of, and prospects for, modernization and economic
development. Modernization will contribute to social and economic progress
and an improvement in the living standards of the Afghan people.
Modernization depends on the use of the appropriate technology, knowledge
and the universalization of education. It is important that educational
objectives reflect fully the requirements of modern life, and the need for
adjustment to global and regional changes in trade, communications and
technology. Educational development should take into account international
norms and standards in the training of human resources, which will affect the
quality of products and services, and the application of new technologies as a
tool for teaching and learning, and the universalization of education.

International understanding, mutual respect and cooperation among peoples

and countries, have become increasingly important for peace, security and
development. Afghanistan has a long tradition of mutual friendship and
cooperation with its neighbours, and many other countries of different social
and economic systems. It has also been a member of the United Nations
since 1946. It is important to respect the diversity of peoples and nations, and
try to understand them, and learn about their history, culture and
preoccupations. Education should promote international understanding and
respect among nations, and should teach, both in schools and elsewhere,
about the role and work of the United Nations and its specialized agencies.
Regional and international cooperation is also important for trade, business,
and economic development. It can also contribute to educational and cultural
cooperation and better understanding among nations.

Ethnic diversity is an important consideration in the future development of

education in Afghanistan. The Afghan nation is made up of Pashtuns, Tajiks,
Hazaras, Uzbeks, Turkmen, Baluchis, Pachais, Aymaks, Nuristanis and other
groups. The conflicts of the last two decades have polarized Afghan society,
so that people, who lived harmoniously together for centuries, were divided on
religious, ideological, tribal and ethnic lines. Education should help to foster

9
mutual understanding among people of different backgrounds, and emphasize
their common interest in peace, and the need for cooperation in order to
develop a prosperous and democratic society. Only by harmony and
understanding will the Afghan people realize their full potential, and harness
their country’s resources for the benefit of all. The promotion of human rights,
multi-ethnic comprehension, and a culture of peace, is a basic principle of
Afghan education.

1.2 Education Policies

Education policies should be formulated in line with the overall objectives and
principles of education, and focus on the following:

The right to education

Education for all
The training of manpower
The eradication of illiteracy
A unified national curriculum
The education of girls and women
Language teaching
The mobilization of resources
The balanced development of education
Private education
Community participation
Decentralization and local governance
Monitoring and evaluation

Education is the right of every Afghan citizen, and should be provided free
in public schools and educational institutions. Measures should be taken to
make nine years of schooling compulsory for all children, boys and girls,
between the ages of seven and fifteen. The principle of providing equal
access to education should be applied without any consideration of sex, race,
religion, and social or economic status. The aim of the government should be
to achieve free, universal compulsory primary and middle school education by
the year 2015, as recommended by the World Education Forum, held in
Dakar, Senegal, in April 2000. ‘Education for All’ should be the cornerstone
of education policy in Afghanistan. In addition to the achievement of universal
primary and middle school education attention should be given to the following
goals:

The expansion and improvement of comprehensive early childhood care and

education.

Ensure that the learning needs of all out-of school young people are met,
through equitable access to appropriate learning and vocational education
programmes.

The social and economic development of Afghanistan needs trained

manpower, which depends on the development of secondary, technical and
vocational and higher education. Hence suitable facilities should be provided

10
for these education services, and made accessible to all individuals, according
to their interests and abilities. Secondary education is the source for recruits
to higher education programmes, and training courses for teachers,
specialists and professionals. However, not all graduates of secondary
education can go on to higher education. Therefore, measures should be
taken to vocationalize secondary education, by offering electives (options) in
vocational subjects, so that students can opt, either to continue post-
secondary education, or join the world of work, after leaving school. Technical
and vocational crafts education should be expanded, to provide opportunities
for short courses, and secondary or post-secondary training for skilled
workers and technicians. Attention should be given to the development of
education and training in the fine arts and Afghan handicrafts. Provision
should be made for continuing education and training, including distance
learning, in higher education. Higher education institutions should promote
applied research related to the development needs of the country.

A national plan for the eradication of illiteracy and adult education and
training, for men and women, should be prepared. The promotion of effective
adult literacy programmes depends not only on the mobilization of increased
public and private resources, but also on innovative structures and methods.
The national campaign for literacy should be decentralized and community
based, and should involve the entire education system, and all governmental
and non-governmental organizations and private institutions. The World
Education Forum recommended that a 50 per cent improvement in levels of
adult literacy should be achieved by 2015, along with equitable access to
basic and continuing education for adults. The programmes should respond to
the basic learning needs of adults, by means of non-formal education and
training, including wage-earning skills and vocational training, and learning
about agriculture, nutrition and health, and arts and crafts.

A unified national curriculum should be developed, based on the overall

objectives of education and training. The general education curriculum should
reflect national history and culture, values and traditions. It should also be
based on international scientific principles, norms and standards. The
teaching of science and technology is essential for modern education, and for
a better quality of life and economic development. The introduction to science
and technology should start in primary schools, and continue throughout
general education. The content and methods of formal education should be
adapted to the needs of children and their environment. The curricula of
technical and vocational training have to be flexible to meet manpower
requirements. They should be developed in cooperation with communities,
enterprises, businesses and industry. The curricula of higher education must
be based on the social, economic and cultural needs of the country, and must
ensure they are of good quality, relevant, and conform to international
standards as far as possible.

The development of education for girls and women in Afghanistan must be

given high priority. There was a serious setback to the education of girls in the
second half of the 1990s. In the year 2000 the proportion of girls in primary
schools was less than ten per cent. Initial steps are currently being taken by

11
the education authorities to expand educational opportunities for girls. The
World Education Forum recommended that gender equality in primary and
secondary education should be achieved by 2015 – with special emphasis on
ensuring equal access for girls to good quality education. The government
should prepare special plans and projects for the growth and more balanced
development of education for girls. Attention should be given to the
development of technical and vocational education and higher education for
girls and women. Opportunities for education and training for girls need to be
diversified.

With regard to language teaching, in the 1940s the Afghan education system
adopted a sound and practical arrangement for the use of Pashto and Dari as
the media of instruction in schools, which was according to whether the
majority of the inhabitants in a particular area spoke Pashto or Dari. From an
educational point of view the use of the mother tongue in the early years of
learning will assist learning, and the acquisition of reading, writing and
comprehension skills. Efforts should be made to introduce the teaching of
mother tongues in primary education in the areas where the majority of the
people speaks them. Attention should be given to the practical application of
this provision, such as teacher training and the preparation and publication of
textbooks, etc. The long-term effects of this policy for continuing and higher
education need to be studied. In areas where it is not possible to introduce
minority mother tongues in schools, the local communities, taking into account
the language most widely used in the area, should decide which language,
Pashto or Dari, they prefer to be used as the medium of instruction for their
children.

The development of modern education in Afghanistan was disrupted during

the last two decades, due to war and conflicts within the country. In the year
2002, approximately 45 per cent of children (65 per cent boys and 25 per cent
girls) were in school. The percentages for the age groups for secondary and
higher education were much smaller. The country needs to make a great
effort by mobilizing all resources for the development of education.
Education should receive higher priority in the national budget, and in the
provision of external funding assistance. Furthermore the development of
education has been uneven in different regions of the country, and favoured
urban centres rather than rural areas. The future education policy and plans
should emphasize the balanced development of education, with special
attention paid to the needs of underdeveloped areas, minorities and
marginalized groups.

The expansion of education requires nationwide efforts and participation, as

the technical and financial resources of the government will be insufficient to
meet all the needs of the education system. It is important to involve also
communities, organizations and individuals, in the development of education.
Provision should be made to allow Afghan citizens and non-governmental
organizations to establish private schools for Afghan children (boys and
girls), using the national curriculum, standards, laws and regulations. Private
individuals, institutions and organizations should also be allowed to organize
literacy and vocational training courses, and adult education programmes, in

12
accordance with national education plans. The establishment of private post-
secondary technical and foreign language courses and higher education
programmes, should be considered in the light of national requirements for
trained technicians, specialists and professional personnel.

In principle all schools and educational institutions in Afghanistan operate

under the supervision of the central government. Future education policies
should consider decentralization and local governance. This will contribute
to the expansion and efficiency of education, and its relevance to community
needs. The Ministry of Education should be responsible for national planning,
curricula, teacher training, monitoring and certification. Within the framework
of a national plan and system of education, responsibility for the
administration and development of educational facilities (primary and middle
school education, literacy and adult education, and vocational training for
skilled workers), should be decentralized to the provinces. The Provincial
Offices of Education should develop basic education or general education and
vocational training in cooperation with districts and communities, through
participatory planning. Communities, non-governmental organizations and civil
society should also be involved in the implementation of basic education
programmes and skills training projects. A participatory and accountable
system of educational management needs to be developed.

Monitoring and evaluation should be an integral part of the education

system. An education system is developed to meet the needs of society. It
should be able to respond to the changing needs of that society, and ensure
its progress in science, technology, and all forms of education. Hence there is
a need to monitor and evaluate educational plans, structures, content and
methods. Special evaluation tools have to be available to measure the
efficiency of the education system and assess its impact on national
development. An important role of education is to contribute to human
development, which is measured by the Human Development Index, and is
based on four variables, which cover life expectancy, adult literacy,
educational enrolment ratios, and gross domestic product per person. The
measurement of the human development index is an important indication of
progress in education today.

1.3 The Objectives

Education for All

The principal objective is to provide education for all, without discrimination

with regard to sex, age, language, religion, ethnic or social group or place of
residence, in a democratic and learning society. This demands the
development of a variety of learning opportunities, which include those
provided in formal schools, and through non-formal programmes, which
ensure that education is lifelong, and extends from the cradle to the grave.
Formal primary and middle school education should be available and
compulsory for all Afghan children aged 7 to 15. Close collaboration should be
encouraged among all those concerned with education and training –
teachers in schools and higher education institutions, parents, specialists in

13
specific fields such as health and agriculture, skilled craftsmen and
craftswomen, the mass media, such as radio and television, book publishers,
and those working in the private as well as the public sector.

Decentralization

A new and comprehensive education policy is needed which will lead to a

major reform of the present education system. If the principal objective is to be
education for all, rather than for the few, then the decentralization and
democratization of education will be a pre-requisite. This can only be achieved
by the transfer of some of the responsibility for educational services from the
centre to provincial education offices, and to local communities and
organizations. The establishment of professional and other associations for
the promotion of education will also do much to assist in the expansion of
educational services. Only by the full involvement of the Afghan people
themselves in the establishment of educational facilities will education for all
be achieved.

A National Infrastructure for Education

The reform of education will require the drawing up, and approval, of a new
education law and the setting up of national councils for schools and higher
education institutions, national institutes for educational planning, policy and
management, educational research and curriculum development, technical
and vocational education, distance and non-formal education, science and
technology and regional resource centres. The members of these bodies will
be representative of all sectors of society. Legal authority should also be given
for the establishment of private schools, which follow the national school
curriculum.

Human Development

The main purpose of education is to develop the physical, mental and spiritual
(Islamic) capabilities of all Afghans, to consolidate their patriotic and
humanistic feelings, and create in them an awareness of their obligations and
responsibilities for ensuring national, social and economic progress.
Education should provide learners with access to lifelong learning, scientific
and rational thought, and teach the skills to enable them to solve problems
and make wise decisions. It should promote discipline and initiative;
encourage teamwork and active involvement in community life, self-reliance,
creativity, entrepreneurship, and the ability to adapt to change. Learning
programmes should teach the young and adults about human rights and
democracy, the need for equality for men and women, the importance of unity
and fraternity in Afghan society, and the need to respect both national and
universal goals.

Basic Education

The expansion of educational facilities requires access not only to pre-primary

and primary education for all Afghan children, but also non-formal

14
programmes designed to meet lifelong learning needs, such as literacy and
numeracy programmes, wage-earning skills training, health and agricultural
education, distance learning programmes by means of radio and television, a
national book policy and a developing publishing industry, and access to
reading rooms and libraries.

Primary Education

The objective of providing access to free education for all Afghan children
without discrimination or exception will require not only legislation, but also the
setting up of standards for school buildings and locations, the procurement of
all the supplies, equipment and furnishings needed to enable the schools to
function effectively, the preparation, publication and distribution of the official
textbooks and teachers’ guides, revised job descriptions for headteachers and
inspectors, and the appointment of community education committees to assist
in the establishment and maintenance of services. Schools should also be
used for non-formal community programmes as well as for formal schooling.

General Secondary Education

A major objective of secondary education is to offer a more diversified

curriculum to meet the specific development and reconstruction needs of
Afghanistan, and introduce electives or optional subjects into the curriculum.
Greater importance should be given to science and technology, and subjects
such as health, mathematics and information technology. Guidance and
counselling should also be given particular importance at this stage of
learning, to enable students to make appropriate career choices. These
reforms will demand adequate facilities such as laboratories, workshops and
libraries. Procedures for setting, holding and marking final examinations that
are fair and reliable assessments of achievement, will also need to be
reviewed. Equal access to secondary education for girls should also be
ensured. Girls’ education should not be limited to subjects related to domestic
science. Access may also be provided to subjects, which can lead to careers
for them in law, politics, science and technology, accountancy, business, etc.

Curriculum and Textbooks

The Ministries of Education should prepare the curricula for use in all schools,
public and private. Curricula should include materials in minority languages in
regions where these are commonly used. The teaching of foreign languages
should begin in the fourth grade, and teachers able to teach them should be
adequately trained. Curricula in religious schools should be such that they
prepare pupils for life in the modern world. A government printing press
should be established to print the official textbooks and teachers’ guides used
in teaching. A private publishing industry should be developed capable of
producing the wide range of reading materials needed for a fully literate
society.

15
Technical and Vocational Education

The objective of technical and vocational education is to train, through formal

and non-formal programmes, the skilled workers and technicians needed for
the reconstruction and development of the country. A flexible programme and
projects, in cooperation with relevant government agencies, the private sector,
rural and urban communities, business, industry and crafts, need to be
developed for young people and adults, men and women, including returning
refugees. Special measures should be taken to facilitate the access of girls to
technical and vocational training. A National Institute for Technical and
Vocational Training should be established, attached to the Ministry of
Education, to develop curricula, materials and equipment, and train
specialized teachers for secondary and post-secondary technical and
vocational education in the country.

Teacher Education

Teacher training programmes will have to be established which will produce

the vast numbers of teachers needed for the implementation of the proposed
expansion of educational services. These will be provided in teacher training
colleges, the University of Teacher Education, university faculties of education
and pedagogical institutes. In-service and emergency teacher training
programmes are urgently needed to raise the quantity and improve the quality
of teaching, and long-term programmes should be prepared for the training of
pre-primary, primary, middle and secondary school teachers. Training is also
needed for teacher educators working in teacher training institutions, and
particular provision should be made for the training of teachers in specialized
fields, such as technical and vocational education, and health and physical
education.

Higher Education

The present ongoing reform of tertiary level institutions should be continued in

order to make them more cost-effective and efficient, and improve the quality
of the teaching. The training in science, engineering and agriculture should be
strengthened for the reconstruction and development of Afghanistan.
University teaching staff should have at least a Master’s degree, and
opportunities should be provided for them to follow further studies abroad.
Students from all parts of Afghanistan, both male and female, should have
access to university education. Knowledge of a foreign language is also
essential for university studies. Affiliations with foreign universities should be
reinforced and encouraged. Consideration should be given to the
establishment of Junior Community Colleges

Distance Education

Distance education by means of radio and television should be developed in

collaboration among the Ministries of Education, Higher Education,
Information and Culture and Communications. The financing of programmes
and the recruitment of staff should be decided by consultation among them.

16
The allocation of time for broadcasting should also be decided after
discussion. Distance education can be used to support both formal and non-
formal learning programmes and teacher training programmes, and priorities
for target beneficiaries will have to be determined since limitless listening and
viewing time will not be available.

17
 CHAPTER TWO:
THE POLICY ON EDUCATIONAL GOVERNANCE

Governance is the exercise of the political, economic and administrative

authority to manage a country’s affairs at all levels. It includes the
mechanisms, processes and institutions by means of which citizens and
groups articulate their interests, exercise their legal rights, meet their
obligations and mediate their differences. Reforms in government require
capacity building in four areas: the political, legal, bureaucratic and community
levels.

2.1 Educational Governance

F.S. Coombs, in the Encyclopaedia of Policy Studies, 1983, describes

educational governance as issues that address the questions: Who should
make policy, and who is accountable for the performance of the educational
system? Educational governance varies according to the political and
administrative systems and structures of nations. In democratic systems,
educational development involves society as a whole, including the social,
economic and cultural organizations (governmental and non-governmental)
and the private sector. In many countries, regardless of the system of
government, it is recognized that educational development is the collective
responsibility of the government and communities, and that interaction
between educational institutions and business and industry will contribute to
the improvement of the quality and development of education and training.

The World Education Forum, Dakar, April 2000, in its Final Declaration,
included the following:

‘Ensure the engagement and participation of civil society in the formulation,

implementation and monitoring of strategies for educational development’,
and

‘Develop responsive, participatory and accountable systems of educational

government and management’.

The International Consultation on Educational Governance, (UNESCO, Paris,

February 2001), underlined the importance of the participation of civil society
and the community in the local management of education. It reported that the
centralized administrative structure of education in many developing countries
lacked the human, financial and material resources needed to be able to
expand the education system, and to provide education for all. It is also
generally recognized that education is now the responsibility of all, and efforts
have been made to involve the stakeholders themselves more closely in
educational development and management. These stakeholders include
parents, teachers, learners, businessmen and women, politicians, health
workers, community members and leaders, in fact all members of civic
society.

19
2.2 Educational Governance in Afghanistan

Modern education in Afghanistan has been developed by the central

government with little participation of communities in the formulation of
educational policies or programmes. There has been no significant private
education (except in mosques and Quranic schools); education services have
been developed and managed by government authorities at the national,
provincial and local levels. A unified national system of education, with
common standards and curricula, was applied throughout the country in the
1980s and 1990s. In addition to official programmes, education was also
developed by NGOs, with the participation of local communities. At present
education services are developed, and managed, by central and provincial
government authorities. In some schools and centres, a number of NGOs are
working with the local communities to provide education, including non-formal
education for young people and adults, both male and female. The
involvement of communities in local management is a positive development in
Afghanistan. A number of pilot activities for community empowerment are now
being conducted with the assistance of The World Bank.

The central government should be responsible for the development of a

national system of education, including common standards, broad curricula
and certification, at the secondary and higher levels of education, and for
ensuring that there is equity and justice in the provision of education for all
without discrimination. It should also facilitate the participation of civil society
in the formulation, implementation and monitoring of educational projects. It is
important that the objectives of any reform in educational governance are
clearly defined. The future education policies and strategies for Afghanistan
should consider decentralization and local governance in the areas that
contribute to the improvement, efficiency and relevance of education.
Attention should be paid to the political background of the country, and the
extent to which local traditions, socio-economic status and gender, can affect
the implementation of reform programmes. An analysis needs to be made of
the process of shifting from the traditional way of governing education to one
that promotes democratic and ethical values in the establishment of systems
of governance.

The involvement of communities and civil society in educational governance

for primary education, technical and vocational training and higher education
in Afghanistan, is particularly important for the following reasons:

Human resource development is essential for social and economic

development in Afghanistan. The universities and vocational education
institutions play an important part in training the manpower required for the
development needs of the country. Higher education and technical schools
must be developed in Afghanistan, both qualitatively and quantitatively, in
accordance with the needs and priorities of the social and economic sectors.
Higher education and technical and vocational education are costly to provide,
and require substantial resources, which cannot be financed by the
government budget alone. It is important that these institutions are managed
efficiently, and respond to the needs of the employment market. With regard

20
to the planning and possible financing of higher education and technical and
vocational schools, the participation of business and industry, and other
stakeholders, will help to contribute to the development of relevant manpower
training programmes and projects.

Recognizing the importance of lifelong learning and continuing education for

all, there should be constant interaction between formal and non-formal
learning opportunities. At the local level, schools need to work with parents,
community leaders, professionals from other sectors, craftsmen and
craftswomen, and with relevant social and economic projects, such as those
in agriculture, building, manufacturing, handicrafts, health and nutrition. The
expansion of education services, both formal and non-formal, requires
increased cooperation among different sectors and agencies. The local
community and institutions can contribute by providing additional financial and
material resources. The involvement of the community and local enterprises
and projects will improve the relevance of education and training, and adapt
them to the development needs of the community.

As Afghanistan moves in the direction of democracy, the education system

should reflect its spirit, and encourage the participation of the people in
educational governance. This implies an increasing involvement of civil
society in the formulation of objectives and strategies, and the implementation
of educational services. It also implies an equitable access to education,
without discrimination, for all Afghan citizens; and complete transparency and
accountability in educational governance. People should be educated,
assisted and prepared to assume their responsibilities for educational
development. In this regard, relevant social organizations and associations for
educators, teachers, parent/teachers’ and professional organizations,
women’s organizations, etc., should be developed and supported. The media
can play an important part in making people and organizations aware of their
responsibilities, and of the opportunities they have for participating in
educational governance.

2.3 Recommendations

2.3.1 A High Council of Education

A High Council of Education should be established to review and consider

educational policies, and make recommendations to the government, the
Ministry of Education, The Ministry of Higher Education, and other
governmental and non-governmental organizations concerned with education
and training. The specific objectives of the Council would be the following:

To review proposed legislation concerning educational aims, objectives and

strategies in Afghanistan, in the light of national goals and the social,
economic and cultural needs of society, and the relevant international,
educational and scientific norms, and standards.

21
To ensure a balanced and democratic development of educational
opportunities, without discrimination on the basis of sex, social and ethnic
background, or political considerations.

To consider educational reform, including the administrative structures for

education, the devolution of responsibility, educational governance and
management, and the increased participation of communities in educational
development.

To review education plans and priorities, and the allocation of resources for
different levels and types of education and training, taking into account the
social, economic and reconstruction needs of the country.

To review the policy on private education, and mobilize resources for

educational development.

To review standards for the education and training of teacher trainers, and
improve conditions for teachers and other educational personnel.

To advise on bilateral and multilateral cooperation in education with foreign

countries, international organizations and agencies, and non-governmental
organizations.

To commission periodic independent evaluations of the education system.

The Council may decide to set up committees of experts to study specific

educational policy issues, and submit their reports for its consideration.

A High Council of Education would have the following members:

The Minister of Education, the Minister of Higher Education, the Minister of

Planning, the Minister of Finance, the Minister of Information and Culture, the
Minister of Labour and Social Affairs and the Minister of Women’s Affairs; six
members from academia and educators, and six members from the private
sector. The government would appoint the members of the High Council for
four years. The High Council of Education would hold regular meetings twice
a year, and would be chaired by one of the Vice Presidents of Afghanistan.
The Ministry of Education would provide the secretariat for the Council.

2.3.2 A Council for Higher Education

A Council for Higher Education would be established to consider policy,

programme development, the standards and certification for higher education.
It would make recommendations to the government and the Ministry of Higher
Education, concerning the following specific subjects and aspects of higher
education:

The development of higher education in accordance with the social, economic

and cultural requirements of the country.

22
The policy, regulations and standards for institutions of higher education,
taking into account national and international practices.

The balanced development of higher education in the country, and equal

access to it for all Afghan citizens, without regard to sex, social status or
ethnic background.

The coordination of programmes, and the administration of universities and

other institutions of higher education.

Plans and projects for the development of higher education, including the
procurement of resources from government and the private sector.

The development of private institutions of higher education.

Measures for the modernization and efficiency of higher education, and the
introduction of modern technology in the management of higher education
institutions.

Academic qualifications for the teaching and research personnel of higher

education institutions, and their status (their rights and material incentives).

A long-term plan for faculty and staff development, and the training of
personnel in higher education institutions.

The promotion of applied research in higher education institutions, relevant to

the social, economic and cultural needs of the country.

The mobilization of government and private resources for the development of

higher education.

Cooperation agreements on higher education with foreign countries,

multilateral organizations, agencies, and non-governmental organizations.

The drawing up of guidelines for the social and cultural activities of university
students on campus and in university facilities.

The evaluation of higher education institutions with the assistance of

independent experts.

The Council would hold regular meetings, twice a year, under the
chairmanship of the Minister of Higher Education, and would consist of the
following members:

The Deputy Ministers of Education, Culture, Planning and Finance, Public

Health and Women’s Affairs, six members from academia, six members from
the private sector (business and industry). The government would appoint the
members for four years.

23
2.3.3 Provincial Education Committees

Within the framework of a national system of education, the responsibility for

the expansion and management of formal education and training (for skilled
workers) should be decentralized to the provinces. The Ministry of Education
would be responsible for national planning, including standards, educational
objectives and broad curricula, teacher training, and monitoring. The Ministry
of Education should provide guidelines and principles to ensure equal learning
opportunities for all in national plans. The provinces should develop basic
education or general education and vocational training in cooperation with
districts and communities through participatory planning. The communities
and civil society should be involved in the implementation of education and
skills training projects, in both formal and non-formal education.

In order to reinforce the infrastructure for the planning and management of

education, with regard to democratic reform and decentralization, it is
proposed to establish an Education Committee in each province, with the
following objectives:

To undertake studies on the short and long-term education and training needs
of the province.

To contribute to the preparation of national plans for educational

development, based on social and economic needs, priorities, and available
resources.

To prepare educational plans and projects for the development of basic

education and formal and non-formal vocational training, in cooperation with
districts and communities.

To develop plans and programmes for early childhood and pre-school

education in the provinces, in cooperation with communities and Afghan non-
governmental organizations and private institutions.

To mobilize resources for educational development by voluntary contributions

from individuals, organizations, business and industry.

To promote cooperation between different sectors (education, agriculture,

health, industry, commerce, etc.), in the development and implementation of
education and training programmes.

To monitor the development of non-formal education programmes, including

literacy, in the provinces.

To prepare periodic reports on the development of education and training in

the provinces.

The Education Committee should submit its proposals and recommendations

on policies and strategies, through the Governor, to the Minister of Education.
The Committee would be composed of the following members:

24
The heads of offices of education, agriculture, health, labour and social affairs,
women’s affairs, information and culture, six members from the provincial
education system, six members from the private sector. The Minister of
Education would appoint the members, as recommended by the Governor, for
a period of four years. The Education Committee should hold regular,
quarterly meetings. The chairperson would be elected from among the
members for a period of two years. The office of education would provide the
secretariat for the Committee.

2.3.4 Structures for Education and Community Cooperation

In order to promote cooperation among educational institutions and

communities, including the private sector, for the improvement and
development of education and training, the following are proposed:

School community committees (school administrators and selected members

of the community, including parents, to advise and support the schools)

Technical and vocational school industry committees (to develop joint projects
and cooperate in the training and recruitment of students)

Community education committees (local education officials and professionals

from agriculture, industry, health, etc., and the private sector, for programme
support and the mobilization of resources)

University, business and industry committees (for advice, joint projects and
financial participation and support)

2.3.5 Professional Association Organizations

In a democratic system parents, teachers, educators, professors, scientists

and other intellectuals play an important part in the improvement and
development of education programmes. They should be mobilized and
organized, in order to provide guidance and support to the education system.
It is proposed to set up parent/teachers’ associations for schools, an
association of teachers, an association of educators and university professors
(languages and humanities, science and technology, basic and primary
education, etc.), and professional organizations for scientists, engineers,
technicians and master-craftsmen and craftswomen, etc. These associations
and organizations could be established at the local, provincial and national
levels. The government authorities should facilitate the establishment of these
associations and organizations through appropriate legislation, as necessary,
and through guidance and financial support. These organizations should be
consulted and involved in the improvement of curricula and educational
methods and materials at all levels.

25
2.3.6 The Structure of Educational Administration

The structure of the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Higher Education

and the Provincial Offices of Education, should be reviewed in the light of the
educational, administrative and political reforms in the country. The existing
structures should be examined in terms of the objectives, organization,
functions and personnel. The needs of an expanding education system and
the increasing responsibilities of provincial officers of education, and the role
of the private sector and communities in education, should be considered. A
modern education system requires new institutions for research, innovation
and development. The operational and administrative functions of the
departments should be clearly defined, to ensure efficiency, and to avoid
duplication. Occupational profiles need to be developed for all categories of
professional and general service posts. Regulations for administrative
procedures and guidelines regarding the responsibilities and accountability of
offices and personnel should be established. The role of inspectors should be
reviewed. The coordination and harmonization of teacher training
programmes and institutions need to be reviewed and reinforced. Measures
need to be taken for the coordination of policy, planning, research and
development. The Ministry of Education should establish a high level post for
the promotion of community-based educational planning, and the
management of relations with the private sector.

26
 CHAPTER THREE:
STRATEGIES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION

3.1 A NATIONAL INFRASTRUCTURE FOR PLANNING, RESEARCH,

AND EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT

It is proposed to establish and develop the following National Institutes and

Centres for the development of the education and training system:

3.1.1 The national institute for educational policy, planning and

management

With the expansion of education in Afghanistan, educational policy and

planning will become increasingly complex and important, since they will
involve educational authorities at the national, provincial and district levels. It
will be necessary to undertake policy studies and prepare educational plans,
taking into account all educational needs and resources. It is expected that
educational planning will demand more participation, and communities and
the private sector will play a more active part. Trained personnel in
educational planning will be required in the Ministry of Education and
provincial offices of education. The role of educational managers
(headteachers, school principals, heads of institutions of higher education,
and directors of education) will be crucial for the preparation and
implementation of educational plans, for coordination with non-formal
education and community institutions, and the efficient administration of
educational institutions. The educational infrastructure, including schools,
needs to be assessed, and the inspection system reviewed. Educational
managers and inspectors need to be trained by means of courses, seminars
and workshops. A National Institute for Educational Policy, Planning and
Management should be established, with the following objectives:

To conduct studies on educational policy issues and make recommendations

for decision-makers.

To undertake studies, and do research on the various problems, aspects and

parameters of educational planning and management.

To collect relevant demographic, statistical and manpower data for

educational planning.

To develop planning guides, evaluation instruments, and modern

management techniques for the education system.

In cooperation with the provincial offices of education, prepare education

plans and projects.

To train planning personnel for the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of

Higher Education, and provincial offices of education.

27
To train key personnel for the administration and management of education,
including inspectors for the system and its institutions.

To undertake an assessment of the entire educational infrastructure, including

schools and classrooms, to ensure efficient management.

To do research on school-based management and community involvement in

educational management and development.

To prepare periodic progress reports on the development of education in

Afghanistan.

To establish cooperation with UNESCO’s International Institute of Educational

Planning (IIEP), and other relevant institutions of educational planning in the
region.

Notes:

(i) The present department of educational planning should be

integrated with the proposed new Institute, which could be attached
to the Ministry of Education.
(ii) A board should guide the Institute, composed of department heads
of primary, middle, secondary, vocational and teacher education,
two representatives of the Ministry of Higher Education, two
provincial directors of education, and selected specialists and
officials working in the planning and development sectors.
(iii) UNESCO’s Institute of Educational Planning may be requested to
assist in the design and setting up of the Institute of Educational
Policy, Planning and Management.

3.1.2 A National Institute for Educational Research, Curriculum and

Materials

Curriculum and Textbook Development

In the light of the new objectives and strategies for education, the curricula of
primary and secondary schools need to be revised, and appropriate textbooks
and teachers’ guides developed. The syllabus and content of the existing
subjects should be updated, and the syllabus and content of new subjects
(wage-earning skills, technology, civics, environmental studies, etc.) prepared.
Teachers’ guides and learning materials for pre-school and early childhood
education will have to be developed. Student achievement tests and other
evaluation tools also need to be prepared. The development of curricula and
textbooks is a long and complex process, requiring the formulation of
objectives, research, and the preparation of materials, trying them out, and
evaluating them. It demands curriculum specialists, writers, illustrators,
teachers, etc. Curricula and textbooks require adaptation in various
languages, and in accordance with the needs of students and their
environment. The development and use of audio-visual aids and new

28
technologies are increasingly important for the effective application of
curricula, and for teaching and learning. With the expansion of primary and
middle school education and the diversification of secondary education,
curriculum development will become a major operation, requiring sustained
effort, specialist staff, and adequate facilities. It is proposed to establish a
Division for Curriculum and Textbook Development with the following
objectives:

Based on the objectives of education, prepare the curricula for primary.

middle, and general secondary schools.

Compile textbooks and teachers’ guides for primary and secondary schools.

Prepare guidebooks and learning materials for early childhood and pre-school
education.

Develop audio-visual teaching aids for pre-school, primary, middle school and
secondary education.

Develop guidebooks, and teaching and learning materials, for the application
of new technologies to the curricula of primary and secondary schools.

Prepare student achievement tests, and other evaluation tools and guides for
teachers and inspectors.

Conduct periodic evaluations of students’ achievement in selected subjects, in

cooperation with provincial directors of education.

Prepare guides for the evaluation and adaptation of the curricula to the needs
of students and the environment.

Undertake studies on the effectiveness of the curricula in achieving the

objectives of education.

Revise and update the curricula and textbooks in the light of the evaluations
and feedback received, and new knowledge and changes in the educational
system.

Social Studies, Democracy, Peace and Human Rights Education

In the 1980s, Afghanistan suffered great human and material losses and
major demographic modifications. Over a million Afghans were killed, and
about six million became refugees in neighbouring countries and the rest of
the world. In the 1990s the continuation of fighting and ethnic conflict resulted
in more destruction and the displacement of people. The most profound
impact of the tragic war in Afghanistan was on children and youth. As a
consequence of these tragic events, society became polarized. The children
and young people inside and outside the country were raised in diverse
ideologies and in a culture of war. Those people who managed to live together
in peace and harmony for centuries were divided along religious, tribal, ethnic

29
and racial lines. It is important to heal these wounds, and promote
brotherhood and a culture of peace. Education can play an important part in
bringing together the different ethnic groups of the Afghan people, and in the
development of a mutual understanding of their common history, religion, and
those shared values, which serve to unite them.

During much of the twentieth century Afghan society was governed in a

traditional way, with only limited participation of the people in the government
of the country. Social and economic policies were not always developed in a
democratic spirit, and did not reflect the interests of all segments of society.
The conflicts of the last two decades brought about an increased political
awareness among people of different ethnic groups, and a determination to
provide more equal rights and opportunities. At the dawn of the twenty-first
century there is hope for greater democracy in Afghanistan. A new
Constitution will lead to elections and the formation of a government. New
laws will govern the social, economic, educational, cultural, political and legal
affairs of the country. It is hoped that all government institutions will be
organized through democratic and legal processes. It is important that the
people understand democracy in order to exercise their rights, and assume
their responsibilities peacefully within the law. Education for understanding
democracy and its structures and processes, is crucial for the future
governance of Afghanistan. Children, young people and adults, all need to be
educated through formal and non-formal education and information
programmes. These require research, and the development of teaching and
learning materials and training. It is proposed to establish a Division of Social
Studies, Democracy, Peace and Human Rights Education, with the following
objectives:

To undertake studies, and carry out research, on Afghan society (its people
and their history, social institutions, cultural traditions, ethnicity, languages,
etc.).

To review the history and geography textbooks, to ensure their accuracy in

the light of research and studies and new data, in cooperation with the
Division of Curriculum and Textbook Development.

To develop appropriate guides and textbooks in social studies, civics

education, and the understanding of democracy for primary and secondary
schools, and adult education programmes.

To prepare guides, teaching and reference materials on the Afghan people,

emphasizing their historical bonds, shared values, common interests, and
destiny.

To develop a comprehensive educational programme for the promotion of

peace, human rights and tolerance, for children, young people and adults.

To prepare guides, teaching materials, and multi-media packages on an

appreciation of, and respect for, ethnic diversity, and the promotion of
education for conflict resolution and peace.

30
To train teachers for teaching about peace, tolerance and democracy, in
cooperation with teacher training colleges.

To organize conferences, seminars and lectures throughout the country, on

the promotion of education for mutual understanding, peace and democracy.

To organize projects and activities for multi-ethnic groups of young people, in

cooperation with schools and the Afghan Scouts’ Organization.

To publish a journal on peace, democracy and human rights education in

Afghanistan.

To establish a network mechanism for the promotion of peace education, in

cooperation with the provincial directors of education.

Special Needs Education

As a consequence of the tragic wars during the last two decades, there are
hundreds of thousands of physically and mentally handicapped children,
young people and adults, among the returning refugees and displaced
persons in the country. A project on ‘education for special needs’ should be
developed. As a first step, studies should be undertaken to determine the size
and nature of the handicapped population, by age, sex and geographic
location. It is generally accepted that handicapped children and young people,
should be integrated into normal schools, as far as possible. For severely
handicapped people, such as the blind and the deaf, special courses or
schools need to be established (currently there is a school for the blind in
Kabul). The needs of handicapped people should be considered in both
formal and non-formal education, and training programmes, in cooperation
with the social affairs authorities. The project on ‘Education for Special
Needs’ involves planning, teacher education, the preparation of guides and
teaching and learning materials, vocational training, and special schools and
courses for severely handicapped students. On the basis of preliminary
studies, a long-term plan and projects for the education and training of
handicapped children and youth should be prepared. The execution of the
plan will have to be carried out in close cooperation with teacher training
colleges, and other relevant institutions and offices. It is proposed that a
Division for Special Needs Education be established in the Ministry of
Education to coordinate and develop a programme in this area.

A National Centre for Science and Technology Education

Science and technology are essential for everyday life, and an understanding
of nature and the environment, and for the promotion of development. The
teaching of science and technology to children and young people is an
important part of the curriculum of general education. In view of rapid recent
changes and discoveries in science and technology, the content of science
education needs to be constantly updated. It is also important that science
education should be adapted to the needs and environment of the students.
Attention should be paid to the development of curricula and educational

31
materials for the teaching of science and technology in general education. The
teachers should also be trained and retrained in this field. Science and
technology education require appropriate textbooks, teaching aids, laboratory
equipment and other facilities. To improve and develop science education, a
national centre was established in the Ministry of Education in 1970. Based on
past experience, and the existing needs for facilities, it is proposed that a
National Centre for Science and Technology Education be developed with
the following objectives:

To prepare and revise the curriculum for science teaching in primary and
secondary schools, in liaison with the Division of Curriculum and Textbook
Development.

To develop textbooks, teaching guides, laboratory manuals and other

teaching and learning materials for science education.

To prepare curricula, teaching guides and learning materials for technology

education in primary and secondary schools.

To develop audio-visual aids, science kits and laboratory equipment for

science education.

To organize seminars and workshops, for the in-service training of science

teachers and inspectors, in cooperation with teacher training colleges.

To develop distance education programmes for the continuing education and

training of science teachers.

To promote a widespread understanding of science through radio and

television programmes, publications, and the development of a science
museum for children.

A National Centre for Information Technology and Training

Information and communication technologies play an increasingly important

part in modern society. In the industrial countries computers are commonly
used in factories, offices, educational and research institutions, hospitals.
Industry, businesses, services, and homes, etc. Many developing countries
have also made efforts to use computers in order to modernize their industrial
and management systems. Computers aid the education process as both
teaching and learning tools. They provide learners with access to information
and knowledge, and with opportunities to apply this knowledge in other
situations. Most of the industrialized countries began computer programmes in
schools in the 1980s. In the 1990s, with the greater availability of computers
and their software at reduced costs, many developing countries, including
Afghanistan’s neighbours, began the promotion of computer literacy in
schools. The objective of computer literacy courses is to familiarize students
with the computer, and with its application in word and data processing, and in
the acquisition and management of information and simple programming. In
addition courses for the training of computer programmers, technicians and

32
engineers are now organized in technical and vocational schools and
universities in many developing countries. It is recognized that graduates of
secondary schools, whether they continue higher education or not, should
have minimum computer literacy.

The educational strategies in Afghanistan should include the promotion and

development of computer education, on the basis of a long-term plan. There is
already a computer centre at the University of Kabul, and initial steps have
been taken to establish Internet centres. It is important that an appropriate
infrastructure, necessary for the planning, coordination and development of
computer education, be established. In addition to the acquisition of the
necessary computers and software, it is essential to train the teachers,
computer programmers, and technicians for their maintenance and repair. The
institutions of higher education, teacher training, post-secondary technical and
vocational education, and other centres concerned with educational
development, should have access to the Internet, in order to obtain up-to-date
knowledge and information. Measures should be taken to provide the
necessary resources for the development of computer education. It is
proposed that a National Centre for Information Technology and Training
be set up, with the following objectives:

To promote computer literacy in secondary schools (initially as an elective

subject), through the provision of computers, software and supervision.

To develop curricula and teaching guides for the computer literacy

programme, in liaison with the Division of Curriculum and Textbook
Development.

To coordinate computer education and training activities within the education

system.

To train teachers for computer literacy in cooperation with the University of

Teacher Education.

To train technicians for programming, information management, and the

maintenance and repair of computers, in cooperation with technical and
vocational schools.

To adapt the software for computer literacy, office work and educational
programmes.

To organize computer courses for adults (employees of the Ministry of

Education and other government departments, agencies, and the private
sector).

To establish and manage Internet services for the education system.

To develop Internet centres in selected educational institutions in Kabul and

the provinces (universities, teacher training colleges, post-secondary technical
and vocational schools, etc.).

33
To develop standards for the computer hardware and software procured for
the education system.

To design training laboratories and work space, to accommodate information

technology equipment and facilities.

To plan the establishment of a digital library for the use of educational

institutions.

To undertake studies on the development of information technology, and its

application to education in Afghanistan.

3.1.3 A National Institute for Technical and Vocational Education

In order to bring the education system closer to the world of work, and train
the skilled workers and technicians needed for social and economic
development, measures need to be taken to expand vocational education.
The vocational schools and training centres need specialized teachers,
appropriate curricula, and teaching and learning materials in the national
languages, for a variety of courses. The new curricula and materials need to
be tested in experimental vocational schools. Guides for the organization of
workshops and practical training, and the necessary evaluation and vocational
guidance services also need to be developed. Research and studies should
be carried out to determine manpower requirements, and to prepare
occupational profiles based on the needs of the building trades, industry,
agriculture, commerce, and services. Measures need to be taken to
coordinate school training with apprenticeship training schemes, and establish
links with local trade and industry. A national institute to provide professional
support to technical and vocational education should be established, with the
following objectives:

To establish standards and occupational profiles for skilled workers and

technicians, in accordance with the manpower requirements of the country.

To develop new vocational training programmes in cooperation with business

and industry.

To train teachers and inspectors for technical and vocational education,

through pre-service and in-service training courses, in cooperation with
teacher training colleges.

To design and develop curricula for the training of skilled workers and
technicians in various areas of vocational education (agriculture, business,
administration, etc.).

To prepare textbooks, teaching guides, and other teaching and learning

materials in the Afghan languages.

34
To prepare guides for the organization of practical training, the design and
equipping of workshops, and production units.

To develop training modules for short vocational courses, and non-formal

training programmes, in liaison with the non-formal education centre.

To develop programmes for continuing education with distance vocational

education.

To develop evaluation instruments for practical training, technological studies,

and professional qualifications.

To develop a programme for vocational guidance in schools.

To establish cooperation with the UNESCO International Centre for Technical

and Vocational Education and Training, and relevant regional centres.

3.1.4 Regional Education Resource Centres

The development of modern education requires participatory planning at the

national, provincial, district and community level. With the expansion of
education in Afghanistan, the Provincial Education Offices will be expected to
play an increasing part in the planning and execution of education
programmes, including basic education and training, both formal and non-
formal. These offices need to collect and analyze relevant information and
data for educational planning, work with communities and the private sector to
raise funds, establish professional cooperation with sectors (agriculture,
health, labour and social affairs, rural development, etc.), coordinate formal
and non-formal education and training, prepare educational projects,
supervise the execution of education programmes in the provinces, and
ensure the quality and normal functioning of the education system (schools,
training centres, colleges, etc.). The Provincial Offices of Education will need
specialists in educational planning and development.

The curriculum and teaching materials designed and developed at a national

centre should be adapted to the needs of different regions and areas (rural
and urban), and population groups in terms of language, the environment, and
economic concerns. In order to carry out experimental activities and in-service
training, in cooperation with the National Institutes and Centres, and to
provide support for educational planning and management in the provinces
and communities, there is a need for regional structures, with professional
staff and facilities. It is also necessary to work with schools and organizations
to assess the needs and priorities of communities, to provide information for
decision-makers, and share resources with teachers and administrators, for
the improvement of education services. Such regional facilities could also be
used for in-service training courses and seminars organized by the National
Institutes and Centres. It is important to encourage bottom-up discussion,
innovation and initiative, while at the same time providing top-down services.

35
It is proposed that a Unit of Educational Development be set up in each
Provincial Office of Education, consisting of a team of specialist staff in
planning, curriculum, non-formal education, assessment, and management.
The Units should establish close working relationships with Regional
Education Resource Centres, which it is proposed to establish in Kandahar,
Herat, Nangrahar, Balkh, Bamyan and Paktia, and attached to teacher training
colleges. The Regional Centres should be able to work with all relevant
National Institutes and Centres, and the National Institute for Educational
Policy, Planning and Management should be the coordinator. The Regional
Centre would have the following objectives:

To coordinate the work of the Educational Development Units working with the
Centre.

To undertake studies related to educational policy and planning, in

cooperation with the National Institute for Educational Policy, Planning and
Management.

To collect information and data concerning education in the region.

To assess the educational needs and priorities of communities.

To provide support in the design of local studies, and the preparation of

projects.

To carry out experiments on the curriculum and materials for formal and non-
formal education, in cooperation with the relevant National Centres and
Institutes.

To organize seminars and workshops for the specialists in Development

Units.

To conduct an evaluation of the curriculum and educational materials, in

cooperation with the Division of Curriculum and Textbook Development.

To prepare regional reports on educational development, in cooperation with

the Educational Development Units.

To submit proposals to decision-makers and managers for the improvement of

educational services, and promote community participation in educational
development.

For the better coordination and development of all aspects of education in

Afghanistan, the national infrastructure for planning, research and educational
development demands the establishment of the above Institutes and Centres.

36
3.2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN AFGHANISTAN

3.2.1 Introduction

At the dawn of the 21st century in 2001 the education system in Afghanistan
was in ruins. Thousands of qualified teachers and educators had been killed,
or had left the country. Half the school-age population had been denied
access to learning for a number of years. Schools and colleges had been
destroyed completely, or were badly damaged. Entire libraries of books had
been burnt, laboratories had been smashed to pieces, and furnishings and
storerooms had been looted or wrecked. The task of reconstruction is colossal
and demands tremendous effort, energy and patience. Yet it was immediately
clear that there was a strong determination and readiness on the part of the
Afghan people to face the challenge that confronted them. The vast numbers
who immediately applied for admission to schooling for their children was
proof, if any were needed, that education was a major priority for the
rebuilding of their shattered country.

The history of modern Afghan education is spread over almost all the
twentieth century, when progress was steadily made, though at times at a
slower pace than some would have wished. In the second half of the century
the United Nations, international banks, bilateral funding agencies and non-
governmental organizations, contributed to the task of providing expertise,
advice and financial assistance. Large-scale fellowship and study
programmes enabled thousands of Afghans to continue their studies abroad,
and then return to help in the construction of an Afghan education system.
Many of the lessons learnt over the years are still valid today, and should be
taken into account when future plans are made. But globalization occurred in
the meantime, and this will also have to be taken into consideration when
making decisions.

The History of Education

In the early years of the twentieth century education in Afghanistan was

developed by a central government, with little active participation of
communities in the formulation of educational policies and programmes.
Throughout that time there was no significant private education, apart from
that provided in mosques and madrasas and Quranic schools. Education
services were, therefore, developed and managed by the government of the
day at the national, provincial and regional levels. During the last years of the
1990s, however, Afghan women showed considerable courage when they
organized clandestine schools for girls in their own homes, though this
initiative was confined almost entirely to urban communities.

During much of the last century Afghan society was governed in a traditional
way, with only limited participation by the people in the government of the
country. Social and economic policies were not always developed in a
democratic spirit, and did not always reflect the interests of all segments of
society. The conflicts of the last two decades, however, brought about an
increased awareness of the needs of different ethnic groups, and the

37
importance of respecting human rights, democracy and providing access to
learning for all.

3.2.2 The Development of Educational Services

Despite the present low rate of literacy in the country, it must be

acknowledged that the need to read and write has always been a
preoccupation, and there is a long tradition of trying to do something about it.
Madrasas and mosques, for example, though part of the private sector, were
always places where people could go to learn. Many Afghans, therefore, first
learnt to read and write in such surroundings where they were able to read the
Quran, poems and other literary works. The first plans for other types of
literacy courses were made at the beginning of the 20th century when a much-
respected teacher published a book for the teaching of reading and writing.
This was the first of a variety of literacy programmes, which continued into the
1980s.

The establishment of Habibia school in 1903 is regarded as the beginning of

the era of modern education in Afghanistan. A Ministry of Education was
established later in 1922. From 1928 to 1929 there was a setback when
schools were closed because of unrest within the country. Compulsory
primary education was started in the first half of the twentieth century, though
it proved difficult to implement the programme widely and effectively. Primary
schools with six grades were opened in towns and well-populated villages.
One teacher taught all subjects in the first three grades of the school, while
teachers for separate subjects taught in grades four to six. Pupils were taught
the principles of Islam, literacy and numeracy, learnt simple skills, and were
helped to develop physically, mentally and psychologically, and respect the
Constitution.

However, primary education did not start to develop until the 1950s, when
five-year development plans began to be formulated. In the 1960s projections
were made for the achievement of universal primary education by the end of
the century, but technical and financial constraints prevented these hopes
from being realized. Two subsequent decades of conflict served only to
exacerbate the situation. In 1991 the Ministry of Education figure for the
number of primary schools was 577, with 627,888 pupils; and there were 480
middle schools with 180,710 pupils. Many schools were supported by NGOs.
In addition, and particularly in villages, there were Quranic schools and
madrasas. The languages of instruction were Pashto or Dari.

Modern secondary education was started when Afghanistan became

independent in 1919. By 1950 there were 17 lycees with 3,000 students. In
the 1950s, with a population of about 11 million in Afghanistan, 90,640 boys
and 4,350 girls (about five per cent of the population) were enrolled in
primary, middle and high schools. In the 1950s and 1960s much more rapid
progress was made in the provision of secondary education facilities
throughout the country, which was fuelled by public demand. In 1991 the
number of secondary schools was 344 with 101,218 students. The total

38
number of pupils in all government schools was 909,870 and the number of
school buildings was 1,401.

By the 1970s there were 133 lycees, with 25,910 students throughout the
country. While the number of lycees increased, especially in the provinces in
the 1960s and 1970s, there was still a shortage of qualified teachers,
especially in mathematics and science, along with a lack of science
laboratories and equipment, all of which had a negative impact on the quality
of the education provided.

Higher education has a fairly long history in the country, and began in 1932
with the establishment of the College of Medicine, and was followed by the
Faculties of Law, Science and Letters. These were the basis of the University
of Kabul, which was opened in 1946. The Institute of Education was set up in
1955, and became part of the university one year later. The medical school
later evolved into the large Medical Institute, consisting of four colleges which
enrolled 4,613 male and 750 female students, taught by 154 men and 19
women instructors. The first five-year development plan in 1956 gave
particular attention to the development of higher education, which grew
steadily after that.

In 1975 a total of 8,680 students, including 800 females, were studying in

faculties in thirteen university institutions in Kabul and Nangrahar. The number
of academic staff was 825.

3.2.3 Curricula for General Education

Major steps to reform the schools curricula in Afghanistan were taken in the
1960s and early 1970s, and a team from the Teachers’ College of Columbia
University, New York, provided assistance in this regard. But because of the
conflicts, which then erupted and continued for two decades, education fell
into a decline and millions of people became refugees. Diverse and
uncoordinated efforts were made to maintain education services, both inside
and outside the country, with the result that the teaching lacked most of its
Afghan national features. Refugee camps and schools in neighbouring
countries where children were taught, such as Pakistan, Iran, Tajikistan and
Uzbekistan, to which millions had fled, used their own curricula for teaching
which contained no reference to Afghan history and culture, and made it
difficult for children to obtain a sense of their own national identity from the
teaching they were given.

Praiseworthy though these external programmes were, they were disparate

and diverse and lacked a common goal, curricula, perspective and strategy.
Separate groups set up their own administrative and academic organizations,
and each one devised and implemented its own curriculum. Efforts were
made to prepare an appropriate united curriculum for refugees in Pakistan,
when the Afghan Education Centre in Peshawar was established, with the
assistance of the United States Agency for International Development
(USAID), and guidance from the University of Nebraska, Omaha. The present
government, therefore, faced a major task to prepare, in a very short period of

39
time, a national curriculum for its ‘Back to School’ campaign that would satisfy
national and international standards, and meet national goals and objectives.
Some of the materials already available were, therefore, used and hurriedly
adapted, to meet immediate needs, knowing that a major task still lay ahead
to produce as soon as possible a schools curriculum in accordance with
urgent national learning needs.

At present educational services are developed and managed by central and

government authorities, though some NGOs continue to work with
communities in both the formal and non-formal sectors of education.

3.2.4 Distance Education

Nearly forty years ago, with the assistance of UNESCO, the first educational
programmes for teachers and schools were broadcast. The Ministry of
Education, in collaboration with the Ministry of Information, produced and sent
out radio programmes, which were prepared by educators, including staff of
the Faculty of Education at Kabul University, and dealt with such matters as
teaching methods, child psychology, etc. Television services were provided
many years later, but since they were inaccessible to most parts of the
country, they were not used for educational purposes. The radio is still the
best means of providing widespread distance education in Afghanistan. It is
noteworthy that Afghanistan was one of the few countries in the world where
the newly invented Freeplay wind-up radio, which requires no electricity or
batteries, was first tried out. Further research also revealed that all Afghans
were able to listen to radio programmes.

More recently further progress was made in the use of distance learning
techniques by radio, when a trained team of Afghan refugees in Peshawar,
assisted by the BBC, started to produce a radio soap opera entitled ‘New
Home, New Life’ which combines educational messages with entertainment.
The programmes are made in both Pashto and Dari, and were first broadcast
in 1994, and continue to this day.

3.2.5 Teacher Education

It was decreed in 1923 that any literate Afghan of 25 years of age, who had
completed nine years of education, and who wished to become a teacher,
could be enrolled in a Darul Mo’Allamein, a boarding school where students
followed a curriculum similar to that of a secondary school, but which in
grades 9 to 12 also included some pedagogical theory, and a very short
period of practice teaching in an attached laboratory school. Though
inadequate as a means of training for all the teachers needed for an
expanding national system of education, it remained in force until after the
Second World War.

The first major step forward in teacher training was made in 1954, when a
contract was signed with The Teachers’ College of Columbia University, New
York, to assist the Ministry of Education to develop a national primary teacher
education programme. Although the aim of the programme remained the

40
same throughout the twelve years of the project, there was a shift of emphasis
into other educational activities. These included the establishment of the
Faculty of Education at Kabul University, aid to the Institute of Education,
assistance for the English Language Programme, in-service training courses
for teachers, and for high schools, science and mathematics programmes for
high schools, and a fellowship programme for Afghan educators.

At the request of the Ministry of Education a UNESCO mission of six

international experts in teacher education was undertaken in 1961. They
produced a report that led to the implementation of two major UNESCO
projects in teacher education, both of which were carried out under the
auspices of the Ministry of Education. UNICEF also decided to collaborate in
their execution. One was the establishment of an Academy for Teacher
Educators, which provided a one-year course of training for university
graduates with teaching experience, to enable them to train teacher educators
for the primary teacher training colleges which it had been decided to build in
all parts of the country. The second was a Higher Teachers’ Training College,
where teachers would be trained for the middle schools in courses, which
were of two years duration, and would serve as a model for more such
colleges to be established. One significant development was that both
institutions were co-educational and women were for the first time admitted to
the training programme.

By 1973 a network of nine primary and five middle school teacher training
colleges had been established throughout Afghanistan, with good boarding
accommodation, attached practising schools, well qualified staff, libraries,
laboratories, workshops, sports facilities, etc. Training for primary teaching
was for one year after twelve years of education, and two years after twelve
years of education for middle school teaching.

However, as the teacher education network increased dramatically in size and

became nationwide in scope, there was a corresponding growth in demand
from both staff and students for longer courses of training, and for
qualifications more commensurate with those of universities. The idea that
teacher training was a second-best option to a university course was hard to
dispel. Constant lobbying and pressure resulted in many of these requests
being granted. Teacher training colleges were upgraded to become
universities, and courses leading to Masters’ degrees and Doctorates were
introduced. It was soon clear that some of the programmes were
unsustainable, and later had to be reviewed. Careful consideration also had to
be given to the budgetary allocations made for the earlier and later stages of
education.

3.2.6 Technical and Vocational Education

Modern vocational schools in Afghanistan were established after The Second

World War. The first technical, agricultural and commercial schools were
opened in Kabul in the following order: The Crafts School (1923), The
Mechanical School (1937), The School of Agriculture (1944), The Commercial
School (1948), The Technicians’ School (1951), The Bilqis Vocational School

41
for Girls (1959), The Public Administration School (1959) and The Hotel
Management School (1963). Under the five-year Education Development Plan
(1956-1961) the first vocational schools in the provinces were established.
These were two mechanical schools in Kandahar and Khost, and a crafts
school in Farah. In the 1960s and 1970s, technical and vocational education
was developed more rapidly, in order to train the skilled workers needed for
economic development. In the 1950s there were 1,880 students in the Ministry
of Education’s vocational schools. In 1975 the enrolment was 6,000, including
650 girls (7 mechanical, 3 arts and crafts, 7 agricultural and 5 in commerce,
administration and management, schools). Most of the vocational schools
provided facilities for both day students and boarders. In 1990 the enrolment
in vocational schools had reached approximately 13,000, which was seven
per cent of student enrolment at the secondary level of learning.

In addition to the technical and vocational education and training programmes

run by the Ministry of Education, other ministries and agencies were also
involved in the training of technical personnel, either in special schools, or by
means of in-service and apprenticeship schemes. These included the
Ministries of Mines and Industry, Communications, Public Works, Public
Health, Agriculture, The Civil Aviation Authority, etc. The Afghan Women’s
Institute offered vocational training for women. In accordance with the law, the
Ministry of Education was responsible for the approval and certification
awards of all vocational schools in the country. Technical and vocational
education in Afghanistan was developed with external bilateral and multilateral
assistance, particularly from Germany, the United States, the former USSR,
and the United Nations.

In modern times fine arts were promoted by The School of Fine Arts, which
was established in Kabul in 1923, and which focused initially on painting and
sculpture, and the training of art teachers. Attention was also given to
calligraphy and miniature painting. Later the school was renamed The Arts
and Crafts School, and building skills were added to the training programme.
In the 1960s the programme and facilities of the school in Kabul were further
expanded, and the arts section was primarily responsible for the training of the
teachers of art in secondary schools. Other fine arts, such as music, painting,
photography, ceramics, etc., were also promoted, through special courses
and workshops organized by both The Ministry of Culture and The Ministry of
Education. In 1975 a Department of Fine Art was established under the
auspices of the Faculty of Letters and Human Sciences in the University of
Kabul, which initially offered courses in drawing and sculpture, and later
added music, theatre, design, fine arts education, etc. However, because of
the war in the 1980s, and the departure of the professors, the fine arts
programme ended. In the 1990s, as part of basic education, a number of
courses in carpet and silk weaving, and vegetable dye making were provided
by non-governmental organizations, with the assistance of UNESCO, in
Mazar-i-Sharif and Herat. Over a hundred Afghans were trained in traditional
income-earning craftsmanship skills, and at the same time received obligatory
literacy and numeracy instruction, and were taught about health and hygiene.

42
Technical and vocational education in the Ministry of Education schools was
organized at the lower secondary level in grades seven to nine, and in upper
secondary grades, for the training of skilled workers and technicians. With the
expansion of general secondary education, and the availability of a significant
number of middle school graduates in the 1970s, vocational schools were
upgraded to admit students with nine years of general education. Technician
training included one or two years of post-secondary education. Most of the
training was given in educational institutions, which had semi-production
workshops or experimental farms. The same structure and pattern of
organization, with appropriate adaptations, were followed in the specialized
training centres (such as medical technology, communications and civil
aviation, etc.) operated by other ministries and agencies.

The curricula of technical and vocational schools were developed by the

adaptation of foreign curricula to the needs of Afghanistan. As most of the
technical and vocational schools under the Ministry of Education were
developed with external, bilateral technical assistance, the curricula and
organization of training were influenced by the experience of the donor
countries (Germany, the United States and the USSR). While the curricula of
vocational schools varied, there were elements in them that were obligatory
and common to all. Emphasis was given to basic science and mathematics for
the technicians’ training programme. A foreign language was demanded, and
in some cases the teaching of it was more intensive, since most of the texts
and materials relating to it were in that language.

3.2.7 The Education of Girls and Women

The education of girls and women, though it began officially in the 1920s,
during the reign of King Amanullah, always had to overcome many obstacles.
From the beginning there was no clear plan or policy for female education.
The first girls’ school was established in Kabul in 1932, but it was not until ten
years later that the first girls’ school was opened in Kandahar province. In
1940 only 900 girls had the opportunity to go to school, and it was not until the
1950s that the education law relating to girls’ education actually began to be
enforced. Then in the 1960s, and especially after the adoption of the new
Constitution in 1964, special attention began to be paid to the development
and expansion of education for girls and women. But despite a comparatively
progressive government policy for the rights and liberation of women after
1958, the necessary decrees, laws, and plans were never actually drawn up
or implemented. It has to be said that cultural and social influences in rural
and agricultural communities, militated against the expansion of both formal
and non-formal education for women in certain parts of the country. Even in
those regions where the social and economic conditions were more
favourable for female education, the programmes provided for them were not
adequate. Economic constraints and the shortage of qualified teachers,
particularly after many teachers and educational planners had been killed, or
had left the country, also played a part in preventing girls and women from
gaining access to learning. Ironically, however, it was only with the help of
women teachers that clandestine home schools for girls were organized
during the Taliban period in the 1990s.

43
By 1970, 92,500 girls were enrolled in 231 rural schools, 160 primary schools,
56 junior high schools and 16 high schools all over the country. An additional
1,860 girls were enrolled in vocational schools, teacher training colleges and
institutions of higher education. Girls were 24 per cent of the total number of
students in the country. However, education for females greatly expanded in
the late 1970s and 1980s. According to the statistics available in 1975,
125,665 girls attended school. Then in the years 1992 to 1994 there was a
further retreat as far as females were concerned, and this culminated in the
complete ban on female education, which was imposed by the Taliban. This
did enormous harm to the education system as a whole, and to girls and
women in particular.

Today more than 50 per cent of the Afghan population are female, and more
than 90 per cent of them are illiterate. This figure is several times higher in
rural areas and small towns. More than 70 per cent of girls do not go to
school. Even in large towns there are often no facilities for the teaching of
literacy. So there are millions of illiterate females in the country. As a result
the overall illiteracy rate for Afghanistan is today 80 per cent.

44
3.3 BASIC EDUCATION

Introduction

Basic education is a comparatively new approach to education, which was

developed during the last quarter of the twentieth century. It was based on the
demand for a learning society, in which education for all is a universal human
right, is lifelong, and essential for democracy and social and economic
development. Basic education helps to make education available for all,
without any discrimination whatsoever regarding sex, age, race, religion, etc.,
and is designed to reach deprived groups such as the poor, street children,
refugees and displaced persons, slum dwellers and the disabled, and
residents in both rural and urban areas. Formal primary education in schools
is a part of basic education, but in many countries there is still a lack of
primary schools and teachers, so that what schools are able to do is limited,
and most basic education is provided elsewhere, not only by teachers but also
by others who are able to pass on what they know to others. In fact basic
education is provided in homes, workplaces, in shops and offices, by radio
and television, and in a wide range of reading materials from warning signs
and notices, instructions on the use of medicines and machines, pamphlets
and brochures, and books including textbooks and works of reference. In
short it is an all-embracing approach from which no one is excluded.
Education for all is the responsibility of all and provides help in a variety of
ways.
.
Considerable impetus was given to the concept internationally, first by the
World Conference on Education for All, held at Jomtien, Thailand, in March
1990, and then ten years later at The World Education Forum held in Dakar,
Senegal in the year 2000, when it was evaluated and further elaborated.
There is still, a tendency to use ‘basic education’ loosely as an alternative to
‘primary education’. The two are different, and care must be taken to
distinguish between them. Those who provide basic education are not only
primary school teachers, though they are important providers of formal
learning, but are also those members of society who pass on what they have
learnt to others. Parents and families do much of the teaching that children
receive, and for children who do not attend school at all, the learning they
have will have been provided entirely in the home and the community. This is
still the case in Afghanistan where a significant number of children do not
attend school, and it is a reality that must be faced for some time to come.
The child learns most in the first three years of life, when it learns to walk and
talk, receives toilet training, plays with others, and starts to acquire most of its
values and beliefs from those with whom it lives.

3.3.1 The Objectives of Basic Education

The purpose of basic education is to recognize learning as a basic human

right, and ensure that all members of society, and not only schoolteachers
have a duty to teach when they are able to do so, and in a variety of ways.

45
The question to be answered then is: What type of basic education
programmes should be developed in Afghanistan at the present time? The
short answer is that they should be such that they will help in the rapid
reconstruction and social and economic development of Afghanistan. Basic
education also helps to bridge the gap that exists when universal primary
education is denied to many of the country’s children for some time to come.
Since it has already been stressed that the education sector alone cannot
meet all the learning needs of society, efforts should be made to collaborate
with, and include, as many other development ministries, agencies,
organizations (governmental and non-governmental) and administrations as
possible in education programmes. In this regard the education sector can
serve as a catalyst. The role of the private sector should also be given far
greater recognition than in the past, since it is the private sector that is
providing much of the education in Afghanistan today. The family home is part
of the private sector as much as the private publisher, or the craftsman who
teaches skills to apprentices. Homes are responsible for much of the teaching
done in the country today, and the services they provide should be recognized
and exploited to the full.

3.3.2 Non-formal Education and Training

The development of basic education for all should be an integral part of future
educational strategies in the country. While primary education is developed for
boys and girls in schools, there is also a need to provide educational
opportunities for out-of-school youth, semi-literate or illiterate unemployed
adults, and deprived groups such as nomads. A nationwide programme of
basic learning should be developed for this group of learners. Basic learning,
as described in the World Declaration on Education for all (Jomtien, Thailand,
1990), is the essential learning necessary for social and economic progress. It
is required to be able to survive, to develop abilities fully, to live and work in
dignity, to participate in development, to improve the quality of life, to make
informed decisions, and to continue learning. Basic education includes both
formal and non-formal education, and involves various social and economic
sectors, and requires the participation of communities in the planning and
implementation of projects. These projects are expected to use local facilities
and resources and distance education as much as possible.

Non-formal education for out-of-school youth, literate or semi-literate, male or

female, should include skills training, relevant to the economic needs of the
community. The programme for illiterate adults should teach literacy and
numeracy and wage-earning skills, such as those needed in agriculture,
occupational crafts, etc. Attention should be given to relevant education in
health, hygiene, nutrition, childcare, family education, etc. Non-formal
education will require part-time or full-time teachers, ‘animateurs’ or
facilitators, inspectors and managers, and relevant teaching and learning
materials and methods. The teacher training colleges are also expected to
help to train the teachers and other personnel required for non-formal
education. It is proposed that a National Centre for the Development of
Non-formal Education be established, with the following objectives:

46
To undertake studies on the development of education and training
programmes, aimed at out-of-school youth, and semi-literate or illiterate
adults.

To provide adequate support for the preparation of plans and projects in non-
formal education for out-of-school young people and adults who are semi-
literate or illiterate.

To prepare guides and reference materials for local education authorities and
communities, related to the organization of non-formal education and training.

To prepare relevant teachers’ guides, teaching and learning materials, audio-

visual aids and evaluation tools.

To obtain resources for the preparation and publication of reading materials

for literacy and post-literacy programmes.

To develop distance education programmes for the non-formal education of

out-of-school youth.

To set up pilot centres in urban and rural areas for experiments in the
organization, content, methods and materials of non-formal education.

To establish cooperation with relevant institutions, organizations and the

private sector for non-formal education and training.

To establish cooperation with relevant international and regional centres

concerned with the promotion of non-formal education and training.

3.3.3 Literacy

Literacy can be provided anywhere, and not only in schools, so long as there
are students, teachers and the necessary materials. The following should be
considered in the development of literacy strategies:

Literacy courses should be functional and relevant, and help in the teaching of
wage-earning skills. Appropriate learning materials should be written which
take into account the ages, interests and needs of the learners. Readers
should also deal with common problems the learners may face, and give
suggestions for solving them. There should be a regular evaluation of
progress, using recognized testing procedures.

Student-centred teaching methods should be encouraged for use in literacy

teaching. This approach is active learning by doing, in which the teacher is
regarded as a facilitator. Students should be involved in decision-making
regarding the topics to be studied. A sense of curiosity should be aroused in
the learners, and reinforced, so that they become more familiar with scientific
matters and natural phenomena.

47
Literacy, numeracy and health instruction should be made obligatory in short
programmes, which are designed to give training in wage-earning skills. This
demands the preparation and publication of attractive simple reading
materials for new literates on the particular skill being taught, to encourage a
readiness to learn to read. Close cooperation among skills instructors and
teachers of literacy and health is necessary.

Measures should be taken to recruit and train literacy teachers. All teachers,
professionals, craftsmen and women, can contribute to literacy programmes.
Secondary school graduates and university and college students should be
encouraged and trained to participate in national literacy activities. Training
should be provided for literacy teachers through pre-service and in-service
courses, with particular emphasis on innovative methods for the teaching of
reading and writing. Teachers’ guides should be published for the use of
literacy teachers. The media, especially the radio, should be used for literacy
programmes, including teacher training.

A regular monitoring of the literacy programme should be conducted.

Recommendation

It is proposed that a national programme for the eradication of illiteracy should

be launched. It should be decentralized and conducted in close cooperation
with governmental and non-governmental organizations, agencies,
institutions, development projects and communities, throughout the country. A
mechanism should be set up, by the government, for drawing up a national
plan, and formulating ways and means for the implementation of the plan, and
monitoring the progress of literacy in Afghan society, in accordance with the
United Nations Literacy Decade (2003-2012)

3.3.4 Health and Agricultural Education

Health education demands cooperation between workers in the field of health

in clinics and dispensaries, and teachers in schools, communities and
families. Worldwide immunization and health campaigns, particularly those
that aim at eradicating poliomyelitis, tuberculosis and malaria, require the help
of doctors and nurses, teachers, radio broadcasters, and the press. For
example, there may be plentiful supplies of pills for preventing malaria in
stores in the country, but they could remain unused because people are
illiterate and do not know what doses to give to adults, to children, etc. Danger
signs warning of landmines can only serve their purpose if people are able to
read. Only education can resolve such dilemmas. Agricultural education
demands cooperation between extension workers, teachers, broadcasters
and farmers, if pests such as locusts are to be dealt with effectively. Practical
instruction in various aspects of farming can only be done in the field and not
in the classroom.

48
3.3.5 Wage-earning Skills

The importance of basic education for instruction in wage-earning skills is

constantly stressed throughout this report. Basic education programmes
which last for only three or four months can produce considerable numbers of
workers needed for development purposes. These include electricians, motor
mechanics, builders, carpenters, plumbers, etc., who on satisfactory
completion of training are then provided with an essential tool kit which
enables them to practise their skills in paid employment, or by setting up their
own small enterprises. They will also in certain instances be able to pass on
what they have learnt to others.

3.3.6 Distance Learning

The provision of distance learning by radio is highlighted elsewhere in this

report. Programmes can be of different kinds. The radio soap opera is one of
the most popular, since it combines education with entertainment and is often
eagerly awaited by listeners, who often identify with the characters appearing
in them. The reading of stories and the broadcasting of dramas can also be
very effective ways of putting educational messages across. In the
preparation of programmes considerable training is needed, so that the
problem of limited attention spans is dealt with, and the language used is such
that the majority of listeners understands it. Again the cooperation between
radio producers, broadcasters and education must be close. The problem of
the allocation of airtime must also be resolved; along with decisions regarding
whose budget is to be used for paying for programmes. Priorities for the target
audiences of broadcasts must also be determined, e.g. pupils in primary or
secondary schools, university students, schoolteachers, housewives, families,
etc. It will be impossible to meet all listening needs, and choices will have to
be made.

3.3.7 A Private Publishing Industry

It is often pointed out that no government ministry has ever succeeded in

providing all the reading materials needed for use in schools. It is essential
that a private sector publishing industry be set up with all the qualified people
needed to work in it, so that there is a wide range of supplementary reading
materials available that will foster and reinforce learning, This industry should
have relative freedom to function.

3.3.8 Public Libraries and Reading Rooms

Access to reading materials is also essential for a learning society, and while
it would be unrealistic to expect that a nationwide network of public libraries
could be established in the immediate future, consideration should be given to
other recommended solutions, such as mobile libraries, or community
reading rooms, where newspapers, magazines and books are available and
can be read but not taken away.

49
3.4 PRIMARY EDUCATION

Primary education is the foundation of the formal education system, and the
quality of the instruction it provides will determine the effectiveness, or
otherwise, of all subsequent stages of learning. It is essential for a learning
society in which everyone, without discrimination, has access to good quality
education. Primary education must, therefore be free, compulsory and
universal. It was for this reason that the Independent High Commission
unanimously proposed to the Constitution Commission that all school-age
Afghan children, boys and girls, should have access to compulsory primary
and middle school education for a period of nine years from the year 2015.
This proposal was received favourably, and is certain to be passed into law.

This recommendation of the High Commission for Education is a landmark in

the development of education services in Afghanistan, and has major
implications as far as implementation is concerned. The task facing the
Ministry of Education is a huge one, and it will certainly be unable to carry it
out alone. It will demand the support and help of all members of society, and
all ministries, agencies, organizations and administrations, local communities
and the private sector, without exception. Non-governmental organizations,
funding agencies, and wealthy benefactors, both Afghan and foreign, will also
be required to contribute to the immense resources required to execute the
programme successfully. Some of the work to be done, therefore, needs to be
considered in greater detail.

3.4.1 Legislation

Although compulsory primary and middle school education for a period of nine
years is expected to become part of the Constitution of Afghanistan, further
legal provision will also have to be made to put the decision into practice. The
Ministry of Education cannot carry out the task single-handed, and all possible
resources, both human and material, need to be harnessed for this purpose. A
law will need to be drawn up to make it an obligation for every community in
the country to have access to a primary school. It should, therefore, be
decreed that the legal authority be given for every district or ward, whether
urban or rural, to establish a primary school as soon as possible, when such a
school does not already exist. This would require the allocation of land on
which it can be built if there is no school, and a decision would have to be
made where the school should be located. A school must be accessible and
easily reached by children, and the local residents would have to be closely
involved in the selection of sites. Parents are reluctant to allow their children,
particularly girls, to walk long distances to school, and it would be unrealistic
to suppose that transportation could be provided. In due course all major
towns and provinces should have complete lists of the names of all the places
where primary schools are to be found.

3.4.2 Education Committees

The involvement of all members of society in the establishment of primary

schools also demands that a mechanism exists for them to be established.

50
There should, therefore, be an urban or village education committee in every
district of the country, whose function it is to help to meet the obligation to
provide a school in a local area. This is necessary to ensure that communities
also recognize their responsibilities for making certain that their children go to
school. Since it will require considerable resources to meet all the needs of a
school, such as buildings, books, educational supplies, etc., local voluntary
services and funding should be encouraged to assist whenever possible.
Parents should also be encouraged to participate in the activities of
parent/teachers’ associations attached to the schools, so that the maximum
involvement of all concerned is facilitated.

3.4.3 Standards for Schools

It will not be enough to build primary and middle schools and hope that they
will then provide the good quality education that is required. It is for the
Ministry of Education to determine that national standards are met, before
official approval is granted for the school to open

For example, all primary and middle schools should have hygienic sanitary
facilities, and a clean water supply (either by means of piped water or a well),
and rooms should be well lit and ventilated, and heated or cooled when
necessary. Facilities for outdoor activities, such as spaces for sports and
games, and for growing plants and food, and planting trees should also be
provided wherever possible. In areas where there are shady trees it may be
possible to give some lessons outside in their shade. If school meals are
provided, either by the local community or by aid programmes there must be
kitchens where the food can be cooked in smoke-free conditions (using simple
smokeless stoves), to avoid a high incidence of respiratory disease. Dining
facilities should be provided when needed. Offices and storerooms are also
necessary. There must be safe storage facilities for books and equipment,
and special provision should be made for space where pupils can be allowed
to read by themselves. Members of the community can also do much to help
in the maintenance of school buildings, e.g. by repairing furniture, broken
windows, and leaking roofs, replacing locks on doors and cupboards, and
painting woodwork and walls.

3.4.4 Types of Buildings

In the rapid expansion of the number of buildings required for schools. help
and advice will be essential on the materials to be used, especially when
members of the local community are themselves prepared to put up the
buildings themselves. Building standards and materials will differ from one
part of the country to the other. In certain places account will have to be taken
of the hot summers, and in others of the cold winters. In some areas
earthquakes will be common, and it will be essential to use building
techniques that take this fact into account. Consideration will also have to be
given to what materials are used (e.g. wood, mud bricks, cement, etc.) and
whether they are imported or locally available. The Ministry of Education will
have major responsibility in this regard, to ensure that the danger of buildings
collapsing on children and teachers is considered at all times.

51
It is generally acknowledged that the provision of school meals is an important
way, not only of improving the health of children, but also of persuading
parents to send their children to school, and to encourage them to keep them
there to continue their studies. The World Food Programme is a UN agency
that has done much to provide such a service in developing countries (e.g.
India), and its help should be sought for extending the practice in Afghanistan.

3.4.5 School supplies

Universal primary education is not just a matter of pupils, teachers and

buildings. Enormous quantities of supplies are needed if a school is to
function efficiently. An obvious requirement is very large quantities of chalk,
especially since much of the chalk that is used is of extremely poor quality. In
Afghanistan gypsum, which is used to make chalk, is available in large
amounts, and with the use of the right equipment all the chalk needed for
education in Afghanistan could become readily available. This equipment is
made abroad in a country such as Germany, and after an analysis of the
gypsum in Afghanistan has been made, machinery could be imported which
would ensure all the chalk required could be manufactured within the country.

3.4.6 Reading materials

The production and distribution of the textbooks for use in all nine grades of
the primary and middle schools, whether public or private, would be the
responsibility of the Ministry of Education and its curriculum development
department. These books would be provided free of charge. Ways may also
have to be found of solving the problem of a shortage of textbooks, as
Ministries of Education have rarely been able to provide one book per pupil
per subject throughout all the grades in a primary school. However, for the
expansion of knowledge it is also necessary to have access to a variety of
supplementary reading materials, such as atlases and dictionaries,
newspapers, magazines, storybooks, etc. A Ministry cannot supply all the
reading materials, to which a learner should have access, and a private
publishing industry has a role to play in the development of a reading society.
This would have to be assisted by training for all the personnel required to
work in the printing and publishing industries. Many of the publications they
produce would have to be paid for, and as this would be difficult for the
families of many of the pupils, they would only be available to readers in a
reading-room where they could be read but not taken away. In certain schools
there may be libraries, but access to them should be easy, and storekeepers
should be trained not only to take care to prevent the books being stolen, but
also to assist as far as possible in ensuring that the books are read and not
merely safely secured.

3.4.7 The Use of Schools

Schools should not be places for the use of children only. If this were the case
then the accommodation available would largely be wasted, since school
holidays mean that the schools are closed for a considerable period of time.
Schools can, and should, be used far more. They can provide evening

52
courses and literacy courses for older members of the community. They can
be used in vacations for in-service training purposes, and they can serve as
centres where immunization programmes are carried out. Schools can be
meeting-places for parent/teachers’ associations, for education committees,
for sports meetings. Members of the community can also go to the school to
cast their votes in elections when required to do so.

Schools can also play a major part in the assessment of the health, not only of
the children, but also of the entire community. They should, therefore, be
supplied with basic equipment for this purpose, such as first aid kits, scales for
measuring weight, means of measuring height, and charts for testing eyesight.
They can also be used as centres for immunization and vaccination
campaigns. They should be subject to regular visits from medical personnel to
check on the health of the children and records of such visits should be kept.

3.4.8 Personnel for Primary Schools

Headteachers

The headteacher plays an important part in building the prestige of the school.
He, or she, must be capable of creating a spirit of cooperation among staff
and pupils. The responsibility of the headteacher is not only for the efficient
administration of the school, but also for the quality of its teaching. Today
when school inspectors are so rarely able to carry out all their duties, the
headteacher is constantly called upon to train the staff in improved methods of
teaching, and, if necessary, to demonstrate teaching skills to the teachers
working in the school. This in turn, demands a new job description for
headteachers, and a need to make selections for posts carefully in
accordance with the work that has to be done. There is also an increasing
demand for members of the community, whose children attend the school, to
have a greater say in the recruitment and dismissal of staff, and to ensure that
there is no absenteeism among staff or truancy among pupils.

Teachers

Teachers in primary schools are expected to have had twelve years of

education, followed by two years of teacher training in a teacher training
institution. They should also have had a long period of training in the practical
skills of teaching, since they will have many different problems to deal with,
e.g. large classes, pupils of different ages in the same class, disciplinary
problems such as bullying, and recognizing common health problems among
the pupils, etc. An academic background, with large amounts of theoretical
instruction, will certainly not be enough to produce a competent teacher for
the Afghanistan of the future.

School Inspectors

Since effective school supervision is often difficult, particularly in remote rural

areas, the role of school inspectors should be reviewed. It is recommended
that headteachers be given greater responsibility for the supervision of

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teachers, and the methods they use in their classes. Local education
committees can also assist in supervisory tasks. In view of the increased
importance proposed for provincial education offices, inspectors could be
required to carry out some of the additional administrative duties that would be
required there, e.g. the planning of programmes, the compilation of
educational statistics, the maintenance of accurate records, the formulation of
educational plans and projects, etc.

3.4.9 The Development of a Coordinated National Education Action

Plan

The Ministry of Education, with the financial and technical support of

UNESCO, UNICEF and donors, should prepare a coordinated education
action plan for basic and compulsory formal education for the country, and in
addition to the formal school structure it should consider the setting up of
community education centres.

3.4.10 Community Education Centres

Community Education Centres provide educational services for the

population. The establishment and development of such centres is a priority
for the development of basic education. As a first step these centres should
be established in a number of provinces, and could provide the following:
primary education, accelerated learning programmes, programmes for girls
and women, functional literacy programmes, non-formal education for adults
and the unemployed, skills training, and health education.

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3.5 GENERAL SECONDARY EDUCATION

3.5.1 Access to Secondary Education

With the proposed extension of compulsory, primary and middle school

education to grade 9, secondary education will be from grade 10 to 12.
Consideration should, however, now also be given to the revision of the
curriculum for the middle school grades 7 to 9, since it is there where students
will be prepared for selection for secondary schooling. In view of the proposed
reform to the education system, guidance and counselling will be required in
middle schools, to help students choose whether they wish to proceed further
with their education or enter the world of work instead. At the conclusion of
nine years of compulsory education some assessment should have been
made of students’ aptitudes, interests, abilities and talents, and guidance and
suggestions on the choices they make should be possible.

3.5.2 Curriculum

An appropriate secondary school curriculum should be developed based on

the economic, social and cultural needs of Afghanistan. In addition to the core
subjects such as languages, mathematics, science and social studies, there
should be optional subjects (electives), which were not available in the past.
Electives enable students to prepare for higher education vocational training,
or direct entry into the world of work. Environmental education should be
integrated into teaching at all levels.

Students should follow one year of a common curriculum in grade 10, and
then pursue separate branches of science, social science or a vocational
option from grades 11 to 12. This enables students to choose appropriate
courses of further study, or enter the world of work. It is essential for the
reconstruction of Afghanistan that students have access to vocational courses
in secondary schools, so that entry to the world of work is made easier.

High school students should be given both theoretical and practical instruction
in learning and should have access to science laboratories. The environment
should also be used in teaching. The teaching of science and technology
should be given special attention in the formulation of educational plans. It is,
therefore, recommended that a National Centre for Science and Technology
Education be established which would help in the organization of relevant
teacher training and the establishment of science laboratories and workshops.

3.5.3 Teachers’ Qualifications

Secondary school teachers should be at least university graduates if the

quality of their teaching is to be raised. They should receive regular long or
short-term in-service training to update their knowledge and improve their
teaching skills.

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3.5.4 Secondary Education for Girls

Girls should have equal access to secondary education, and there should be
no discrimination against them in this regard. They should have a greater
number of courses from which to choose, and they should not be restricted to
those traditionally associated with females, such as ‘domestic science’ or
‘home economics’. They should be taught by well qualified teachers, and
allowed access to diverse studies relating to law, medicine, business,
information technology, accountancy, teaching, politics, etc. The secondary
school learning needs of girls living in rural areas should be given special
consideration.

3.5.5 Guidance and Counselling Services

Guidance and counselling services are essential in secondary schools to

enable students to identify their talents, interests and abilities, and make
appropriate career decisions. They also help them to solve problems they
might meet, deal with psychological difficulties, protect them from the impact
of failure, and reduce any tendency to drop out of school. Teachers who
provide guidance and counselling services need special training for the work
they do. Such training should be given in teacher training courses.

3.5.6 Information and Communication Technology

Information and communication technology should be an integral part of the

secondary school curriculum and taught, if possible, as a separate subject. In
due course all secondary schools should have a computer centre for the use
of both staff and students.

3.5.7 Examinations

The procedures for secondary schools’ final examinations and university

entrance examinations should be subject to review. The extent to which the
local overall assessment of students should be taken into account should be
considered. The introduction of external examiners to set, and mark,
examination papers, in accordance with the procedures used in many
countries, to ensure fair and independent testing of abilities, is suggested as a
means of raising the standards of students proceeding to further education.

3.5.8 Libraries and Laboratories

Well-stocked libraries, laboratories and workshops are essential for good

quality secondary education.

3.5.9 Parent/Teachers’ Associations

These can play an important part in helping to solve problems that the school
might meet, and improve the school and the services it provides.

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3.6 THE CURRICULUM FOR GENERAL EDUCATION

Introduction

A sound academic base and a modern curriculum are the foundation of a

good education system. It might be argued that progress in knowledge, and in
every aspect of life, including inventions in science and technology, is the
product of a good quality education, including modern curricula. Since
curricula are closely linked to the conditions of society, they must, therefore,
change and evolve in accordance with the changes in, and demands of, that
society. This is possible through carefully considered educational and
curricular planning and development. Before proceeding to consider other
aspects of this subject the various stages and sequences of curriculum
development In Afghanistan should be explained.

At the beginning of the new school year (March 2002), three months after the
establishment of the interim administration, it was decided to adapt and use
the various curricula, including that of the Afghan Education Centre, produced
with the help of the University of Nebraska, and funded by the USAID.
Further reform and modernization of the curriculum are urgently needed, so
that it is brought up to international standards, and rooted more firmly in an
Afghan culture. In 2003, the Ministry of Education initiated a project on
curriculum reform in cooperation with the International Bureau of Education
(UNESCO).

3.6.1 National Curriculum Goals

Fostering an understanding of the basic principles of Islam

Understand Islam according to the teachings of the Quran and sunna, and
educate Afghan children according to religious and human values.

Build character according to strong beliefs in Allah (God) and religious

teaching.

Cultivate a strong sense of responsibility in accordance with religious values

and educate for this purpose.

Academic and instructional goals

Learn skills, such as reading, writing, numeracy, calligraphy, national and

international languages, science and technology, and develop the ability to
discuss.

Learn Arabic to be able to read the Quran and learn about Islam.

Strengthen the ability to think, study, do research, learn, appreciate the

importance of culture and follow professional studies.

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Strengthen self-confidence, independence, and learn the skills needed to
solve personal and social problems.

Prepare for the world of work, learn through information technology, and
develop individual interpersonal and social skills.

Cultural and artistic goals

Learn about national and local arts, crafts, embroidery, needlework,

architecture, home decoration, music, international art, and the importance of
the preservation of the nation’s cultural heritage.

Recognize, identify, develop and guide artistic tastes, abilities and skills.

Learn about the history and culture of Afghanistan, and Islamic and other
civilizations.

Explain Afghan customs, standards, heritage and traditions to others and

protect them from negative influences.

Civic and social goals

Inculcate a sense of national honour and dignity, and strengthen family ties
based on Islamic and civic, ethical and moral principles.

Train patriotic young people ready to defend their country’s independence,

sovereignty, national identity and culture.

Strengthen a spirit of brotherhood, cooperation, peace, and national and

international interdependence.

Develop goodwill, morality, and opposition to war, fratricide, terrorism, and

drug abuse.

Develop respect for the sacred and civic law, and for equality before the law
regardless of religion, ethnicity, sex, age, class, political affiliation, etc.

Develop a willingness to participate in religious, cultural, social and economic

activities.

Develop a willingness to forgive and be tolerant, to be ready to make

sacrifices and be selfless, and put society’s interests above personal ones.

Develop a willingness to give and receive criticism, be patient and respect the
views and opinions of others.

Show respect for the dignity of others, and have good manners when
interacting with others.

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Use appropriate means for resolving personal and social conflicts peacefully
and positively.

Economic goals

Recognize the need for economic development, and the role of the family
economy.

Recognize the value and significance of work, and encourage useful and
productive employment.

Live simply and frugally, avoiding over consumption and extravagance.

Recognize the importance of the country’s natural resources, and protect

them and use them wisely.

Know about productive careers and vocations, keep pace with technological
progress, and revitalize local arts in order to increase wage-earning capacity,
and reduce unemployment and economic dependency.

Promote the ethical management of economic affairs and oppose illegal

economic activities.

Raise student awareness of the importance of supply and demand.

Improve relations between employers and their employees.

Health goals

Observe the rules of good health and preserve the environment.

Understand the importance of health and healthy living, and the need to
develop good health habits in oneself and in others.

Learn about health and first aid, and the means of preventing illness.

Ensure good physical and psychological health by exercise and entertainment

in a healthy environment.

Learn about the dangers of landmines, weaponry, drugs and crime, and the
ways of dealing with them.

3.6.2 Curriculum Reform

A new curriculum for primary and secondary schools, in line with the national
goals and objectives of general education for Afghan children and young
people, needs to be developed, taking into account the extension of
compulsory education to nine years in length. It is expected that a significant
portion of those students who complete the nine years will join the world of
work, through self-employment, on-the-job training, or by following vocational

59
courses. Therefore, the curriculum of middle schools should provide guidance
and vocational orientation for these young people. The secondary schools will
have a common curriculum in the 10th grade, and provide options (electives),
which concentrate on natural science, social science and the arts, or a
vocational stream, in the 11th and 12th grades. Special attention needs to be
given to the curriculum for girls’ schools, which allow them equal opportunities
for good quality secondary education and access to higher education.
Curriculum and textbook development will require long-term planning and
sustained efforts, specialist staff and adequate facilities. The Commission has
recommended the establishment of a National Institute for Educational
Research, Curriculum and Materials

Specific Proposals for Subject Courses

Ethics and Character

In addition to socialization within the family, children’s behaviour should be

closely monitored at school, so that they learn about appropriate interpersonal
conduct, and develop desirable habits. Children need to learn about the
principles and spirit of Islam.

In the past this subject was taught theoretically, and teachers merely
observed, evaluated and graded pupils’ behaviour. This should change. From
now on this subject should include teaching about Islamic philosophy, and the
social impacts of science, technology, economics, politics, and modernization.
The title of the course could be changed from ‘Behaviour and Ethics’ to
‘Islamic Studies’. In this way children will learn the important concepts of ‘good
conduct’ in fewer subjects, and this will reduce the number of subjects taught.
It is not necessary to teach several separate courses such as ‘Fiqa’, ‘Aqaid’,
‘Tajweed’, ‘Hadees’, ‘Tafseer’, ‘Miras’, etc. Important concepts and ideas from
all of them can be combined into a single course. In order to teach the
significant social, economic and other aspects of Islam, a new course on
Islam needs to be prepared, which will be effective and contemporary. This
will enable pupils to learn the true nature of Islam, which will serve them
throughout their lives. This new course should include an account of
democracy, justice, equality, Islamic economics, medicine, hygiene,
technology, the value of knowledge, peace, manners, the evil of terrorism, and
the danger of drugs, etc.

Human Rights and a Culture of Peace

As a consequence of two decades of war and conflicts in Afghanistan, the

children and young people, inside and outside the country, have been raised
in diverse ideologies and a culture of war. Afghan girls and women suffered
from oppression in the second half of the 1990s. Respect for human rights
and peaceful coexistence in society are basic requirements for democracy
and development. It is, therefore, proposed that a separate subject on ‘Human
Rights and a Culture of Peace’ be included in the curriculum of general
education.

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Teaching an international language from the fourth grade

Knowledge of an international language is an important element of education.

It contributes to the learning of science and technology, and promotes inter-
cultural communication, international understanding and cooperation. Since
the learning of a foreign language is easier in childhood, it is suggested that
the teaching of it should begin in the fourth grade

Science Subjects

Science education is important for understanding nature, development,

scientific thinking, observation and experiment, and for daily life. The teaching
of science in the early years of schooling enables children to understand their
environment and develop their interests, abilities and aptitudes. It is, therefore,
proposed that the learning of science and environmental education should
begin from grade one, and continue throughout general education. The
Commission has recommended the establishment of a National Centre for
Science and Technology Education, to ensure the formulation of appropriate
curricula, materials and facilities.

Vocational Courses

It is important that modern general education should provide young people

with vocational orientation and practical training, based on their needs in rural
and urban areas, that will help them in their daily lives. It is proposed that the
new curriculum of general education should provide vocational orientation in
middle schools, and vocational courses as electives in secondary schools.
Opportunities for computer education should be offered in the curriculum of
general education.

Health and First Aid

Since there are many health problems in villages, towns and cities, (e.g. the
lack of a sewage system), and people know little about how to deal with them,
the inclusion of this subject in the curriculum is necessary, and especially in
hospitals and clinics. Health subjects should be taught in schools and in adult
literacy courses

Minority Languages

In accordance with the spirit of the new Constitution, it is proposed that

minority languages be included in the primary school curricula in areas where
the majority of the people speak the language.

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3.6.3 The Publication and Distribution of Textbooks

Every effort should be made to modernize the Ministry of Education press to

enable it to publish the required school textbooks, educational materials and
teachers’ guides. Until such time as the Ministry of Education printing house is
fully functional, other government and private Afghan presses should be used
to print the textbooks.

The Ministry of Education should plan, as far as possible, the publication of

textbooks well in advance, to ensure their distribution to schools three months
before the start of the school year. Provision should be made for adequate
storage facilities in Kabul and the provinces. The Ministry of Education should
use modern management techniques for this operation, including planning,
budgeting, printing, storage, and arrangements for distribution.

3.6.4 The Curriculum for Religious Schools

The graduates of religious schools play leading roles in Afghan society. They
teach religious subjects in schools, and may become imams (or mullahs) in
mosques, etc. To prepare them better for their work it is proposed that:

The Ministry of Education, in consultation with distinguished religious

scholars, educators and others, should revise the curricula of these schools.
In this regard the High Commission of Education recommends that attention
be given to the following:

Modern subjects should be included in all grades of religious schools, to

enable their students to be better prepared to meet the many challenges of
modern life.

The main purpose of religious schools should be to prepare good quality

teachers for the teaching of religious subjects.

Attention should be given to the teaching methods used in religious schools.

Training in modern pedagogy should be provided. It is not enough to teach
religious concepts, principles, etc., in a theoretical manner. It is also
necessary to elaborate them and teach the philosophy of Islam, its high
principles and ideas, and show how it is compatible with modern knowledge,
vocations, inventions and discoveries, with modern economics and
technology, and with ideas of equality, justice, democracy, human rights,
peace, etc. These topics must be carefully dealt with in religious subjects, and
must be incorporated into the curricula of religious schools.

3.6.5 Audio-Visual Aids for General Education

Children often have short attention spans, and tend to become bored, or lose
interest. in what is being taught. The use of audio-visual aids, such as films,
etc., can help to regain their interest and encourage a willingness to learn.
Audio-visual aids are, therefore, essential for educational purposes, since they
can be more effective than abstract teaching. There should be a balance in

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teaching between theoretical and practical work, and the use of various audio-
visual materials is necessary in educational programmes. The Ministry of
Education should establish a special division or department for the promotion
of the use of audio-visual aids. This requires funding and budgetary
allocations, as well as facilities for the production and procurement of audio-
visual aids and to support the teaching of all subjects at different levels of
education. Teacher training programmes should train students to be able to
prepare simple teaching aids from locally available materials.

3.6.6 Curriculum design for pre-school learning

Early childhood learning is essential for the very young. Children who receive
pre-school instruction may come from various backgrounds and have different
experiences. They are not all at the same stage of development. Pre-school
learning is intended to give them a good head start in life. It is proposed that:

The pre-school programme should teach very young children about positive
Afghan traditions, using folklore and stories whenever possible.

Priority should be given to character development and training.

The pre-school programme of learning should be relevant to their immediate

environment.

The learning environment needs to be safe, secure, attractive, and inviting.

The teacher should consult parents and the children themselves. Teachers
should write reports, and send them to parents regularly, describing the
children’s progress.

The teacher should consider the individual needs of each child in his, or her,
teaching methods.

The daily schedule should allow time for rest as well as play, and for the
celebration of special occasions, such as holidays and anniversaries.

Children’s abilities and cognitive faculties should be developed.

The daily routine should be arranged in such a way that it allows for the
cognitive and intellectual development of the children.

The educational programmes should be appropriate for particular age groups,

and for their natural abilities and interests.

There should be no more than twenty-five children and two adults in one
group.

The materials used, and the activities undertaken, should be changed

frequently in order to maintain interest.

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Children should be taught both individually and collectively as appropriate.

Teachers should preferably be training college graduates.

The Ministry of Education should provide the materials needed and train pre-
school teachers.

The Commission underlined the importance of early childhood learning,

including pre-school education, and recommended that every effort should be
made to encourage the provision of learning opportunities for children from
the ages of 1 to 6, before they go to primary school. It is recognized that early
childhood learning and pre-school education need to be promoted by the
government, in cooperation with parents, communities and voluntary
organizations. All governmental and non-governmental institutions and the
private sector should be encouraged to support the programme.

The Ministry of Education should train the teachers, and develop appropriate
guides and learning materials, especially for children of from 5 to 6 years of
age. Pre-school learning can be organized in a primary school, provided the
resources and facilities are available. Other social and community institutions
can also develop it as a part of basic learning. The Ministry of Education and
provincial offices of education should provide leadership in the promotion of
pre-school learning, and cooperate with the Ministry of Social Welfare, the
Ministry of Women’s Affairs and other relevant agencies in the development of
early childhood and pre-school learning.

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3.7 TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING

General Trends

Human resource development has been a major and continuing

preoccupation of all countries. The main objectives of policy-makers, planners
and education authorities have been to train the manpower required for social
and economic development, through the expansion of educational
opportunities for all segments of society, and in a spirit of equity and
democracy. The quality and relevance of skilled workers, technicians, and
specialists, have become crucial concerns for the modernization of industry,
the improvement of agriculture, and economic development. Wide-ranging
efforts have been made to develop and innovate all types and levels of
technical and vocational education and training, through formal and non-
formal systems. However, the degree of success has been uneven in different
regions and countries, depending on the social and political environment, the
availability of resources, the education and training policy, and the national
capacity to carry out educational research, innovation and development.

Despite these differences, there seem to be common trends emerging in the

concepts and strategies for the development of technical and vocational
training (TVE). The quality, relevance and efficiency of technical and
vocational education have been given major consideration, and many
innovations have taken place to improve their quality and efficiency. These
include the organization and structures of training, partnerships with business
and industry, curriculum design, new technologies, teacher education and
environmental education.

3.7.1 The Organization and Structure

The organization and structures of technical and vocational education have

been adapted to the needs of the world of work. An important innovation in
this area has been the use of the mass media and new technology.
Secondary education has been diversified to provide vocationally oriented
education. In some areas vocational education has been upgraded to include
two to three years of post secondary education and training. Both part-time
and full-time vocational education is now provided. Higher education
programmes have been diversified through a variety of post-secondary and
university programmes and institutions, including polytechnics and technical
and community colleges.

3.7.2 Partnerships with Business and Industry

The links between educational institutions and the world of work have been
reinforced through training methods (e.g. the dual system, sandwich courses,
apprenticeship training, and other means). These measures have contributed
to make vocational education more relevant, have enhanced employment
opportunities, and greater sharing of the costs of training.

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3.7.3 Curriculum Design

Broad-based curricula have been designed which teach basic skills, (including
computer skills), on which a variety of occupational skills can be built in the
school and in the workplace. Important innovations are taking place in
curriculum clustering, the development of competency-based and modular
training, multi-delivery programmes, and distance learning.

3.7.4 New Technologies

New information and communication technologies have an important impact

on education and training, since they facilitate the expansion and
diversification of educational opportunities, and shift the focus from teaching
to learning, and from limited learning in the classroom, to learning at home or
in the workplace, and by means of lifelong learning. The application of
information technology has contributed to learning provided by computers,
simulation, library and documentation services, and the improvement of the
administration and management of education and training.

3.7.5 Teacher Education

The role of teachers is changing. Teachers are becoming the facilitators of

learning opportunities, in which the student, the school and the workplace all
participate. In order to enhance the quality of teacher education, there is a
move to raise the education of teachers to post-secondary and university
level. The recruitment and training of various types of teachers for technical
and vocational schools are based on the differences in the qualifications
needed. Teacher training programmes have become target-oriented, and
emphasize ‘core competences’, ‘key qualifications’, and ‘personality
development’.

3.7.6 Environmental Education

The growing concern for environmental protection and sustainable

development has had a major impact on technical and vocational education.
In many countries measures have been taken to include environmental
protection in the training objectives and curricula of all technical and training
courses, in addition to the training of those directly involved in environmental
protection and management.

3.7.7 The Present Situation and its Objectives

In recent years, technical and vocational schools were largely damaged or

destroyed, and were unable to function, since they lacked adequate physical
facilities, teachers, workshops, equipment, textbooks and teaching materials.
According to a recent UNESCO report, there are at present 41 technical and
vocational institutions in Afghanistan. There are 24 in Kabul and 17 in the
provinces, and they provide training in the following: technical (18 in Kabul
and 7 in the provinces), agricultural (1 In Kabul and 10 in the provinces),
business administration (5 in Kabul). There are 9 post-secondary technical

66
schools, 31 secondary vocational schools and one middle level school
(grades 7 to 9). These technical schools are specialized institutions operated
by the Ministries responsible for telecommunications, power and energy, and
the transport sectors. The business administration schools in Kabul include a
school for the blind and a school for women.

The social and economic development and reconstruction of Afghanistan

requires trained manpower, including skilled workers and technicians in the
building trades, design and construction, technical fields, arts and crafts,
cottage industries, food and agriculture, medical technology and health
science, commerce and management, etc. Young people in primary and
secondary schools should be taught in accordance with the development
needs of Afghanistan. In 2003 about 35,000 secondary school graduates will
sit for the university entrance examination. With the expansion of the
education system these numbers will increase. The young expect employment
and job satisfaction. The education system should prepare them for
productive life, so that they are integrated into their environment, and
contribute to the reconstruction and development of their homeland. Attention
needs to be paid to the large numbers of semi-literate and illiterate young
people, and those out-of-school, including returning refugees.

A national system of technical and vocational education and training, by

formal and non-formal means, and relevant to the social and economic needs
of Afghanistan should be developed, with the following objectives:

To provide education and training for a large number of Afghan young people,
both boys and girls, for occupations and employment (or self-employment) in
different sectors of the economy and services.

To train the skilled workers and technicians needed by government

departments, development projects, community enterprises, agriculture,
industry and commerce, health and sanitation services.

To help semi-literate and illiterate young people, to acquire basic wage-

earning skills in order to have a useful and productive life.

To promote vocational education for both men and women.

To promote continuing education, retraining programmes, and lifelong

learning.

To promote and develop traditional fine arts and handicrafts.

To contribute to the improvement of the quality of life.

To promote entrepreneurship and economic growth.

To contribute to an awareness of the environment, and the need to protect it,

and promote sustainable development.

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3.7.8 Strategies for the Development of TVE

The education strategy in Afghanistan should promote the vocationalization of

education, and develop a close interaction between the education system and
the world of work. This would involve the teaching of technology in both formal
and non-formal education programmes, including basic education, the
provision of vocational and agricultural courses as electives in secondary
schools, and the establishment of technical and vocational schools at the
secondary and post-secondary levels. A flexible programme and structure
should be designed for young people and adults. The vocational schools and
centres should work with industry, community institutions, hospitals,
agricultural research and extension centres, and employers, to ensure the
efficiency and relevance of the training given. A system of non-formal training
should also be developed for the training of skilled and semi-skilled workers,
in accordance with the needs of communities, and development projects.
Measures should be taken to promote and develop traditional Afghan arts and
handicrafts, through training and development programmes. In formulating
strategies for technical and vocational education the following should be
considered:

The needs and priorities for technical training should be identified, and
manpower requirements systematically estimated and reviewed, to ensure
that the demand for, and supply of, technical and management personnel at
all levels are met.

A mechanism for policy coordination at the national level should be set up,
with government departments and agencies, the private sector and the
concerned industries.

A balanced development of technical and vocational education should take

place to meet regional needs, taking into account the requirements of both
urban and rural areas, and should be in cooperation with relevant economic
projects, agricultural extension centres, health services, industries and
communities.

Traditional and modern vocational education and training for girls and women
should be promoted.

Fine arts, local handicrafts, cottage industries and entrepreneurship should be

promoted.

Stronger links should be forged between general education and technical and
vocational education, and their articulation with higher education improved.

Clear links should be established between learning and work, through

cooperative training programmes between educational institutions and
enterprises.

Lifelong learning should be encouraged, through initial and continuing

education and workforce training.

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Open learning systems and multi-delivery programmes should be established,
including distance learning, to increase learning opportunities and provide
access to training.

Technical and vocational training should be reinforced by the active

participation of the relevant government agencies, enterprises, development
projects, and the private sector.

The implementation of these strategies should be considered in both the short

and long term, taking into account development priorities and the availability
of resources. With regard to the target population, priority should be given to
young people, male and female, both in school and out-of-school. The training
of skilled workers and technicians for the rehabilitation of refugees and the
reconstruction of Afghanistan, should receive special attention. A balanced
development of technical and vocational education, and equity of access for
population groups in different regions of the country, are important
considerations. The development of a national infrastructure for policy
coordination, curriculum development and teacher training, should be given
the highest priority. Special attention needs to be given to resource
coordination, and to the efficiency and management of the system.

Flexible structures should be considered for different types and levels of

technical and vocational education and training, taking into account the target
populations, and the needs of rural and urban communities, and manpower
requirements for social and economic development.

3.7.9 Technical and vocational education and training should be

organized in the following schools and centres:

Primary schools and community education centres (wage-earning skills and

vocational orientation).

General secondary schools (elective vocational courses).

Vocational crafts in secondary schools (the training of skilled workers).

Secondary and post-secondary schools for fine arts (the training of teachers).

Post-secondary vocational schools (the training of technicians for agriculture,

building, industry, business and administration).

Post-secondary schools and institutions for the training of personnel in the

health sciences.

Junior community colleges with a vocational orientation.

Specialized schools and centres established by ministries (other than the

Ministry of Education), and NGOs (skilled workers and technicians).

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Non-formal vocational and crafts training programmes and projects (short-
term courses for the young and adults, organized by the government,
agencies, communities and the private sector).

3.7.10 The technical and vocational system should train skilled workers
and technicians in the following:

Building and Construction

Carpenters and bricklayers, masons, roof layers, painters, designers and

draughtsmen assistants, construction engineers (assistant engineers for
bridges, highways and canals, etc.), assistant architects, surveyors, etc.

Technical and Industrial

Mechanics: machinists, metallurgists, welders, plumbers, general fitters, auto,

diesel and farm machinery mechanics, foundry workers and pattern makers,
tool designers, moulders, sheet metal workers, refrigeration and air
conditioning mechanics.

Electricians: electricians for wiring, radio, television and electrical appliances

and instruments, electric power engineers, etc.

Special technicians: information and communications specialists, computer

operators and programme planners, manufacturers, petroleum and gas
workers, miners, air force personnel, printers, chemists (food processors,
those working in the manufacture of vegetable oil, soap and detergents,
fertilizers, pesticides, dyes, etc., and laboratory assistants), and workers
making cement, sugar, glass, ceramics, textiles, furniture, stoneware, etc.).

Fine Arts and Handicrafts

Carpet and silk weaving, tailoring and dressmaking, embroidery, leatherwork,

ceramics, woodcarving, stone cladding, copper and metal work, miniature
painting (e.g. by girls and women in the provinces), in accordance with the
needs of the regions and communities, and their social and economic
environment.

Since 85 per cent of the Afghan population live in rural areas, social and
economic development should improve the quality of life there, and this would
include the provision of shelter, clean drinking water, electricity, hygienic
sanitation, transportation, communications, etc. Technical and vocational
education and training can make a significant contribution to rural
development. Measures should be taken to introduce relevant vocational
courses and training in the schools in rural areas. In non-formal education and
training programmes, efforts should be made to meet the need for skilled
workers in rural communities, who are able to work in building, technical
trades, handicrafts and cottage industries, in trade and commerce, and in
managerial positions, etc. Opportunities should be made available for
students from rural areas to receive training in the relevant occupations in

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technical and vocational schools, and in post-secondary and junior college
programmes for technicians. In cooperation with members from the rural
communities, appropriate vocational training should be organized for girls and
women, so they can become wage earners and supplement the family
income.

Agriculture

Agricultural education should be strengthened. In conjunction with science

teaching, an appropriate course in agriculture should be taught in primary and
secondary schools, especially in rural areas. Agriculture should also be
incorporated into literacy and numeracy courses, and non-formal education
programmes. Technicians for agricultural extension work and development
programmes should receive training at the post-secondary level of education.
The particular needs for agricultural development in the different regions of
the country, should be taken into account in the preparation of curricula.
Special consideration should be given to such areas of development as soil
and irrigation, water management, the use of animal waste, and
environmental management. Programmes should be established for
reafforestation, and the use of rivers for irrigation purposes by the
establishment of pumping stations, all of which would require trained
manpower. Management centres for farm machinery and commodities should
be established in every province, to serve as support for farmers, and trained
personnel would be required to run them. A means of coordination at the
national and regional levels is needed, between the Ministry of Education and
the Ministry of Agriculture, for the development of agricultural education and
training. Cooperation between vocational schools and agricultural research
and extension centres should also be encouraged.

Middle Level Health Personnel

The training of middle level personnel for health services is essential, and
urgently required. The life expectancy for the Afghan population is estimated
to be 43 years for men and 43.5 years for women. Infant mortality is estimated
to be 165 per 1,000 births. Maternal mortality is reported to be 17 per 1,000
live births. One out of four Afghan children dies before the age of five. These
health indicators show the poor health of the nation. The World Health
Organization estimated the number of personnel and health facilities in 2001
as follows:

Requirement
Facilities Doctors Midwives Nurses and CHWs and Technicians TBAs

Standard 6,522 5,826 6,442 13,222 37,500

Existing 823 3,906 2,564 4,993 6,123
Needed 5,699 1,920 3,878 8,229 31, 377

The objectives for the training of health personnel for primary, secondary and
tertiary health care are the following:

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To prepare professionals at the entry and intermediate levels for the
immediate needs of the health services.

To train health professionals at the supervisory levels for the long-term.

To ensure the provision of health personnel for all regions and localities.

To improve the quality and cost-effectiveness of training, by the integration,

coordination and participation of all the agencies concerned.

The following categories of middle level health personnel are needed:

Physicians’ assistants to provide diagnostic skills and therapeutic health care,

which enables the doctor to concentrate on patients’ more complex problems.

Nurses for emergency services, hospitals, outpatient facilities, or for primary

health care.

Midwives and certificated nurses for midwifery.

Traditional birth attendants (TBAs) who, with experience and limited special
training, can provide care in normal pregnancies.

Community health workers (CHWs).

Laboratory and radiology technicians; sanitation technicians; pharmacy

assistants and dental hygienists.

The training programmes for these professions should generally be for two to
three years at the post-secondary level. The practical nurse, practical midwife
and community health worker could be trained at the secondary level. A
certificated nurse midwife should normally receive a university degree in
midwifery (B.Sc.).

3.7.11 Training Materials, Curriculum and Teacher Education

The admission requirement for entry to training programmes for skilled

workers (three years) should be based on having first received nine years of
general education. Technicians’ training programmes in post-secondary
education should admit students with twelve years of general education.
Provision needs to be made for articulation between training programmes at
the secondary, post-secondary and higher education levels, so that a
proportion of qualified technicians are allowed to follow engineering education
and training at the university. Steps should be taken to allow a certain
percentage of qualified, skilled workers, after some work experience, to enrol
in the relevant technicians’ programmes. Young people, who are literate, but
have not completed the equivalent of nine years of general education, should
be accepted and trained in short vocational courses lasting from one to two
years. The able graduates of short training courses, who have gained
practical experience, should be accepted for entry to higher-level training

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courses. In general the training programme should not be considered
terminal, and the technical and vocational education system should provide
opportunities for able students to upgrade their qualifications through formal
schooling and distance education programmes.

The curriculum and methods of practical training should be adapted to the

requirements of the occupation, and the possibilities for training. In addition to
practical training in school workshops, laboratories and experimental farms,
arrangements should be made, whenever possible, with enterprises, building
and development projects, and local crafts and industries, for apprenticeship
training for students. The practical training programmes should be flexible,
and allow time for such training on a weekly, or longer, basis; they should also
be adapted to the needs of the local crafts projects, industries, or agriculture.
A programme of vocational guidance should be established to foster
cooperation with partners in business and industry, and to inform the student
trainees about the employment occupations and entrepreneurial opportunities
available for them. The guidance and counselling programme in cooperation
with schools and training centres should follow up the trainees, and help to
arrange facilities for their part-time and continuing education and training.

The technical and vocational education and training system will require
teachers for general education, including science and mathematics, the theory
of technologies and practical work. The teachers of general education will be
trained in teacher training colleges and the universities. However, the training
of teachers for the theory of technologies, design and building, agriculture,
and practical training, should be done by a special teacher-training institute,
which still needs to be established, for technical and vocational education.
Graduates, with post-secondary or university degrees in science and
technology, engineering, agriculture and other fields, could be trained as
teachers of vocational education. Experienced skilled workers and technicians
or craftsmen (with or without formal education), could be recruited and trained
as teachers of practical training. Teachers for business and administration
courses, and medical technology and health sciences, should be recruited
from the appropriate university faculties and trained. The development of
technical and vocational education will require other key personnel, such as
administrators, inspectors and guidance counsellors, who could be recruited
from among senior teachers and qualified university graduates, and trained.

Teaching and Learning Materials and Textbooks

Specialized textbooks, teaching guides and learning materials in Pashto and

Dari will be required for the development of technical and vocational
education. This will be a challenging task. Measures should be taken for the
establishment of an appropriate national infrastructure for the development of
the curricula and learning materials, and for teacher training in technical and
vocational education. This will require specialist personnel for the drawing up
of the occupational profiles, and the development of standard curricula and
textbooks, and teacher training courses. In view of the shortage of qualified
Afghan specialists, a team of foreign experts would be required initially to
assist in this work. About twenty experienced Afghan teachers, or university

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graduates from various faculties (engineering, agriculture, education,
economics, etc.), should be attached to the experts and then trained abroad
through a fellowship scheme, in cooperation with a foreign institution (e.g. The
UNESCO International Centre for Vocational Education and Training in Bonn,
Germany could be requested to facilitate the cooperation and twinning with
foreign institutions). As a short-term measure, a committee of experts and
experienced teachers should review all available texts in the Afghan and
foreign languages, and select the teaching and learning materials to be used
in technical and vocational schools. A programme of in-service training for
technical teachers needs to be established in cooperation with institutions of
higher education.

Laboratory Equipment

The provision of the necessary workshop and laboratory equipment would be

essential for ensuring the quality of training programmes. The equipment
depends on specific needs and the level of training for each trade and
occupation. The first task is to draw up a list of the equipment and materials
required for each training workshop and laboratory. On the basis of a
consolidated list those items, which are available locally should be procured,
and the remainder need to be imported, or obtained through technical
assistance. Efforts should be made, as far as possible, to produce the basic
tools and equipment for training workshops locally. One way of producing
such equipment (and other useful supplies for schools) would be to establish
production units attached to technical and vocational schools where students
are trained. In the interests of economic development, private initiatives for the
making of basic tools and equipment for industry and agriculture should be
encouraged. As a short-term measure, the workshop facilities of existing
vocational schools need to be rehabilitated as soon as possible.

3.7.12 Coordination among Concerned Ministries

In order to meet the specific manpower requirements of certain government

agencies, public and private enterprises, and community development
projects, non-formal vocational training for skilled workers, including
apprenticeship and on-the-job training schemes, would have to be provided.
An administrative unit for vocational training should be set up in the Ministry of
Labour and Social Affairs, to promote non-formal vocational training. A
committee of experts, from the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of
Labour, should establish the standards for the training courses. The approved
standards should be applied for non-formal vocational training throughout the
country. A number of technical ministries, such as those for Mines and
Industry, Communications, Public Works, etc., would undertake vocational
training activities for their specialized personnel. These training activities
would need to be coordinated with the technical and vocational education
plans and projects of the Ministry of Education, through a national system.
The application of national norms and standards for vocational training is
particularly important for mobility within the education and training system
(formal and non-formal), and also to ensure the recognition of certificates and
diplomas, and to ensure the rights and material privileges which they secure.

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3.7.13 Financing

The financing of technical and vocational education is a major problem, since

it is costly, the workshop equipment often needs to be imported, and foreign
experts have to be recruited to work in certain fields. In the past much
technical and vocational education was developed with the financial and
technical assistance of foreign countries. Afghanistan will continue to need
bilateral and multi-lateral aid for this purpose from donor countries, and
international organizations, such as The World Bank, the Asian Development
Bank, UNDP, UNESCO, ILO, the EU, etc. In addition to the national budget,
the financial and material contribution of communities, enterprises, industry,
and building and development projects, should be sought. Consideration
should be given to the organization of the training programme in close
cooperation with potential employers on a cost-sharing basis. Enterprises and
industry could be encouraged to support training through the provision of
equipment and expertise, and the organization of practical training through
apprenticeship programmes. Steps should be taken to reduce the cost of
vocational training, by improving its efficiency, and using local materials and
equipment as far as possible. Within national norms and standards,
governmental agencies and major development projects and industry, should
be encouraged to take part in the training of their skilled workers, or share the
cost of training with the government. The private sector should be allowed to
organize vocational and technical training in accordance with the needs of
communities.

3.7.14 Raising the Status of Technical and Vocational Training

Attention should be given to the status of technical and vocational education.

This is a worldwide problem, especially in developing countries. Generally
most students (and parents) prefer academic, secondary education, to ensure
better opportunities for higher education. A university degree usually brings a
higher salary and a better job. Office work is considered to be less tedious,
and has greater social prestige than employment in a workshop, or in a
technical field. In the industrialized countries the situation has changed. As a
result of the demand for technical personnel they can now expect better
remuneration, and more opportunities for higher studies because of the
increased flexibility of the training system. The material and social status of
skilled workers, technicians and health personnel in Afghanistan also needs to
be improved. Technical and vocational education should no longer be
considered to be a dead end. A number of measures should be taken; and
there should be greater articulation with other levels and types of learning, so
that there is mobility within the education system. About 25 per cent of skilled
workers and technicians should be allowed to follow higher studies and
training; and opportunities for upgrading, renewing and continuing education
should be foreseen. Incentives in the form of higher salaries for skilled
workers and technicians should be offered. Attention should also be paid to
the material benefits and standing of the teaching staff in technical and
vocational education, so that teachers of good quality once recruited will then
be retained in the system. Competition within enterprises and industry for

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qualified staff will follow once the standing of such staff is recognized. Another
means of enhancing the status of technical training will be to promote self-
employment and entrepreneurial work. In this regard the government and
banks could provide guidance, basic tools and loans for skilled workers and
craftsmen and craftswomen.

3.7.15 Recommendations

Immediate Action

A survey of all existing technical and vocational schools in Afghanistan should

be conducted, with a view to repair and rehabilitate buildings and other
facilities, including workshop equipment.

The curricula of technical and vocational education should be reviewed by a

committee of experts, and adapted for the present, regional development
needs and manpower requirements.

In-service training should be organized for the existing teachers, and

measures taken for the recruitment of additional staff.

Short-term (2 years)

A National Board for Technical and Vocational Education should be

established to formulate policy and standards, coordinate the planning of
training programmes to be carried out by government departments and
agencies, and the private sector, and improve the status of technical and
vocational education. The Board should be composed of senior
representatives of the concerned ministries (Education, Higher Education,
Planning, Finance, Agriculture, Mining and Industry, Health, Labour and
Social Affairs, and other ministries responsible for training activities), the
Chamber of Commerce, major social and economic enterprises, and selected
specialists. A Vice President or a Minister of Education may chair the Board.

The Board may set up various committees for the main areas of technical and
vocational education, e.g. agriculture, industry, arts and crafts, business and
administration, health, etc.

A National Institute for Technical and Vocational Education, attached to

the Ministry of Education, should be established with the following objectives:

To train teachers, supervisors and administrators for technical and vocational

education.

To establish standards and occupational profiles in accordance with the

manpower needs of the country.

To develop curricula and prepare teaching and learning materials in the

Afghan languages.

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To develop programmes for continuing and distance education.

To serve as the secretariat of the National Board of Technical and Vocational

Education.

The Ministry of Education should establish the following:

Guidelines for setting up cooperation between the schools and industry.

Appoint a supervisor for the planning of technical and vocational education,
and training in provincial offices of education.
Provide vocational guidance services.

Medium Term (5 years)

The following technical and vocational schools and training centres should be
established:

Two to three mechanical and crafts schools in each province, for the training
of skilled workers and craftsmen, according to the needs of the area.

Ten agricultural technician schools (the existing schools should be upgraded

to the post-secondary level).

Two to three vocational crafts centres in each province for the non-formal
training of young people and adults.

Three business administration schools in selected provinces.

Ten post-secondary technician schools in the provinces.

A vocational education section in selected secondary schools for girls, in

Kabul and the provinces.

The capacity and specific occupations for each school or centre would be
determined on the basis of needs, and the available human and material
resources.

A few selected technical and vocational institutes should develop programmes

for the continuing and distance education of skilled workers and technicians.

Fine Arts and Traditional Handicrafts

The arts section of the Arts and Crafts School in Kabul should be developed
as a separate school (The Academy of Fine Arts), with the following
objectives:

To train teacher trainers and teachers for art education in collaboration with
the University of Teacher Education.

To organize courses in fine arts for talented young people and adults.

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To promote and improve Afghan arts and handicrafts through research and
training.

Four schools of fine arts should be established in Mazar-i-Sharif, Herat,

Kandahar and Bamyan, with the following objectives:

To train teachers for art education, in collaboration with teacher training

colleges.

To promote regional arts and handicrafts through research and training.

3.7.16 Personnel for Health Science

For the training of all categories of middle level personnel for health science, a
National Institute of Health Technology should be organized, with branches
in Kabul, Balkh, Herat, Nangrahar and Bamyan. The Institute could be closely
associated with relevant universities, and supervised by an Executive Board,
composed of senior officials from the Ministries of Health, Education, Higher
Education, Agriculture, Social Affairs, Reconstruction and Rural Development,
and experts in medical education and vocational training. There is a great
need for personnel in health science, and this should be given high priority.
The Institute’s initial capacity and training programmes should be determined
on the basis of the human, financial and material resources available.

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3.8 TEACHER EDUCATION

A culture that is not based on a strong social, intellectual, moral and economic
structure, cannot grow and develop, nor can it remain dynamic and stable. In
the 21st century teachers need to be recruited from new academic levels,
which are in accordance with the demands and requirements of the time.
Teachers are the principal workforce in the education system, and those in
Afghanistan should be knowledgeable, and professionally qualified for the
work they do. All Afghan teachers, and not just a few, should be dedicated to
their work, able to adapt to a changing environment, recognize their
responsibilities as individuals, be ready to continue learning, and acquire new
skills throughout their lives.

A school depends on the quality of its teachers. Teachers are the backbone of
every educational system, and they should be well trained, and retrained if
necessary, for the work they do.

In general, in no country is the state of its education and training better judged
than by the quality of its teacher training programmes. Afghanistan is now
faced with many problems, the solutions to which are to be found in good
educational services. Imparting knowledge and providing a balanced and
effective education to students, depends on well-qualified teachers. They
have important roles to play in the training of students. As a constant feature
of the student’s environment, the teacher is a mentor who guides students in
learning.

Teaching is a profession, and teachers need to be trained for their work, just
as medical doctors and lawyers are. Teacher training for primary, middle and
secondary school teaching should be provided, therefore, for two or more
years after students graduate from high schools. The curriculum used to train
them should extend their general education and prepare them for teaching in
the classroom. Teachers in secondary schools should be graduates of
colleges and universities, and should be trained in professional subjects and
methods of teaching.

3.8.1 The Approximate Number of School Age Children and the

Approximate Number of Teachers Required

The loss of teachers in Afghanistan during the two decades of conflict was
enormous. Many were killed, others fled the country, and there were the usual
losses due to retirement and other causes. It is extremely difficult at this point
in time to give an accurate assessment of the number of children in school in
Afghanistan, and only rough estimates can be given. In 1999 there were an
estimated 875,000 students in schools, and in 2002, when girls were allowed
to return to school, this number rose rapidly to more than one million. This
number will again rise dramatically when the proposed reform and expansion
of the education system is implemented, and this will have widespread
implications for the future teacher-training programme. The number of schools
will rise from a mere three thousand or so, to many times more. It is clear that
the proposed reform and expansion of the education system in Afghanistan in

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general, and for teacher training in particular, will demand far greater
resources for the successful implementation of the programme. Again, it will
not only be a question of an increase in the number of teachers; there must
also be a corresponding improvement in the quality of the teaching that is
provided. The qualifications of teachers for the various levels of learning must,
therefore, be given careful consideration. Both short and long-term
programmes must now be developed to meet the enormous educational
challenge that now has to be faced. The recruitment of both men and women
to the teaching profession will be necessary, and will also be an important
means of providing employment for secondary school leavers and university
graduates.

3.8.2 Proposals for Teacher Training

Pre-primary school teachers (for children from 0 to age 6)

Pre-school teachers should be graduates of the 12th grade, who have

received professional teacher training for two years afterwards, in the same
teacher training colleges where primary and middle school teachers are also
trained. Their training would be in: pedagogy, child psychology, child growth
and development, health, nutrition, childcare, and other activities. Their
academic background would be fourteen years of education.

Primary and middle school teachers (grades 1 to 9)

The teachers of primary and middle schools should be 12th grade graduates,
who have continued their professional studies in general knowledge and
pedagogy in teacher training colleges for two more years. Their academic
background would be fourteen years of education, and they would teach in
primary and middle schools.

Secondary school teachers (grades 10 to 12)

Students appointed to teach in secondary schools should be graduates from

the university faculties of education, science, literature and the social
sciences. Those who wish to teach should be able to do so, on condition that
they attend professional and teacher training courses for a period of six
months at the University of Teacher Education. They would then be qualified
to work in secondary schools from grades 10 to 12. These teachers would
have received sixteen and a half years of education.

Approximately ten per cent of the best graduates from teacher training
colleges would be selected for enrolment in the University of Teacher
Education, to study for two more years to complete a degree in education.
They would then be appointed to teach in secondary schools in grades 10 to
12. They would have received sixteen years of education.

The graduates of teacher training colleges, who have worked as teachers in

schools for three years, should be allowed to enter the third year class of one
of the faculties of the University of Teacher Education. They would be

80
required to study for two years, and would have completed sixteen years of
study. Once they have received a university degree they would be employed
as secondary school teachers in grades 10 to 12.

Emergency and in-service training courses for teachers

In the present conditions in Afghanistan, when teachers are in short supply,

emergency measures are needed to train primary and middle school teachers
for grades 1 to 9. In order to meet the growth in demand shorter courses and
supplementary forms of training, such as distance education, and ‘open’
university type courses should be considered. An obvious skill demanded of
primary school teachers is the ability to teach reading, writing, and arithmetic
effectively, and special attention should be paid to training in the methods
used for teaching them. Periods of practice teaching in schools, and the
observation of teaching, including demonstration lessons, are also essential
parts of their training programme.

The following means are proposed for solving the present acute shortage of
primary school teachers:

Students appointed to teach in primary and secondary schools should be 12th

grade graduates.

They should receive one year’s training in teacher training colleges to improve
their academic backgrounds, and also learn the professional skills needed for
teaching.

In-service educational and professional courses and training should be

provided, to raise the standards of teachers in pre-school, primary, middle and
secondary schools.

Emergency training for secondary school teachers (grades 10 to 12)

Students who are appointed as secondary school teachers as an emergency

measure, should be 12th grade graduates, who need two more years of
training, in order to acquire further general knowledge, and should receive
professional training and experience in practice teaching. Attention should be
paid to the academic background of the teachers already working in
secondary schools by providing them with in-service training.

In-Service Teacher Training

Sound education is possible only when teacher-training institutions are firmly

established, and their teaching staff and administrators are experienced
educators. The teacher-training programme should be training oriented.
Future teachers, and those already working in schools, should be trained, and
retrained, in accordance with the country’s needs.

In this regard, the raising of the academic and professional backgrounds of

teachers already in service, should be carried out by the Ministry of Education,

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and institutions of higher studies, and especially by the University of Teacher
Education, by means of the following programmes:

Half-day courses that provide instruction equivalent to that given in pre-

service training courses.

Evening courses.

Distance learning through the Internet, radio, television, and communications

courses.

Self-learning courses and the Open University.

The organization of mobile teams of teacher educators.

It is necessary that each of these ways should be used, and their teaching
materials carefully chosen. The plans, content, experiments, teaching
methodologies, etc., should all be adequately prepared.

Seminars, workshops, conferences, and symposiums should be organized in

the capital and in the provinces, where teachers review the information and
guidance given, and the new methods of teaching taught. The rapid changes
in knowledge and technology demand that the lesson content should be such
that the learners understand the importance of education for national
development and social and economic progress.

Teacher Training for Teacher Educators

In order to raise the academic levels of the teacher training colleges,

institutions and faculties of education in Afghanistan, the personnel selected
to teach the special fields of science, psychology and the principles of
teaching, should be carefully selected. Teachers of natural science subjects
are successful only when they have the skills necessary to transfer their
knowledge to others. For the training of teacher educators for teacher training
colleges, institutions and university faculties, the following are necessary:

In the curricula of colleges whose graduates often become teachers,

professional subjects such as psychology and the principles of teaching
should be included.

If the curricula of these colleges do not include professional subjects, then

their graduates should follow professional courses for six months or a year at
the University of Teacher Education, before they are appointed to work as
teachers in higher teacher training institutions.

It is recommended that the academic level in the teacher training institutions

of the University of Teacher Education should be upgraded to graduate and
doctorate levels.

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The graduates of teacher training colleges and other university faculties,
should be sent abroad under cultural or other programmes, offered by
international organizations or NGOs, in order to follow higher courses of
study. This would be conditional on their agreement to return to Afghanistan
and teach for a number of years.

A special programme should be provided, with the help of international

institutions and donor countries, for the training of teachers for work in teacher
training institutions. The aim of this programme would also be to encourage
the return of Afghan teachers and professors living abroad, who wish to return
to Afghanistan for a period of time. The return of these Afghan professors and
specialists would be a useful and effective means of solving the problem of
the shortage of teachers, instructors and experts, in all educational and higher
educational institutions.

Other means that could be used to help in the raising of the academic level of
teachers and instructors in primary and secondary teaching, and in teacher
training institutions would be:

To translate and prepare books and instructional materials in the Pashto and
Dari languages.

To use audio-visual aids and equipment.

To use modern information technology.

To visit teacher-training institutions outside Afghanistan under short-term

study programmes, exchanging views with university and training college
instructors. The printing and dissemination of academic publications to both
instructors and students would also be beneficial.

Training for headteachers

Training for headteachers is essential.

The role of the headteacher can be described as follows:

A democratic headteacher respects all persons and opinions, and has sound
and useful ideas, and knows how to delegate tasks to colleagues as
necessary.

Headteachers should treat all educational staff sympathetically and helpfully

as partners, and try not to do everything themselves. All activities are joint
ventures carried out together by school authorities and their staff.

The headteacher’s policy should be based on respect for the needs of both
students and teachers, and this requires constant contact with them, and with
other internal and external sources, and by means of observation.

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The headteacher has an ability to make decisions, prepare regular plans of
action, use a scientific approach, and remains flexible, impartial, tolerant, and
shows no discrimination.

A headteacher is efficient and persistent, popular and influential, and closely

follows and monitors tasks that have been delegated.

Headteachers, provide various kinds of training; they also teach students to

respect all human beings without exception.

Headteachers, should not act arbitrarily, but should guide and help to solve
problems, in collaboration with pupils and teachers, and be leaders who can
be relied on at all times.

A headteacher should establish good relations between the parents, the

community and the school.

A headteacher should also give praise and encouragement, where they are
due, as a means of spurring everyone to greater effort.

Teacher training for the staff of technical and professional Institutions

Teachers are required to train skilled workers and technicians in secondary

and post-secondary institutions. They are needed for the following technical
and professional studies:

Teachers of general education, and subjects such as languages, social

studies, science, etc., should be graduates of teacher training colleges, and
their academic level should be the same as that for the teachers of general
education in secondary schools.

Teachers of general technical and professional studies should be graduates of

technical high schools, or graduates from the university faculties of
engineering, agriculture, science, etc. They should have spent at least one
year studying professional teacher education, and methods of teaching at the
proposed National Institute for Technical and Professional Education, in
cooperation with the University of Teacher Education.

Teachers, who give practical instruction in courses for skilled workers and
technicians, should be recruited from among skilled workers, vocational
trainers, and technicians. They should have had five years of practical
experience, with a further six to twelve months of professional training in
teaching at the proposed National Institute for Technical and Professional
Education, with the cooperation of the University of Teacher Education.

Teachers in schools of commerce and administration (grades 10 to 12) should

be graduates of secondary schools of commerce (grade 14), or graduates of a
university faculty, with one year of professional teacher education, with the
cooperation of the University of Teacher Education.

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Teachers of medical technology and medical sciences (second and post-
secondary level) should be graduates of the relevant faculties and colleges,
who have also received one year of professional studies and teacher training
at the National Institute of Medical Technology, with the cooperation of the
University of Teacher Education.

Teachers of fine arts at the high school level and above, should be graduates
of The Academy of Fine Arts, or the fine arts high schools, plus one year of
professional studies, with the cooperation of the University of Teacher
Education.

Training for teachers of physical education and health

The University of Teacher Education would carry out the training of physical
education and health teachers. At present a limited number of students is
trained for the teaching of these subjects in grades 1 to 4. But there are no
female students, and they should now be admitted to the training courses.

3.8.3 Academic programmes and the teacher training curriculum

The curriculum includes all activities and subjects taught in schools and
elsewhere. The curriculum is the way in which the original, basic objectives for
the training of children and youth are embodied. The curriculum for teacher
training consists of three components:

1. A general studies course.

2. Special courses which the teacher would be expected to teach, e.g.

social studies, science, mathematics, etc.

3. Professional studies courses, and learning and practice in methods of

teaching.

During the first year in teacher training colleges, the students should follow
courses in particular subjects, e.g. history, geography, mathematics, science,
etc.

In the second year they should study special courses in their special fields,
which they will be expected to teach after graduation.

In the second year, the students should follow professional courses, such as
psychology, child development, and methods of teaching. During practice
teaching the students would teach under the supervision of experienced
teachers. The students should also gain experience from observing
demonstration lessons given by experienced teachers. The importance of
practice teaching and the observation of good teachers at work should be
constantly emphasized throughout their training.

In some teacher training institutions all three areas of the curriculum are dealt
with at the same time. This approach can be used with students who have

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decided to make teaching their career. In other institutions professional
studies and teaching practice follow, when the general studies and subject
courses have been completed.

The above curricula are designed for higher teacher training institutions. But
the provision of all three parts of the curriculum are applicable, with few
changes, whatever the length of the training course, in the University of
Teacher Education, in colleges of education, and in other teacher training
institutions.

Some have proposed that half of the study time in teacher training courses
should be given to general education, a quarter to special courses, and the
remaining time should be allocated to professional studies and practice
teaching. However, the time allotment for the three areas of the teacher-
training curriculum should not be fixed. Flexibility should be allowed so that
different needs can be met.

3.8.4 Practising Schools

It is essential for a number of practising schools to be within reasonable reach

of a teacher-training college, since it is there where students, under the
supervision of experienced teachers, will gain the vital experience in teaching
that is necessary. Without such practice the training will be incomplete.

3.8.5 Testing and Evaluation

Training is needed in testing and evaluation, since they are essential in order
to determine the effectiveness of the education given, and to find out what the
students have learnt.

Two types of tests are used in schools for evaluating student performance

1. Tests of learning ability.

2. Achievement tests.

Testing is a means of measuring the academic skills the pupils have learnt
from a variety of sources, such as the home, the school and the community. It
evaluates the pupils’ ability to learn, and provides information on the interests
they have developed.

Testing what the pupils learn measures the information, skills and thinking
habits they have acquired from the teacher over a fixed period of time. Testing
shows what the children have learnt from the teaching that has been given.

Testing is of two types: a norm reference test, and a criterion reference test.

In the norm reference test the level of a particular pupil is measured against
other pupils who have taken the same test. It is possible for a pupil to obtain a
high score when compared with other pupils, even though some questions

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may have been answered incorrectly. On the other hand, in a criterion
reference test every pupil’s performance is compared with what has been
taught by the teacher. A teacher may, for example, arrange the questions in a
test, in such a way that it is necessary to score marks of 90 per cent in order
to pass.

3.8.6 Incentives for Motivating Teachers

For students to wish to enrol in courses in teacher training colleges they must
be attracted to the teaching profession, and consider joining it with
enthusiasm, and have a genuine interest in the work they would be expected
to do. It is, therefore, suggested that the Ministry of Education should:

Celebrate teachers’ day annually in an appropriate manner, and reward

outstanding teachers with material and other privileges for their good work.

Encourage teachers to do original research and continue to learn themselves,

and promote them to such ranks as ‘danish war’ (knowledgeable) or friend of
knowledge, scholar, which would bring material and non-material privileges.

Increase teachers’ salaries.

Establish a teachers’ cooperative.

Establish a health centre for the treatment of teachers and their families,
where treatment is free.

Award medals, and send letters of commendation to good teachers.

3.8.7 The Need for Guidance and Counselling

The teaching of guidance and counselling is an important part of all training

programmes for teachers. In traditional societies career decisions are limited,
and selection is easier. In industrial societies there is a much larger choice of
professions, and information about them is widespread, which makes
selection more difficult. The individual then needs help from others in order to
make an appropriate decision.

Guidance and counselling services are necessary in the education system of

all countries. Wherever there is a school and madrasa (religious school),
many educational, personal and professional problems will be encountered.
Individuals may have psychological and emotional difficulties, and there may
also be problems within the community. This suggests the need for educated,
and well trained, guidance counsellors in schools.

Definition of Guidance

There are many definitions of guidance, and among them are:

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Guidance is organized and measured help for someone, so that he, or she,
can recognize personal strengths, abilities, interests and wishes, in order to
make more logical and realistic decisions.

Guidance is the means whereby someone advises on educational, vocational

and career opportunities, and is able to explain their possible advantages and
disadvantages.

Definition of Counselling

Several definitions of counselling have been made, and three are given
below:

Counselling is the advice, cooperation and consultation given by a well-

qualified person to another, by discussion or other means, in order to solve a
problem.

The client assesses, analyzes, and solves a problem, with the help of advice
from someone else.

Counselling can be done with the help of an adviser in a cooperative group, or

individually. It can lead to self-realization, the recognition of abilities and
interests, and can lead to effective decision-making for the resolution of
problems.

The Importance of Guidance and Counselling.

In addition to helping students to solve a variety of problems, the counsellor

can help to identify a student’s abilities by testing, and distributes information
through pamphlets, etc., on employment opportunities and possibilities.
Students in middle schools should be aware of the openings available to
them. The guidance and counselling teacher is an asset for good school
administration.

3.8.8 Recommendations

Since good guidance and counselling are necessary for educational and
personal reasons it is recommended that:

Guidance and counselling services are needed in all educational and training
institutions.

The necessary professional and administrative units should be established in

the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education, to strengthen
the guidance and counselling services.

In the middle and high schools in Kabul and the provinces, guidance and
counselling services should be developed. Experienced teachers, especially
graduates in psychology, sociology and professional studies of the University

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of Teacher Education, and other university colleges should be trained, and
employed for this purpose.

The University of Teacher Education should carry out the training of guidance
and counselling teachers.

The number of guidance and counselling teachers in a school should be

according to needs.

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3.9 HIGHER EDUCATION

3.9.1 Introduction

Development specialists recognize that higher education is an essential basis

for the building of societies and nations. Tertiary education trains an important
part of the necessary labour force. It produces many of the people who govern
and lead the country. Through academic, intellectual and cultural means, it
may develop a common view of the world, which holds society together. It can
conduct research on a wide range of subjects, and produce both theoretical
and applied knowledge that will benefit society. It can teach fresh knowledge
to young people, and provide a forum where people can discuss and debate,
express different views, and learn how to reach a consensus. Through its
dynamic formal and non-formal programmes, higher education can foster the
civic-mindedness needed for the establishment of a civil society.

It is when receiving higher education that the virtues, skills, attitudes and
practices of democracy, can be taught or acquired. It is then that young
people may learn to serve society. It can act as a link between one country
and the rest of the world. It can help to keep society abreast of new
developments in all fields of knowledge, science and technology. It is when
young people can learn more about, and practise, equity, fraternity, peace,
justice, democracy and human rights. It is when people can become more
aware of the intricacy of their relationship with the ecosystem, its
sustainability, environmental requirements, stewardship demands,
conservation, and appropriate technology. It is when young people can be
taught to practise tolerance, mutual respect, and learn about the importance
of cultural diversity, the need for harmony, peaceful conflict resolution, and
civil discussion. In short, the university is a place where the young realize the
nature of their humanity. It is where, not just information and knowledge are
acquired, but also wisdom, values and a view of the world.

3.9.2 The Guiding Principles of Higher Education

The overall goals of education and higher education should have the following
objectives:

1. To strengthen faith in the principles of Islam.

2. To preserve the territorial integrity, sovereignty, peace, harmony,
justice, and democracy of the country, and the human rights and
sanctity of its people.
3. To ensure equality among men and women in all aspects of life, in
accordance with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
4. To promote religious freedom, pluralism, and democracy.
5. To maintain national unity, and bring to an end all forms of
discrimination.
6. To ensure the balanced growth of students and promote their
social, intellectual, emotional, physical, ethical, and moral
development.

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 7. To teach, carry out research, encourage scholarship, and promote
ideas of service to the community and society.
8. To develop a healthy patriotism, and a spirit of fellowship, fraternity,
mutual respect, and humanitarianism.
9. To develop a respect for majority decisions, and to tolerate
opposing views, beliefs and opinions.
10. To develop a merit system, and stop the brain drain.
11. To cultivate critical, analytical and creative thinking.
12. To cultivate a sense of personal and social responsibility, and
cooperation and leadership.
13. To teach good language skills and encourage multilingualism.
14. To build a civil and democratic society, where there is a culture of
peace, justice, and a regard for human rights.
15. To educate the labour force needed for government, the civil
service, diplomacy, civil organizations, business, industry, education
and culture.
16. To foster intellectual and academic freedom and artistic creativity.
17. To live in harmony with nature, and develop a sense of stewardship,
conservation, and the importance of the environment.
18. To encourage equity, justice, fairness, and a willingness to
undertake affirmative action.
19. To develop intellectual and academic Integrity and honesty.
20 promote, and practise, democratic discussion and the peaceful
resolution of conflicts

3.9.3 Tertiary Level Institutions in Afghanistan

The following are the tertiary level institutions in Afghanistan at the present
time:

Kabul University

The Faculties of Law, Science, Languages and Letters, Engineering

Agriculture, Economics, Pharmacy, Veterinary Sciences, Education,
Journalism, Social Sciences, Earth Sciences and Geology, Fine Arts, Islamic
Studies and Theology

The Afghan Education University

The Faculties of Languages and Letters, Natural Sciences, Social Sciences

Health and Physical Education, Professional Studies

The Kabul Medical Institute

The Faculties of Paediatrics, Preventive Medicine, Stomatology

The Kabul Polytechnic Institute

The Faculties of Geology and Mines, Structure and Design, Electromechanics

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Nangrahar University

The Faculties of Medicine, Veterinary Sciences, Engineering, Agriculture,

Law, Letters, Economics, Education, Islamic Studies

Balkh University

The Faculties of Law, Engineering, Languages and Letters, Economics,

Agriculture, Education, Medicine, Islamic Studies

Herat University

The Faculties of Medicine, Languages and Letters, Agriculture, Economics,

Fine Arts, Law, Engineering, Education, Theology

Kandahar University

The Faculties of Agriculture, Engineering, Medicine, Education

Khost University

The Faculties of Medicine, Engineering, Agriculture, Computer Science,

Education and Letters, Law and Theology

Alberoni University

The Faculties of Medicine, Agriculture, Law, Engineering, Theology

Takhar University

The Faculties of Medicine, Engineering, Education, Theology, Languages

and Letters, Agriculture

Jowzjan Institute of Higher Education

The Faculties of Mines and Geology, Chemistry and Technology, Chemistry

and Science, Chemistry and Social Sciences

Badakshan College

The Faculties of Medicine, The Badakshan Pedagogical Institute

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Pedagogical Institutes

Pedagogical Institutes are post-secondary institutions for the training of middle

and high school teachers in four-year courses. They were established in the
1980s, and are administered by the Ministry of Higher Education. High school
graduates who have passed the university entrance examination are eligible
for admission. They provide training in the natural and biological sciences,
social studies, mathematics, Pashto, Dari, English and Arabic, the fine arts,
and professional studies for teacher training. They could be equated with
teacher training colleges in the western world. There are now nine
Pedagogical Institutes, which enrolled 2,255 students in the last school year.
They are located in Kabul, Kunduz, Faryab, Balkh, Nangrahar, Jowzjan,
Parwan, Samangan, and Badakshan. In order to reduce the number, and to
improve the quality of the training, the Ministry of Higher Education decided, in
April 2003, to merge the Pedagogical Institutes in Balkh, Herat, Kandahar,
Nangrahar and Parwan, with the respective university faculties of education in
these provinces. The merger is now in progress, and the fate of the remaining
four institutes is under consideration. They will probably be converted to two-
year, multi-purpose Junior Community Colleges.

3.9.4 The Current Situation

There are some 35,000 students now attending twenty-one different

institutions of higher learning under the administration of the Ministry of Higher
Education. Only 0.15 per cent of the Afghan population benefits from higher
education. Several comments can be made about higher education in
Afghanistan at the present time:

Women are underrepresented in tertiary education, either as students or

faculty staff. This is not only unjust in terms of equality of opportunity, but is
also detrimental to the social, economic and cultural development of the
country. The current enrolment pattern also suggests a geographic imbalance
in the provision of higher education.

Cost sharing by the beneficiaries of higher education is a matter that now

needs to be addressed. Several suggestions, therefore, are offered:

The establishment of private, tertiary institutions should be permitted.

Students should be asked to share the cost of attending public institutions

according to their ability to pay.

Government, banks, etc., could provide long-term, low interest loans to

students.

Work-study programmes could be provided.

Graduates could pay back advances by serving in remote or difficult areas.

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3.9.5 The Curriculum

The curriculum is the foundation of higher education. As a result of decades of

isolation, curricula in institutions of higher learning are largely irrelevant to the
current conditions in the country. The following suggestions are offered:

The curricula must reflect, and respond to, Afghan realities.

The curricula should be well integrated, coherent, rich and relevant.

Textbooks must be available so that the methods of instruction will change

from dictation, memorization and regurgitation, to problem-solving, critical
analysis, conceptualization, dialogue and application.

Computer sciences and information technology must become an integral part

of the instructional process, and offered as fields of specialization.

Higher education should place greater emphasis, for the time being, on
agriculture, engineering, information technology, accountancy, management,
general medicine, and teacher education. Greater attention should be paid to
the teaching of foreign languages such as English, Arabic, German, French,
etc.

3.9.6 Students

Students are, and must be, at the centre of any educational endeavour, since
it is their lives and our future that are at stake. If they are to be well educated
certain conditions must be met: students need good libraries, laboratories,
access to the Internet, and safe and comfortable accommodation, and an
academic environment. The students’ health, sports activities, entertainment,
clothing and other needs must be considered. Student selection for higher
education must be fair, just and rational. The curricula must be modernized
and a loan/credit system implemented.

3.9.7 The Faculty

Faculty staff should be given fellowships to study abroad. A crash programme

for faculty development should be established through seminars, workshops,
conferences, scholarships and fellowships; measures should be taken to
repatriate exiled Afghan academics; the necessary provisions should be made
for research, scholarships and travel; young Afghan instructors should be sent
abroad, first to obtain Masters’ degrees, and later for doctoral studies; the
living conditions of staff should be improved by raising salaries, and by means
of housing subsidies, health insurance, the use of cooperatives, discounts on
the cost of utilities, transportation, etc.; payment should be made for research,
publications and translations; opportunities for travel should be provided; the
social and economic status of faculty staff should be raised, and their well-
being and security ensured; and they should be freed from poverty, repression
or persecution; and allowed academic freedom.

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University instructors should have, at least, a Master’s degree, know a foreign
language, and have taught for five years. They must be hired on merit only.
They should possess both specialized and general knowledge, and should be
familiar with modern theories, principles and methods of teaching.

Instructors would be expected to continue to learn through research,

scholarships, departmental seminars, and professional conferences.
Emphasis must shift from teaching to learning. The Ministry of Higher
Education should ensure that professors’ economic and professional needs
are met, and that they are rewarded for good performance.

3.9.8 Community Colleges in Afghanistan

Many efforts are now under way to revitalize and rebuild tertiary education in
Afghanistan. Afghans, certain foreign governments, a small group of
multilateral organizations, a few non-governmental organizations, international
academic institutions, and private individuals, are all helping to reconstruct
higher education in the country. Major donor agencies and many benevolent
individuals, Afghans and foreigners, both inside and outside the country, are
contributing ideas, expertise, knowledge, funding and materials, for the
reconstruction of post-secondary education in Afghanistan.

Junior Community Colleges

It is suggested that at least one multi-purpose, two-year Junior Community

College be established in each of the country’s 32 provinces. The reasons for
the establishment of Junior Community Colleges are as follows:

Afghanistan urgently needs middle level professionals and technicians in large

numbers, and in a wide range of occupations, from skilled workers to dental
hygienists, teachers, secretaries, hotel managers, etc. Junior Community
Colleges can train such workers quickly, inexpensively and in accordance with
local conditions and requirements. Junior Community Colleges would provide
training and education in both towns and villages, and provide access to
learning for young and older women.

There are at least 15,000 high school leavers in Afghanistan who failed the
university entrance examinations, and are without jobs or income, who have
no particular skills, and have little hope for the future. The ranks of such young
people will certainly increase, partly because tertiary education cannot absorb
the growing numbers of high school leavers, and the economy is unlikely to be
able to employ so many unskilled young people. The large number of
marginalized young people would be a waste of talent, energy and human
capital.

Junior Community Colleges do not, initially, require expensive physical

installations and facilities, or highly trained and costly faculty staff. Classes
can be held in schools, government buildings, factories, hospitals, offices and
other settings. Anyone with the necessary knowledge skills and knowledge
can be hired, on a contingency and contractual basis, to teach those skills.

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University lecturers, qualified and experienced schoolteachers, practising
craftsmen and women, doctors, skilled civil servants, can all teach on a part-
time basis. Partnerships between Junior Community Colleges and other
relevant organizations can be established. Work-study can be used in Junior
Community Colleges. Classes can also be held in existing tertiary institutions
in the evenings, and at weekends.

3.9.9 Strategic Master Plan

The medium term goals of the higher education for the next four years
envisage the following: to ensure that at least one of the provincial institutions
of higher learning have one good classroom, dormitory and administrative
complex. Another is to retrain the faculty staff rapidly. Every effort to promote
faculty staff development, by means of short-term opportunities within, and
outside, the country should be made. Seminars, workshops and conferences
should be held in various parts of the country. A third immediate goal is to
provide computer centres, laboratories and small libraries for various
institutions. The fourth goal is to increase the number of women working in
every aspect of higher education. The fifth goal is to reduce the number of
institutions, but to improve their quality. To this effect the Pedagogical
Institutes (teacher training institutions for secondary education) in Kunduz,
Balkh, Herat, Kandahar, Parwan and Nangrahar, have been merged with the
universities in their respective provinces. The sixth goal is to rationalize the
acceptance of new students among various disciplines and institutions,
according to national needs, the National Development Framework,
institutional capacity and student merit. The seventh goal is to introduce
transparency, accountability, responsibility, discipline, and integrity into the
system.

The long-term aspects of the strategic master plan consider the following
tasks for the next 8 to 10 years:

Reorganization

A plan has been initiated to reduce the number of tertiary institutions by

merging Pedagogical Institutes in Kunduz, Balkh, Herat, Kandahar, Parwan
and Nangrahar, with their respective universities, and thus form colleges of
education that are a part of regional universities. The Faculty of Education at
Kabul University will be merged with the Afghan Education University in
Kabul. The Kabul Medical Institute will merge with Kabul University in three
years. The Kabul Polytechnic will merge with the College of Engineering in
due course. It is hoped that these mergers will improve the overall quality of
education, consolidate resources, improve coordination and improve
effectiveness and efficiency.

Decentralization

Every effort will be made to strengthen the five regional universities of Balkh,
Herat, Kandahar, Khost and Nangrahar. So far the focus has been on building
and strengthening the institutions in Kabul, to the detriment of higher

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education in the rest of the country. This has overwhelmed higher education
and the city itself, and weakened tertiary education in the rest of the country.
This unbalanced development has produced negative educational, cultural,
economic, social and political consequences. The long-term goal is to
strengthen five regional universities, regional colleges, Pedagogical Institutes,
and to establish Junior Community Colleges.

Equalization

Every effort should be made to make good quality higher education available
to all qualified and deserving young people, regardless of gender, class,
ethnicity, region, language, or religion. It is hoped that equal access, justice
and fairness, will characterize every aspect of higher education. Efforts will be
made to provide higher education for girls, the marginalized, the under-
prepared and the deserving poor.

Differentiation and Linkage

In future higher education should be diversified in content, and integrated

more closely with the requirements of national development. Post-secondary
education should be synchronized with the reconstruction needs of the
country. Nation building in this era of globalization, and the new economy,
requires a wide range of skills, knowledge and attitudes. The third millennium
and the new Afghanistan require a different kind of labour force. The country
needs large numbers of high-level professionals, technicians and skilled
workers, as well as many others. While graduates in the liberal arts are
necessary, enrolments should, for a while, be increased in favour of the
applied fields. For the next twenty years the country will need people to
rebuild it, and enable it to become more self-reliant.

Digitalization

Distance learning, or electronic education, can solve many of higher

education’s difficulties. The Internet, radio, television, and even printed
teaching and learning materials can be used to overcome the country’s
geographic, economic, cultural, and other obstacles to higher education. Any
future digitalization programme should be rooted in, and reflect, the country’s
needs, realities and aspirations. A plan should be developed to put computers
in all classrooms, libraries, dormitories and offices, and to train people in
information technology.

Privatization

It is now time for the beneficiaries of higher education, who can afford it, to
share the cost of it. Higher education, although essential for society and the
country, is not an automatic entitlement of the individual. Individuals and
society both benefit from it. By allowing private institutions of higher learning
to be established, not only healthy competition will be generated, but also
some of the pressure will be taken off the public sector, and will hopefully
provide a model for governmental institutions. The possibility of asking

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students to meet some of the costs of their higher education could be
considered.

Relevance

The development plan for higher education calls for borrowing and learning
from other countries on the one hand, and adapting learning to Afghan needs
on the other. The achievement of this balance, and the combination of
international and national features, is one of the long-term objectives of higher
education. There is an urgent need for applied fields of study. Liberal arts
should be balanced with more practical education. Higher education must be
closely linked to the country’s reconstruction needs. Individual interest must
be reconciled with the country’s needs at this point in time. Peace, security,
harmony, unity, development, democracy and human rights are matters of
collective survival and well-being. This will be the preoccupation of higher
education in the next decade.

Systematization and Rationalization

The Ministry of Higher Education should try to introduce a spirit of academic

culture throughout the system. Entrance examinations should be confidential,
standardized, computerized, and free of abuse. Student admissions and
distribution within the system should be based on merit, the capacity of the
institutions, and the country’s needs. Evaluation, measurement and the
assessment of students, faculty and staff should be standardized, impartial,
objective, valid and reliable. The hiring of faculty staff, their retention and
promotion, should also be strictly based on merit, and in accordance with
international academic standards. Modern business, administration,
management, and planning and policy-making methods should be adopted.

Coordination, Integration and Articulation

Closer cooperation, collaboration and planning between the Ministry of Higher

Education and the Ministries of Education, Planning and Labour should be
established. Post-secondary education needs to be closely aligned with the
National Development Framework and the country’s needs and requirements,
as reconstruction takes place. Special attention should be given to
coordination between the Ministry of Higher Education and the Ministry of
Education, to teacher training, technical and engineering education, and post-
secondary programmes, including Junior Community Colleges.

Internationalization

Efforts should be made to rejoin international academic, intellectual and

cultural circles. The Ministry of Higher Education has initiated plans to renew
previous institutional affiliations, and establish new ones. Faculty and student
exchanges should take place. Joint research projects with international
colleagues could be developed. Over the next decade access to the Internet
should be made available on every university campus. Scholarships abroad
can be advertised in journals, books, faxes, telephones and the Internet.

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Institutions, faculties, and administrators should be able to join professional
associations, attend conferences, seminars and workshops.

Faculty Development

The Ministry of Higher Education has initiated a plan to carry out large-scale
training programmes for the 1,700 instructors working in higher education.
About 89 (including one woman) of the existing faculty have doctoral degrees,
748 have masters’ degrees, and the remainder bachelors’ degrees. It is now
planned to send younger instructors abroad for masters’ degrees, and later for
doctorates. Short-term programmes fall short of what is needed. Study
opportunities should be distributed evenly throughout the country for male and
female instructors. Every effort should be made to use merit, fairness and
reason in the allocation of fellowships and scholarships. The Ministry of
Higher Education should seek training opportunities for its academic staff
throughout the world. Distance learning could also be used for faculty staff
development.

3.9.10 Science and Technology

The establishment of modern scientific institutions in Afghanistan began in

1946, when the Faculty of Science was opened for the main purpose of
training science teachers. The Faculties of Engineering and Agriculture were
established in 1958, and the Kabul Polytechnic opened in 1967. In the 1970s
these institutions had departments of mathematics, physics, chemistry,
biology, geology and mining, meteorology, civil engineering, architecture,
construction, urban and industrial electrification, and mineral and petroleum
exploitation. The University of Kabul also had a number of specialized and
research laboratories and opened a Research Centre in 1964 for the
promotion of scientific research.

In the 1980s and 1990s different national and regional authorities opened
more faculties of engineering and agriculture. In 2003, 9,618 male and 884
female students in universities (one third of the total enrolment of 31,200
students) studied science and technology in 26 faculties. The numbers of
students in the faculties were as follows: science 2,035; geology and mining
965; engineering 3,978; agriculture 3,094; and veterinary science 430. The
shortage of qualified staff, inadequate training facilities, the lack of
laboratories, and the extensive damage done to buildings in the 1980s and
1990s, meant that the quality of the instruction being given was below
standard. A five-year plan is urgently needed for the construction and repair
of buildings, the procurement of equipment, the updating of programmes, the
improvement of management, and the training of faculty staff.

In view of the importance of science and technology for sustainable

development, it is proposed that a national policy and long-term strategic
plan for capacity building in science and technology be prepared for national
reconstruction and development. The plan should take into account the
potential for using appropriate science and technology as a means of
accelerating the development process, and should include the modernization

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of agriculture, the management of the environment and water resources, the
improvement of the transport and communication infrastructure, the
production of energy, and the expansion of the number of crafts and
industries. The elements of a national policy and plan for the use of science
and technology should include science education, and the popularization of
science, an infrastructure for the training of scientists, engineers and
technologists, and information technologies and the promotion of research for
the development needs of Afghanistan.

Science education and the popularization of science

The training of science teachers and the setting up of laboratories in schools

should be given priority. The National Centre for Science and Technology
Education and the Centre for Information Technology and Training should be
developed (see: General Recommendations). Programmes should be
developed for the popularization of science for children, young people and
adults (e.g. farmers, craftsmen and craftswomen, health and sanitation
workers, etc.) through literacy and skills training courses, the mass media
(radio and television), appropriate reading materials, and a science museum.

The training of scientists, engineers and technologists

The Ministry of Planning should undertake manpower studies, and work out
projections for the numbers of technical and scientific personnel required by
the public and private sectors for the development of Afghanistan. The training
programmes of the university faculties of science, agriculture and engineering,
should be reviewed by committees of experts, to ensure that they are relevant
in terms of quantity and quality to the current and future needs of the country.
Measures should be taken to diversify and modernize programmes for the
expansion of training facilities. Consideration should be given to the
development of a few centres of excellence, with specialized laboratories
where advanced studies and research can be done, in accordance with
development needs. Priority should be given to the provision of modern
equipment for laboratories and workshops, to the use of new information and
communication technologies in training and research, and the development of
a comprehensive scheme for staff development. The provision of scientific
journals, reference books and libraries, including access to the Internet, and
foreign language skills are essential for good quality training in science and
technology. Cooperation with training and research programmes abroad
should also be developed.

Applied Research in Science and Technology

The industrialized countries spend from two to three per cent of their Gross
National Product (GNP), on research and development. However, the
research carried out in the industrialized countries is not always applicable to
the needs of developing countries. Each country has its own characteristics
(climatic, historic, economic, cultural and political), and its own development
needs, which should be taken into account. This is why many developing
countries are making increasing efforts to promote endogenous science and

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technology, and their application to economic development. It is important that
the institutions of higher education promote research applied to the
development needs of Afghanistan, in agriculture and food production,
construction, transport, mining and industry, energy, etc. The University of
Kabul had a number of research laboratories in the 1960s, and a research
centre was established in 1964, for the promotion of scientific research. It is
proposed that, based on the research needs of various technical ministries
and agencies, development projects and the private sector, a National
Centre for Applied Research in Science and Technology, should be
established, and attached to the Ministry of Higher Education, which may
include the following objectives:

To make proposals on policy and programmes for the application of science

and technology to the development needs of Afghanistan.

To review the natural resources, including water and forests, with a view to
their efficient exploitation.

To make ecological studies for the preservation and improvement of the

environment, including the urban one.

To do research on the improvement of agriculture and animal husbandry.

To do research on public health and the prevention of disease.

To conduct experiments designed to improve the technologies and materials

used for farming, building, handicrafts, water and sanitation, transport,
household appliances (for cooking, heating, food and energy conservation,
etc.).

To do applied research related to mining, petroleum, gas, and the relevant

chemical industries.

To do research and carry out studies on the improvement and development of

industries (manufacturing, textiles, cement, sugar, vegetable oil, etc.).

To do research and make studies on major construction and development

projects.

To apply modern technologies to the development needs of Afghanistan.

To publish a journal on the application of science and technology to

development.

Note: The Centre should work closely with the relevant faculties of the
University of Kabul and other universities and institutions of higher education
in the provinces. An Advisory Board composed of senior scientists, engineers,
planners, development specialists, including representatives of Ministries and
technical agencies, under the chairmanship of the Minister of Higher
Education, should guide the Centre.

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3.9.11 Recommendations

A five-year plan should be prepared for the rehabilitation of existing faculties

of science, engineering and agriculture.
A national policy and long-term strategic plan (ten years) should be formulated
for capacity building and the application of science and technology to the
development needs of Afghanistan.
A National Centre for Applied Research in Science and Technology should be
established.

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3.10 DISTANCE EDUCATION

3.10.1 Introduction

‘Distance education’ has been defined as an educational process, during

which someone removed in space and time from the learner conducts a
significant proportion of the teaching. ‘Open learning’ is an organized
educational activity, based on the use of teaching materials in which
constraints on study are minimized in terms of access, time and place, pace,
method of work, or any combination of them all. The term ‘open and distance
learning’ is used as an umbrella term, to cover educational approaches that
reach teachers and students where they are, provide learning resources for
them, and enable them to become more highly qualified, without attending
school, or college, in person. Open and distance learning often make use of
several different media. Students may learn through print, broadcasts (radio
and television), and the new technologies, and supplemented by occasional
meetings with tutors and other students.

According to a recent publication entitled ‘Open and Distance Learning in the

Developing World’, (H. Perryton, 2000) distance education has grown faster
than any other form of education over the pasty twenty-five years. It has been
used in non-formal education for adults, at the school level, and in higher
education. The development of distance learning has been a response to the
critical educational problems of numbers, resources and quality. The
mainstream of its development is concerned with out-of-school education, the
improvement of access, and educational quality, teacher training and higher
education. Today between 10 and 20 per cent of university students in
developing countries are likely to be studying at a distance. The radio and
television have been extensively used for adult education programmes in
agriculture, health and nutrition, and for transmitting a variety of educational
messages to the general public.

In Afghanistan, there are thousands of untrained teachers, inspectors and

other personnel, who need guidance and training. They are serving in schools
in villages and towns across the country, and in the present circumstances
without any local training facilities available for them. They can only be
supported by means of distance education. The training of teachers for the
future reform of education will, therefore, be essential. There are millions of
out-of-school Afghan children and young people, who are illiterate, without
skills, and unemployed. Distance education, combined with short training
courses in education centres, can prepare them for a healthy and productive
life. The population in general, and the returning refugees in particular, need
to be well informed and educated, to confront their daily problems and needs
(nutrition and health, hygiene and sanitation, childcare, minefield clearance,
security, etc.). In the reconstruction process and the development of a
democratic system in Afghanistan, where about seventy per cent of the
population is illiterate, distance education (radio and television) will be a
powerful tool for informing and educating the public, and seeking their
participation and cooperation in nation building.

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In Afghanistan a limited national radio programme was developed for the in-
service training of teachers in the 1960s. Radio has also been used in the
past for transmitting basic information and messages for adults on topics such
as health and hygiene, farming, etc. More recently a radio series, ‘New Home,
New Life’, which combines education with entertainment, has been produced
in Pashto and Dari, in cooperation with UNESCO and the BBC, and the first
broadcasts were sent out in April 1994. They continued afterwards with the
help of UNICEF. Research and investigation in the use of radio has shown
that the majority of the Afghan population listens regularly to radio
programmes.

3.10.2 Distance learning programmes

Radio is the best means of providing training for girls and boys deprived of
schooling, and older children whose age has exceeded school entrance
requirements, The Ministry of Education, non-governmental organizations,
and the United Nations agencies, can render good service to these deprived
groups. Afghanistan, like other developing countries, can increase its training
facilities and in a cost-effective way. Accelerated learning programmes, in
conjunction with distance learning, have been used in Afghanistan,
neighbouring countries, and other parts of the world. Efforts should be made
to use this means of providing education for all.

In distance education the formal school curriculum can be used, but with small
changes which conform to the use of radio techniques. Special topics, such as
family matters, could be included to make learning more relevant. Certain
radio programmes in English, broadcast by the BBC and the Voice of
America, might also be used.

To reach the objectives of teaching, the textbooks published by the Ministry of

Education could be used, but they would have to be distributed in time for the
learners to use them. Advantage should also be taken of additional reading
materials, on topics dealing with peace and reconciliation, which have been
published and distributed with the help of UNESCO. In this regard stories
already published about peace, culture, and national reconciliation could be
used.

In order to meet the objectives of distance learning, special training for

teachers in its use should be prepared and organized. Teachers, and
particularly those in rural areas, who have rarely participated in teacher
training and other programmes, need instruction in educational principles,
pedagogy, teaching methods, child psychology, the preparation of lesson
plans, class management, integrated teaching, and the formulation of test and
examination papers. Help from the Ministry of Education, non-governmental
organizations, and UN agencies can, by means of the radio and with little
expense, help thousands of teachers to learn how to improve their teaching
skills.

Distance education requires careful monitoring and evaluation, to know

whether the programme is suited to the listeners, whether it is effective or not,

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and is in accordance with the stated goals. Monitoring should, therefore take
place regularly. An evaluation is necessary once the programme has ended.
In such an evaluation an assessment must be made to find out whether the
objectives have been reached, or not, and what changes, if any, need to be
made in future programmes.

At the end of the programme a summative evaluation should be made. It must

be determined whether the advice given was followed or not. Such tasks need
to be carried out at the end of the project or programme, to decide what effect
it has had on the listeners themselves.

3.10.3 Strategies for Distance Education

A national and regional infrastructure for distance education should be

developed as a long-term and cost-effective strategy, and an effective way of
expanding formal learning, for secondary and higher education, and for the
informal education of young people and adults. The Ministry of Education, The
Ministry of Higher Education, the Ministry of Culture and Information and the
Ministry of Communications, should work in coordination with each other to
develop the infrastructure for distance learning, train specialists, and prepare
training materials.

There is still a lack of the technology needed for distance education in

Afghanistan. Other countries in the region use radio, television, video films,
satellites, the computer network, and press facilities. In Afghanistan the radio
remains the best means available when compared with other possibilities.
Currently access to the radio is available in all households, and children,
teenagers and adults all listen to it. Most listen to the BBC and the Voice of
America, and other foreign radio programmes, as well as to Radio Kabul and
provincial radio stations.

The target listeners for distance education should first be deprived children,
youth and illiterate adults. When distance learning radio programmes are
written for children and young people, a knowledge of their psychology is
desirable for those preparing them, so that their interests and tastes are taken
fully into account.

When programmes are written for adults, their age, accumulated experience
and previously acquired skills should be recognized. Adults will listen to
programmes that help them to solve their daily problems, and help them to
benefit from employment opportunities.

Afghan listening habits, such as group listening by comparatively large

numbers of girls and women, should be taken into account, and
encouragement should be given to listeners to have follow-up discussions
among themselves when the programmes have ended.

Distance education can help all those who have been denied schooling.
Among them will be those busy earning a living, in which case the times of
broadcasts should be such that they will be able to listen to them.

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The producers of distance education programmes need special skills, and
only experienced teachers should be recruited for the work who have the right
background and competence for it.

Funding for distance education should be sought from United Nations

agencies, non-governmental, and national and international organizations.
The Ministry of Education should seek their collaboration.

A consortium of four or five agencies could be formed to develop a distance-

learning project in a cost-effective way. This is because different agencies
may have different kinds of help to offer, e.g. in training techniques, in
monitoring and evaluation, and in programme writing.

Competent, practising schoolteachers should be recruited to work on the

production of programmes.

The monitors and evaluators of distance learning should have a supervisory

plan, and they should be given up-to-date reading materials and training
related to their work. Institutions should arrange both internal and external
training programmes for workers in distance education.

There should be a regular testing of listeners to distance education

broadcasts, and their progress recorded. Any shortcomings or problems in the
implementation of programmes should be addressed, and action taken when
necessary.

Supplementary reading materials should be available for, and distributed to,

listeners of distance education programmes.

Distance education staff should have guides for the training methods to use.
These can be prepared locally or elsewhere.

Monitors and supervisors of distance learning programmes should compile

detailed statistics, since these will reveal where improvements are needed.

3.10.4 Recommendations

It is proposed to set up an Advisory Board and a National Centre for

Distance Education, with the following objectives:

1. Undertake studies on the application of distance education,

particularly through radio, television and supplementary printed
materials, for formal and non-formal education.
2. Establish priorities and a long-term plan of action for the use of
distance learning in education and training.
3. Set up a network of regional centres and facilities for distance
education, attached to teacher training colleges, in cooperation with
communication authorities.

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4. Train the specialist personnel (producers, script writers, technicians,
etc) for distance education.

5. Develop a programme of distance education for the in-service training

of teachers, in liaison with the University of Teacher Education.

6. Develop an educational radio programme for women, taking into

account the needs of rural areas (non-formal education).

7. Develop educational programmes for working adults: farmers, health

and community workers, craftsmen and craftswomen, etc., in
cooperation with relevant non-formal education institutions.

8. Prepare educational messages for the promotion of human rights,

peace and democracy (non-formal education).

9. Develop supplementary reading materials for radio and TV

programmes, in cooperation with relevant institutions and private
publishing firms (formal and non-formal education).

10. Establish cooperation with international and regional institutions and

networks for the development of distance education.

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3.11 EDUCATION FOR PEACE AND HUMAN RIGHTS

‘Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality

and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental
freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all
nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United
Nations for the maintenance of peace’. Universal Declaration of Human
Rights. Article 26, 2.

3.11.1 Introduction

There is a growing consensus at all levels that good quality education cannot
be limited to increasing the material inputs into the school system, or
enhancing school effectiveness, important though these are. The recent
discussion on educational access and good quality education within the
Education for All programme, has been on the role and place of human rights
and peace education. The Dakar Framework for Action, adopted in 2002 by
the World Education Forum, affirmed the need to provide good quality
education within an ‘expanded vision’ of education.

The Committee on the Rights of the Child has recently considered the matter
of quality, by stating that while Article 28 addresses access to education,
Article 29 underlines the individual and subjective right to a specific good
quality education, which includes the full development of the child’s
personality, and a respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.

Good quality education, therefore, demands a strong human rights approach,

and other important topics, including cultural diversity, multilingualism in
education, peace and non-violence, health education and sustainable
development.

3.11.2 The Concept

Included in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 26,2), and

reiterated in other major international instruments, human rights education has
gained larger recognition as a human right in itself. The knowledge of the
rights and freedoms of oneself, as much as those of others, is considered to
be a fundamental tool to guarantee the respect of all rights for each and
everyone.

Nowadays, the notion of human rights education as ‘know to claim’ has been
coupled with new instances arising from societal changes across the world.
One example is the importance that opposition to war, and the peaceful
resolution of conflict, has assumed in education. Especially in countries
emerging from war, the introduction of peace into educational curricula is seen
as an essential ingredient for reconciliation and reconstruction.

This vision was repeated in the text adopted by The World Education Forum
in Dakar. ‘The capacity of governments and civil society should be enhanced
to assess rapidly educational needs in crisis and post conflict situations for

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children and adults, to restore learning opportunities in secure and friendly
environments, and to reconstruct destroyed or damaged education systems.
Schools should be respected and protected as sanctuaries and zones of
peace. Education programmes should be designed to promote the full
development of the human personality, and strengthen respect for human
rights and fundamental freedoms as proclaimed in the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights (Article 26). Such programmes should promote
understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, and all ethnic and
religious groups, should be sensitive to cultural and linguistic identities and
respectful of diversity, and reinforce a culture of peace. Education should
promote not only skills, such as the prevention and peaceful resolution of
conflict, but also social and ethical values.’

The concept underlying human rights and peace education is that education
should not only aim at forming trained, professional workers, but should also
contribute to the development of individuals who possess the ability to interact
in society. Human rights and peace education aims at providing pupils and
students with the abilities to accept, and produce, societal changes. Education
is a way to empower people, improve their quality of life, and increase their
ability to participate in decision-making processes leading to social, cultural
and economic policies (The Dakar Framework for Action). All the knowledge
and skills that lead to human and social development and personal well-being,
should be an integral part of formal and non-formal education.

Schools should become places where future citizens undergo an

apprenticeship in democracy, where human rights are taught and respected,
and an appreciation of freedom is acquired, together with an ability to solve
conflicts peacefully. Schools should become an embryo of society, where all
present and future stakeholders participate in the definition of the rules that
govern living together.

In fragile and long-established societies, education can help to address a

number of urgent and generally common issues, such as multiculturalism, and
international understanding, democratic participation, gender equity, conflict
resolution and peace building.

It is clear that human rights education cannot be reduced to the mere

introduction of human rights in an already overcrowded curriculum. Human
rights and peace education should be the foundation for the democratization
of education systems in the national education reforms, with a view to
integrating an understanding of human rights with the practice of them. They
include not only curriculum content, but also the educational processes, the
teaching methods used, the environment, and the management system where
education takes place. This implies a profound reform of education, which
affects curricula, the in-service and pre-service training of teachers, textbooks,
teaching methods, classroom management, and the organization of the
education system at all levels. It demands the practice of human rights
throughout the system for learning, and within the entire range of learning
environments.

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3.11.3 Human Rights and Peace in Education

UNESCO has been working in the field of human rights and peace education
for the past fifty years. A number of issues have been identified, that lie at the
core of any reform that is designed to put human rights and peace education
within an education system.

The development of capacity training through programmes for key personnel

who are central to the implementation of the project, viz. trainers, writers and
curriculum developers, and other education officials, should lead to:

The definition of a core curriculum for human rights and peace education.

The development of a strategy for developing a core school curriculum in the

subject.

The review of curricula at the primary and secondary school levels, including
textbooks. This promotes the incorporation of human rights and peace into the
curricula, sometimes including an additional subject, e.g. civics and moral
education, or human rights and peace education.

The development and production of teaching materials, including specific

instructional materials to support the core curriculum for human rights and
peace education in Afghanistan.

A trial phase is needed, during which the curriculum, methodology and draft
teaching materials are tested in a selected number of schools across the
country, and which represent all social, economic and ethnic groups. All
stakeholders in the trial should undergo training to be able to implement the
pilot exercise effectively.

Education must develop an ability to recognize and accept the various values
which exist among diverse individuals, genders, peoples and cultures, and
foster the ability to communicate, share and cooperate with others. Education
must cultivate in citizens the ability to make informed choices, in order to
become effective participants in the construction of society.

3.11.4 The Content of Education

In order to strengthen the formation of values and abilities such as solidarity,

creativity, civic responsibility, and the ability to resolve conflicts by non-violent
means, it is necessary to introduce into curricula at all levels, genuine
education for citizenship, and with an international dimension. Teaching
should be particularly concerned with the conditions needed for the
construction of peace, the ethical, religious and philosophical basis of human
rights, their historical sources, the way in which they have developed; and
how they have been translated into national and international standards, such
as The Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Discrimination Against Women, and the Convention on the Rights of
the Child. It should explore the basis of democracy and its various institutional

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models, the history of the fight against sexism, and all other forms of
discrimination and exclusion. Curriculum reform should emphasize knowledge
and understanding, and respect for the culture of others, and should link the
global interdependence of problems to local action.

3.11.5 The Methods of Teaching

It is important that peace and human rights education should be participatory,

and conducted in an atmosphere of mutual respect and common responsibility
for the introduction of the concept of human rights and democracy into a
reality for teachers’ and learners’ everyday lives.

Learning about what the rights of all human beings are, cannot be a passive
matter in which the pupil is obliged to follow authoritarian teaching. The rights
of the child are also the rights of the pupil in the classroom, who must be
respected, and whose dignity and freedom are recognized. Therefore, the
most appropriate methods for teaching human rights place pupils at the centre
of the educational process, and stimulate them to think for themselves. Active
methods are, therefore, especially suitable.

3.11.6 Teacher Training

The training of personnel at all levels of the education system – teachers,

planners, managers and teacher educators, must include education for peace
and human rights. Pre-service training, and retraining, should introduce and
apply methodologies, the observation of experiments, and the evaluation of
their results. To perform these tasks successfully, teacher trainers, and those
in charge of non-formal education programmes, should seek the assistance of
those with experience in the fields of peace, human rights and democracy
(politicians, jurists, sociologists and psychologists), and NGOs specializing in
human rights. Similarly pedagogy and the practice of exchanges should form
part of the training courses of all educators.

Teacher education activities must fit into an overall policy to upgrade the
teaching profession. International experts, professional bodies and teachers’
organizations should be associated with the preparation and implementation
of action strategies.

3.11.7 Educational Institutions

Proposals for educational change find their natural place in schools and
classrooms. Teaching and learning methods, forms of action and institutional
policy lines, have to make peace, human rights and democracy matters of
daily practice, and something to be learned. With regard to institutional policy
lines, efficient forms of management and participation must promote the
implementation of democratic school management, involving teachers, pupils,
parents and the local community.

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Educational institutions should become places for the exercise of tolerance,
respect for human rights, the practice of democracy, and learning about the
diversity and wealth of different cultures.

Direct contact with, and regular exchanges among, pupils, students, teachers
and other educators in different countries or cultural environments, should be
organized through visits to places where successful experiments have been
carried out. Joint projects should be implemented with institutions in other
countries, with a view to solving common problems. International networks of
students and researchers, by means of twinning and other exchange
programmes, would ensure that schools and students in Afghanistan take part
in them.

3.11.8 The Non-Formal Education of Youth and Adults

Young people who are out-of-school, and who do not have access to formal
education, or to vocational training, or are unemployed, are an important
target group of education programmes designed to promote peace and
human rights. While greater access to formal education and vocational
training needs to be provided, it is essential for young people to be able to
receive non-formal education adapted to their needs, and which will prepare
them for assuming their roles as citizens in a responsible and effective way.

Adult education programmes should create an awareness of the link between

local living conditions and world problems. Basic education programmes
should give particular importance to subject matter relating to peace and
human rights. All culturally suitable media such as folklore, popular theatre,
community discussion groups and the radio, should be used for mass
education purposes.

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 CHAPTER FOUR:
EDUCATION FOR AFGHAN GIRLS AND WOMEN

The occupation of Afghanistan by what was then the USSR, the national
resistance wars, the lack of formal and non-formal education, particularly for
girls and women, in the years 1992 to 1994, and the non-national and
culturally barren policy of the Taliban era, inflicted enormous harm on the
education system, and especially on Afghan girls and women.

Economic and technical limitations also played a significant part in preventing

learning programmes for females from being developed. The development of
education is closely associated with economic and social development, and
the lack of education, in turn, led to a shortage of technical and financial
facilities. It was, in short, a vicious circle, which it was difficult to break.

The shortage of qualified teachers, educational experts and planners was felt
during two cultural and educational phases in Afghanistan. The first was
before 1950, and the second in the 1980s and 1990s. In the last two decades
many qualified teachers, specialists and professors were either killed or forced
to leave the country. This shortage has now reached its climax.

The lack of access of girls and women to learning and literacy, by either
formal or non-formal means, especially in rural areas and small towns, and
the devastation caused to the entire education system by two decades of war,
have led to the present situation, where the majority of Afghan girls and
women are denied learning opportunities. Since 2002 initial steps are being
taken to improve the situation.

4.1 The Need for the Expansion of Education and Literacy for Afghan
Girls and Women

Education is a basic and effective means of developing spiritual values, and

mental, educational and artistic ability. Compulsory education is one of the
essential needs of Afghan girls and women, if they are to develop their
personalities, engage in productive work, and participate fully in the
development of the country, improve their quality of life, make wise decisions,
and achieve personal and social progress. The provision of education for girls
and women is not only a personal obligation, but should be seen in the
framework of the national needs and realities of present-day Afghanistan.

The acquisition of literacy and learning for Muslim men and women is a
religious obligation (farz). The ideals, goals and methods of providing
education were decreed fourteen centuries ago, when it was clearly stated
that education was compulsory for men and women, girls and boys.

Education for all, and particularly for girls and women, is considered one of
the most fundamental human rights. The twenty-sixth Article of the
Declaration of Human Rights states: ‘everybody has the right to benefit from
education. Education should be free, at least for elementary and basic

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learning. Elementary education is compulsory. Technical and vocational
education should be made public; everybody should have equal access to
higher education according to his or her qualifications.’

The expansion of a balanced and progressive education for girls and women
is needed for the equality of women’s and men’s rights, the right to education,
the right to work, and participation in social, economic, cultural and political
life. The power to defend women demands effort and research. All scholars
and international organizations require that girls and women should have
access to education as an effective means of ensuring equality between men
and women.

The education of women and girls is one of the best forms of investment, and
greatly assists in the reduction of illiteracy, poverty, hunger and disease. The
statutes by which Afghanistan is governed recognize the role and importance
of education for girls and women, and it is essential to remove any social
restrictions that may now impede their implementation.

It has been said that when a male is made literate then he is the only one who
benefits, but when a female becomes literate then her whole family does so.
Education enables girls and women to play more useful roles in family life,
and to make social progress. In the improvement of family life and health, the
whole society is likely to improve. Communities are fortunate when mothers
are educated, and are able to encourage other females to follow their
example.

The lack of access to education for girls and women in Afghanistan has had
an impact on all aspects of their lives, whether social, political or economic
The obvious relationship between the percentage of female illiteracy, and poor
health, poor family life and a sluggish economy, must constantly be taken into
account.

UNESCO’s World Education Report took various aspects of this matter into
account and stated: ‘In the poorest regions of the world, women and girls form
a chain or link in which illiterate mothers bring up illiterate daughters, which
result in weddings prior to the appropriate time, and form another chain and
link to poverty, illiteracy, and an increase in the number of children exposed to
early mortality.’

In Afghanistan where such chains and links are common, and the cause of
poverty, hundreds of social and economic problems abound. They should be
broken, through the expansion of educational and functional literacy
programmes for girls and women. This would help to ensure equal rights for
males and females, and to strengthen democracy.

The present standing of Afghanistan in the world demands that the country
accepts and implements the recommendations and decisions of international
conferences. It is, therefore, considered necessary now to take advantage of
the situation, by designing a policy and strategy for the education of girls and

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women, in line with the recommendations of world conferences in this regard,
and by implementing them.

One of the most important international conferences was The World

Conference on Women, held in Beijing, China, in 1995. It examined all types
of discrimination against women, and made recommendations concerning
equal rights for women, and equal access for them to education, and scientific
and cultural knowledge.

Another conference, a follow-up to The World Conference on Education for

All, Jomtien, Thailand, 1990, The World Education Forum, held in Dakar,
Senegal in 2000, made the following recommendations regarding the
provision of education and literacy facilities, and equal rights for girls and
women to education:

‘Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult

circumstances, and those belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to, and
complete, free and compulsory primary education of good quality.

Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by

2005,and achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on
ensuring girls’ full and equal access to, and achievement in, basic education
of good quality.’

4.2 Strategy

For the practical achievement of the goals recommended regarding the

equality of access for girls and women to education in Afghanistan, and the
conditions needed for women’s full participation in social, economic and
cultural life, as indicated in The World Conference on Women in Beijing in
1995, and The World Education Forum in Senegal in 2000, the following
recommendations are made:

The right of girls and women to education must be accepted as a basic human
right in Afghanistan, and recognized as a means of social, economic and
cultural advancement.

The provision of access to education for women and girls, and the eradication
of illiteracy, must be recognized as essential pre-requisites for their
professional, technical, and academic education in institutions of higher
learning. It is imperative that the government take immediate action to
prepare, and implement, a national programme for increasing literacy
instruction, and provide facilities for basic, and primary education for girls and
women, especially in rural areas and small towns.

The importance of women’s participation in political, social and economic

development is the key to human development. In the present circumstances
in Afghanistan this need is very much greater. Women do not have equal
numbers working in higher learning programmes or in administration. The
planning of greater participation by women in higher education is urgent for

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Afghanistan. Only by their greater participation in higher education will they be
able to emerge as leaders, and contribute to social and economic progress
and long-lasting development.

News broadcasts, audio-visual aids, conferences, the support of influential

personalities, national assembly members, parents and community leaders,
spiritual and religious leaders, and the provision of financial assistance,
should all be used to promote learning for girls and women. Efforts should
also be made to attract more girls to attend primary schools in villages and
towns. The following are also proposed:

The appointment of qualified teachers to schools in the rural areas and remote
towns, with greater financial inducements.

The recruitment of religious and spiritual clergy for the teaching of religious
subjects, and to encourage the education of girls and women.

The construction of new buildings for schools, especially in rural and remote
areas, to facilitate the attendance of girls.

Where possible make financial provision for needy girl students, for the
purchase of clothing and other essential personal items.

In order to develop the education of girls, urgent action must be taken by all
ministries, community institutions and organizations, to redress the balance as
far as possible, bearing in mind that rural and urban areas must be treated
equally.

The education of women and girls is an investment, which affects all

households. In every family a woman has responsibility for the education of
the children within the home. One of the major responsibilities of the
community is to establish a system of education, and guarantee females
access to it at all levels. Women must be capable of raising the educational
and living standards of their families.

4.3 Recommendations

It is proposed that a ‘National Education Commission for Girls and

Women’ be established, with experts from various fields such as
representatives of the Ministries of Education, Women’s Affairs, Information
and Culture, Planning and Finance, and representatives from four non-
governmental organizations dealing with women’s affairs. The Commission
should be under the chairmanship of The Minister of Education, or The
Minister of Women’s Affairs, in order to:

Hold professional consultations with relevant and accountable ministries

during the design and implementation of educational programmes for girls and
women,

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Coordinate the work of ministries, governmental and non-governmental
organizations, for the design and implementation of formal and non-formal
educational programmes for girls and women.

Hold consultations on the design and promotion of programmes to encourage

women and girls to attend literacy courses, and to attend primary schools.

Draft or design specific programmes for girls and women that are assigned to
the Commission by higher governmental authorities.

Provincial communities should work closely with The National Commission for
Girls and Women’s Education, for the purpose of implementing the above.

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 CHAPTER FIVE:
THE FINANCING OF EDUCATION

5.1 The Existing Funding of Education

The financing system of education in most developing countries is based on a

partnership between three major economic groups: the national public
administration (essentially the state); families and communities; and partners
for development, such as multilateral or bilateral cooperation agencies, or
NGOs.

By virtue of its nature and traditions, education in general is considered a

public good, to be guaranteed by the state and accessible to all.
Economists still argue as to exactly where the dividing line lies between
education as a public and private good, and tend to regard education as a
quasi-public good. The debates on this subject normally conclude that
education is a public good, to the extent that its effects benefit society as a
whole, and at the same time it is a private good, to the extent that it
directly benefits the individual.

It is widely agreed that the development and equalization of educational

opportunities is the responsibility of any government. In the financing and
allocation of public money a government has to strive to provide those
services which are considered most ‘public’ in economic terms, in order to
achieve the maximum social benefits.

Educational costs, therefore, increase progressively from level to level. The

state needs to guarantee primary education for children of the relevant age
group, and at the same time it has to regulate student flows, and limit the
demand for, and access to, the upper levels of education, in particular higher
education. No government at present is in a position to provide higher
education for all graduates of secondary schools, and to meet the demand for
university diplomas.

The role of public authorities in educational funding, including regional

and local public authorities, remains significant, even under conditions of
financial constraint and decentralization. Public authorities, in particular the
central Ministries of Education, are still responsible for the regulation of
educational supply and demand, and for resolving the dilemma of equality
versus educational efficiency, and its quality and quantity. Public authorities
should try to perform at least three functions with regard to educational
funding:

The elaboration of national educational legislation, monitoring its application,

and evaluating its implementation.

The provision of actual funds for education (which are indispensable for any
type or level of education, including actual or ‘hidden’ subsidies to private,
higher, or continuing education).

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The management of the public educational system, i.e. securing the
availability of an adequate number of schools, teachers, textbooks, teaching
materials, furniture, infrastructure, etc., where necessary.

Even in a decentralized system it is up to the public authorities at the central,

regional or local level to determine the appropriate delegation of relevant
responsibilities to the lower levels of the administration, to the community, or
directly to the institution.

In Afghanistan: the predominant role of donors. The government’s budget

resources come mainly from the donor community. Foreign support counts for
more than 60 per cent of the planned ordinary budget for 2003, and 100 per
cent of the development budget. Domestic revenues, even if they have
reached a higher level than expected in 1381, are funding only 36 per cent of
the requirements of the ordinary budget. This is due to the specific Afghan
situation and the reconstruction period. The development budget is more than
three times the ordinary budget, which is evidence of the effort being made to
rebuild infrastructure facilities and the government administration.

5.2 Policies and Strategies of Potential International Agencies

The vision of the new government of Afghanistan is detailed in the National

Development Framework (NDF). The Framework has three pillars, which are
translated into twelve priority national development programmes. The
government hopes that the NDF will guide all external assistance for the
reconstruction of Afghanistan. The education sector falls under Pillar 1,
namely Human Capital and Social Protection. The overall sector includes
formal and non-formal education, vocational and technical education and
higher education. Teacher training, curriculum and textbook development are
integral parts of the education sub-sector.

The government has carried out many activities to address the needs of the
education sector. One of its most successful has been the ‘Back to School’
campaign, which rallied the population to send children back to school. This
campaign has enabled millions of children to return to school, even if under
inadequate conditions. The government has also instituted, and initiated
processes to strengthen the provision of education facilities, the
reconstruction of the educational infrastructure, and the recruitment and
training of teachers. Government initiatives have helped to strengthen
educational management in the provinces.

The government gives priority to gender issues by providing educational

opportunities for women, internally displaced persons and refugees. It has
also undertaken important initiatives to meet the needs of children and
orphans, by providing them with educational opportunities.

However, with the present lack of resources and fiscal constraints, the
government capacity has been limited. The shortfall is being met by external
assistance. The main government partners in the reconstruction and

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rehabilitation of the education sector include UNESCO, UNICEF, UNDP,
DANIDA, Japan, CIDA, Norway, USAID, and international NGOs such as
Save the Children (US and Japan) and the Swedish Committee, and a range
of national NGOs. These agencies have provided significant assistance,
especially in meeting the immediate needs of providing access to schools by
contributing materials and equipment. Multilateral agencies, such as the Asian
Development Bank, have provided important technical assistance for school
reconstruction and rehabilitation.

ILO and UNDP, among others, have provided assistance in skills

development and vocational education. Their efforts have been important in
community mobilization and the achievement of economic efficiency,
particularly in school construction, and increasing the participation of the
people in development projects.

The World Bank and UNESCO have been important donors to the higher
education sub-sector, especially in faculty development, dormitory
rehabilitation, and building the technical capacity in curriculum development,
and institutional strengthening and management. UNESCO’s International
Institute for Educational Planning has already organized two workshops on
capacity building in educational management, one in higher education and
another in school education.

5.3 Measures for reducing the cost of education and improving the
efficiency of the education system

The most commonly recommended solutions relate to making better use of

resources and finding other sources of financing. To enable state budgets to
cope with the difficulties of financing education systems, the measures
generally recommended by aid agencies and economists are aimed at one of
the following:

A. Better use of existing resources through a modification of the

parameters for producing an education service.
B. Improvement in the administration and management of the system.
C. Recourse to new sources of funding.

These proposed measures do not exclude increasing public expenditure on

education by raising taxes, or increasing the proportion of public funds allotted
to education, or both. Some countries have, in fact, managed to increase the
proportion of the state budget given to education.

Governments must constantly strive to make more effective use of public

resources. This concern is simply more pressing in times of financial
stringency. Making better use of resources, and achieving more with the same
amount, means reducing unit costs and improving the efficiency and
management of the system.

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To reduce the cost of education, particularly primary and secondary
education, it is possible to act on the means by which education is
provided.

A first option is to increase the number of pupils in each class. The size of
classes is a variable that can be used to match the number of school places
required with the number of classes the system can finance. Research has
shown, for example, that changing the average size of classes has little effect
on what pupils learn. Nevertheless, the very high average number of pupils
per class excludes the possibility of reducing costs for education by increasing
further the number of pupils per class.

In Afghanistan an increase in class size is a solution to the lack of physical

facilities, and is a way of avoiding the exclusion of students (the policy for the
rehabilitation and development of education in Afghanistan, September 2002).
However, the measure also has implications for the number of teachers
required. The Ministry estimates a current need of 93,000 teachers (one for
every 32 students), compared with the real figure of 65,000 (one for every 46
students) A target of 40 students per class may lead to a slight decrease in
the need for teachers to 75,000.

A second option is to adopt double or triple shift systems, or multigrade

classes in primary education. Each teacher is then responsible for two or
three groups of pupils. This solution has the disadvantage of reducing the
pupils’ classroom time, but it can be effective in that it reduces the number of
teachers required. However, putting such a system into practice is not always
easy, and may lead to the under-employment of teachers. It also raises
management problems relating to the use of one classroom by two or three
groups of pupils. The double shift system results in a reduction in the number
of teaching hours given to the students.

In Afghanistan: the double and triple shift systems are already being used in
some schools to cope with the lack of buildings. The Ministry estimates that
the current deficit in school buildings to be 2,500 (5,000 exist compared with
the 7,600 needed).

A third option is the introduction of new and less expensive teaching

techniques. Distance teaching experiments have been carried out in several
countries. But experiments in teaching by means of television have been less
conclusive.

A fourth option is to achieve economies of scale by ensuring that schools are

not too small in size. This is not always possible, particularly in areas where
population density is low.

Improving the efficiency of education, and reducing repetition and

dropouts, makes it possible to increase the relevance and effectiveness
of educational expenditure.

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Reducing the number of repeaters makes it possible to cut the total number
of school places needed.

Reducing the number of dropouts tends to increase the number of pupils in

school following the prescribed cycle, and it reduces education wastage in
terms of pupils who fail to complete the course. Improving the efficiency of the
education system makes expenditure on education more effective, but may
actually lead to an increase in pupil numbers, and hence to a greater need for
funds.

An improvement in efficiency also means having to take measures that make

it possible. Among these, the most effective are acknowledged to be the
provision of a sufficient number of textbooks, and teaching materials for
teachers. The improvement of the quality and efficiency of teaching requires
extra expenditure.

Decentralization and autonomy for schools make it possible to adapt

educational expenditure more successfully to the needs of schools, and to
give greater responsibility to school principals and local administrators. These
measures assume that there exists a series of regulations and laws, that
responsibilities are clearly defined, and that the supervision of resources and
expenditure exists, in order to avoid corruption and the embezzlement of
public funds.

Improving the administrative services, particularly the management of

teachers’ assignments, should result in a more efficient use of the resources
available for education. Improved tax collection can provide states with
additional resources, while ensuring equality in the tax burden.

Apart from state funds, possible sources of finance for education are
chiefly those provided by families, local authorities or businesses.
Foreign aid and self-financing by schools make it possible to reduce the
pressure on public funds.

The contributions of families to the financing of education may take the

form of tuition and user fees and in-kind contributions. The introduction of
tuition and user fees should be approached with caution, and carefully
programmed, because it can affect access to education and therefore equity.

Tuition and user fees are particularly recommended for higher education
and, in general, for educational levels above that of primary education. The
fact that the beneficiaries of such education will have advantages later on in
the form of higher salaries, justifies their making a contribution to its cost. To
maintain equality of access to these levels of education, a system of study
grants and loans should be introduced with tuition fees.

Local communities, whether they have the status of local authorities or not,
can make a contribution by building a school, housing teachers and
sometimes supplementing teachers’ pay. In some countries, town and village
communities have gone so far as to provide all the teachers’ pay to make sure

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that there is a school. The contribution made by communities may be in the
form of cash, or may take some other form. The involvement of communities
can make it possible to reduce building costs by using local materials and
simple techniques, and which make for lower maintenance costs.

Contributions may be solicited from businesses, but their involvement should

probably be focused more on vocational or higher education. Some countries
have introduced corporation taxes. Incentives in the form of tax exemptions
can also be introduced.

Efforts to enable educational establishments to become self-financing and

income generating have been made in many countries where educational
and fiscal legislation allows such an approach. However, at first some seed
money may be needed. The amount of such resources should be carefully
compared with expected revenues, in particular in cases where these projects
are not directly related to the profiles of the institutions. In higher education
establishments revenue-generating activities may take the form of research
contracts, contracts for providing training for firms, payment for consultancy
services, rent, or payment for advice. The way to self-financing may also lie in
the direction of productive work by the pupils and students. Some experiments
have been carried out in primary schools, but without any positive results, as
the actual and ‘hidden’ costs of the projects offset net revenues. It may be a
more promising possibility for technical and vocational schools, where the
economic needs overlap with the aims of the education they provide.

Recourse to foreign aid is necessary in Afghanistan, whose national

resources do not make it possible to finance education systems. This sort of
financing requires the coordination of aid from various sources, and the
integration of the undertakings financed from these sources into national
policies for the development of its education system.

5.4 Proposal for the Mobilization of Resources for Educational

Development in Afghanistan

The proposals will have to consider the following:

The infrastructure of the entire education system cannot sustain normal

instruction. This includes not only physical facilities, such as academic and
non-academic facilities, but also the organizational infrastructure for the
restructuring of the content, structure, methods of teaching, and management
of the system.

The excessively large number of students overwhelms the physical capacity

of the institutions, and downgrades the system of delivery of education and
services. The situation will deteriorate further if the necessary measures are
not taken in time.

The lack of an adequate number of qualified teachers, and of a suitable

reward system, inhibits development. To correct the situation considerable
resources would be necessary.

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The policies and strategies given in section 2 indicate some of the potential
sources of funding at the international and bilateral levels. At the national
level, while the state will have to bear the major responsibility for funding
education, the following methods of mobilizing resources are proposed:

The private sector (NGOs and the local community) has to be encouraged to
finance education at all levels, with proper monitoring mechanisms to ensure
uniformity with national requirements.

While general public education will be free, at higher levels the introduction of
a discriminatory fee-paying system for those who can afford it may be
considered, supported by a student loan scheme.

Institutions of education in general, and higher education in particular, should

be encouraged to generate income through activities in conformity with the
aims of the education system. The activities could vary from full-time,
continuing education to commercial activities and charity shows. This might
need legislative measures to encourage such activities to be undertaken.

5.5 Assessing the Financial Consequences of Educational

Development

The objective of achieving compulsory primary education for children aged

from seven to fifteen by 2015 requires a forecast of what would be the
enrolment figures for the future years, and an assessment of the human,
physical and financial requirements to reach this goal.

Setting up a computerized simulation model that can systematically integrate

different hypotheses on population growth, student flows, learning conditions,
staffing and physical conditions, could do this.

It is proposed that a simulation model be built, to cost the education

development plan. However, this would be possible only with the availability of
sufficient data on the current situation, such as population, enrolments per
grade, repeaters, classes and teachers, classrooms built, equipment and
budgets. This would need further investigation and work, and cannot be done
immediately.

5.6 Conclusions: Issues to Consider

Demographic and economic pressures. The demographic or the economic

and financial pressures upon education cannot be ignored. Adjustments have
to be made to achieve a balance between the demand for education that is
linked to population growth, and the supply of education that is linked to the
resources available, and sometimes to the detriment of the quality and
consistency of the education system, and to equity in its delivery. Public
authorities are responsible for choosing the policies that make it possible to
respond to these pressures, and for guiding the development of education
systems.

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Education as an investment: Education is an economic and social
investment. A country’s economic development calls for greater labour
productivity and capital, and this means that employees must be able to use
modern technologies and must be creative and adaptable. Such aptitudes are
very dependent on the standard of the initial education people receive. Money
spent on education is not solely a social item of expenditure. The purpose of
education is also to train people for citizenship, provide for the transfer of
knowledge and culture from one generation to another, and develop people’s
talents. Education systems also have to provide the skills that the economy
and market will need in the future. In addition, education is a way of fighting
poverty. Those sectors of the population that have no access to basic social
services remain in poverty, and are an obstacle to development. Expenditure
on education should not be regarded simply as social expenditure, and a
burden on public finance. Investment in education has long-term rather than
immediate effects. Under-investment may have an impact on the structure of
the labour market, and on social and economic development some twenty or
forty years later.

Investment during difficult times: Education is a pre-condition for long-term

economic and social development. It is necessary in order to preserve the
chances of long-term development, and because many years and
considerable effort are needed to rebuild run-down education systems. For
these reasons, expenditure on education should be protected during times of
crisis, recession, or structural adjustment.

Economic growth: Only the re-establishment of adequate economic growth

can make it possible to finance the development of education systems. The
measures recommended to overcome the difficulties of financing them are not
enough to cope with significant increases in pupil numbers, or improvements
in the quality of education. It is easier for a ‘healthy’ economy to expand
education facilities, that is, to provide funding for education commensurate
with their economic development. At the same time, levels of literacy and the
qualifications of a population are essential preconditions for foreign
investment in any country, and for its potential economic growth subsequently.

International solidarity: International solidarity is vital to enable those

countries experiencing the greatest difficulties, with both demographic
pressures, and economic transition, to meet the present and future demands
of educational finance. International aid may be catalytic in certain education
development projects where alternative funding is either hard to obtain, or
insufficient.

Multiple solutions: There is no single solution. There cannot be a single

response to the problems of how to finance education systems. It cannot be
the same in all countries, because of the variety of national situations, the
different levels of economic development and the state of education systems.
There may also be different solutions for different levels of education.
Recourse to non-public funding can be justified in vocational and higher
education. A comparative analysis of approaches tried elsewhere, may be

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helpful in providing a choice of several options for addressing the same issue
of educational finance, such as tuition fees or student loans.

The Establishment of Priorities: Priorities must be determined for public

action. A shortage of resources may lead to questions being asked about the
priorities for public action. Should the state give economic and social
development top priority, or not? As far as education is concerned, public
spending must focus, first of all, on the expansion and quality of primary
education.

Teachers’ working conditions: Education takes place primarily in

classrooms, with teachers and groups of pupils. The effectiveness of
education is linked to the teachers’ motivation and qualifications, and to the
teaching materials available for their use. To make sure that the expenditure
on education is effective, teachers must be properly paid, they must be given
good working conditions, and they must enjoy social respect.

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 RECOMMENDATIONS

Recommendations to the Constitutional Commission of Afghanistan

The Independent Commission of Education for Afghanistan recommended the

Constitutional Commission of Afghanistan to include the following educational
elements in the new Constitution of Afghanistan:

1. To provide free education for all Afghan citizens, males and females,
without discrimination.

2. To provide a balanced education system throughout the country.

3. To permit the use of the mother tongue in primary education teaching,

when the majority of the population in a region uses it.

4. To implement the principle of universal, compulsory and free primary

education for all school-age children up to the end of grade 9 by 2015.

5. To develop and expand general technical and vocational and

craftsmanship education.

6. To improve the quality and quantity of higher education and training,

in order to prepare the necessary personnel in science and the arts, in
harmony, and coordination, with the human resource needs of
Afghanistan, and especially those required for the country’s
reconstruction.

7. To design, and implement effectively, plans for the eradication of

illiteracy, and train the human resources needed for this purpose.

8. To plan and develop a centralized curriculum in the framework of the

principles of Islam, the national culture and traditions, and in
accordance with international standards and scientific principles.

9. To grant legal authority for the establishment of private schools for

Afghan citizens, in order to promote the expansion and
universalization of education for all.

10. To grant legal authority for foreigners to establish private schools and
institutions.

11. To establish effective programmes which will promote the

development of educational programmes for girls and women.

12. To ensure that all schools and training and higher education
institutions operate under the administration and supervision of the
central government. Local communities should be encouraged to
participate actively in relevant educational activities, and the authority,

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 responsibilities and management tasks should be decentralized to
provincial offices, in accordance with legal rules and regulations, in
order to develop further, and improve, the implementation of
programmes in schools and higher education institutions.

Note: In accordance with the recommendations made to the Constitution

Committee, their subsequent adoption is to be seen in paragraphs 43-46
of the new Constitution for Afghanistan.

General Recommendations

1. More specific and legal guidelines should be drawn up to indicate the

responsibilities of provincial education committees, community
education committees, and professional associations and
organizations in the provision of education for all.

2. Decisions should be made and action taken regarding the

establishment of the following:

A High Council of Education (p.21)

A Council for Higher Education (p.22)
A National Board for Technical and Vocational Education (p.76)
A National Education Commission for Girls and Women (p.116)
Provincial Education Committees (p.24)

3. Decisions should be made and action taken regarding the following

recommended Institutes and Centres:

A National Institute of Planning, Policy and Management (p. 27)

A National Institute for Educational Research, Curriculum and
Materials (p. 28)
A National Institute for Technical and Vocational Education (p. 34 and
p.76)
A National Institute of Health Technology (p. 78)
A National Centre for Distance Education (p. 106)
A National Centre for Non-Formal Education and Training (p. 46)
A National Centre for Science and Technology Education (p. 31)
A National Centre for Applied Research in Science and Technology
(p. 100)
A National Centre for Information Technology and Training (p.32)
Regional Education Resource Centres (p. 35)

4. In accordance with the recommendations regarding a countrywide

programme for the eradication of male and female illiteracy, education
authorities, communities, other ministries, the private sector and the
media, should collaborate in the formulation of a national plan for this
purpose.

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5. Consideration should be given to the development and modernization
of the Ministry of Education printing press, for the purpose of
publishing school textbooks and accompanying teachers’ guides.

6. The proposed National Institute of Planning, Policy and Management,

in collaboration with the relevant departments and offices of education
and the provincial education committees, should prepare data bases
with accurate information on the present situation with regard to
education in Afghanistan, and with projections of future requirements,
with particular emphasis on what is needed for the implementation of
compulsory, free, primary education for all Afghan children by 2015.
The training of the necessary administrative personnel for this purpose
should be undertaken as soon as possible.

7. In the interest of education for all, and in accordance with the

government’s policy of providing social services for nomads, every
effort should be made to provide education and training for nomad
children. The educational facilities may include boarding schools,
mobile units, distance education, etc. Special attention should be
given to the training of teachers, and the preparation of educational
materials for nomads.

8. In order to ensure that sufficient reading materials are published and

available for a literate society to develop, steps should be taken to
encourage the private sector to assist in the establishment of a
publishing industry. The necessary training of the personnel needed to
work in this field should be provided within, and outside, the country,

9. The development of a reading and learning society is one of the most

important educational goals. The provision of books and other reading
materials is a basic requirement of education for all. It is proposed
that consideration be given to the creation of a mechanism for the
formulation of a national book policy, which would promote close
collaboration among all concerned ministries and the private sector,
and encourage the establishment of publishing houses.

10. The Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education, in

close cooperation with the Ministry of Information and Culture, and the
Ministry of Communications, should determine priorities for distance
education programmes. The means of financing programmes,
decisions regarding the training of the personnel needed for the
production of such programmes, the allocation of broadcasting time,
and the radio and television stations to be involved, are matters
requiring joint agreement.

11. Since priority is given to the provision of primary and middle school
education for all by 2015, urgent consideration must be given to all
that is required to meet this goal, e.g. a comprehensive education
policy must be prepared (including those for curriculum and teacher

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 education), and for good quality education at all levels, designs and
standards for school buildings are essential.

12. The structures and procedures of the central and provincial

educational administration should be reviewed to ensure relevance
and efficiency. The qualifications, training and duties of personnel
must also be clearly defined in job descriptions. The duties of
headteachers and school inspectors, in particular, should be subject to
review.

13. Guidance and counselling services should be provided and developed

in all primary, middle and secondary schools, and staff, including
teachers, need to be trained for this purpose.

14. The means of conducting secondary school leaving examinations and

university entrance examinations should be reviewed to ensure that
they are fair, and a reliable assessment of student ability. The use of
external examiners to set and mark papers should be considered.
Evaluation and assessment techniques need to be further developed.

15. A national policy and long-term strategic plan for capacity building,
and the application of science and technology to the reconstruction
and development needs of Afghanistan, should be formulated. The
elements of such a national policy and plan should include science
education and the popularization of science, the infrastructure for the
training of science specialists, engineers and technologists,
information and communication technologies, and the promotion of
relevant research.

16. A national survey of the state of existing technical and vocational

institutions should be carried out, with a view to the repair of facilities
and the procurement of equipment. Curricula should be revised and
in-service training given to staff. A five-year plan for the expansion of
technical and vocational facilities should be prepared.

17. A survey of all teacher-training facilities should be carried out to

determine whether the numbers of teachers required for the
expansion of educational facilities, and particularly for the successful
implementation of the plan for universal primary and middle school
education, can be achieved. The combination of resources to avoid
unnecessary duplication should also be taken into account.

18. A comprehensive national coordinated plan for teacher education

should be drawn up by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of
Higher Education, and the regional authorities, and should include
emergency programmes, in-service training, the use of information
technology and distance learning approaches, as well as long-term
plans for the future training of teachers.

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19. Possible incentives for entry into the teaching profession should be
considered. Teachers’ conditions of service, including the
qualifications for promotion, should be reviewed

20. The reorganization and development of universities and post-

secondary educational institutions should be continued in the interests
of greater efficiency. The courses offered should take into account the
manpower needed for national development and reconstruction.
Attention should be given to the quality, relevance, innovation, and
modernization of higher education.

21. Curricula and courses for higher education will require extensive
revision if they are to provide relevant education for the country’s
future manpower needs. There is a need for more diversified curricula,
which focus on such subjects as agriculture, health, construction,
architecture, engineering, medical technology, science and
technology, the environment, urban and rural development and
business management. Curricula must also include teaching on the
topics of peace and human rights.

22. Collaboration between Afghan educational services and institutions

and foreign universities and international agencies, should be
renewed and reinforced. Measures should be taken for the
participation of relevant Afghan schools and institutions of higher
learning in the international network of universities (UNITWIN) and the
UNESCO Associated Schools Programme.

23. The state budget should give high priority to the development of
education. As the priority for public spending on education has been
officially declared to be the improvement of access to basic and
primary education, this should be taken into consideration when
drawing up plans. Efforts should be made to encourage a greater
involvement of the private sector and communities in the provision of
financial and material assistance for education.

24. Schemes and mechanisms should be devised, with support from

international and national organizations, to encourage Afghans now
living abroad to contribute to, and participate in, the reconstruction of
Afghanistan, by calling upon their considerable expertise, experience,
talents and skills, to assist in the social and economic development of
their country.

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 ANNEXE:
Independent High Commission of Education for Afghanistan

List of Members

Dr. Saif R. Samady, Chairman of the Commission

Mr. Zahir Aziz, Ambassador and Permanent Delegate of Afghanistan to
UNESCO and ISESCO
Professor Abdul Salam Azimi, Vice Chairman of the Constitution Commission
Dr. Abdul Ghafoor Ghaznawi, Secretary General
Dr. Zaher Wahab
Mrs. Fahima Hadi
Mrs. Suraya Sadeed
Dr. Alefshah Zadran
Mr. Touryalay Etemadi
Dr. Enayatullah Shahrani
Professor Zalmai Haqani
Mr. Abdul Habib Hamidi
Mr. Islamuddin Muslim
Mr. Dean Mohammed Gran
Dr. Juma Gul Bandawal
Mr. Shah Jahan Ahmadi
Dr. Nasser Shafi
Mrs Najiba Sharif
Dr. Tahira Humayun
Mr. Mohammed Sharif Sharifi
Dr. Mohammed Yusuf Niazi
Dr. Akram Fazel
Dr. Mahyuddin Mehdi

135