Lesson 1.

Mathematical Pattern and Numbers in

Nature
Sequences and patterns arise naturally
in many real-life situations. Pattern is a form or model
proposed for imitation that serve to construct. In the
case of sequence, Sequence is an organize object and
mathematics is the science of patterns and
relationships. As a theoretical discipline, mathematics
explores the possible relationships among abstractions
without concern for whether those abstractions have
counterparts in the real world. The abstractions can be
anything from strings of numbers to geometric figures to
sets of equations. In addressing, say, "Does the interval
bilaterally symmetric (though internal organs need not
be).
Plants often have radial or rotational
symmetry, as do many flowers and some groups of
animals such as sea anemones. Rotational symmetry is
also found at different scales among non-living things
including the crown-shaped splash pattern formed when
a drop falls into a pond, and both the spheroidal shape
and rings of a planet like Saturn. Radial symmetry suits
organisms like sea anemones whose adults do not
move: food and threats may arrive from any direction.
Bilateral or Mirror Symmetry is a form of

between prime numbers form a pattern?" as a symmetry in which the opposite sides along a midline is
theoretical question, mathematicians are interested only a duplicate of the other in terms of body parts or
in finding a pattern or proving that there is none, but not appearance. A mirror symmetry operation is an
in what use such knowledge might have. In deriving, for imaginary operation that can be performed to reproduce
instance, an expression for the change in the surface
an object. The operation is done by imagining that you
area of any regular solid as its volume approaches zero,
cut the object in half, then place a mirror next to one of
mathematicians have no interest in any correspondence
the halves of the object along the cut. If the reflection in
between geometric solids and physical objects in the
real world. the mirror reproduces the other half of the object, then
the object is said to have mirror symmetry. The plane of
Patterns in nature are visible regular forms
the mirror is an element of symmetry referred to as a
found in the natural world. The patterns can sometimes
mirror plane, and is symbolized with the letter m. As an
be modeled mathematically and they include
example, the human body is an object that approximates
symmetries, trees, spirals, meanders, waves, foams,
mirror symmetry, with the mirror plane cutting through
tessellations, cracks and stripes.
the center of the head, the center of nose and down to
Pattern are regular, repeated, or recurring forms
the groin.
or designs. Patterns are commonly observed in natural
objects such as the six-fold symmetry of snowflakes the
hexagonal structure and formation of honeycomb, the
tiger’s stripes, and hyena’s spots, the number of seeds
in a sun flower, a spiral of a snail’s shell, and the number
Rotational or Radial Symmetry
of petals of flowers.
Rotational Symmetry is where there is a center
Symmetry
point and numerous lines of symmetry could be drawn. If
There are many objects in nature that are
you rotate the spiderwort and starfish above by several
symmetrical. The face and the body of a human being is
degrees, you will still achieve the same appearance as
symmetric. The left and the right wings of the butterfly is
the original position. this is known as rotational
symmetrical. Why is this so? Imagine a vertical line from
symmetry. The smallest that a figure can be rotated
the top of the head down to the chin of the face. The
while still preserving the original formation is called the
distance of each point on the right side of the façade to
angle of rotation.
this imaginary vertical line is exactly the same as the
A more common way of describing rotational
distance of each point on the left side. Animals mainly
symmetry is by order of rotation.
have bilateral or mirror symmetry, as do the leaves of
plants and some flowers such as orchids. Animals that
move in one direction necessarily have upper and lower
sides, head and tail ends, and therefore a left and a
right. The head becomes specialized with a mouth and Threefold Rotational Symmetry
An object that repeat themselves upon rotation
sense organs (cephalization), and the body becomes
o
of 120 are said to have a 3-fold axis of rotational
symmetry (360/120 =3), and they will repeat 3 times in a
360o rotation. A filled triangle is used to symbolize the
location of 3-fold rotation axis.

Spirals
Spirals is a curve pattern that focuses on the
center point and a series of circular shapes that

Fourfold Rotational Symmetry revolve around it. If you construct a series of squares

If an object repeats itself after 90 o of rotation, it with lengths equal to the Fibonacci numbers (1,1,2,3,5,

will repeat 4 times in a 360 o rotation, as illustrated etc ) and trace a line through the diagonals of each

previously. A filled square is used to symbolize the square, it forms a Fibonacci spiral.

location of 4-fold axis of rotational symmetry. Many examples of the Fibonacci spiral can be
seen in nature, including the examples below.

Fivefold Rotational Symmetry

An object that repeat themselves upon rotation

of 120o are said to have a 3-fold axis of rotational Fractals
symmetry (360/120 =3), and they will repeat 3 times in a
Fractals are infinitely complex patterns that are
360o rotation. For the spiderwort, the angle of rotation is
self-similar across different scales. They are patterns that
1200 while the angle of rotation for the baby starfish is
is repeated at ever smaller scales to produce irregular
720.
shapes and surfaces that cannot be represented by
classical geometry. It comes from a Latin adjective
“fractus” or verb “frangere” which means to break. Fractal
geometry is a discipline named and popularized by the
mathematician Benoit Mandelbrot (1924-2000). This
category of geometry describes a set of curves many of
Sixfold Symmetry which were rarely seen before the advent of computers.
o
If rotation of 72 about an axis causes the object Mandelbrot wrote the fractal geometry of nature
to repeat itself, then it has 5-fold axis of rotational
(1977) and he stated: “clouds are not sphering,
symmetry (360/7= 5). A filled hexagon is used as the
mountains are not coning, coastlines are not circling, and
symbol for a 5-fold rotation axis.
bark is not smooth, nor does lightning travel in a straight
line” some popular fractals are: Sierpinski triangle,
Pascal’s triangle, Koch snowflake, fractal trees and
Barnsley ferns.
Fractals geometry is a useful tool in quantifying
STRIPS
the structure of a wide range of objects in nature, from
Stripes is a long, narrow band, mark, or streak,
differing in color, texture, or material from the pure mathematics, through physics, and chemistry, to

surrounding area. Pattern are also exhibited in the biology and medical sciences.
external appearance of animals. According to a theory of
Alan Turing, the man famous for breaking the enigma
code during World War II, chemical reaction and
diffusion processes in cells determine these growths of
pattern. Most recent studies addressed the question why Foam
Foam is a substance formeby trapping pockets of gas in
some species grow vertical stripes while others have
a liquid or solid. A bath sponge and the bead on the
horizontal ones. A new model by Harvard University
glass of beer are example of foams.in most foams, the
researches predicts that there are three variables that
volume of gas is largewith this films of liquid or solid
could affect the orientation of these stripes. First, the
separating the regions of gas. Soap foams are also
substance that amplifies the density of stripe patterns.
known as suds.
Second, the substance that changes one of the
parameters involved in stripes formation. Lastly, the
physical change in the direction of the origin of the
stripe.

Cracks
A fracture or cracks is the separation of an
object into two or more pieces under the action of
stress.the fracture is a solid usually occurs due to the
development of certain displacement discontinuity
surfaces with in the solid.if a displace ment develops
perpendicular to the surface of displacement,it is called
a normal tensil crack or simply a crack.If a displacement
develops tangentially to the surface of displacement,it is
called a shear crack, slip band,or dislocation.
Wave
Wave is a disturbance that transfer of energy
through matter or space, withlittle or no associated mass
transport.waves consist of occilations or vibrations of a
physical medium or a field,around relatively fixed
locations. Surface waves in water show water ripples.
Tesselation
Tessellations is a pattern covering a plane by
fitting together replicas of the same basic shape. The
word tessellation comes from Latin word tessera, which
means a square tablet or a die used in gambling.
Tessellation have been created by nature and the man
either by accident or design. Examples range from
simple hexagonal patterns from the bees’ honeycomb,
snake skin, or a tiled floor to intricate decorations used
by the Moons in thirteenths century Spain or the
elaborate mathematical, but artistic mosaic created by
Mauritis Cornelis Escher in the 20th century. To tesselate
a shape, it must be able to exactly surround a point or
the sum of the angles around each point in a tessellation
must be 3600. The only regular polygons with this feature
are equilateral triangle, squares and regular hexagons
For a beehive, close packing is important to
maximize the use of space. Hexagons fit most closely
together without any gaps; so hexagonal wax cells are
what bees create to store their eggs and larvae.
Fibonacci Numbers
Fibonacci sequence is one of the most famous
formulas in mathematics. It observed numbers in nature.
His most popular contribution perhaps is the number
that is seen in the petals of flowers. A calla lily flower
has only 1 petal, trillium has 3, hibiscus has 5, cosmos
flower has 8, corn marigold has 13, some asters have
21, and a daisy can have 34,55, or 89 petals.
Surprisingly, these petals count represent the first
eleven numbers of the Fibonacci sequence. Not all petal
numbers of flowers, however, follows this pattern
discovered by Fibonacci. Some examples include the
Brassicaceae family having four petals. Astoundingly,
many of the flowers abide by the pattern observed by
Fibonacci.
Fibonacci rabbit problems in the end of this
lesson is not a realistic model of population growth of
rabbits but is a very good example of a mathematical
problem solved using patterns. It is interesting to note
also that the famous rabbit problem paved the way to
the discovery of a phenomenal sequence of numbers
known as the Fibonacci Sequence.
Leonardo Pisano Fibonacci also known as
Leonardo of Pisa is an Italian mathematician and was
born in Pisa, Italy on around 1170 A.D., who introduces
the sequence with a problem involving rabbits in the
13th century. He started with a male and a female
rabbit. After a month, they mature and produce a litter
with another male and female rabbit. A month later,
those rabbits reproduce and out comes another male
and female, who also can mate after a month. After a
year, how many rabbits would you have? the formula
used to get to that answer is what's now known as the
Fibonacci sequence.
Sequence is an ordered list of numbers, called
terms, that may have repeated values. The arrangement
of these terms is set by a definite rule. The terms of a
sequence could be generated by applying the rule to the
previous term of the sequence.
Fibonacci Sequence is formed by adding the
preceding two numbers, beginning with 0 and 1. ratios of
two Fibonacci numbers approximate the golden ratio,
which is considered as the most aesthetically pleasing
proportion.
The principle behind the Fibonacci numbers is
as follows:
  Let F n be the nth integer in the Solution:
Fibonacci sequence, the next (n +1) th Fn = (1 + √ 5 / 2) n – (1-√ 5 / 2) n / √ 5
term F n+1 is determined by adding nth F 20 = (1 + √ 5 / 2) 20 – (1-√ 5 / 2) 20
and the (n-1) th integer. = 6765
 Consider the first few terms below: Let
F1 = 1 be the first term, and F2 = 1 be Fn = (1 + √ 5 / 2) n – (1-√ 5 / 2) n / √ 5
the second term, the third term F 3 is F 50 = (1 + √ 5 / 2) 50 – (1-√ 5 / 2) 50
found by F3 = F1 + F2 = 1 + 1 = 2. = 12,586,269,020
 The fourth term F 4 is 2 + 1 =3, the sum The Golden Ratio
of the second and the third term. The Fibonacci number or the Golden
 To find the new nth Fibonacci number, Ratio is been called the natures secret code and
simply add the two numbers natures universal rule. It is said to govern the
immediately preceding this nth number. dimensions of everything from the great Pyramid of Giza
n= 3 : F 3 = 1 + 1 = 2 n= 7 : F to the iconic seashell found in nature.
7 = 5 + 8 = 13 Fibonacci numbers is very close to the Golden
n= 4 : F4 = 1 + 2 = 3 n= 8 : Ratio which is approximately 1.6180339887....the ratio
F8 = 8 + 13 = 21 of two consecutive Fibonacci numbers as n becomes
n= 5: F 5 = 2 + 3 = 5 n= 9 : large, approaches the golden ratio; that is, lim F n / F n-1 =
F9 = 13 + 21 = 34 1.6180339887….this can be verified by measuring some
n= 6 : F 6 = 3 + 5 = 8 parts of the human body: the length of the arm, height,
from this pattern, we conjecture that F n = F n-1 + the distance of the fingertips to the elbow. According to
F n-2 for n ≥ 3, Fibonacci discovered that a Fibonacci Markowsky (1992), the ratio of a person’s height to the
number can be found by adding its previous two height of his or her navel is roughly the golden ratio.
Fibonacci number. The ratio between the forearms and the hand
F1 = 1, F2 = 1 and Fn = F n-1 + F n-2 , for n ≥ 3 also yields a value close to the golden ratio.
Example 1: Using the definition of Fibonacci
numbers find the eight and tenth Fibonacci number.
Solution: the eight Fibonacci number is the sum
of the two previous Fibonacci number. Thus,
F8=F7+F6
Another name for golden ratio is divine
= (F6 +F5) + F6
proportion. This must be so because human beauty is
= (8 + 5) +8
based on the divine proportion. The human face is also
= 13 + 8
proportion to the other parts of it.
= 21
 Center of pupil: bottom of teeth: bottom
The tenth Fibonacci number is the sum of the
of chin
two previous Fibonacci number in an ordered sequence.
 Outer and inner edge of eye: center of
Thus,
nose
F 10 = F 9 + F 8
 Outer edges of lips: upper ridges of lips
= (F8 +F7) + F8
 Width of center tooth: with of second
= (21 + 13) + 21
tooth
= 34 + 21
= 55  Width of eyes: with of iris

It is easy to find the nth Fibonacci number F n if

the two previous number, F n-1 and F n-2 are known.
Suppose we want find F 20 using the definition, it is
tedious and time consuming to compute F 19 and F 18 to
determine F 20 . Fortunately, Jacques Binet in 1543 was
able to find a formula for the nth Fibonacci number.
Binet’s Formula:

The Golden ratio can also be visualized as a

rectangular perfectly formed by a square and another
rectangle, which can be repeated infinitely inside each
Example 2: Use Binet formula and a calculator section.
to find the 20th and 50th Fibonacci number.
 Shapes and figures that bear this proportion are c) Use the equation to estimate the population in
generally considered to be aesthetically pleasing. As 2020 to the nearest hundred people.
such, this ratio is visible in many works of art and Solution:
architecture such as in the Mona Lisa, the Notre Dame a) After one year the population would be 35,000 +
Cathedral, and the Parthenon. 0.024(35000).
If you construct a series of squares with lengths By factoring, we have 35000(1 + 0.024) or
equal to the Fibonacci numbers (1,1,2,3,5, etc) and 35000(1.024).
trace a line through the diagonals of each square, it The growth factor is 1.024. (Remember that
forms a Fibonacci spiral. growth factor is greater than 1.)
b) y = a b x = a (1.014) x = 35000 (1.024) x
c) y = 35000(1.024)4 ≈ 38,482.91 ≈ 38,500
Continuous Exponential Growth or Decay
Most naturally occurring phenomena grow
continuously. For example, bacteria will continue to
The golden ratio denoted by "φ" is sometimes grow over a 24 hours period, producing new bacteria
called the golden mean or golden section. which will also grow.
"φ"= 1 + √ 5 / 2 = 1.6180339887…. The bacteria do not wait until the end of the 24
Take Note: hours, and then all reproduce at once.
Kindly watch in you tube channel entitled “Why The exponential” e” is used when modeling
is 1.618…is so important ” using the link : continuous growth that occurs naturally such as
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=keLN89CWZ-A for populations, bacteria, radioactive decay, etc. You can
additional reference. think of e like a universal constant representing how fast
Exponential Growth you could possibly grow using a continuous process.
As of 2017, it is estimated that the world And, the beauty of e is that not only is it used to
population is about 7.6 billion. World leaders, represent continuous growth, but it can also represent
sociologist, and anthropologists, are interested in growth measured periodically across time.
studying population, including its growth. Mathematics Continuous Exponential Growth or Decay
A = A0 e k t
can be used to model population growth.
A = ending value (amount after growth or decay)
The following two function formulas were used
A0 = initial value (amount before measuring
to easily illustrate the concepts of growth and decay in
growth or decay)
applied situations. If a quantity grows by a fixed percent
e = exponential e = 2.71828183...
at regular intervals, the pattern can be depicted by these
k = continuous growth rate (also called constant
functions.
of proportionality)
Exponential Growth: Exponential Decay: (k > 0, the amount is increasing (growing); k < 0,
y = a (1 + r ) x
y = a (1 – r ) x
the amount is decreasing (decaying))

Remember that the original exponential formula t = time that has passed

was y= a b x
. If we compare this new formula to our previous

You will notice that in these new growth and decay exponential decay formula (or growth formula), we can

functions, see how e k is related to the rate of decay, r, (or growth).

the b value (growth factor) has been replaced either by

(1 + r) or by (1 - r).
The growth "rate" (r) is determined as b =1+ r.
The decay "rate" (r) is determined as b = 1 - r

a = initial value (the amount before measuring growth or

Example: A strain of bacteria growing on your
decay)
desktop doubles every 5 minutes. Assuming that you
r = growth or decay rate (most often represented as a
start with only one bacterium, how many bacteria could
percentage and expressed as a decimal)
be present at the end of 96 minutes?
x = number of time intervals that have passed
(bacteria continuously grow)
Example 1: The population of hometown in 2016 was
Solution:
estimated to be 35,000 people with an annual rate of
increase of 2.4%.
a) What is the growth factor for hometown?
b) Write an equation to model future growth.
 students get confused. When numbers are
spoken correctly, we should hear the place
value of every digit.
ii. Concise (able to say
things briefly) Example:
  The long English sentence can be shortened
using mathematical symbols. Two x squared
plus three is seven, which means 2x2 + 3 = 7.
iii. Powerful (able to express
complex thought with
relative ease) Example:
Now, form the equation using this k value, and solve the
The application of critical thinking and problem-
problem using the time of 96 minutes. solving skill requires the comprehension,
analysis and reasoning to obtain the correct
solution.

II. Conversion of English expression to

Mathematical Sentences and vice-versa

We begin by describing the basic mathematical

operations in the English language. There are only 5
Lesson 2: MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND basic operations in mathematics excluding
SYMBOLS exponentiation. Each of these operations has a
The language of mathematics is the system corresponding English translation as shown in the table
used by mathematicians to communicate mathematical below.
ideas among themselves. This language consists of a Symbols/ Basic English Terms
substrate of some natural language (for example Operations
English) using technical terms and grammatical = Equals, is equal to (most common mistake,
conventions that are peculiar to mathematical discourse, “is equals to”), represents, is the same as, is,
supplemented by a highly specialized symbolic notation are and the conjugations of the verb “to be”,
for mathematical formulas. is similar to, is equivalent to, exactly, results
In everyday living, we may encounter and even in.
use expressions in English that may connote + Plus, sum, total, added to, added with, added
mathematical values or symbols without our knowing it. by, augmented, raised, more, more than,
These encounters include riding a vehicle; re-loading and, increased, put together.
cellular phones in a store; buying a particular item from - Minus, difference, subtracted from,
a store; taking allowances from parents or guardians; subtracted by, diminish, less, less than,
expectations of grades in a particular subject; number of decreased, separated.
friends in Social Media who are sincere, honest, or the
● or () Times, product, multiplied by, multiplied with,
opposite; friends who like a photo uploaded on
multiplied to, doubled, tripled (etc.), twice,
Facebook; number of crushes in this School; number of
thrice (etc.)
hours spent using the Internet; and many more.
/, ÷ Divided by, quotient, per, ratio, halved, over,
The translation of these encounters into
over all
mathematical expressions and vice-versa, however, is
These symbols are used in different mathematical
found to be a little complicated, especially if our
operations, and the manner in which these will be read
knowledge of English grammar is limited.
follows the English language. Consider the following
examples:
Specific Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, students are expected to:
1. Discuss the language, symbols and conventions
of mathematics;
2. Explain the nature of mathematics as a
language;
3. Perform operations on mathematical sentences;
4. Convert mathematical sentences to English
expressions; 5. Convert algebraic sentences to
English expressions; and 6. Appreciate that
mathematics is a useful language.
I. Language, Symbols, and Conventions of
Mathematics

The language of mathematics makes it easy to

express the kinds of symbols, syntax and rules that
mathematicians like to do and characterized by the
following:
i. Precise (able to make
very fine distinctions)
Example:
The essential understanding of place value is
that digits take on different meanings based on
their place value position. We teach students
that an 8 in the ones place has a value of 8,
while an 8 in the hundreds place has a value of
800. So how important is it, then, that we say
the number 807 as eight hundred seven, rather
than eight-o-seven? When we take short cuts
naming numbers, we often strip all the place
value meaning out of the number. No wonder
 9÷3 = 3 • Nine divided by three is three. Specification of Sets
• The quotient of nine and three is three
There are three main ways to specify a set:
• The ratio of nine and three is equal to three
1. List Notation / Roster Method – by listing all
Common errors:
its members
• The quotient of nine and three is three
- List names of elements of a set, separate
(Connotes different meaning)
them by commas and enclose them in
• The ratio of nine and three is to three.
braces:
(Connotes different meaning) Examples:
Complicated expressions are not so difficult to read. Below are complicated expressions: 1. {1, 12, 35}
2. {Daniela, Romina, Cassy, Marga}
3. {m, n, o, p}
Combined
4. {1, 2, …, 100}
Mathematical English Translations 2. Predicate Notation/Rule
Statements
Method/Set-Builder Notation
• The sum of six and two all over eight is one. - By stating a property of its elements. It has
=1
• The ratio of six plus two, and eight is equal to one. a property that members of the set share (a
• One is the quotient when the sum of six and two is condition or a predicate which holds for
divided by eight. members of this set).
Examples:
Common Errors
a) {x/x is a natural number and x< 8}
• Six plus two divided by eight is one. (Connotes means “the set of all x such that x is
different meaning)
2(12 – 4) = 16 • Twice the difference of twelve and four is sixteen a natural number and is less than 8”
• The product of twelve and two less four is sixteen. b) {x/x is a letter of Korean alphabet}
c) {y/y is a student of SKSU and y is
older than 20}
Common Errors:
3. Recursive rules
• Double the difference of twelves and four is - By defining a set of rules which
sixteen. (Connotes different meaning)
generates or defines its members.
• Twelve minus four times two is sixteen. Examples:
(Connotes different meaning)
a) The set E of even numbers greater
I. Conversion of Algebraic Expressions to English Sentences
than 5
b) 4 ∈ E
By applying this concept to algebra, we use English translation of the variable x as “the
number” or “a number”. The following examples are useful. c) If x ∈ E, then x+2 ∈ E
Algebraic
Statements
English Translations
d) Nothing else belongs to E
Equal Sets
2x = 10 • Twice a number is equal to ten.
Two sets are equal if they contain exactly the
Two times a number is ten.
• same elements.
Examples:
1. {3, 8, 9} = {9, 8, 3}
3(2x – 4) = 7 • Thrice the difference of twice a number and four is seven.
2. {6, 7, 7, 7, 7,} = {6, 7}
• Three, multiplied to the difference of twice a number less four, is 3. {1, 3, 5, 7} ≠ {3, 5]
seven.

Equivalent Sets
=5
2(n+1) • The ratio of twice the sum of a number and one, and 3 three is Two sets are equivalent if they contain the same
equal to five. number of elements.
Lesson 3: Sets Example:
1. Set 1. Which of the following sets are
A set is a collection of well-defined objects that equivalent?
contains no duplicates: The objects in the set are called {���, α, β}, {∞, ∩, ∃}, {1, 3,
the elements of the set. To describe a set, we use 5}, {a, b, c}, {€, ₸, ₢}
braces { }, and use capital letters to represent it. Solution: All of the given sets are
Examples: equivalent. Note that no two of them are equal,
1. The books in the shelves in a library. but they all have the same numbers of
2. The bank accounts in a bank. elements.
3. The set of natural numbers N = {1, 2, 3, …}.
Universal Set
4. The integer numbers Z = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, A set that contains all the elements
2, 3, …}. considered in a particular situation denoted by
5. The rational numbers is the set of quotients U.
of integers Q = {p/q : p, q ∈ Z and q = 0}. Example: The universal set
The three dot in enumerating the elements of a. Suppose we list the digits only.
the set are called ellipses and indicate a continuing Then, U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, since U
pattern. A finite set contains elements that can be includes all the digits. b. Suppose we consider the
counted and terminates at certain natural number, whole numbers
otherwise, it is infinite set. Then U = {0, 1, 2, 3, …} since U contains all
Example: whole numbers.
Set A = {1,3,5,7,11,13,17,19}
- The set of all prime numbers less than or Subsets
equal to 19. The order in which the A set A is called a subset of set B if
elements are listed is not relevant: i.e., the every element of A is also an element of B. “A is
set {1,3,5,7,11,13,17,19} is the same as the a subset of B” is written as A ⊆ B. Example:
set {13,3,5, 11,13,17,19,1}.
There is exactly one set, the empty set, or null 1. A = {7, 9} is a subset of B = {6, 7, 9}
set, ∅ or {}, which has no members at all. A set with 2. D = {10, 8, 6} is a subset of G = {10, 8, 6}
only one member is called a singleton or a singleton A proper subset is a subset that is not equal to the
set. (“single of a”). original set, otherwise improper subset.
Example:
 Given {3, 5, 7} then the proper subsets first coordinate, there is exactly one second coordinate
are {}, {5, 7}, {3, 5}, {3, 7}. or for every first element of x, there corresponds a
The improper subset is {3, 5, 7}. unique second element y.
Remember: A one-to-one correspondence and many-to-
Cardinality of the Set one correspondence are called Functions while one-to-
It is the number of distinct elements belonging to a finite many correspondence is not.
set. It is also called the cardinal number of the set A
denoted by n(A) or card (A) and /A/. Examples: The function can be represented using the
Power Set following:
It is the family of all the subsets of A denoted by 1. Table
Power (A). The perimeter of a square is four times the
Given set A = {x, y}, the Power (A) = { ∅, {x}, {y}, {x,y} or length of its side.
{x/x is a subset of A}. Sides (S) 1 3 5 7 9
Perimeter (P) 4 12 20 28 36
Operations on Sets
Union is an operation for sets A and B in which a set is 2. Ordered Pairs
formed that consists of all the elements included in A or {{1,4}, {3,12}, {5,20}, {7,28}, {9,36}}
B both denoted by U as A U B.
Examples:
3. Mapping
a) Given U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, A = {1, 3,
5, 7}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8} and C = {1, 2}, find the
following:
a) A U B b) A U C
c) (A U B) U {8}
Solution:
a) A U B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
b) A U C = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7}
c) (A U B) U {8} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8}
Therefore, this a function.
Intersection 4. Graphing Using vertical line test, that is, a
-is the set containing all elements common to set of points in the plane is the graph of a
both A and B, denoted by ∩. function if and only if no vertical line
Example: intersects the graph in more than one
Given U = {a, b, c, d, e}, A = {c, d, e}, B = {a, c, point. Below is not a function.
e} and C = {a} and D = {e}. find the following
intersections of sets:
a) B ∩ C b) A ∩ C
c) (A ∩ B) ∩ D
Solutions:
a) B ∩ C = {a} c) (A ∩ B) = {c, e}, (A ∩ B) ∩ D
= {e} b) A ∩ C = ∅

Complementation
-is an operation on a set that must be performed in 4. Binary
reference to a universal set, denoted by A’. Example: Operations
Given U = {a, b, c, d, e}, A = {c, d, e}, find A’. A binary operation on a set is a calculation involving
Solution: A’ = {a, b} two elements of the set to produce another element of
1. Relation the set.
- A relation is a rule that pairs each element in A new math (binary) operation, using
one set, called the domain, with one or more elements symbol *, is defined to be a * b = 2a +
from a second set called the range. It creates a set of b, where a and b are real numbers.
ordered pairs. Examples:
Examples: 1. Given: 1. What is 5 * 3?
Regular holidays in the Philippines Month Solution: 5 * 3 = 2(5) + 3 = 10 + 3 = 13
and Date 2. Is a * b commutative?
1. New Years’ Day January 1 Solution: Verify if a * b = b * a.
2. Labor Day May 1 2a + b = 2b + a? Not
true for all real numbers
3. Independence Day June 12
If a = 4 and b = 2, then 2(4) + 2
4. Bonifacio Day November 30 = 2(2) + 4 is not true.
5. Rizal Day December 30 Therefore: The operation * is not
commutative for all real numbers
A clearer way to express a relation is to form a 3. Is a * b * c associative?
set of ordered pairs; Solution: Verify if a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c
(New Years’ Day, January 1), (Labor Day, May 1), 2a + (2b+c) = 2(2a+b) +
(Independence Day, June 12), (Bonifacio Day, c
November 30), (Rizal Day, December 30). This set If a = 2, b = 3, c = 4; 2●2 + (2●3 + 4)
describes a Relation. 2(2●2 + 3) + 4;
{ {2,3}, {4,5} is not a relation but just a set of 4 + 10 2(7) + 4; 14 18. The operation * is not
ordered pairs. associative for real numbers.
{ {1,4}. {2,5}, {3,6} } is a relation. The domain of Sometimes, a binary operation on a finite set (a set
the relation is the set {1,2,3} and the range is with a limited number of elements) is displayed in a
{4,5,6} table which shows how the operation is to be
Lesson 4 performed. A binary operation, * is defined on the set {1,
Function 2, 3, 4}. The table below shows the 16 possible answers
- is a rule that pairs each element in one set, using this operation.
called the domain with exactly one element from a
second set, called the range. This means that for each
(To read the table: read the first value from the left-hand false. Similarly, the existential quantifier (∃) is used to
column and the second value from the top row. The say that there is some value of the variables which
answer is the intersection point). makes the predicate a true statement.
Examples:
* 1 2 3 4 1. Let x be a real number x 2 – 1 = 0 is not a
proposition, it is a predicate.
1 4 3 2 1
2. “There exists an x so that x2 – 1 = 0” is a proposition
2 3 1 4 2 (true)
3 2 4 1 3
3. “For all x, x2 – 1 = 0 is also a proposition (false).
4. These are written as:
4 1 2 3 4 (∃ x ∈ R) (x2 – 1 = 0) and (∀ x ∈
R) (x – 1 = 0).
2
Examples:
Lesson 3: Problem Solving and Reasoning
1. What is 2 * 2? Answer: 1 Mathematics is not just about numbers; much of it is
2. Is 4 * 3 commutative? Answer: 4*3 = 3 problem solving and reasoning.
and 3*4 = 3 Problem solving and reasoning are basically
3. What is the identity element for the inseparable. The art of reasoning is very
operation *? Answer: 4 (Find the single important in mathematics. This is the skill needed in
element that will always return the exemplifying the critical thinking
original value. The identity element is 4. and problem-solving ability. Logic and reasoning are
You will have found the identity element very useful tools in decision
when all of the values in its row and its making. People are also do deductive reasoning
column are the same as the row and extensively to show that certain
columns headings). conjectures are true as these follow the rules of
4. Is associative for these values? Answer: logic. A conjecture is a conclusion
4*(3*2) = (4*3)*2 made from observing data.
Inductive and Deductive reasoning are two
fundamental forms of reasoning for
4*4 = 3*2
mathematicians. The formal theorems and proofs that
we rely on today all began with
4 =4 these two types of reasoning. Even today,
Answer: Yes, it is associative for values 4, 3, and 2. mathematicians are actively using these two
V. Elementary Logic types of reasoning to discover new mathematical
Propositions and Connectives theorems and proofs. Believe it or not,
A proposition (or statement) is a sentence that is either you yourself might be using inductive and deductive
true or false (without additional information). reasoning when you make
The logical connectives are defined by truth tables (but assumptions about how the world works.
have English language counterparts). Specific Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, students are expected to:
Logic Math English 1. Use different types of reasoning to justify statements
and arguments made about
Conjunction ^ And
mathematics and mathematical concepts;
Disjunction v or (inclusive) 2. Write clear and logical proofs;
3. Organize one’s methods and approaches for proving
Negation ~ Not and solving problems.
Conditional ⇒ If…then…. I. Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning
Biconditional ⇔ If and only if According to www.study.com, Inductive reasoning is
the logical process in which
multiple premises, all believed to be true or found true
A denial is a statement equivalent to the negation of a most of the time are combined to
statement. obtain a specific conclusion. This reasoning is used
Examples: in applications that involve
1. The negation of P ⇒ Q is ~ (P ⇒ Q). prediction, forecasting, or behavior.
2. A denial of P ⇒ Q is P ^ ~ Q. A conclusion that is reached by inductive reasoning
A tautology is a statement which is always true. may or may not be valid. An
Examples: example of inductive reasoning is when you notice that
1. A v (B ^ C) ⇔ (A v B) ^ (A v C) Distributive law all the mice you see around you
2. ~ (A v B) ⇔ ~ A ^ ~ B are brown, and you make the conclusion that all mice in
the world are brown. Can you
3. P ⇔ ~ (~ P) say for certain that this conclusion is correct? No,
A contradiction is a statement which is always false. because it is based on just a few
Example: 1. (A v ~ A) ⇒ (B ^ ~B) a contradiction. observations. This is, however the beginning of
The contrapositive of the statement if P then Q is if forming a correct conclusion or a
~Q then ~P. An implication and its contrapositive are correct proof. What this observation has given you a
logically equivalent, so one can always be used in place starting hypothesis to test out.
of the other. We may also arrive at a conjecture whose conclusion is
A predicate (open sentence) is a sentence containing based on inductive reasoning.
one or more variables which becomes a proposition There are instances however when even if all of the
upon replacement of the variables. premises are true in a statement,
Examples: inductive reasoning still allows for a false conclusion.
1. The integer x is even. Consider the examples below:
2. y = 5. Examples of inductive reasoning
3. Triangle ABC is isosceles. 1. Daniela leaves for a school at 7:00 a.m. Daniela
However, a predicate is not a proposition, it does not is always on time. Therefore,
have a truth value. One can however use quantifiers to Daniela assumes then that if she leaves for school at
make propositions about predicates. For instance, the 7:00 a.m., she will always be on
universal/general quantifier (∀) is used to say that a time.
given predicate is true for all possible values of its 2. The teacher uses PowerPoint in the last three
variables. This is a proposition, since it is either true or classes. Therefore, the teacher will
use PowerPoint tomorrow.
3. The chair in the living room is red. The chair in
the dining room is red. The chair in
the bedroom is red. Therefore, all chairs in the house
are red.
4. Cathy is a first-year college student of SKSU.
Cathy is a female.
Therefore, all first-year college students of SKSU are
females.
5. Karl just moved here from General Santos City.
Karl has braces.
Therefore, all people from General Santos City have
braces.
All goats that we have seen have been black.
Therefore, all goats are black.
6. Fourth is an excellent lawn tennis player.
Fourth’s family has tennis court.
Therefore, the sister of Fourth named Alexa must also
be an excellent lawn tennis
Player
Deductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning typically may lead to deductive
reasoning, the process of
reaching conclusions based on previously known facts.
The conclusions reached by this
type of reasoning are valid and can be relied on. For
example, you know for a fact that
all pennies are copper-colored. Now, if your friend
gave you a penny, what can you
conclude about the penny? You can conclude that
the penny will be colored-copper.
You can say this for certain because your statement is
based on facts.
Example of deductive reasoning
Examples of deductive reasoning are also called
syllogism.
1. All men are mortal. (Major premise)
Senator Pacquiao is a man. (Minor premise)
Therefore, Senator Pacquiao is mortal. (Conclusion)
2. All first-year college students in the new curriculum
take Mathematics in the Modern
World.
Precious is a first-year student in the new curriculum.
Therefore, Precious takes Mathematics in the Modern
World.
3. All Filipinos eat rice.
Eugene is a Filipino.
Therefore, Eugene eats rice.
II. Mathematical Proofs
A proofis a sequence of true facts (statements) placed in
a logical order.
In proving, the following may be used as reasons:
• The given information (the hypothesis)
• Definition and undefined terms
• Algebraic properties
• Postulates of geometry
• Previously proven geometric conjectures (theorems)
lgebraic and Geometric Proofs
In order for us to prove properly and correctly, it is
wise to remember and understand
the necessary properties to be used in writing formal
proofs:
Important Properties of Algebra:
For real numbers w, x, y, and z:
Reflexive : x = x
Symmetric : If x=y, then y=x.
Transitive : If x=y and y=z, then x=z.
Substitution: If x+y = z and x = 3, then 3+y = z.
Distributive: x (y+z) = xy +yz.
Commutative Properties:
a. Addition : x+y = y+z
b. Multiplication : yz = zy
Associative Properties:
a. Addition : x + (y+z) = (x+y) +z
b. Multiplication : x(yz) = (xy)z
Addition Properties of Equality (APE)
a. If x = z, then x ±y = z ±y
b. If w = x and y = z, then w + y = x + z
Multiplication Properties of Equality (MPE)
a. If x = z, then xy = yz or x/y = y/z
b. If w = x and y = z, then wy = xz or w/y = x/z
Summary
Inductive reasoning is the logical process in which
multiple premises, all believed
to be true or found true most of the time are
combined to obtain a specific
conclusion. This reasoning is used in applications
that involve prediction,
forecasting, or behavior.
Deductive reasoning, the process of reaching
conclusions based on previously
known facts. The conclusions reached by this type of
reasoning are valid and can
be relied on.
A proofis a sequence of true facts (statements) placed in
a logical order.
World Population Growth
As of 2017, it is estimated that the world population is
about 7.6 billion.
- Sociologist and anthropologist are interested in
studying population including its growth.
Formula: A = Pert , where A = size of the population
after it grows
P = initial number of
people
r = rate of growth
t = time
e = 2.718 (Euler’s
constant value)
Example: Population Growth
The exponential growth model A = 30e0.02t
describes the population of a city in the Philippines
in thousands, t years after 2000.
a. What was the population of the city in 2000?
b. What will be the population in 2022?
Solution:
a. Since our exponential growth model describes
the population t years after 2000, we consider
2000 as t = 0 and then solve for A, our
population size.
A = 30e0.02t
A = 30e0.02 x 0
A = 30e0
A = 30
Therefore, the city population in 2000 was
30,000
b. We need to find A for the year 2022. To find t,
we subtract 2022 and 2000 to get t = 22, which
we the plug in to our exponential growth model.
A = 30e0.02t
A = 30e(0.02)(22)
A = 30e0.044
A = 30(2.718)0.044
A = 30(1.55271)
A = 46.5813
Therefore, the city population would be about
46,581 in 2022.
Exercises:
1. The exponential growth model A = 50 e0.07t
Describe the population of a city in the Phil. In
thousands, t years after 1997.
a. What is the population after 20 years?
b. What is the population in 2037?
2. A house is purchased for 1M in 2002. The
value of the house is given by the
exponential growth model A = Pert . Find t
when the house would be worth 5M.
3. Substitute the given values in the formula A
= Pert to find the missing quantity
a. P = 680,000 ; r = 8% ; t = 12 years
b. A = 1,240,000 ; r = 12% ; t = 30 years
c. A = 731,093 ; P = 525,600 ; r = 3% per
year