Particpatory Need Assessemnt Manual by DDE

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Participatory Need Assessment
Concept, Methods, Processes and Procedures
*************
A manual
Prepared
By
Dereje Dejene.
CCF Inc Ethiopia
Personal collection and compilation by Dereje Dejene from the various Project Planning, FSR, RRA/PRA Training i
Courses; 1987-2000;
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1. IDENTIFICATION OF DEVELOPMENT PROJECT/ PROGRAM: 4
1.1 Need Assessment [Problem Analysis] 4
1.2. The four Stage of Need Assessment 4
1.3 PURPOSE OF PROBLEMS/ NEED AND BEST-BET ANALYSIS 6
1.4. Methods/Techniques of analysis 7
1.5 Importance of Secondary Data Sources 7
2. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF RRA/PRA 9
3. WHY PARTICIPATORY RAPID (RURAL/RELAXED) APPRAISAL? 11

3.1 Why do we bother for participation (of rural people/target groups)? 11
3.2 What is participation? 11
3.3 Why rapid? (Compared to conventional surveys) 11
4. THE PRINCIPLES AND MAIN FEATURES OF PRA 12

4.1 Principles of PRA 12
4.2. Features of PRA 12
4.2. Features of PRA 13
5. USES AND PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF PRA TOOLS/TECHNIQUES 16

5.1 Direct observation 16
5.2 Mapping and Modeling 16

5.2.1 How to Do Participatory Mapping 17
5.2.2 Advantages of Maps and models 17
5.3 Transect Map/Diagram 17
5.4 Seasonal Diagramming and Analysis 18
5.5 Chapati / Venn diagram 18
5.5 Trend Diagramming/ Analysis 19
5.6 Semi structured interviewing 20

5.6.1 How to undertake SSI 20
5.6.2 Example of Ambiguous question and possible misinterpretations 21
5.6.3 Examples of "leading " or "Closed" questions 21
5.6.4 Common errors during interviewing 21
Personal collection and compilation by Dereje Dejene from the various Project Planning, FSR, RRA/PRA 0
Training Courses; 1987-2000;
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5.7 Ranking & Scoring 22

5.7.1 Preference ranking 23
5.7.2 Pair-wise ranking 24
5.7.3 Wealth/ Wellbeing Ranking 25
5.7.4 Matrix scoring 25
5.8 Other tools and techniques of PRA 27

5.8.1 Daily routine diagram/ activity profile 27
5.8.2 Mobility map 27
5.8.3 Livelihood analysis 28
5.8.4 Proportional piling 28
6. ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS 29
6.1 Issues and steps to be considered in problems analysis 29
6.1.1. Identifying, defining and substantiating the problems: 29
6.1.2. Issues to be aware of during causal chain analysis 29
6.1.3 How to do Causal Chain Flow Diagrams/ Analysis of Problems 31
6.1.4 Examples on causal chain analysis/ Vicious circles of poverty 32
6.1.5 Prioritizing (ranking) the problems: 35
7. GENDER ANALYSIS: CONCEPT, RATIONALE, PRINCIPLES AND

APPLICATION 37
7.1 Conceptual Note 37
7.2 Gender Analysis 37
7.3 Gender Analysis Framework (GAF) 38

7.3.1. Activity Profile/Analysis 38
7.3.3 Development Constraints Analysis 41
7.3.4 Important considerations to Integrate Gender in Participatory Development 42
8. ANALYSIS OF SOLUTIONS/ 'BEST-BETS' 48

8.1 Issues and steps to be considered in best-bet analysis 48
FIGURE 8.1. PROBLEMS AND BEST-BETS ANALYSIS LEADING TO

PROJECT FORMULATION 50
9. DEFINING THE DEVELOPMENT PROJECT: 53
10. THE COMMUNITY ACTION PLAN (CAP) 55

10.1 Purpose of the CAP 55
10.2 How to do CAP 55
10.3 Format for a community action Plan (CAP) 56
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1. Identification of Development Project/ Program:
Project identification consists of finding projects that could contribute towards achieving
specified development objectives. Projects are identified in order to overcome
development constraints, meet unsatisfied needs or demands, and fulfil demand for goods
and services.
1.1 Need Assessment [Problem Analysis]
Central to the diagnosis and planning stages of the development process, problem analysis
can be viewed under the widely known stages of the project cycle.
Inter-linked activities carried out in diagnosis and planning are mainly aimed at
diagnosing farmers’ conditions and needs. Using the various methods, information is
gathered to describe the basic features of an area, problems that limit local peoples’
productivity are identified, prioritized, and consider possible improvements.
A need may be defined as a gap between the present situation and a desired future
situation.
Need assessment is a systematic or focused approach for problem identification and

analysis. Need identification has a direct relationship with the intended beneficiaries; it
should address the question - whose need?
Need Analysis is, therefore, a process for identifying development obstacles which could
be constructively overcome by the design and implementation of a development program.
1.2. The four Stage of Need Assessment
Beginning with the diagnostic stage, extending into planning and implementation stages,
development planners might have to take note of these terms, which are central to the
planning process. It is important to maintain a clear distinction between them, although
not easy.
PROBLEMS “What is wrong?”
In many instances problems can be defined (described) as cases (not an instance) which
constrains productivity and ultimately, affecting the development potential of any given
area.
Constraints to development could evolve from numerous and interrelated factors. These
could be broadly categorised under - Economic, Social, Environmental and Institutional
Constraints. Some examples include:
 Economic: Lack of credit, market, low labour productivity, etc
 Social: Illiteracy, poor health, cultural attitudes/taboos, high birth rate, etc
 Environmental: Deforestation, poor resource base, flooding, drought, erosion, etc.
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 Institutional:
 lack of extension/education/training,
 insecure land tenure,
 poor legal structure,
 lack of skilled personnel,
 marriage/divorce arrangements and inheritance, etc. etc
Possible Sources [Root Causes] of Problems

Problems limiting productivity or affecting local communities’ production capacity and
capabilities (leading to low yield, low income or high production costs) can be described
in terms of their major origins. Productivity could be restricted because of three major
factors: Biological/Environmental, inefficient use of resources and institutional
inefficiencies.
1) Biological/Environmental Factors
Some of the most common biological/environmental factors considered to be limiting
productivity are nutrient deficiencies, too much or too little moisture, drought,
human/livestock/crop diseases, etc.
2) Inefficient Use of Resources

Productivity can also be hampered due to improper uses (under/over-utilization) of
resources, like inputs. Examples: excessive (or inadequate ) use of available inputs, use of
inappropriate products, inefficient uses of factors of production like land, labor and
capital, etc.
3) Institutional Inefficiencies
Productivity can also be limited for lack institutional support or policies: Poorly developed
markets, low crop prices, lack of extension or credit, bad roads, etc. are factors important
to the local environment. In many cases, inadequate institutions or poor infrastructure may
be considered as causes.
SYMPTOMS/ Indications:
In developing evidence for a problem it is important to distinguish between the symptoms
and the problem itself. If a symptom provides clear evidence of a problem, then there is no
difficulty.
For example: Striped leaves on maize plants, combined with other evidence (soil or tissue
analysis, or exploratory experiments), points clearly to a Mg deficiency. Then the Mg.
deficiency should be taken as a problem. But striped leaves may indicate one of the
several mineral deficiencies.
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CAUSES “Why ?”
Careful specification of a problem is essential. But not enough to indicate the course of
action. The causes of a problem must be identified as well. Because knowing all possible
causes of a problem helps to determine possible solutions.
SOLUTIONS [BEST-BETS] “What can we do ?”
A list of all possible solutions (best-bets) that seem to have the best chances of success in
tackling the problems can be identified, evaluated and prioritized.
Therefore, the need identification exercise need to primarily consider the following issues:
 Specification of the different target groups or intended beneficiaries.
 The design should have elements that focus attention and resources on the problems
of the different target groups of the community.
 Participatory/process or other suitable approaches to project development should be
adopted to those innovations, organizational or technical, that will improve
conditions of the target group
Unless a target group is explicitly identified in the project design, there is little chance that
the desired target group will benefit. The identification of the target group by
socioeconomic status and sex is critical for determining the type of technology and
delivery system to be used. The identification of target group will usually be based on
qualitative information, in most cases, within the socioeconomic setting of the localities in
which the project will operate.
Once a target group is defined, the next step is, how to define the gap or the need (often
termed as ‘situation/problem analysis’). It can be approached as follows:
The following method for problems and best-bets analysis (need identification) involves a
series of steps with due emphasis to the distinction between problems, symptoms, causes
and solutions. However, this method should be taken as a guide rather than a rigid set of
rules.
1.3 PURPOSE OF PROBLEMS/ NEED AND BEST-BET ANALYSIS
 To identify and come up with a list of local problems which impinges on a population’s
development
 To clearly define the problems
 To analyse, rank or prioritise problems
 To identify and prioritise solutions for the problems
 To determine if there are new problems which will emerge as a result of the solution
 To decide whether a development project could succeed
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1.4. Methods/Techniques of analysis

 Secondary sources of information
 Primary sources of methods: Surveys by using participatory methods like P/RRA;

questionnaires, field observation; laboratory tests, etc
Table 1-1: Seven Data Collection Techniques For Development Project Need
Assessment
Method Definition Sources

SECONDARY SOURCES
Ducumentary Systematic Reading of needs data Libraries;
Research compiled by Secondary Sources Scholars;
Officials;
Specialized Agencies
Statistics and Sorting and Analyzing information Ministry Data bases;
Planning Data from existing data base Planning departments
Statistics centers
Key Informant Interviewing Knowledgeable People or agencies which
Interview Secondary sources are in a position to know
about the subjects
PRIMARY SOURCES
Questionnaire Pre-designed list of questions to be Primary sources or
Administration administered by enumerators and to be secondary sources
answered by every respondent.
Direct First hand exposure of the project Own eyes and ears
Observation team to the behavior and phenomenon
being assessed
Semi-Structured Soliciting and recording information Primary sources like project
Interview by asking open questions based or beneficiaries
developed checklists
Focus Group Small group discussions focusing on Primary sources like project
Discussion limited issue/s of development beneficiaries
1.5 Importance of Secondary Data Sources
For any given community, some information already exists that we could use. This
information is usually available in local government officers and in the community it self.
Government offices usually cover large geographic areas, often larger than the area a
community-based program would cover. Nevertheless, government offices provide access
to important that is more localized, covering a location, or only a few villages. The
community itself often knows what types of information have been collected and who
collected it. It is therefore very important that, before embarking on any information
gathering exercise, you talk with people in the community, leaders, and extension workers
to find out what has already been collected and is available.
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2. Historical Development of RRA/PRA
During the sixties, few questioned the basic idea that technical development is the only
answer to the problems facing poor people in developing countries. Attempts to transfer
technology directly failed, however, and professionals began to understand that
"development " was not that easy. They released the need for more information about the
"local people" as a basis for identifying the fight solutions. Field trips were made and
serves were carried out.
During the seventies, the limitations of these conventional methods both in terms of biased
information collected in short visits to rural areas (rural tourism) and in terms of the costs,
inaccuracies and delays of large-scale questionnaire surveys became more apparent.
In the eighties, professionals had a growing recognition of the fact that rural people were
themselves knowledgeable about many subjects the t touched their lives.
Rapid rural appraisal (RRA) was developed with all its advantages, in that:
- Experts come into physical contact with local people.
- They meet women and children who are of ten not included in formal surveys.
- Information is collected by different methods, from different sources and different
disciplined. Cross-checking on the spot allows getting closer to the truth than
successive by approximation.
- Criteria and categories of the local people are taken in to account.
At the beginning of the nineties, RRA was quite widespread. The participation and
involvement of local people had started but was restricted to providing information.
Professionals went to rural areas and obtained data from local people, took it away and
processed it, sometimes to find out what they (the outsiders) thought would be good for
them (the local people). The expert was still the main actor. The knowledge of villagers
counted but for the outsiders' uses. They were the ones who provided the solution.
Recognizing the weakness of leaving this responsibility to the professionals, the outsiders,
Participatory Rural/Rapid/ Relaxed Appraisal (PRA) evolved. Experts still go to rural
areas. But not alone and more and more as learners, convenes, catalysts and facilitators.
The goal is to enable rural people to do their own investigations, to share their knowledge
and advise the professionals. The people themselves should do the analysis and prudent it
to each other and the experts. They should identify their priorities and possible solutions
and should become the owners of development projects that they planned on their own.
PRA is the appraisal phase of PDA (Participatory Development Approach). PDA is not a
different concept but it has a broader view, because it includes not only the appraisal phase
but also the follow-up phase. It aims at participatory and integrated development.
PRA can be best described as a family of approaches and methods to enable rural and
urban people to present their knowledge of life and conditions in their communities and to
help them develop plan of action for development.
Personal collection and compilation by Dereje Dejene; from the various Project Planning, FSR,
RRA/PRA Training Courses; 1987-2000;
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PRA is a way of learning form, and with community members to investigate, analyse and
evaluate problems, constraints and opportunities, and make informed and timely decisions
regarding development projects of activities.
PRA is an intensive, systematic, but semi-structured learning experience.
· It is participatory.
· It is lightly structured.
· It is flexible.
· It is adaptable.
· It is exploratory.
· It is inventive.
· It is empowering.
PRA is not a single event!
· It needs a follow-up
· It is iterative.
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3. Why Participatory Rapid (Rural/Relaxed) Appraisal?
3.1 Why do we bother for participation (of rural people/target groups)?

· To involve every body
· To gather different ideas
· To know their problems
· To know their local needs
· To know their perceptions
· To enable them to solve their own problems or needs
· To create the feeling of ownership
· To involve them right from the beginning leads to sustainability of development
projects/activate
· To motivate them and take them seriously.
Participation by every one in a community is the key to a development processes in which

villagers them selves set priorities and work toward their own goals. Likewise, they must
feel they are the owners of the information generated about themselves-information like
population, water supply, crops, skills, schools, and traditional beliefs.
3.2 What is participation?
· To take part
· To get involved
· Forms of participation in :
- Ideas
- Materials
- Finance
· Types of participation:
- Active: means full contribution, can be guided and ensures demand-Orientation
- Passive: partial contribution, e.g. to be taught,
- Forced: participation was mentioned as subtype of the passive one, means a few
propel decide for all (not fully agreed by the plenary)
3.3 Why rapid? (Compared to conventional surveys)
· Achieves fast results and these can immediately be transferred into activities/action
· First hand information gathered in the field
· Information is analyzed as it comes out, from the community and the development
agencies
· A Community-Action-Plan for assistance is developed if required (this step might not
be "rapid")
· To achieve all these steps, PRA cannot be conducted by consultants!!!
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4. The principles and main features of PRA
4.1 Principles of PRA
· Switching from doing to facilitating

· Switching from telling /teaching to
listening /learning
· Switching from prescriptive to
responsive planning
· That means "Hand over the stick"
Behavior, Attitudes
Methods Sharing
· Dialogue · Community members share

· map their knowledge
· Diagram · All share experience
· Rank · Community members
· Analyse share/offer overnight
· Present accommodation for personnel
· Plan from development agencies
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4.2. Features of PRA
I. Triangulation
Is an essential methodological concept of PRA?

 If you have different points of view in your analyses, you brigs to get a more complete
and more accurate picture of the situation you ate trying to understand.
Team composition
Tools & Techniques Sources of

Information
1. Triangulation in team composition

· Multidisciplinary
· Gender
· Diverse backgrounds and skills
· Insiders (people who know the community very well) and outsiders (experts)
 ensures understanding of different aspects of a problem
2. Triangulation of sources of information

· Women and men
· Elders and youth
· Various ethnic groups
· Diverse wealth groups
· Different professions
 means the village workshop should include a wide range of viewpoints
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3. Triangulation of Tools & Techniques
The current list PRA methods comprise almost 40 different tools that can be used. Some
of the most useful PRA "tools" are described below will be discussed further late in this
handout.
Secondary data
Direct observation
Mapping
 Resource
 Social
 Historical
Mobility map

Diagramming
 Seasonal calendar
 Chapati
 Pie charts
 Transect
 Historical
 Trained line
 Vein Diagram
 Daily routine diagram
 Daily activity profile
 Livelihood analysis
 Time Trend
Ranking & Scoring
 Preference
 Pairwise
 Matrix scoring
 Well-being
Semi-Structured Interviewing/Discussion
 Key informant
 Individuals
 Focus Group Discussions (FGD)
II. Optimal ignorance and appropriate imprecision
" What kind of information is required, for what purpose, and how accurate does it have to be?"
 Tries to sum up the principle of making the very best use of limited time which is
available in the field.
 We don't need to know everything. It is essential to focus on what is important and
leave the rest aside.
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III. On - the -Spot Analysis
Learning takes place in the field and the analysis of information gathered is an integral
part of the village workshop.
 The team constantly reviews and analyses the findings in order to determine in which
direction to proceed. It builds up understanding and narrows the focus of the PRA
village workshop as it accumulates knowledge.
IV. Flexibility and Informality
Plans and methods are semi-structured.

 They are revised, adapted, and modified as the village workshop proceeds.
V. Critical Self Awareness
The team has to be careful to analyze its own biases.

Common biases are
- spatial ("tarmac bias")
- seasonal (team visits community during dry season)
- wealth and influence (team talks only to the better-off and opinion, leaders)
 The team should reflect what is said and not said, seen and not seen, who is met and
not met, and tries to identify possible sources of error and how they influence the
interpretation of the gathered information
 The team must also try to avoid value judgements about others.
VI. Shift in Attitudes and Behavior
 The use of PRA implies role reversals/shifts.

 For both outsiders and local people.
WE: THEY:
· Establish rapport · map and model
· Converse, catalyse, facilitate, enquiry · draw
· Suggest, adapt, improvise methods · rank, score, quantify
· Watch, listen, learn · discuss and analyse
· "hand over the stick" · inform and explain
· probe · demonstrate, identify and choose
· assist priorities
· plan, present, take action
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5. Uses and Practical Application of PRA Tools/Techniques
In PRA, the basic data that needs to be gathered is spatial, social, time related and
technical data. Can be collected form maps, transects, and models. The villagers identify
various facilities and resources within their community and illustrate them trough these
maps and models. These maps and models should contain village resources such as farms/
crop land, water sources, forest, catchments, etc, plus various social data such as
population size, health cases, family planning acceptors, and so on.
Time- related data describes event that affected community members. Time related data
includes important events and dates in the history of community. When done by a
representative sample of the community, this can yield a wealth of historical information.
Time-related data also includes seasonal changes that bring cases, work patterns, etc.
Ranking or scoring items according to criteria developed by the community are two ways
to collect technical information about community expertness in areas such as cultivation
techniques for indigenous plant species, local tools, soil types, etc.
5.1 Direct observation
One of the most natural and logical ways to gather information is by seeing for oneself.
Yet this technique is often over looked because of the outsider's eagerness to extract
information trough asking questions. That can be followed by probing for more insight. A
" look and Listen Survey " is and important first step i getting to know a community.
5.2 Mapping and Modeling
Participatory mapping and modeling are good, logical starting points for people to present,
share, and analyze their knowledge of life and conditions. This is then used to plane and to
act. People make their maps on the floor, on the ground, on paper, and in three-
dimensional models on the grounded. The maps or models are used for identifying,
presenting, checking, analyses, planning, and motoring. They show quantities, size, and
locations. Information about people could include census-type information on men,
women, children, age groups; social groups by ethnicity, clan, caste, etc, pregnant women;
illness by location and social group; births; deaths; and disabilities.
Social information included on maps can be; ownership of assets, wealth/ well-being
status, housing type / condition, etc. resource maps and models illustrate: community
natural resources, land use, and watersheds. Common facilities shown on a social map
include schools, churches, health facilities, water supplies , and roads / paths. How the
various facilities are used can also be shown.
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5.2.1 How to Do Participatory Mapping
1. Decide what sort of map you need.

· Social ( village residential areas)
· Natural resources( village land area)
· Watershed (forest, farm, etc.)
2. Invite the villagers to attend a group meeting. be sure to invite people who have
information and are willing to share their knowledge .
3. Choose a suitable place (ground, floor, or table) and media (chalk, sticks, stones,
paper, pencils, or pens).
4. Help people started by letting them do it. be patient __'it's their map!'.
5. Sit back and watch, or go away.
6. Keep a permanent record on paper, including mappers' names to give them credit.
5.2.2 Advantages of Maps and models
Maps and models useful for various reasons. The most important are these:
· Formation of a rapport
· Starting point of entry with the community
· Part of an analytical process for a better understanding of the food production
nutrition situation
· Demographic information
· Identification of vulnerable and disadvantaged groups
· Visible ranking of households according to wealth, wellbeing, and health
· Awareness and planning by the community
5.3 Transect Map/Diagram

A walk trough the village along a straight line, from one end to the other, can be most
revealing during the walk the facilitators and a group of villagers can discuss contrasts and
changes in soil types, trees, crops, etc, as they walk across the village. Problem
opportunities are also noted. After the walk is complete, a transect map/diagram is drawn
to illustrate agricultural or ecological systems in the area.
How to Do a Transect
1. Find local people who are knowledgeable, able, and willing to walk and help.
2. Discuss the aspects to be noted ( oils, trees, crops, etc.) and approximate route
(participatory mapping can help).
3. Assign tasks in the team.
4. Walk the transect. Choose a path that will take the group through some of the diverse
areas of the village.
5. Observe, ask, listen ( don't lecture).
6. Ask about and discuss problems and opportunities
7. Note contrasts and changes, and identify zones.
8. Ask someone from the group to make a transect diagram.
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5.4 Seasonal Diagramming and Analysis
Changes in weather and climate affect the way people live, work, and move. For farmers,
it is important to note changes that occur in the weather from one month to another and
from one year to another. These changes greatly affect farmers’ activities and determine
their agricultural output and nutritional status. Community groups can easily develop
calendars and fill them with illustrations of the various seasons, activities, production and
other ways people’s lives a the affected by weather and climate.
How to Do Participatory Seasonal Analysis
1. Decide whom you hope will share their knowledge (women men, children, etc.)
2. Find several people within this group who are able and willing to participate. Explain
what you would like to do.
3. Find a suitable place (enough space, etc.)
4. Ask when their year starts, names of divisions (months? Seasons? Etc.), and have them
choose which division to use.
5. Mark the time divisions on the ground/floor (use stones, chalk, etc).
6. Within the time divisions, ask the participants to show important aspects such as: rainy
days, crop cycles, animal fodder availability agriculture labor patterns, income
accumulation, migration, food availability (number of meals), illnesses, etc.
7. Discuses probe, check: encourage debate.
8. Record on paper, and share with others in the community.
5.5 Chapati / Venn diagram
This is a useful method for establishing how groups (individuals) in the community see
themselves and others and how different “actors” in the community relate to each other.
Community members use circles of varying size to show their internal relationships and
their relationships with other individuals, organizations, and institution. The size of the
circle and its proximity to the center circle, which represents the community, reveal the
significance of the relationship. Some communities have used Chapati diagrams to resolve
conflicts.
How to do Chapti/ vein diagramming
· Ask the sub-group which organizations are important to them and which ones are
working in their community. Probe different types of groups (formal/ informal/
traditional / internal / external).
· Encourage them to draw circles on the ground to represent each organization or
individual. Make a boundary for the community and external institutions outside.
· Ask the sub-group to indicate the organizations operating in their community in the
form of circles, with the size of the circle varying according to the importance of the
organization.
- Let them use smaller circles to represent less important organizations or those failing
in their work.
- Let them use large circles to represent less important organizations or those failing in
their work.
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· Let the sub-group choose samples for the different DAs to the community to
organizations and form of the distance between the circle representing the community
and the circles representing the organizations. The most distant circle (organization's
circle0 to the community represents the organization with the least contact. the same
applied to the distance of the organizations from each other.
· Let them indicate the degree of contact or corporations b/n the community and the
organizations and between the organizations in the form of touching or overlapping
circles. Arrange them as follows:
- separate circles = no contact/ less contact in the real situation
- touching circles = contact exist but no cooperation
- small overlap = considerable cooperation
5.5 Trend Diagramming/ Analysis
Time trends show quantitative changes over time in visualized form and can be used for
many variables, including: rainfall, depth of water in wells, yields, malnutrition rates, area
under cultivation, livestock population, time and distance to collect fuelwood and fodder
population size and number of households, birth and death rates, migration, prices interest
rates etc .
The analysis of changes over time a strong pointing of entry, especially with farmers.
Some participatory diagramming has been used to show changes and trends in areas
under different land uses, including proportions of different crops, yields, soil fertility,
fertilizer use, pest incidence, animal population, hours of labor, agricultural labor wages,
numbers and types of trees, ecological changes, amount and composition of diet, and
erosion and land degradation.
Diagrams and representations of trends can been shown using:

· Pie diagrams on the ground
· Trend diagrams in a graph
· Quantification using seeds, stones, sticks, or numbers
· Physical indications in the field
· Maps and models
How to do trend diagramming

1. Discuss issues that people find important or that you want to learn more about (time
and distance to collect water, land use, food/feed availability, rainfall pattern, etc.)
2. Find one or more informants who know about past and present conditions in the
village and who are willing to share their knowledge.
3. Discuss the time period to be cover, and ask the participant to pick out a few land mark
dates( e.g, independence ...) These dates conditions during one period against another
time period.
4. Let them decide how they would like to show the trends see trend diagram .
5. Discuss cross-checking of the information gathered. Who can verify some of the
information gathered and how?
6. Record the information.
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5.6 Semi structured interviewing
Semi structured interviewing (SSI) is
- A dialogue where important information develops out of casual conversation.

- Guided interviewing, where only some of the questions are predetermined and new
questions come up during the interview.
- The core of PRA. It is a tool in the special form of an interview, but it is also the base
in terms of manners and acting with community menders.
The characteristics pd a SSI should be considered while conducting and other tool. These
will contribute to an relaxed and informative dialogue.
SSI can be done with:

Individuals for representative information
Key informants for specialized information
Groups for general community-level information
Focus groups to discuss a specific topic in detail
5.6.1 How to undertake SSI
· Use a checklist
· If possible, use the local language to reduce barriers.
· Be sensitive and respectful. Mind your body language, e.g. during an interview take a
seat at the same level as the respondents.
· Make questions short and easy to understand, aim at consistently finding out more
details. Avoid ambiguous questions.
· Do not ask more than one question at a time
· Questions should always be phrased in such a way that they require explanation (open-
ended questions) rather than allowing and answer "yes" or "no". "yes-no" questions
make further robbing for details more difficult and subsequent answers less reliable.
· For open-ended questions use the "six helpers" : What?, When?,. Where?, Who?,
Why?, and How?
· Use "why" question rather carefully, because they may force the informants into a
defensive position and stop the flow of information.
· Probe answers carefully with: Suppose.., But why..?, Please tell me mire..., Anything
else...?
· Judge responses: is it a fact, an opinion, a rumor?
· Avoid indication of contempt or disbelief to responses given by community members
· Avoid drawing conclusions or helping them to finish their sentences
· Use visualization methods to enhance participation and dialogue
· Listen and learn
· Observe keep your eyes open for patterns, behavior, differences, and unusual things.
Take care about non-verbal communication indicators like facial expression, body
language, tone of voice, eye contact.
· Record responses and observation fully
· Finish the interview politely and than the respondents.
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5.6.2 Example of Ambiguous question and possible misinterpretations
Ambiguous questions Possible interpretations

How so your get to work? What kind of transport do you take to work?
By what route do you proceed?
What was the best How do your treat your cattle for worms?
treatment for deworming What are you recommended to use by the extension
cattle here? service?
When did you move to this In what year did you ...
house? How many years ago did you...
At what age did you...
5.6.3 Examples of "leading " or "Closed" questions
Leading to yes or no response Leading to detailed response

Have you heard about the extension What do you know about the extension
services operating here? service Operating in this area?
Do you have difficulties in getting Please describe how you go about getting
fertilizers here? fertilizers here?
Would you grow More cotton if the What would be the effect on cotton
government increases the price? growing here, if the government raised the
prices?
Do you think that if you use (pesticide x) What is your view about the likely result of
your production of Maize will increase? using (pesticide x) on maize?
Use the Six helpers

Fact opinion of rumor?
Fact: commonly agreed time/space · Who
specific truth · When
Option: person's/group's view on a · What
topic
Rumour: unsubstaubed information
· Where
from an unknown source · Why
· How
5.6.4 Common errors during interviewing
· Failing to listen closely

· Repeating questions
· Helping the informant by suggesting answers of finishing statements
· Asking vague of insensitive questions
· Failing to probe
· Failing to judge answers ( Fact, Option, Rumor)
· Asking leading questions
· Allowing the interview to go on far too long
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5.7 Ranking & Scoring
Ranking or scoring means identifying people's priorities with regard to

problems, needs, or potential.
Community members decide on which elements to rank ( such as tree species ) against the
criteria they feel are most important. Matrix ranking and scoring are used extensively in
agriculture to compare and contrast crop fodder plants sources of fodder plants, etc. in
health, for example, ranking and scoring have been used to compare and contrast treatment
effectiveness, health services, etc.
Scoring is done by using seeds or other counters that give a value for the items being
ranked. Scoring can be open ( value decided by each participant ) or can e based on a fixed
number. For example, an item that ranks high might receive ten points out of a possible
ten given. A low rank would be one or zero points out of ten given.
· Ranking allows the main problems, needs, constraints, and preferences of individuals
of groups to be determined and enabled the priorities of different people to be easily
compared.
· Helps to clarify community menders' preferences and constraints.
· Enables the community menders to discuss, analyze and priorities their problem needs
and possible solutions.
· Matrix ranking and scoring are very useful for the analytical process because of values
placed on non- tangible as well as physical elements.
How to carry out ranking
· First, ask a sub -group member to list issues, problems which have already been
mentioned before (e.g. during resource mapping, making a historical profile etc.)
· Ask the who group if they have any additions to made to the list,
· Ask them to attribute some symbol (s) to each problem, to ensure that even the
illiterates can understand the list.
· Let them collect material for scoring (which they find suitable). For example stones or
seeds.
· Ask the group to rank their priority issues, importance of resources, problems, etc.
This could be done by using either:
Preference ranking or pairwise ranking as well as with matrix scoring.
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5.7.1 Preference ranking
How to go about?
Ask the community members to rank their listed problems by scoring using a certain
number of stones. This could be done in t three ways:
1. Give each person a certain number of stones. Ask them to place the stones to problems
they find most important. Tell them they are free to place the stones wherever they
want. If somebody considers only one problem to be important, he/she could put all
stones against is specific one. If there are several pressing problems the amount of
stones could be divided b/n then. Either put then in special order or give stone
problems, one could be divided between them. Either put them in a special order or
give some problems, one could find "lack of water" most pressing and put 9 stones.
Two other problems have the same weight, expressed by 5 stones each. Another
problem gets the one remaining stone, while two problems are one important at all for
the person.
2. Give each person a number of stones/ seeds to allow him/her to rank from position one
to position x. if you have a list with six problems you put six stones against the major
problem, five stones against the second one, one stone against the last placed problem.
Altogether, each person would need 21 stones for ranking six problems.
3. Giving each person one stone or one vote is the easiest but probably not the best way
or ranking.
In order to come to a discussion, do not forget to ask people why they chose the ranked
order. This allows you to understand the reasons for local needs and preference. The
criteria are likely to change from group to group and women may have different criteria
for prioritizing certain problems or solutions than men Note down the criteria they give for
their choice of priorities
A ranking o f water sources was done in Jila (see e.g below). Each women of the sub-
group got one stone to priorities her main water source. 10 of the 11 women placed the
stone next to the public dam. So it became obvious that this community speeds mainly on
this source for water.
The criteria discussed for the choice were just as interesting as the result. The criterion
chosen for this ranking was "availability for every community member". The women
described tap water as more hygienic but not available at the moment, while pan water
was described as unhygienic but available to every community member.
Preference ranking done by the women's group in Jila
Ranking of water sources used Ranking of the use of water

Tap water 1 Constriction of houses
Hand-dug well 3 Irrigation 1
Protected Spring 7 Domestic use 10
The disadvantage of preference ranking is the fact that the criteria chosen for the
rank are not visualized
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5.7.2 Pair-wise ranking
How to do pairwise ranking

· Built up a matrix (as shown in the example below), listing problems down the left-
hand side and taking the same order of problems in arrow across the top.
· Let people choose items to symbolist each problem.
· With regard to the position in the matrix leave out the first cells. for instance, if you
have the third problem, leave the first three cells, counted from the left, free (see e.g.)
· Start comparing two problems by taking the first one listed on the left, with the second
one listed on the top. Continue across the row.
· Compare by asking: "which problem is more important for you and why?
· Mark sown the response in the specific cell. For example, if you compare " insufficient
water" with "poor roads" and the reasons is that "insufficient water" is prioritized, note
down " water" in the cell.
· Do not forget to note sown the response why a particular problem was given a certain
priority (criteria!)
· Continue for all possible combinations of pairs
· After each cell is filled. Add up the number of times each problem was identified as
more important then the other problem.
· Write down for each problem the number of times preferred and rank according to this.
· Check with participants whether tis represents and accurate picture. As a useful cross
check to the responses, complete the ranking session by asking the sub-group about
their biggest problem, “if you could choose only one problem to be solved first, which
one would you choose?’’ (This question is very useful if more than one problem in the
list scores highest.)
In Kola Gedera, the youth group ranked their problems with the help of a pair-wise
ranking (see next page). By adding up the number of times each problem was identified as
more important then the other problem, the following ranking positions were more
important then the other problem, the following ranking positions were identified
1. Water shortage: 2. Lack of hospital: 3. Poor roads: 4. Youth are ignored: 5. Lack of
technical assistance: 6. Lack of food: 7. Poor school facilities: 8. Poor telecommunication.
The ranking of the problems done by the youth group was to some eaten different from
that if the other sub-groups. The next sheet (6.3.4) describes how the community should
discuss these differences.
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5.7.3 Wealth/ Wellbeing Ranking
There are inequalities and differences in wealth in every community. These differences
influence or determine people's behaviors, coping strategies and views. Well-being
ranking allows to:
- investigate perceptions of wealth differences and inequalities in a community
- Discover local indicators and criteria of wealth and well being.
- Establish a relative position in a community.
This type of community profile may be used to see which socio-economic groups
participate during the village workshop and furthermore who will benefit from proposed
develop-opponent activities.
With PRA, communities can objectively rank households by relative wealth. The
community ranks its residents based on their own criteria of what constitutes wealth of
well being. Poverty or well being is, therefore, viewed and determined through the
community’s eyes. Some criteria/indicators used to determine wealth/ wellbeing are: land
size, livestock holding, quality of house/shelter, housing materials, number of children,
access to credit, live of education. Communities group their members into different
categories of wellbeing following lengthy discussions and shifting people (households)
from one category to another. Wealth ranking is extremely useful for targeting
beneficiaries of a program. In addition, it helps the community feel responsibility for those
they decide ate “less fortunate”.
There are two methods on how a wealth/ wellbeing ranking can be done:
1. Participants sort a pile of cards of slips of paper, each with one household name
recorded on it, into pikes. The wealthiest are put at one end, the poorest at the other
and as many piles as desired are made.
2. A quicker method is to conduct the ranking directly onto a social map. The social
maps are also helpful in acquiring a complete list of households. Villagers are asked to
indicate in the households the relative wealth classes. These are colored for easy
identification. Individual assets are also to be marked for each household, such as land
ownership, animals, tools etc.
5.7.4 Matrix scoring
The prioritizing of items thorough matrix scoring is more complex but has the advantage
that the criteria why a problem (or any other item) was chosen are visible as well. The
principal difference is that while using preference ranking and pairwise ranking each
individual problem is compared directly against the others until they are ranked from the
highest toe the lowest, while with matrix scoring the problems/ constraints/ solutions are
compared against selected criteria.
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How Matrix scoring
· Place the listed problems in the first row on the top of a matrix.
· Motivate the group to find criteria according to which they can differentiate the
problems. This could be
- The causes of problems ask for each problem “ what is so bad about this
problem?’
- The feasibility of solving the problems. Ask “is there a realistic solution to this
problem
 List the criteria developed from the villagers on the left side of the matrix (see example
below).
 Continue until there is no new criterion regarding any of the problems.
 To avoid confusion, make sure that all the criteria are expressed either in a negative of
in a positive way.
 Choose the method for scoring or ranking that suits the participants well. This might
be for instance:
- To select a maximum for each cell (e.g., 10 stones per cell).
- To select a maximum for each row (e.g., 25 stones for a row containing five
columns/cells)
- Or simply a ranking of cells from best to worst across each row (e.g., 1 (best)
to 5 (worst) for a matrix with five columns).
 Tell the sub-group to distribute the stone s along the row. Ask them for each criterion
“which is best, then next best, which is worse, next worse”.
 Add extra criteria if participants find it difficult to make a choice.
 Encourage participants to revise sections, if necessary because of new arguments.
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5.8 Other tools and techniques of PRA
Mapping, diagramming, and ranking techniques are some of the most important and
useful PRA “tools” for community development. There are many other tools that can be
used. Some additional examples of helpful tools are as follows.
5.8.1 Daily routine diagram/ activity profile
A daily routine diagram helps to collect and analyze information on the daily patterns of
activities of community members and to compare the daily routine patterns for different
groups of people (for example women, men, old, young, employed, unemployed,
educated) and seasonal changes in these patterns. Encourage community members to
draw their own routine diagrams.
It is similar to a seasonal calendar in that it helps identify time constraints (shortages) and
opportunities. For example, to identify the most appropriate time in the day for a woman's
training courses. The daily activity profile adds a spatial dimension to the daily routine
calendar and shows a person's mobility during a typical day.
A review of daily activities in the community is one of the best ways to determine a
community’s priorities. Amount of time taken to do certain chores, location of work, and
amount of effort put into tasks provide a valuable profile of resources in community, their
use and management. This is important for establishing where the communities in attitude
and action, a pre-requisite for any meaningful development work.
Daily activities profiles can develop by sex to determine gender difference in type of
activities and workload. Women can develop a profile for themselves and one for the men.
The men in turn develop one for women. There can also be a third group of both men and
women. These profiles are then compared and used as a “starter” for discussion s about
shared responsibilities in community development.
5.8.2 Mobility map
The mobility map is meant to identify the patterns of spatial mobility for different
segments of a community. Contacts with the "outside world" and decision-making power
in a community are of ten closely linked. Spatial mobility in many societies can be used as
an indicator for a person' contact with, and knowledge of, the outside world and his / her
authority in the community. It may also indicate freedom, wealth, empowerment,
education, or consciousness. The mobility map allows to record, compare, and analyze the
mobility of different groups of people in a community.
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5.8.3 Livelihood analysis
Likelihood analysis diagrams are used to help interpret the behavior, decisions, and
copying strategies of households with different socio-economic characteristics. For
example, a female-headed household with irregular income is likely to have different
problems and needs. Or spending patterns, than the household of a rich merchant or a
government employee, and may adopt different coping strategies in the case of crisis.
Variables for a livelihood analysis may include: household size and composition, number
of labor migrants in the household, livestock and land ownership, proportion of income by
source, expenditure, seasonality, relation of income, credit and debt.
5.8.4 Proportional piling
Proportional pie and bar diagrams are useful to quantify proportions of a whole,
particularly where absolute values of the whole may be difficult to calculate (e.g.
household income and expenditure by sources) or where participants may be unwilling to
give quantities (e.g. numbers of livestock in a herd).
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6. Analysis of problems
Analysis of problems and 'best-bets’ from various angles lie at the heart of practical
process of planning development programs/projects.
Problems and solutions are often interconnected and influence each other. One problem
can be the cause or result of another problem: e.g bad water quality leads to diseases, or
problems can have and effect on each other: e.g low food production causes malnutrition
and less working power which again causes low food production
6.1 Issues and steps to be considered in problems analysis
6.1.1. Identifying, defining and substantiating the problems:

This is to describe and define problems as precisely (and focused) as possible, and review
of supporting evidences. In the planning process, the first step is a careful specification
(definition) of problems in which priorities are set according to an understanding of the
problems of particular groups of the community. Issues and steps to be considered in
defining and substantiating the problems include:
A. Identification and definition of the problem:
 What is the problem exactly? [Problems to be precisely defined and most focused].
 Who identifies the problem? [Farmers, scientists, development workers, jointly by
development workers and farmers??]
B. Specifying and substantiating the problem : Clear understanding of the scope,
importance, and distribution of the problem.
 Why is it important? [Range of perceptions about it and its effects]
 Where does the problem occur? [In all over the area, or in some of its parts?]
 Who (which group) is most affected? or for whom is it a problem ? [All members of the
community? livestock owners? some farmers? which (wealth, age/sex group, activity,
etc)]?
 When is it a problem? [All year round? During the dry or wet season? etc.]
 Since when did it become an issue? [Since long time ago? recently came into seen,
probably together with.... ? etc]
 How are farmers/members of the community coping?
C. The evidence available for the problem:
D. Causal chain analysis [Impact Flow Chart or Problem Tree]:
Thorough understanding of the cause-effect relationship is crucial for identifying
appropriate solutions and entry point (intervention loophole). Causality of problems is
sometimes quite complex. It is helpful to diagram cause and effect relationship using
arrows [CAUSEPROBLEM (effect)]
Hence, more evidence regarding causes of a problem is an important aspect of this
exercise before proceeding to consider possible solutions
6.1.2. Issues to be aware of during causal chain analysis

 Note differentiating - symptoms, causes and problems
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 Causes of causes - Often necessary to give more information about a cause

 Create chains of causes
 Multiple causes - More than one cause identified for a problem:
 Find out and show all causes
 If ‘2’ causes act together, join the arrows
 ‘?’ for uncertain causes
 Ignore unimportant causes
 Problems as causes -
 Sometimes ‘2’ problems are related to each other, in which case it is important
to specify how one problem contributes to the other
 Sometimes the difference between problems and causes is unclear. This might
call for more evidence regarding causes of a problem before proceeding to
consider possible solutions
 Analysing inter-relations among problems and causes -
 Useful in deciding which problems and causes would receive more attention
 Very often, problems are related with each other (directly or through other,
shared causes). Analysis of their relations helps to see those relations and think
about their implications
 Additional evidence required of the problem?
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6.1.3 How to do Causal Chain Flow Diagrams/ Analysis of Problems
The linkage diagram can be used to identify causes for and effects of a problem as well as
indicate the proposed solution, considered to be the most appropriate by a sub-group. One
alternative is to produce the linkage diagram after having identified the main problem/
solution through ranking (see Manual sheet 6.3.3) . this will help to establish the
relationship of the main problems / solution to other problems . Solutions. By so doing, the
most appropriate solution proposed ( main solution) will contribute to wards solving as
many problems as possible and would not result in other problems. In this case:
 The community sub-group produces a chart in which the problems ranked as number
one is put in the centre and the linkages in terms of cause and effect relationships to
other problems are indicated with arrows ( see example on next page):
 The sub-group does the same with the proposed solution to the main problem and its
expected impacts on the solution to other problems.
 The sub-group compares the result with the outcome of the ranking to find out,
whether the solution of the problem ranked as number one can contribute ot the
solution to the problems ranked as number two, tree and four (or more).
 The sub-grou0s present their results to each other and compare them.
The second alternative is to produce the linkage diagram before ranking the problems
solutions. In this case:
 The community sub-group writes all identified problems o cards ( or use symbols to
represent the identified problems ) and tries to put them in hierarchical order on a large
sheet of paper. With arrows the sub-group indicate the causal relationship between the
problems.
 Once every body agrees, on the rank in which the problems are placed, the cards are
then glued on the chart. If there are no cards, sheets and glue, the chart can be
produced with symbols on the ground.
 The sub-group does the same with the proposed solutions.
 If there are any linkages which are more or less important than others, these can be
marked with bigger or smaller arrows.
 Some problems and solutions may stand isolated on the chart, but the majority will be
interconnected, the sub –group ties to analyze which problem/ solution has the most
impact on the other problems/ solutions.
 The sub-group takes these results as the basis for the ranking ( see worksheet below).
afterwards, the sub- groups compare their results.
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 Note on methods: While analyzing interrelations -

 Combine individual diagrams of problems and causes into a single summary
diagram. Note that each problem and its cause(s) appear in the new summary
diagram. This will help in visualizing the inter-relationships.
 Pay attention to the following five kinds of associations among problems and
causes:
a) When a particular cause is involved in more than one problem. Such
causes may offer possibilities for resolving more problems at once
(instant).
b) When there are many causes for a problem, possibilities of finding
appropriate solutions might be limited. Hence, need to get much and
focused information of the causes. Of the many causes, single out the
limited most possible ones. Do not include wild guess.
c) When two problems are inter-related. Such cases might lead to
consider resolving a problem at a time, or both concurrently (ie;
finding solutions for one of the problems before moving to the
second, or both at a time).
d) When a problem has several causes. Here, the causes might need
taking some action, like further experimental examinations
e) When a problem has no causes in common with other problems.
Action on such problems may need to be taken independently, on
case-by-case basis. (i.e; planning action and addressing them
independently)
6.1.4 Examples on causal chain analysis/ Vicious circles of poverty

It's all very well saying that some things are symptoms of poverty while others are the real
causes, but is it all that simple? Surely disease and mal-nourishment cause poor health;
and if you are sick, you can't work as well in your fields; and if you don't work well your
production is going to be lower than it would have been and your income will also be
lower. On the other hand, what are the root causes of disease and mal-nourishment?
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Figure 1.1. A Vicious Circle: Economic factors relating to disease and

poverty
disease/malnutrition
lack of health facilities poor health
low taxation low production
low income
Figure 1.2. A Vicious Circle of Poverty and Disease: The case of Socio-economic
factors
disease/malnutrition
lack of health facilities Lack of clean water Poor sanitation poor health
misdirected priorities superstition/tradition

low taxation low production
lack of knowledge
low income
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Figure 1.3. Vicious Circle of Poverty and Illiteracy
Illiteracy
Lack of education
Inadequate & appropriate

educational systems Lack of knowledge
Lack of skills
Inability to sponsor literacy Lack of awareness
programmes Lack of self-confidence
Lack of innovation
Dependency thinking
Lack of school fees

Low production
Low taxation Low productivity
Low income
Figure 1.4. Vicious Circle of Poverty and Population
Over population
Large families
Lack of family planning Land shortage
Lack of knowledge
Low production
Lack of awareness
Low productivity
Illiteracy Felt need for more Low income

labour
Low investment in
education
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Figure 1.5. Vicious Circle of Economic Constraints
Low income
Lack of assets
(collateral)
Lack of employment Low profits
Lack of savings Lack of credit

Low production
Low productivity
High interest loans
Lack of capital
Lack of skills Low investment
From the diagrams above, it is apparent that the analysis of the symptoms and causes of
poverty, even in relatively isolated rural communities is quite complex. If we are to find
ways of breaking out of any of these vicious circles of poverty, we will need to make our
analysis more systematic.
6.1.5 Prioritizing (ranking) the problems:
This is to set priorities and rank problems which are identified, specified and substantiated
according to an understanding of the problems of particular groups of the community.
Issues and steps to be considered in setting priority problems include:
 Who identified the problem? Farmers or outsiders or joint effort. Available/additional
evidence?
 Proportion (how many) of the community affected by the problem
 Importance of the issue (eg. crop, livestock, etc.) affected by the problem to the
community’s livelihood
 Seriousness of the problem
 Responsible for significantly high production cost or low income?
 Severity of the loss?
 Frequency of the problem?
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PROBLEMS ANALYSIS WORKSHEETS
Worksheet 1A: Defining, Specifying and Substantiating the Problem
Where is it a When is it a For whom is it Available

What is the problem exactly ? problem ? problem ? a problem ? evidence ? Additional evidence required ?
PROBLEMS ANALYSIS WORKSHEETS
Worksheet 1B: Prioritization (Ranking) of the Problems
Proportion Importance of
(%) of the the problem to Severity Arithmetic
community livelihoods [3=high; Frequency importance
What is the problem exactly? Who identified? affected [3=high; 2=medium of occurrence [multiply Consensus
1=low] ; 1=low] (%) all] Ranking
Personal collection and compilation by Dereje Dejene; from the various Project Planning, FSR, RRA/PRA Training Courses; 1987-2000;
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7. GENDER ANALYSIS: Concept, Rationale, Principles and

Application
7.1 Conceptual Note

There are two basic concepts that underlie gender analysis:
 The difference between sex and gender; and
 The gender-based division of labour;
1. The Difference between Gender and Sex
Sex
It refers to the biological differences between women and men that are universal and
unchanging.
Gender
It refers to the socially defined differences between women and men.
These differences are culturally based with wide variation within and between societies
and changes over time. Thus, gender considers both men and men.
2. Gender-based Division of Labor

In every society there is a gender division of labour, which is considered appropriate from
the traditional point of view. Men are responsible for certain tasks and women for others.
Gender Roles: Gender roles are learned behaviour as to which activities, tasks and
responsibilities are considered feminine or masculine. They are affected by age, class,
religion, ethnicity, regional origin and history and even development efforts.
Triple Roles of Gender: Men and women in developing countries do have three roles:
Reproductive, productive and community management roles.
Each will be discussed later under, Gender Analysis Framework (GAF)
7.2 Gender Analysis

Until recently, many research and activities carried out in development planning treat the
community or household units as one, without recognising the unequal relationships
within these. Gender analysis takes apart (disaggregates) these units and looks at the
relations and distribution of resources within them.
Gender analysis is a method of collecting and organising “gender disaggregated data”,
information collected in a way which distinguishes between the different activities,
aspirations, needs and interests of men and women
Gender analysis, thus, helps to organise information according to gender and this enables
to:
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 Predict how male and female members of the community or households will be
affected by development efforts.
 Know/predict, the degree both male and female members of the community or
households will be able to participate in and receive benefits from development efforts.
 Anticipate whether a proposed policy, program or project will be effective or equitable
 Carry out gender sensitive planning and implementation of programs and can be
applied throughout the project cycle.
7.3 Gender Analysis Framework (GAF)

To facilitate the application of gender analysis to development efforts, a number of
analytical frameworks are in the process of being developed. Each framework, so far
developed, has its own strengths and weaknesses, as each has its roots from different
theoretical background and, likewise, representing different theoretical position. Of these,
the analytical tools developed by the Harvard University team and by others has been
widely adapted and is currently in use worldwide by various development
practitioners/institutions.
The GAF makes the best uses of a range of participatory tools and approaches. It:
 is a useful tool for gathering and understanding women’s and men’s roles, and taking
account of external forces which affect development planning;
 is flexible and can be used at many different levels of planning and analysis;
 can be expanded to dis-aggregate data according to cultural, ethnic and economic
factors as well as gender and age;
 has been further modified to be used for the purpose of improving client-oriented
extension interventions,
The GAF consists of three components: The Activity Profile, Resource/Benefit Profile and
the Development Constraint Analysis. Each will be discussed next.
7.3.1. Activity Profile/Analysis

Why do we need information about the activity profile of a given context or
community???
 To identify target beneficiaries: Determine who should participate in and benefit from
a given development activities.
 To understand when and for whom labour bottlenecks may occur [under or over
supply of labour]
 To determine where labour-saving technologies or strategies should be oriented or for
whom employment should be created.
 To allow services and inputs to be appropriately delivered.
This first component of the GAF is based on the concept of a gender based division of
labour (ie; by taking account of the ’Triple Roles of Gender’ ). What are the triple roles of
gender?
Triple Roles of Gender
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In general men and women in developing countries do have three roles: Reproductive,
Productive and Community Management Roles (Activities).
a) Reproductive Roles (Activities) involves the care and maintenance of the household
and its members.
There are three different levels at which the term reproduction is used: Biological
Reproduction, Labour Reproduction and Social Reproduction:
 Biological reproduction comprises pregnancy, child birth and lactation.
By looking at problems involved in human reproduction, we will be able to see the
determinant factors which affect women’s position in a given society.
 Labour reproduction involves the daily regenerating of the labour force through
cooking, cleaning, washing, nursing and so on.
By understanding the concept of reproduction of the labour force, we should be able
to determine the extent to which women’s involvement is important to an
understanding of their position within the society.
 Social reproduction is an all embracing category, maintenance of ideological
conditions which reproduce class relations and uphold the social and economic status
quo
By understanding the dynamics of social reproduction as a whole, we will be able to
decide to what extent women’s position and male-female relations are crucial for the
reproduction of the social totality.
In most societies reproductive roles mostly tend to fall upon the shoulders of women.
When one looks at the condition they perform their task (energy and time requirement) it
is tedious, arduous and non-remunerative.
Since they work to transform goods and services for household use and welfare, women
remain outside the domain of public life and politics. Similarly, these activities do not
directly bring cash into the household, and they are often not even recognised as work.
b) Productive Roles (Activities). Although this has different possible meaning in different
context, it is defined as all activities which directly generate income. It involves the
production of goods and services for consumption and trade.
Productive activities can, thus be summarised as:
 work done for pay in cash or kind,
 market production with an exchange value, and
 subsistence/home production with actual use-value and also potential exchange
value.
Thus, work related to crop and livestock production and other income generation
activities is classified as productive work.
c) Community Management Roles (Activities). These are activities undertaken at the

community level. It involves the collective organisation of social events and services.
Thus, group work (like cleaning irrigation channels, terracing, etc); informal social
arrangements (like idir, equb, funeral arrangements, etc) are classified as community
management work.
Page 38 of 57
Although men do productive and community management work, in Ethiopia as in

elsewhere, they do very little reproductive work. Much of the reproductive work is done
by women who also do productive and community management work.
In practice, this means that in most developing countries, it is women who end up with
“triple roles”; facing heavier work load than men as they are combining all three roles.
Mostly the triple role of women is not recognised.
This first component of the GAF, ‘Activity Profile/Analysis’, thus:

 shows the economic and social activities of the community in the study/project area
using various variables or other distinguishing characteristics; that it:
 separates out (disagreggates) the productive, reproductive and community
management activities (roles) of the population in a community:
 first by gender; and then
 by other socio-economic characteristics such as age, ethnicity, marital status,
social class, etc
 defines who performs what activity when, how long for and where
 indicates whether activities are continual, seasonal or occasional
 indicate the time allocated to each activity and where it takes place
 Time has two dimensions:
 Distribution of labour over time (a day, week, year) which is
determined by factors such as crop and livestock production;
 Absolute amount of time required for each task. This is related to the
intensity of production and the resources and technologies
 also identifies the location of activities [ie; In the house, in the field, close to or
far from home, outside the community, etc)
 also reveals differences in women’s and men’s mobility
Gender analysis with respect to activity profile involves using different kinds of
worksheets (forms). The first focuses on issues related to gender based division of labour.
The second one is on agricultural calendar, indicates who does what agricultural activities
over the agricultural season(s). These might be used as complementary (or alternative)
tools, enforcing other methods mentioned earlier (like seasonal calendars, trend diagram,
etc).
See worksheet formats, annexed at the end of this module
Page 39 of 57
7.3.2. Resources/Benefits Profile/Analysis

The second component of GAF is to Identify and examine what resources available to
people; analysis of the access to, and control over, resources that individuals use to carry
out their activities and the benefits that they drive from them. That is:
 Who uses the resources and why? [Legal rights, traditions, etc.]
 Who controls, or decides on, the use of the resource? [Government, village chief,
community, family members, etc]. Control can be either formal (dejure) or informal
(de facto), where the latter implies decision making
 How is the control maintained? [Revenue which might go to male-head of the
household..]
Resources include: land, labour, time, capital, input, training, credit, extension, education
and knowledge, etc.
Benefits derived from the access to and use of the resources include: income, food, health
care, shelter, skill, etc.
The need to know who has access to and control over resources
 To assess the relative power of members of a community;
 To pinpoint areas where resource control and access present constraints to
development [ie; who needs more access or control over which resources]
Gender analysis with respect to resources/benefits profile also involves using various
worksheets (forms). These might be used as complementary (or alternative) tools,
enforcing other methods mentioned earlier.
7.3.3 Development Constraints Analysis

This, the third component of the GAF is to identify constraints to development in a given
area. Development constraints analysis makes use of background information on the area
as well as from findings of the activity and resource/benefit profiles.
Constraints to development could evolve from numerous and interrelated factors which
determine who does what and what access and control one has. These constraints may be:
 Economic: Lack of credit, market, low labour productivity, etc
 Social: Illiteracy, poor health, cultural attitudes/taboos, high birth rate, etc
 Environmental: Deforestation, poor resource base, flooding, drought, erosion, etc.
 Institutional:
 lack of extension/education/training,
 insecure land tenure,
 poor legal structure,
 lack of skilled personnel,
 marriage/divorce arrangements and inheritance, etc. etc.
The need to know development constraints
 A comprehensive understanding of gender-differentiation in the community;
Page 40 of 57
 Consideration of gender-differentiation in the design of appropriate strategies and

activities;
 Identification of appropriate support measures which will promote full integration
rather than marginalisation of rural women.
The development constraints analysis worksheet has three columns:

 The first identifies development constraints in the area;
 The second, termed as “gender considerations”:
 examines factors that create different opportunities or constraints for men’s and
women’s participation in, and benefits from, projects or interventions
 helps to see whether a particular extension intervention would be effective, and for
which client(s)/target beneficiaries the intervention should be directed towards
 The last column, termed as “implications for successful extension interventions”,
indicates the appropriate interventions in response to each development constraint.
The development constraints’ analysis pays particular focus in addressing gender needs
under different time dimensions:
Gender Needs: These can be classified into two: Practical and Strategic gender needs.
a) Practical gender needs relate to the conditions, immediate material circumstances in
which men or women live.
These needs can be addressed by practical and short-term development interventions,
but are unlikely to change unequal aspects of gender relations by themselves.
b) Strategic gender needs relate to the subordinate position of women in society relative
to men.
Addressing the strategic needs of women requires long-term planning and changes in
the behaviour and attitudes of men.
In planning development interventions, it is, thus, necessary to identify whether existing
needs are practical, strategic or both. This is because of the potential danger of
aggravating the strategic gender need while attempting to address practical gender need.
7.3.4 Important considerations to Integrate Gender in Participatory

Development
 Involving all groups, and especially ensuring active participation of women, in the
problem identification, priority setting, conception and design stages of development
activities, as well as, the implementation of activities and in participatory monitoring
and evaluation of development programmes.
 A thorough analysis of the situation of women in relation to that of men, with regard to
activities, values and cultural practices, and of the gender resistance and male
domination/bias.
This is needed to obtain full understanding of:
Page 41 of 57
1) personal relations, social hierarchy and differentiation of groups and interests

(eg; age, sex, economic conditions, ethnicity, etc);
2) the roles and responsibilities and activities of men an women;
3) their contribution to the household livelihoods;
4) their decision making power at household, community and local
government levels
 An understanding of the inherent discrimination in the society (eg; schooling, technical
assistance, access to credit and services, etc).
 Recognition of the effect of changing socio-economic and physical environment, both
punctual events and long term trends on - the division of labour and the situation and
responsibilities of women [eg; effect of increasing male migration (leading to more
female-headed households), effect of degradation of natural resources on women’s
workload for collecting water and fuel, morbidity rates, etc)].
 Recognition of the gender differentiated needs and interests in the natural environment
that arise out of particular cultural traditions, division of labour, etc; and the need to
overcome socio-economic and gender constraints with regard to ownership, decision
making and resource allocation.
 Increasing the visibility of women in development efforts and empowering them
through:
 promoting discussion by communities;
 raising collective awareness and building their confidence to seek logical
reasoning;
 increasing their ability to negotiate and reconcile differences/conflicts and to
take leadership roles and responsibilities; etc etc etc.
 Identification of ways in which the gap in equality between men and women can be
narrowed.
For example, through:
 increasing women’s capacity to control their own lives
[ie; improving their access to and control of resources like land and labour, and
products);
 access to training and extension for their economic activities: agricultural
production, dairy, etc.
 Understanding of joint problems in a community (eg; agriculture, livestock, etc), and
the need that women are trained with men to overcome such joint problems.
 Recognising and understanding that women also have specific problems and needs (eg;
equipment to alleviate workload, ways of reducing distance/time to collect water and
fuel, etc).
 Identification of solutions for problems and constraints of all groups in the community,
including women and the most disadvantaged groups.
 Identification of efforts needed to build upon the different opportunities available for
each distinct group in the agro-ecological, socio-economic and cultural context (self
help action).
 Identification of areas which need to be addressed by policy makers to enable women
benefit (directly and indirectly) from development - eg; access to resources, especially
land, and to services, technical assistance, etc.
Page 42 of 57
 Identification of support (resources and services) that needs to be made available to

women to enable them improve their livelihoods, productivity, efficiency and their
capacity to manage resources in a sustainable manner
Page 43 of 57
GENDER ANALYSIS FRAMEWORK WORKSHEETS
Worksheet 1A: Activity Profile/Analysis Worksheet
Activity Gender Time Location

Reproductive:
Productive:
Community Management:
Note
Activity: Listing of each activity being carried out in the community, according to whether it is
reproductive, productive or community management
Gender: Differentiating between male or/and female at least. Depending upon the ultimate use of
the data, one may further differentiate between youth, adults and children; between high, middle
and low income men and women; or between polygamous, monogamous and female-/male-
headed households, etc.
Time: Indicating the time dimension; whether the activity is continual, seasonal or occasional
Location: Indicating whether the activity is carried out in the home, around the house, in the field,
in the local community or beyond the local community.
GENDER ANALYSIS FRAMEWORK WORKSHEETS
Page 44 of 57
Worksheet 1B: Activity Profile/Analysis Worksheet: Agricultural

Calendar
Activity Months of the year Who does the activity?
Note
Listing of all seasonal agricultural activities and indicate for which month and by whom each
activity is done.
Worksheet 2A: Resource Profile/Analysis Worksheet
% Access % Access % Control % Control

Resource (Men) (Women) (Men) (Women)
Note
 You may use one or combination of PRA tools to find out percentage figures (eg; proportional
piling)
 You may have at least two profiles: One, given by men and the second, given by women.
From these, the different perceptions between the sexes concerning access to and control
over resources may be clear.
For instnce, concerning farm inputs, men my say that they have 60% access and their wives 40%;
whereas the women may say their husbands have a 100% access and themselves none.
 Have more than two resource files whenever more sub-groups are identified in the community.
Page 45 of 57
Worksheet 2B: Benefit Profile/Analysis Worksheet
Benefit % Gain - Men % Gain - Women
Note
 You may use one or combination of PRA tools to find out percentage figures (eg; proportional
piling)
 You may have at least two profiles: One, showing the perception of the men in the community
xoncerning who gains most from each benefit, and the second, showing the perception of
women.
This may show for instnce, that in both the men’s and women’s opinions, the only benefit women
gain more than men could be fuelwood!
Worksheet 3: Development Constraints Analysis Worksheet
Development constraints Gender considerations Implications for successful

extension interventions
Note
Gender considerations relate to the activity and resource profiles. For ech development constraint
the activity and resource profiles are referred to see if a particulr gender is affected more than the
other and why.
For example, if a development constraint is shortage of fuelwood, and the activity profile indicates
that it is women who collect fuelwood, then the gender consideration is that women are are
directly affected y this constraint.
Ways in which they are affected can be elaborated in the worksheet.
A resulting extension intervention, say, encouraging homestead plantig of trees and use of fuel
efficient stoves, should be “oriented” to the women. Thus, extension planning becomes gender
sensitive
Implications for successful extension interventions: Depending on the context in which the GAF is
used, this column
Page 46 of 57
8. Analysis of Solutions/ 'best-bets'
As problems and solutions are often interconnected and influence each other, one solution
can solve more than one problem. For instance, transport can solve unemployment and
offer farmers on access to markets. On the other hand, a solution can solve one problem
but cause another one. For instance bore holes reduce water shortage, but can lead to
overgrazing because of bigger livestock herds
8.1 Issues and steps to be considered in best-bet analysis
A. Identifying solutions: A list of all possible solutions (best-bets) to the problems

Regardless of the order of importance, possible solutions to the problems can be
identified using one or combination of the following sources.
 Ask local community for suggestions
 Study recent and formerly practiced innovations by the local community
 Study causal chain for entry points
 Brainstorm
 Consult experts with relevant professional background/ experience to the problem in hand
 Review locally available research results and development program outputs
 Review literature and other sources of information on experience elsewhere
B. Evaluation and selection of the suggested solutions that seem to have the best
chances of success
This crucial step needs a great deal effort to be carried out with maximum precaution. It
involves drawing out and careful screening of criteria to arrive at the best possible
solutions:
 Criteria to screen possible solutions:
 Find out criteria important to local community
 List your own criteria
 Rank solutions symmetrically
 Select solutions to be implemented
Some issues/criteria worth considering while evaluating possible solutions include:

1) Rate of success: Probability that the solution/technology will function.
2) Compatibility with the socio-economic system (local system) . Solutions should be
compatible with elements of the local system: socio-economic and natural conditions,
management practices, etc
3) Profitability:
4) Contribution to reducing risk: Communities will be most interested in solutions that
help reduce risk in their operations
5) Need for institutional support: Assess whether the proposed solution will require
special external support like inputs from extension service; or a change in other
programs.
Page 47 of 57
6) Ease of using by target users and beneficiaries: Better chance of acceptability and
adoption of new solution/technology can be obtained if target beneficiaries manage to
use it on their own without incurring a high initial investment of cash or/and labour.
7) Ease of carrying out the program and Sustainability : Solutions that can be carried
out at low cost with maximum participation of the local community (Self help
development process) have a higher rate of success.
8) Environmental impacts and system constraints: What is the positive and/or negative
short and log term impacts of the solution on human, fauna & flora, Soil & Water, etc.
Page 48 of 57
Figure 8.1. Problems and best-bets analysis leading to project

formulation
Problem
Why is a solution needed?
Causes of problems
 Root cause
 Secondary/lower level
 Prevailing
Why?
What solutions?
Who benefits?
New problems which will emerge?

Ac
c
ep
ta
bl
No
e
Yes
Project Planning
Page 49 of 57
Table 8.1. Example of logical problem and best-bets analysis
PROBLEM WHY SOLUTION? CAUSES? SOLUTION? WHO BENFITS? NEW PROBLEMS?
Lack of primary school Want children to be Lack of local housing for Ask Council to build  Teachers What do the children do
teachers educated teachers more housing  Children when primary school
completed?
Want children to be Lack of jobs for primary Start some village  Children Need to provide skills
productively employed school leavers industries that could  Parents training to adults to start
employ and train children  Village small industries
Children don’t want to
stay in village after
school completed
Want adults skilled so

they can do and teach
Personal collection and compilation by Dereje Dejene; from the various Project Planning, FSR, RRA/PRA Training Courses; 1987-2000;
Page 51 of 57
9. Defining the Development Project:

The primary purpose of identifying problems and prioritizing them is to meet needs
realistically
A development project is A set of organised ACTIVITIES, Which yield expected

RESULTS/needs, Within a limited TIME frame, With limited RESOURCES in order to
achieve certain OBJECTIVES and contribute to a given Developmental GOAL
Project preparation refers to the compilation of need assessment/ study on which

concerned organizations will normally base the appraisal of the project in question for the
final decision.
The objective of project preparation is to demonstrate that a project concept is -

- in accordance with the country's development objectives and priorities;
- technically sound and the best of alternatives;
- attractive to the intended beneficiaries;
- operationally and managerially workable;
- economically, financially and socially viable;
- sustainable and environmentally sound
Project preparation must provide expected Goal, purpose, results, activities and
sufficiently accurate estimates of costs on project funding or financing.
The steps for defining development project involves the following set of exercises.
 Organizing hierarchy of solutions
 Reformulate solutions into objectives
 Organize hierarchy of development Objectives
 Define means measuring performance and sources for verification of the
measurement.
 Assess external factors necessary for viability/ success of the project objectives.
 Development of project document
Stages in formulating an Objective Pyramid

1. Reformulate solutions as objectives.
2. Identify the broadest or most difficult objective(s) and place it (them) at the top of the pyramid.
3. Identify lower order objectives and specify those objectives that they support and those
that are needed in order to achieve them.
4. Fill in gaps with supplementary objectives.
5. Ensure the relationships depicted are logical and that no aspects have been overlooked.
Please note that these steps have to consider the ‘Gender Analysis Framework’. For
details, see Section 10.
Page 52 of 57
Three governing principles on realistic project planning
 Resource availability: What resources are required to meet the need? Where can they
be obtained? Does the project utilise local raw materials?
To utilise the raw materials of a locality not only saves finance and organisation
necessary for the transportation of materials from elsewhere, but it makes the
project more relevant to the people involved. An analysis of the available
resources and creative adaption of this information transforms traditional skills
into innovative projects.
 Skills available: The following set of questions should be addressed: What skills will
the project require? Are they available locally or can they be obtained through other
means? Does the project utilise the existing skills of the beneficiaries? Does the
project introduce new skills to the beneficiaries?
While recognising the importance of utilising the existing skills, it is also
beneficial to the target group that they learn new skills which can be used within
the project.
 Social/environmental context: Is there any opposition with regard to the project from
the surroundings? Is there any social or cultural conflict as a result of this project?
In the process of dialogue if the above exercise resulted in unsatisfactory answers
or no answer repeat the exercise until a positive result is achieved or the identified
need is successfully/satisfactorily/discerned.
The approach presented is in favor of using informal, rapid reconnaissance surveys,

which minimize project design costs while encouraging a dialogue with the intended
beneficiaries. This approach increases the sense of ownership of the project by the
beneficiaries, which in turn creates the basis of sustainability of the project.
Information requirements can be obtained with less structured interview dialogue

techniques rather than statistically valid surveys. The former approach emphasises
“learning while doing”.
Page 53 of 57
10. The community Action plan (CAP)
10.1 Purpose of the CAP

 The CAP is a PRA tool which should be used by the community to summaries what
they intend to do to solve their problems
 The CAP is the result of a process of awareness creation with regard to the
communities` needs and self-help potential overcome their problems.
 The CAP is not a shopping list. It has to insure that al activities, which the community
can do with its own resources, are actually done by the community itself. Possible
contributions by development agencies (DAs should only be considered for such
activities which the community is not able to do.)
 The community is fully responsible for producing a CAP and for implementing it. The
community can appoint a committee to take over this responsibility.
 The CAP should be seen as a tool, which ensures that the community is the owner of
the project and is fully responsible for its planning, implementation and success. This
will hopefully lead to sustainable impacts.
 The CAP should also ensure that the dialogue between the community and the DAS
after the village workshop (follow-up) is conducted in a participatory and effective
way.
10.2 How to do CAP
 Explain that the community should formulate a CAP for a development project
derived from the priority ranking during the village workshop.
 Ask the community members whether they have experience in organizing an activity
or a project together. Ask for examples. This could be something simple, like a single
event (a marriage, a baptism), or a bigger task building a school house, dispensary etc.
 Taken an event they mention.
 Ask them what they have done for this task and who had benefited from that project
 Explain that this benefit was at that time (before they started the activity) their goal.
For the school example it would be formulated like: “Having a better learning
environment”. The beneficiaries in this example are the students.
 Ask what activities had to be done for achieving the goal and write/ symbolize them
on cards put the activities in a logical order (one step after the other )
 Ask what intermediate outputs (results) had to be achieved to reach their goal. For
example, to have a school building intermediate results would be: 1. The place is
cleared, 2 the walls are constructed, 3. The roof established.
 Let the community members sort the respective activities to the specific intermediate
outputs (results).
 Ask them what material was needed for each activity and write their answers next to
the activity on the card.
 Ask who was responsible for a certain activity and add this as well.
 Explain the need good coordination with in the community. Therefore, a Village
Committee could be a suitable organization to coordinate the activities that will start
after the end of the village workshop.
Page 54 of 57
 State that it is up to the community to decide on the election of a Village Committee.

All sub-groups formed during the village workshop should be represented in this
committee.
 Answer open questions.
10.3 Format for a community action Plan (CAP)
1. Name of the project
2. Responsibly for the project
Here the groups (e.g. a committee) or persons should be mentioned who are responsible
for planning and implementation
3. Rationale of the project( why has the project been given priority by the
community?
Here, the community has to sate which problems will hopefully be solved or reduced by
the project. Which possible solutions have been considered and which criteria have been
used by the community to choose this specific solution) project)? How has the
community ensured that the majorities of community members supports the project and
are willing to contribute substantially to the implementation?
4. The communities vision of the project ( objectives)
4.1 What are the goals of the project and who will benefit from reaching these goals?
Here benefits, which are expected from the project, and the community groups, which
will benefits from, should be described as precisely as possible.
4.2 What are the intermediate results (outputs) which have to be produced in order
to reach the goals specified under 4.1
Here the specific results of activities to be done have to be listed in a chronological order.
For example, one goal of a pan rehabilitation project could be:
1. VIPL is constructed
2. Water point is repaired
3. etc.
5. Activities (Steps) to produce the outputs stated under 4.2
Here, for each out put stated under 4.2, all activities needed to produced these out puts
have to be listed. Also it ahas to be indicated for each activity, who will do it Using the
example of a pan rehabilitation project, this should be documented in following way
Page 55 of 57
Outputs Activities responsibility

1 VIP latrine get 1.1 Select site for VIPL with the interested Community/
constructed. households. DO
1.2 Ask for assistance of construction materials Community
not locally available.
1.3 Collect locally available materials Community
1.4 Transport construction materials DO/
Community
1.5 Ask for assistance of skilled labor for Community
construction.
1.5 Execute the construction Community/
Skilled labor
2. Water point 2.1 ---------- --------
repaired
2.2 ---------- ----------
2.3 --------- ----------
3. ------- 3.1 ---------- ----------
3.2 ---------- ----------
6. Material (inputs) needed to do the activities listed under 5
Here, for those activities, which need material or equipment, the material/ equipment has
to be identified. And it should be stated who should be responsible for providing this
material or equipment. Using the example of the pan rehabilitation project, this should be
done in the following way:
Activities for which inputs are Material and /or equipment Source
needed needed
1.2 Ask for assistance of construction  Cement, Iron sheet, -- DO
materials not locally available.
1.3 Collect locally available materials  Stone, sand, --- Community
2.1 --------  -------- ----------
2.3 --------  --------
2.3 --------  --------
7. Next steps to be done

Here the community should indicate:
A) When they would like to meet again with the PRA team .
B) What should be discussed the next meeting.
C) What the community will prepare/ complete for this meeting.
D) What the community plans to do (activities, responsibility) in order to be sell-
prepared for the next meeting with the PRA team.
E) What the community expects from the PRA team. The next meeting

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Page i of 57

Participatory Need Assessment

Concept, Methods, Processes and Procedures

1. IDENTIFICATION OF DEVELOPMENT PROJECT/ PROGRAM: 4

1.1 Need Assessment [Problem Analysis] 4

1.2. The four Stage of Need Assessment 4

1.3 PURPOSE OF PROBLEMS/ NEED AND BEST-BET ANALYSIS 6

1.4. Methods/Techniques of analysis 7

1.5 Importance of Secondary Data Sources 7

2. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF RRA/PRA 9

3. WHY PARTICIPATORY RAPID (RURAL/RELAXED) APPRAISAL? 11

3.2 What is participation? 11

3.3 Why rapid? (Compared to conventional surveys) 11

4. THE PRINCIPLES AND MAIN FEATURES OF PRA 12

4.2. Features of PRA 12

4.2. Features of PRA 13

5. USES AND PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF PRA TOOLS/TECHNIQUES 16

5.2 Mapping and Modeling 16

5.3 Transect Map/Diagram 17

5.4 Seasonal Diagramming and Analysis 18

5.5 Chapati / Venn diagram 18

5.5 Trend Diagramming/ Analysis 19

5.6 Semi structured interviewing 20

5.7 Ranking & Scoring 22

5.7.4 Matrix scoring 25

5.8 Other tools and techniques of PRA 27

7. GENDER ANALYSIS: CONCEPT, RATIONALE, PRINCIPLES AND

7.2 Gender Analysis 37

7.3 Gender Analysis Framework (GAF) 38

8. ANALYSIS OF SOLUTIONS/ 'BEST-BETS' 48

FIGURE 8.1. PROBLEMS AND BEST-BETS ANALYSIS LEADING TO

9. DEFINING THE DEVELOPMENT PROJECT: 53

10. THE COMMUNITY ACTION PLAN (CAP) 55

10.2 How to do CAP 55

10.3 Format for a community action Plan (CAP) 56

1. Identification of Development Project/ Program:

1.1 Need Assessment [Problem Analysis]

Need assessment is a systematic or focused approach for problem identification and

1.2. The four Stage of Need Assessment

Possible Sources [Root Causes] of Problems

2) Inefficient Use of Resources

SOLUTIONS [BEST-BETS] “What can we do ?”

1.3 PURPOSE OF PROBLEMS/ NEED AND BEST-BET ANALYSIS

1.4. Methods/Techniques of analysis

 Primary sources of methods: Surveys by using participatory methods like P/RRA;

Method Definition Sources

1.5 Importance of Secondary Data Sources

2. Historical Development of RRA/PRA

3. Why Participatory Rapid (Rural/Relaxed) Appraisal?

3.1 Why do we bother for participation (of rural people/target groups)?

Participation by every one in a community is the key to a development processes in which

3.2 What is participation?

3.3 Why rapid? (Compared to conventional surveys)

4. The principles and main features of PRA

4.1 Principles of PRA

· Switching from doing to facilitating

· Dialogue · Community members share

4.2. Features of PRA

Is an essential methodological concept of PRA?

Tools & Techniques Sources of

1. Triangulation in team composition

2. Triangulation of sources of information

 means the village workshop should include a wide range of viewpoints