"Oedipus Tyrannus" and the Problem of Knowledge

Author(s): Marjorie W. Champlin

Source: The Classical Journal , May, 1969, Vol. 64, No. 8 (May, 1969), pp. 337-345
Published by: The Classical Association of the Middle West and South, Inc. (CAMWS)

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/3296615

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 OEDIPUS TYRANNUS

AND THE PROBLEM OF KNOWLEDGE

I paper will be to show that the pervading

theme of Oedipus tyrannus is the problem
AT LEAST TWO CLASSICISTS have hinted of knowledge and that this theme has Par-
that the name Oedipus (Ol'rIwov3 ) menidean overtones.
might have special significance in Oedipus
At the outset Sophocles poses a problem
tyrannus.1 As this drama is about a man
for Oedipus, wrestling with which he will,
who wishes to know (olSa), it is my con-
at length, become acutely aware of his own
tention that it does have special meaning
human limitations, his own insufficient
and that it is for this reason that Sophocles
knowledge. This problem is a natural dis-
makes a play upon Oedipus' name in vari-
aster, threatening with extinction the full
ous places in the drama.2
range of physical life-a problem which
This play treats the theme of knowledge
demands a divine solution. At the beginning
as derived from the use of the senses, par-
of the play, Sophocles presents Oedipus as a
ticularly that of sight (4pdao). Though man of unusual resourcefulness and pre-
words for hearing (JKov'o) and touching
science. His mental skills command respect.
(tav'o) also occur-the first with great fre- The priest and elders have come to him for
quency-there is certainly a closer correla-
assistance almost as if he were the center of
tion in the Greek mind between the faculty
their religious life.
of sight and the ability to know than in the
use of the other senses for the attainment of
In his initial speech Oedipus shows his
acumen with very active physical senses
knowledge.3 The verb Lpda` (I see) is the
which immediately come into play. His
activity which carried to completion results
eyes inform him of petitioners iKr-qp[oLv
in knowledge (o1Sa, literally, "I have seen":
KXadoLctLv i'wErqAtvot. His sense of smell
in usage, "I know"). The purpose of this
notifies him that the city OvLtkaJrmv y~eLt,
and to his ears come sounds of chants and
1Bernard Knox, Oedipus at Thebes (New
Haven 1957), p. 127. Also Peter Westervelt
lamentations, wratavov E KL arrvayp1a'rv.
during a 1965 Harvard summer course entitled Oedipus refers to himself as KXALVYo (line
"Homer and the Greek tragedians." 8), renowned in everyone's eyes, for his
2 E.g., 924-926:
solution of the Sphinx's riddle. At the
p' ta 7rap' ziCol,, (5 ?Eott, gdiot)' 607rov
ra 7roD rvpcippov &'sgar' krrip OL6i'ov. play's end (line 1524) the chorus also re-
gaciXyra 6' ari? e7 rar) et CKdaro' Vwrov minds the audience of this mental achieve-
See also lines 397, 415, and 1008.
ment. Indeed the priest sets him just below
SOther words for the senses of seeing, hearing,
the level of the gods for this reason. He
and touching also occur, such as X~rww, KXVW, and
wonders aloud, in response to Oedipus'
Otyyc'w. The first two senses relate most directly
to intellectual processes. initial address, whether he had a source

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 338 MARJORIE
of divine
human wit alone:
... ere r )ov e^i,
'/ ,V aKO6as e t a7r' a ps of3 Od rov.
(42-43)
Two significant words here are aKov"as and
oaB8a, showing the correlation of the use of
the senses with the acquisition of human
knowledge.
In a later passage Oedipus credits himself
solely for solving the riddle:
6 y ju6z ei 6ws Oi 6irovs, ~wavad 't'v,
yv"4?7 Kpvp cas o03' wdr' oiwzvCjv tzaOdv.
The two passages cited contain the kernel
of the philosophic theme of this drama.
Sophocles portrays his hero, in full posses-
sion of his physical senses and as having
the knowledge that those senses can convey.
The overriding question is whether, so
equipped, he can master the problems which
confront him. Throughout the play Sopho-
cles uses the senses in conjunction with the
acquisition of knowledge. At moments of
crisis words for seeing, hearing, and touch-
ing frequent the text. These are the sign-
posts to watch for as the play progresses.
As the opening scene advances, Creon
reports the message from Apollo, god of
truth, and Oedipus assumes an air of self-
assurance as if accomplished in the art of
sleuthing. Speaking of Laius, he says: oA'
!Koov`*v ov- yhp dcrEdSdv yf wo (105). Note
the confidence he expresses in his knowl-
edge. This is typical of a man who has
learned to depend on his own wit, this time
in combination with only one of his senses.
But with a pun on Oedipus' name Sopho-
cles gives the Greek audience an ironic
glimpse of Oedipus' physical weakness, as
when the king asks Creon:
KaicoY v ' 7rotiov, CErOGw7) Prvpavtv os
Ofrw re-ovas, elpye 707o' 'et&bevat;
The "evil before the feet" or "blocking the
feet" was in a direct sense the Sphinx but
indirectly Ocl'rov. In freeing the city from
the Sphinx, he proves himself worthy of
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W. CHAMPLIN
inspiration
kingship. As he filled the or acted
vacuum left by th
Laius, the search for the killer was ne-
glected, until the pollution caused by
Oedipus' presence forced a renewed inquiry.
During the same early scene with Creon,
Oedipus very nearly equates himself with
Apollo, as he says:
WOT' vEIlKWS 6bECT6OE KcAE 96utaXov
YZ1 r6e ?rtfzwpofzra -r ^Oe6 6' la.
(135-136)
This is a highly significant passage, for
Apollo represents truth itself. In no esti-
mation, save his own, could Oedipus claim
(397-398) the inborn quality of truth; yet he affirms
his willingness to undertake the task of
avenging Laius' death as a partner of the
god. Even the word 6'tEOE has an ostenta-
tious sense here.
Having received information or "leads"
from Apollo, Oedipus issues a proclamation,
commanding that the murderer, if known,
be disclosed and ordering him to be ban-
ished. Three times in the speech the word
o~Sa is used in some form, and what an
ironic touch it has when Oedipus, the one
who should have been in a state of knowl-
edge, reveals his ignorance:
6o-rs w7oO' rNV c Aiiov r Ov AaP/a3KOV
KaCrot&i' dv6pbs tK rios &WdXero ....
(224-225)
Equally ironic is the next use of the word
in the same speech, since it so obviously
reflects his lack of knowledge:
ei 3' ai -res &XXov, oe&, d' 'kXX/s xovbso
Tr aivTXetpa, ? aUltwr.rTw ...
(230-231)
Eager to be helpful and hoping to dis-
cover the truth, the Chorus tactfully offers
a significant suggestion to Oedipus:
CvaK7r' apvaKNrT 7raO' 6pPT' eriaTra/Iat
LdXara 'oi/pw Tetpeoiav,, rap' 0o Trs a"t
- KO/r ) 2r 6, cbva", 6I0t c[O a oaqC~rarct
(284-286)
(128-129) In its desire to show deference to Oedipus
the Chorus has equated Apollo, Teiresias,
and Oedipus by calling them all "lord"
though it assigns to Teiresias the closer
acquaintance with Phoebus. The sentence
OEDIPUS TYRANNUS AND THE PROBLEM OF KNOWLEDGE 339

facts whichconveys
structure as well as its meaning have determined human cir-
Teiresias' close acquaintance with or
cumstances Apollo.
those which are prophesied.
The titles for the two, men Either
stand useside
wouldby require the intuitive
side in line 284 and their names
knowledgein of juxta-
a prophet. Was Teiresias, as
positional identity in line 285.
an exponent of truth, on the general level
The entire scene with Teiresias teems of an Old Testament prophet? Sophocles
with references to knowing or understand-
speaks of him as cognizant of ineffable
heavenly matters. The strictures of the
ing (4povw) and seeing (Opdwr) employed
with clear differentiation. Just before the
play demanded only that he possess a full
prophet's entrance Oedipus with his usual
awareness of past and future human events.
air of adequacy makes an effort to recon-
Knowing the truth of these was a source
struct earlier events. He shows familiarity
not of joy but of sorrow. We should remind
ourselves that, if the Chorus could know of
with rumored accounts: -'Kovoa Ka&y/ r-Yv 8'
a divine realm where the laws of Olympus
1S8Ovr' Ov&St op (293). Oedipus assigns him-
self quite a sense of mental acuity asoriginate
he and Justice holds sway, Teiresias
uses in this brief line three words denoting
would also be cognizant of this more meta-
sense activity! He wishes to, give the physical
im- sense of truth.
pression of a man as watchful as Argus.A climactic confrontation of knowledge
From this self-appointed height of per-and ignorance is reached in this scene. Tei-
ception no one is more capable than he of reveals the truth that Oedipus is the
resias
according to Teiresias his proper worth. murderer of Laius, but Oedipus completely
Oedipus then credits Teiresias with knowl-
and instantly rejects the charges, not seek-
edge of heavenly and earthly matters ing andany clarification. In his mental darkness
pays him the ultimate tribute of possessing
the king upbraids Teiresias for blindness
intuitive knowledge: with respect to his ears, mind, and eyes in
this alliterative line: rvf74A r7 r' Jra
ArXLP [Uv, eL Ka [L? pOXr6ELs, cpoVE s' 3' w
o'a v w y6avea rLv .... rTOV 7E vovY rT r' /tar' d (371). Then
(302-303) Oedipus charges Teiresias with being an
accessory to the criminal death of Laius.
"Without physical eyesight you are aware
of the plight of the city," says he.
Reasoning cleverly-but mistakenly- he
Yet a
deduces a plot against his throne and life,
bit of insincerity appears to creep in as
with Creon as the other malefactor.
Oedipus in the next breath explains Phoe-
The next scene with Creon is ushered in
bus' message, thereby attributing a degree
of ignorance to the seer. with several verbal configurations, associ-
ating the senses and human knowledge, as
All through this passage the word
Creon tries to ascertain what charges were
"truth" (r&ArlOS) is used in some form,
first by the Chorus with relation to made against himself, the presumed fellow
conspirator.
Teiresias' nature: j rXTa',kO GErEAVKEV
Jv6pW7rv pEdvw (298-299), and then by The Chorus says: l r TO pv rda', o2la 8'
the prophet as he designates himself an o yvI,4~ rivi (527). Incredulously Creon
exponent of truth: 7-E'Evya a rXyOE" yahp tries to determine in what state of stupe-
faction Oedipus might have made such
lu~xov rpT~o (356); ELrTEop 7T ' iUT Tq charges:
ay~q&tas auOvo' (369). It becomes pertinent
to ask what Sophocles meant by the ?' [L[dlTwC ' pOdv r 7 KcdL 6pO79 pEv6y
"truth." Careful consideration would lead
Ka-r7Y opet-i o 7oriKX? /aL -root TU ov;
one to believe that the word "truth" is used (528-529)

in the play primarily as denoting the facts The Chorus responds evasively: o0K 0d'. ~
of human experience, either those concealed
y-p 3pao' o0 KpaTro0VTES obx Ap6 (530). Creon

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 340 MARJORIE W. CHAMPLIN

builds a sound case against

sion at the his
thought of Jocasta's own im
religious
impiety. As Victor
cation in the imagined Ehrenberg but
plot, says in Oed
seeing darkly, remains unpersuaded
Sophocles and Pericles, "the poet (Sopho-
frustration, butcles) is opposed in heart and
without soul" to the
violence, C
makes an observation onandOedipus'
"man-made standards" morality which me
Jocasta represents.5 In the Athens of Soph-
confusion: ov yp fpovo?^vrd o' E3 3flV
(626). ocles' day oracular responses and even the
Jocasta, undoubtedly drawn to the scene gods themselves were subject to skeptical
by the uproar, enters. With her entrance questioning. Sophocles remonstrated. Un-
the fearsome truth perversely begins to doubtedly his voice is joined with that of
dawn in Oedipus' mind. In attempting to the Chorus as they pray for confirmation of
quiet Oedipus' fear, Jocasta discredits the truths of prophecy and ask for assur-
Teiresias as being in the number of the ance in their observance of religious piety.
unreliable prophets. Then in disclosing The messenger from Corinth enters, and
some additional facts about Laius' demise the full disclosure of the truth is postponed.
she awakens a dread recollection in Oedi- Jocasta's skepticism seems to be solidly
based as she says to Oedipus:
pus' mind. At this tragic dawn of knowledge

he laments: ELV(,S ~UOvpt o~fro b v~oCvr? aKovUE 7' dV6pos 70o 6, Ka1 CTKOTreL KXPWUV
j (747). Oedipus' conception of TeiresiasTrd o(X e ' 'P' Kt T70O Oeo0 iavTreV/ia-ra.
has changed twice in a brief time. Initially (952-953)
he exalts the seer; next he reviles him;
Notice the prominence given the two words
finally, coming full circle, he begins to,
for "hearing" in this speech, in which
accord him respect once again.
Jocasta presuming her knowledgeability
Jocasta remains in darkness. In her ear-
denounces "the holy oracles of the god."
nest attempt tot discredit Teiresias' disclo-
After this careless denunciation one is not
sures as falsehood, she inadvertently has
surprised to hear her make this tasteless
brought to light the truth which he revealed.
statement, following the messenger's initial
At the close of the scene Jocasta, by reason
disclosure: Kat \LUYv uE`ya3 y' d84OaXhlos o0i 7rarpZo
of her own myopic state, comforts Oedipus
with the supposed falsity of an oracle rLqot
al- (987). The unusual use of 0/aX'yd
above can best be explained as indicating
ready delivered, condemning the seer and
that the author's purpose is to relate the
Loxias in one breath (lines 851-854).
The reaction of the Chorus to the denial
use of the senses to knowledge."
As the scene moves on, the Corinthian
of the validity of oracular responses is
messenger brings more and more facts to
forceful. They pledge themselves to greater
the forefront. Two opposing forces provide
sanctity affirming the existence of divine
tension here, the one to conceal knowledge,
laws. Thereafter they condemn insolence
the other to disclose it. Oedipus, true to
and pride using the word ri"po7-ra with ap-
his nature, continues to, probe; and Jocasta,
propriate pointedness for the man of
completely aware now of the situation, tries
haughty mien and manner. In. the word
vrpo7ra there may be an indirect reference vainly to block full disclosure: 8V;7orp/',
to Oedipus, who has now been disclosed as
5Oxford 1954, p. 72.
the possible murderer of Laius.4 SAs R. C. Jebb (Sophocles [Cambridge 1893]
The Chorus displays a pronounced revul- Part I, pp. 132-133) notes, the use of the word
is not "merely (though this notion comes in) 'a
4Bernard Knox believes that the Chorus in great help to seeing' that oracles are idle." He
Strophe B' is referring not to Jocasta alone relates
but it to the idea of "a bright, sudden com-
also to Oedipus, whose past, they have just fort." Jebb does not see what appears to me the
learned, has been tarnished with the stain of more obvious reason for the usage-its relation
blood: Oedipus at Thebes, p. 174. to the theme of the play.

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OEDIPUS TYRANNUS AND THE PROBLEM OF KNOWLEDGE 341

be expected,
EO epor oEvoE ol 8 E (1068). But Oedi-carries frequent references to
"seeing," as Oedipus
pus' will-to-know cannot be suppressed. It blinds himself:
has led him to the tragic knowledge that he
apas EratceeJ 0apOapa ri P abrov KUKX O,
murdered his father, and it will ad&p
soon expose
rotavO', BOOViVeK' OUK 0OLV76 VLV
his fateful identity. At this crucial moment,
o0 ' o' wrraaxepr 0o0' drroi' 3pa KaKc.
as at others, the senses come designedly (1270-1272)
into play.
With one sense rendered useless, Oedipus
The herdsman says woefully: o0uor, wrpo' must make use of another. Beseeching
aimro y' Ei, 7-r &wSEt ,ykLtE (1169). And Creon to send for his children, he says:
Oedipus' determined response: d ayy
aKovIaEv AXX' O/Ocs aKoVUTEIo/ (1170). ... Kat[ tclXLta pfLe XEPOi)V
By the recurring and obvious employ- avati it' EcaRo K drroKXa6aaaOaL KaKad.

ment of sense terminology, the poet has

yo'' c1 ' eopo yeevae p XEPI raTP Oyc
heightened tension and highlighted the
OKOt' EXELV) Coas, W"o7Tep ?pK)' Xf3XEroV.
play's deep message. This is the inadequacy (1466-1470)
of unaided human intelligence to, master
What has always and inevitably gripped
life's larger problems. When the Chorus
an audience at this point in Oedipus tyran-
learns the identity of Oedipus, it is caught
nus is a depressing sense that an intelligent
between a sensed need for proper retribu-
man has unaccountably met a tragic re-
tion and a profound feeling of pity for the versal of fortune. This is one of the appar-
king. Note how deliberately in this speech,
ently intended effects. And there are still
Sophocles personifies time by assigning to
more deliberate implications concerning
it the potential of vision:
the futility of man's human achievements.
4/i~qipe a' dKOVO' 6 criV6' 6pCV Xp6VOS, There are, however, positive notes which
&tKcteL 7 )r' &yaoLP yaLOP rrdXat need accent. Prophecy has been fulfilled.
T7KVOPV7Ta Kat 7TeKPVOLpEOV.
The gods and the oracles themselves have
(1212-1214)
been vindicated. Removal of Oedipus as
and then, after solemn sermonizing, the a source of pollution must bring restored
Chorus expresses its heartfelt grief: health to the people and physical soundness
to their surroundings. Life will go on.
e&'e o' e0 e 6 e
This restoration of order concludes the
/i 7ror' ela6paPv.
(1217-1218) play as Oedipus plans for the burial of his
wife and his own removal from Thebes.
The complete reversal of Oedipus' for- The evidence of a restoration of inner order
tunes has been precipitated. As darkness
within man's consciousness is sounded by
appears to close in on all sides, the illusion
Creon's reminder of the governance of the
of achievement ceases to be even an illu-
sion. The Chorus' abysmal despair over divine: Kac\ yap a v\ v riv v r O& E) 7rtyv
ppo1t (1445).
Oedipus' decline is prolonged as a secondThe last two speeches are enormously
messenger excitedly signals another dis-
significant. Creon urges upon Oedipus ap-
aster:
propriate humility, since the superiority he
attained to could not support him through-
' y'?s ALyto-ra 7m0ar' aet rt/Wj/LePoLt,
o0' ipy' dKoIjeEOa', ota ' ei6~eO'ea'. out his life:
(1222-1223)
racipra t7 P3o6Xou KpaTG7PV

and a minute later: ... r-EOvcE Octovy 'Io-Ka- yap aKpai3fras o~L /3L oot Uw7vPeI6 7re70.
(1522-1523)
KruTa? Kdpa (1235).
The messenger's next speech describesFinally the Chorus using the key words of
Oedipus' viewing of the sight and, as might
the play exposes the vanity of man's finest

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 342 MARJORIE W. CHAMPL1N

achievements whenknowledge,
they and it set
are up a world of truth
dependent on
human wit: completely apart from the realm of the
senses. This realm was approachable
Srdrcpas 0 'gfPs eZVoLKoL, XeroITET', Ol6tirovs i$e,
through the use of reason coupled with
Ss ra& KXei' alpi-ViYar' jMG Ke Kat KpaT7Tro70 T V iV ip,
spiritual vision, as Parmenides himself
oi TiS o0 ?Xw, wroXt-rv Tiv 4 XaLs aitrLpXr'v,
eis 600o KrXV'wva 'r v es ouvtopas X 'XvOev.
taught. The effect of this Eleatic monism
aorTe Obrbv iv7ra KelVeiv V Tr reXeUralaV ieiV must have been massive, comparable to that
77A epav 7rtorKoroivvra riu7v ' E6X tiJetv, rplv aiv of Einstein's discoveries in our own age.
Trep/a arro pov repcia, &zlv cdX yevbi ralOdj.7
(1524-1530) The irrefutable logic could not and still
cannot be ignored.
II Werner Jaeger says that Parmenides of
It is not unlikely that Sophocles gave Elea "was one of the greatest philosophers
considerable thought to the problem of who ever lived. . . . In every epoch of
knowledge in fifth-century Athens. An- Greek philosophy the effect of his work
can be traced, and even today he is a lead-
axagoras was a familiar figure in Periclean
ing representative of a permanent philo-
circles, and his acceptance by Pericles' own
coterie was indicative of a general interest sophical position."10
Antony Charles Lloyd, professor of phil-
in philosophical and scientific concerns.8
Another philosopher-scientist who made aosophy at the University of Liverpool,
corroborates Jaeger's evaluation. He com-
demonstrably profound impression in this
era was Parmenides of Elea. Since there is ments discerningly that Parmenides' theory
was stated in such abstract terms that
considerable evidence that his stout defend-
ant and pupil, Zeno, resided for a time in widely divergent intellectuals could adapt
Athens, visited the residence of Pericles, it to their own purposes. Professor Lloyd
and taught several prominent Greeks there, affirms that both Democritus and Leucip-
one is just in assuming that Sophocles, who pus took Parmenides' concept of Being into
also frequented Periclean circles, was ac- consideration when they propounded their
theories. Plato made use of it in the Pla-
quainted with Parmenidean monism. In-
deed broad hints of Parmenidean influence tonic system of ideas.-' The poet Pindar,
appear in Oedipus tyrannus.9 emulating Parmenides, showed a deep con-
cern-even enthusiasm-for "absolute be-
The Parmenidean monism involved a
ing" and man's momentary glimpses of it.12
denial of sense testimony as a basis of true
Furthermore Aristotle spoke of the "science
of
7 Though he does not confirm the skepticism,
truth as it was introduced by the school
Jebb observes in his footnotes (p. 198) to the of Anaxagoras and Parmenides."13
quoted lines (1524-1530) that there has been someC. Maurice Bowra and Karl Reinhardt
question as to their validity; but the several have hinted that Oedipus tyrannus may
references to the words for the senses should put
to rest such doubts and show a continuity to the have reflected Parmenidean philosophy.14
play never before observed.
8 Ehrenberg, Sophocles and Pericles. The author 10 Paideia: the ideals of Greek culture, vol. I
retells (p. 149) a story of Plutarch's in which the (New York 1939), p. 174.
scientist-philosopher Anaxagoras and the seer " Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1967, vol. 17, p.
Lampon both vie for Pericles' mind and favor. 394.
9 Francis M. Cornford, in his book Plato and 12 John H. Finley, Jr., Pindar and Aeschylus
Parmenides (London 1951), p. 63, states that, (Cambridge 1955), pp. 6-7.
according to information in Alcibiades I.119A, 13 Cf. Lloyd, op. cit., p. 394. See Aristotle,
"Pythodorus and Callias had each paid Zeno a Protrepticus 5b, in R. R. Walzer's edition of the
hundred minae for his instruction," and Plutarch Fragments.
(Pericles 4) says that Pericles had heard Zeno 14 C. M. Bowra, Sophoclean tragedy (Oxford,
discourse." He adds further, "There is thus inde- 1945), pp. 201-202. Karl Reinhardt, Sophokles
pendent evidence for Zeno's residence in Athens." (Frankfurt 1947) p. 108. Bowra, analyzing Oedi-

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OEDIPUS TYRANNUS AND THE PROBLEM OF KNOWLEDGE 343

Each of these critics make one

sayor
thattwo ref-in Oedipus tyrannus
Sophocles
erences to Parmenides, whiledisplayed
analyzingan awareness
the of the Absolute as
Oedipus tyrannus, but neithervivid ashas madebut
Parmenides', a I think he meant
studied comparison between to draw a sharp
Eleatic distinction between the
philos-
limited knowledge
ophy and the Greek play. While asserting drawn from the senses
no direct tie between the and
Eleatic philo-
acted upon by the human mind and the
more inclusive
sophy and the play, Reinhardt doesand often intuitive knowl-
see
the play as one dealing with edge human illusion
imparted by Deity.'6 Oedipus was a
or the fallacious basis of human knowledge.
representative of the first, Teiresias of the
Other classicists have made scattered second.
references to the "truth and illusion" theme,There is internal textual evidence that
as, for example, Victor Ehrenberg, who Oedipus tyrannus was, not only a play
about knowledge, but also a play having
states categorically, but without pressing
Eleatic overtones. C. M. Bowra has pro-
the matter beyond this statement that: "the
conflict between divine truth and human vided some evidence, though rather inad-
illusion, the main theme of 'Oedipus Ty- vertently. In his chapter on King Oedipus
rannus', was a well-known topic of Greek (see n. 14) he mentions, though not in con-
thought both philosophical and religious."'5 nection with Parmenides' doctrine of "the
Although it would not have served Ehren- One and the Many," that Oedipus (842-
berg's purpose to discuss it, the theme of845), Jocasta (715-716), Creon (107), and
divine truth and human illusion is an integ- the Chorus (292) are all trapped in the
ral part of the theme of knowledge; and thisworld of illusion. As a result, they confuse
was certainly a preoccupation of Oedipus the one murderer with the many of a
tyra~nnus. To Parmenides absolute truth reported account. In my opinion, this
Sophoclean contrivance of numerical misin-
was the only valid knowledge, and he who
was not conscious of truth was in a state of formation establishes a significant connect-
human delusion. It would be incorrect to ing link between the play and the poem.
There are, in addition various other hints
that Sophocles may have been familiar with
pus tyrannus, mentions three philosophical state-
ments of Heraclitus. He has thus tied the messagePardmenides' poem.
of the play to Pre-Socratic philosophy, especially as In the lines of Oedipus' second speech
he has also referred to Parmenides. My reasons for the king states:
seeing a more decisive cause-effect relationship
between Parmenides' teaching and Sophocles' 'XX' LUTE roXXA LeP' ALE B6aKp'lJaV7a a ,
play are these: The themes of the play-knowl-
7roXXa's ' obvis A~X66ra <Ppo7"~raos rXdvots.
edge-ignorance (divine intuition vs. sense-based (66-67)
knowledge), sight-blindness, truth-illusion, one-
ness-manyness-relate directly to the ParmenideanThis appears to be an unusual use of 680'
philosophy in its well-defined statements of Being.in combination with a word for mental
Heraclitus touched upon some of these but in an
inquiry. Yet in the sixth fragment of Par-
imprecise, often self-contradictory manner. The
fact that he set up the doctrine of mutability as menides' poem these lines appear:
an Absolute would have been an offense to both
Parmenides and Sophocles. Further Zeno's pres- 16 Along with Parmenides, Sophocles seems to
ence in Athens, and possibly Parmenides' wouldhave attributed to the physical world an illusory
have made Sophocles more susceptible to thestate. Sophocles and Parmenides appear to part
enormous impact of the Eleatic doctrines. Note company when the playwright attributes to Deity
also that Reinhardt, an eminent European Classi- (Apollo) the source presumably of Absolute
cist, and one who has to his credit a book Truth, an awareness of the human condition.
entitled Parmenides und die Geschichte der This would have made a Deity aware of "non-
griechischen Philosophie, alludes only to Parmen-Being." It is most likely that Sophocles' Apollo
ides' philosophy in his deep analysis of the play,
was still a rather traditional Homeric god with
15Sophocles and Pericles, p. 143. anthropomorphic aspects.

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 344 MARJORIE W. CHAMPLIN

rwPrIs yap c' dca' index of ra

'6o0 Diels'7as7
Fragmente,19 he used it cos
&s &Uti er
aclrap 'eTr' ca7rO7 r7s7,
7) V 6 p4porot E6673res o
seven times in this manner in our fragments
rxa'rrorVat, IKpCVOL'
of his poem.a?7Xavl 7p 1YP 'v a"
TrflOet1 v 106vet rXaKKrWv v0ov. ...17
Is it too bold to make a conjecture that
The very double-minded inquiry
Sophocles appropriated this use of the word ag
which Parmenides warns,
S0,3 and from Oedipus
precisely this source, inas-
much as the'7rXAdvo
dertaken ppovTtoSO play is one in which Oedipus
and hi
bewilderment may have
pursues truth resulted
by the "method" of persistent fr
too great reliance on the
investigation? informatio
The fact that Sophocles was
senses.
a younger contemporary of Parmenides,
An illuminating comment of Werner Jae- made an immeasurable
that Parmenides
ger points up the correlation impact
of theonword
his age, as well as the fact that
06 0 with thought activity in Parmenides.
the poet and playwright are concerned with
Though he is speaking of Parmenides alone,
the problem of knowledge, lends credence
the exposition is relevant also
toto the
this pas-
conjecture.
sage quoted from Oedipus tyrannus:
Another use of the word 68d0 with a
philosophic
Parmenides held that the discovery of twist occurs near the conclusion
pure reason and of the stringentofrules of when Oedipus is transferring
the play,
logical thought meant the discovery of aof authority to, Creon. He utters
his mantle
new 'road' to truth-in fact, of the only
this prayer:
practicable one. In Greek philosophy the
metaphor of the right road (b66s) of cXX're-
efrvoUil0'7, K a c 7E U6 T7ccs 60
search constantly reappears; although 6altw L)1v 7I7tov a ' lc povpcas 7-vXot.
it was only a metaphor, it has an almost (1478-1479)
technical sound about it, especially in the
contrast of the right road and the wrong,
Here the word 6~8d3 is connected with &al/Wov
where it approaches the sense of 'method'.
and reminds one of the SaliovEs and OEu
This concept, fundamental in the develop-
which guide Parmenides into the realm of
ment of scholarship, was created by Par-
menides; for he was the first true Being.20
thinker
who deliberately endeavoured to solve Three other passages in Oedipus tyran-
the problem of philosophical method, and nus might support the linkage between that
clearly distinguished the two chief chan-
play and fragments of Parmenides. In the
nels in which, thenceforth, philosophical
research was to run-thought and per- lines of the sixth fragment, already quoted,
ception, the way of the senses and the Parmenides refers to the double-minded
way of reason.18 mortals who live in an imagined world of
The passages from Sophocles and Par- reality as EUSdrE oZ8/v; correspondingly
menides just quoted both use the word in line 397 of Sophocles' play Oedipus in a
060~ in the sense of method. Parmenides was deceptive state of self-exaltation calls him-
not only the originator of the use of 06d8, self 6 i'v jSv E''t Oi 7r0ov3.
to mean a 'method' of inquiry, but as can It might be argued that this phrase was
be discovered from a check with the word-
19 Vol. III, p. 302. In adding a historical per-
17Herman Diels, Die Fragmente der Vorsok-spective, Professor John Finley has called to my
attention the fact that thought as travel, clearly
ratiker (Zurich 1966), p. 233. (N.B. The verb
7rXdvrTorat in this fragment is taken by Dielsa as Parmenidean metaphor, was not unique to
the equivalent of Xcia'ovurat.) I believe the verbParmenides. He referred me to various places
irXCd-rw should stand as it is in the text, since where
its this figure of speech with slightly different
meaning as "imagine," "invent," or "fabricate" connotations occurred in the Odyssey (8.481;
elucidates Parmenides' accusation against his con-22.347); the Iliad (15.80-82); Pindar (N.5.2-3;
temporaries that their world is a concoction0.6.22-28);
of and Heraclitus (Diels, Vorsokratiker,
their imagination. 4th ed. 1922, I 86, fr. 45).
Is Paideia, vol. I, p. 177. 20 Diels, Fragmente, Vol. I, pp. 228, 230.

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OEDIPUS TYRANNUS AND THE PROBLEM OF KNOWLEDGE 345

too casual a one to! link significantlyParmenides did,

theto be the communicators
play and the poem. If the play were
of dire not
knowledge.
linked to the poem in general subject As Teiresias
mat-is the spokesman for intui-
ter, this would be true. But the tive
two truth
areinso
the drama, so Parmenides is
obviously concerned with the histheme of in the poem; as Oedipus,
counterpart
knowledge that it can have philosophic the Everyman,22 lived in a state of self-
significance when related to Oedipus' deception, so for the same causes do the
actual
state of ignorance. uncritical throngs mentioned in Parmen-
Parmenides goes on to describe the ides' poem.
"know-nothing" mortals in lines immedi- Even the chorus intones the hymn of
ately following those quoted of Fragment 6. humanity caught in the world of the "Seem-
He says of them: ing":

01. Co v opo vrat icw yeveat 8Ppo-rWv,

KWO/boL'6W 6/-S ruPXot re, "reO6r-res aKptra ~iXa, cws v~is ~ aa Kaat r-r6 7r&y 'v a as fvaptOAiw.
ots ro rAXetLY rE Kat OK eOKYat ra-irobv pev6'jurat -rs Y p, -rs dv 'p wrekov
KOV Tau-r6y, rdVTirwv raXtv7rporT6s C'-7L KEXeVOOS.21 7as e $awL ovias (b/pet
770roaov-rovr ~6So - OKeCV
Is it reading too much into the Sophoclean Ka 6av7' cxroOcX pa ... .*23
text to suggest that Sophocles may have (1186-1192)
had the above lines in mind, when the
Later in his life Sophocles wrote a play
deluded Oedipus ironically makes an attack
in which he has shown his Everyman ad-
upon Teiresias, the spokesman for truth?:
vancing to a state of true self-knowledge.
rv4Xo rJa i-' dr-a rdV 7- v 7VOv aI r' oF/ a7
In Oedipus at Colonus the hero, blind to
Et (371).
the world around him-perhaps because he
Finally may we not say that Oedipus
is blind to the world of the senses-acquires
had traveled on the 7raXtvrpo7r-b KxC~AeV0
inner vision and takes on the prophetic
from the start of the play like one of the
qualities and capabilities of Teiresias.
CKptr-a cpiXa mentioned by Parmenides? The Sophocles' Oedipus, the man who solved the
period of the play marked the complete
Sphinx's riddle, seems at length to have
reversal of his fortune, until he came to the
solved the riddle of man.
point of yearning to block the sorrow-bring-
ing sense organs: MARJORIE W. CHAMPLIN
North Kingstown Senior High School
.. oK av cOX6OLV
T o1? dAnroKX-oaaL 7-ovFiOV a6XAtov 'Aas,
22 E. R. Dodds, "On misunderstanding the
'v' 5 -rv(uAs, -E KaT KXwV M' " P'b yA&p
Oedipus rex," Greece and Rome, vol. XII (Ox-
7rv porb' 'Qw TrWyV KaKWV OIKeV "YXVUKU.
ford 1965), p. 148. Dodd suggests that Sophocles
(1387-1390)
intended a kind of universal depiction of man.
These very organs whose impartations of
Werner Jaeger (Paideia, vol. I, p. 284) says he
fact seemed to bring Oedipus to an unsur-personifies "suffering humanity."
passed height of self-awareness and knowl- 23 Immediately below the reference to Parmen-
ides in his textual study, Reinhardt cites the
edge-able prestige he now recognized, as
chorus quoted above as proof that Oedipus tyran-
nus is not a tragedy of fate but a play about
21 Ibid., p. 233. human seeming.

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