Ar. Lght-Light and Architecture

Page 60 LIGHT AND ARCHITECTURE
Objectives
After completing this chapter, the student should be able to
1. Know the importance of light in architecture
2. Interpret the relationship between light, form and space
Key Words
Light Bries-soleil penetration of light bright white kaleidoscope
Introduction
Architecture is a visual art, of course, its other perceptual dimensions can not be
underestimated. As an object of art, sculptural composition, the beholder keeps his eye on it
darting from one corner to another. Here, we can remember the famous definition of
architecture by Le Corbusier: Architecture is a magnificently correct play of masses brought
into light.
On the other side, architecture could be seen as a space created and enhanced by light. At this
point, light is a sole provider to the core business of architecture, space.
Hence, the purpose of light in architecture ranges between the two poles, illumination of form
and space
For Egyptians, the daylight radiated from the morning sun symbolized the birth of the cosmos
out of the gloomy darkness. After 3000 years, the Romanesque period architect invited light
into his worship space to mystify and transcend the soul from here and now to the hereafter.
These days, at the 21st century, we are allured by the beauty of light which is maximized
through extraordinary building technology.
Though, the general evolutionary sketch shows man’s continual move from the dimly lighted
realm to floodlight space, the technology of building illumination is also as science of control,
alteration and modification of light for a better world, both functionally and aesthetically.
Light, Form and Space

To bring light to the interior space is one of the fundamental
architectural facts. If the Pantheon represents a culminating point
in the history of architecture is mainly because this building
symbolizes a whole conception of the universe by means of three
basic elements: light, form and space (the light coming from
above, the dome as image of the heavens, the finite spherical
space).
The centralized space of the

Pantheon invites the visitor to
stand at the center, from
where he can look up and
contemplate the distant light
source. The light source can
only be contemplated, since
the distance between the
body and the light source
cannot be overcome. In the
longitudinal spaces of the
Nave of Romanesque church in Eberbarch. Nave of the Abbey
church of St. Mary, Faurdau, Württemberg, 1220-30
Romanesque churches, on the other hand, the light at

the end of the nave is an invitation to walk towards the
altar. It is a different conception of the world (one that
conforms to the principles of Christianity) and also a
different relation between space, form and light. The
architectural problem was to give form to the end of
the nave. An immediate solution was to perforate the
flat wall at the end of the space. In more refined
solutions, the light at the end of the longitudinal space
filled the space of the choir.
Gothic architecture celebrates more than any other

style the penetration of light in the interior of the nave. Light is not forced to go through
small apertures, but clashes against the large surfaces of glass that the Gothic structural
system makes possible. After going through the stained glass, the light rays get the color of
the glass, filling the inner space with a magic atmosphere.
Document Title
Light, Form and Space
The visit to the Hadrian villa left a deep impression on Le Corbusier. He discovered in the
Roman buildings a fundamental fact of architecture, one that does not belong to a
particular period or style but to the architecture of all times: the relation between light,
form and space. In the project for Ronchamp he found the appropriate occasion to give a
unique architectural expression to those fundamental facts. The building is a compendium
of different formal devices to control the penetration of light in the interior space. Light
can reach the inside through the gaps left between the different components that make up
the building. For example, through the gap between the roof and the supporting walls, or
between the south wall and the wall of the altar. This aperture is closed by a brise-soleil
structure that avoids the direct incidence of the light. In the south wall, the relation
between light and architectural form is expressed in a more dramatic way: the wall seems
to have been perforated by the force of the light rays. The towers are another mechanism
to get the light inside the building. They raise from the lower mass to capture the light
coming from the sky and to conduct it to the inside.
Space and Light: the minimalist approach

The installations of James Turrell are experiments
made exclusively with light and space. Turrell's
working materials are artificial and natural light.
The surfaces that define the spaces do not exist
as material objects but as phenomenal surfaces
created by light. Transparent colored planes are
projected in space, creating transparent partitions
that the body can traversed. Turrell avoids the
LIGHT AND ARCHITECTURE
Document Title
direct view of the light sources. In some cases, however, a visible trail of light marks the
direction of movement in the space.
Artificial Light and Form

In the Tower of Winds, by Toyo Ito, artificial light is used to achieve the continuous
transformation of the building's appearance. Light becomes a form-giving factor. The
geometric properties of the building form play a secondary role, as compared to the
importance assigned to light and color. In this example, the phenomenal takes over the
conceptual.
A 21metre high tower in the centre of a roundabout near Yokohama train station was
covered in synthetic mirrored plates and encased in an oval aluminum cylinder. Floodlights
positioned within these two layers, when lit, give the tower the appearance of a giant
kaleidoscope. The reflective properties of the aluminum panels emphasize the tower's
simple metallic form during the day. At night the, kaleidoscope’ is switched on, presenting
a brilliant display of reflection upon reflection.
The tower consists of 1,280 minilamps and 12 bright white, vertically arranged neon rings.
Thirty computer controlled floodlights (24 on the interior, the remainder on the exterior)
make patterns of light within the tower, according to the time of day. Natural elements
such as noises, and windspeed and direction affect the intensity of the floodlights: the
result is a controlled ,natural' phenomenon. The panels sometimes become a translucent
film, at other times they appear to rise floodlit to the surface
Page 63 SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES OF NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL LIGHT IN DESIGN
Objectives
1. differentiate the scientific principles of natural and artificial light.
2. discuss how the position of the sun affects daylighting
Key Words
Internal Area Illumination Incident Daylight Luminance Visual Task
Introduction
Light has been all the time an object of scrutiny for the inquisitive mind of man of all century.
Light is a form of radiant energy that travels in waves made up of vibrating electric and
magnetic fields. These waves have both a frequency and a length, the values of which
distinguish light from other forms of energy on the electromagnetic spectrum. Visible light, as
can be seen on the electromagnetic spectrum, represents a narrow band between ultraviolet
light (UV) and infrared energy (heat). These light waves are capable of exciting the eye's retina,
which results in a visual sensation called sight. Therefore, seeing requires a functioning eye and
visible light.
Document Title
Lighting Systems
Light can be produced by nature or by humans. Natural light or daylight is the science,
theory or method of providing illumination through the use of light of day. Daylighting is an
important connection with the outside world. Even if daylight is not to be used as a
primary lighting source, in most buildings there should be some penetration of daylight.
daylighting should be considered first before undertaking the design of electric lighting, or
artificial light.
Artificial light is typically produced by lighting systems that transform electrical energy into
light. Nearly all-lighting systems do so either by passing an electrical current through an
element that heats until it glows, or through gases until they become excited and produce
light energy. A typical lighting system is comprised of one or more of these light sources,
Criteria Daylight Artificial light
composition Visible band of electromagnetic radiation between ultra-violet and

infrared
wavelengths Contains more short-wave radia- Filament lamp has more long-
tion wave radiation (greater red com-
ponent)
Unit of measurement Percentage of daylight Luminous flux
source Sunlight Gas, electricity
color Perceived as white, therefore Fluorescent—highlights cool col-

actual colors are seen as it is ors, copies daylight effect
Incandescent—highlights warm
colors
Design considerations Solar position, window location Room size, specific visual task,
and sizes, specific visual task, illu- level of illumination, light direc-
minance and brightness, uniform- tion, glare limitation, distribution
ity, glare and shadow of luminance, color of light and
color rendering
Advantages free Costly, specially if lighting design

is complex
Disadvantages Limited use Always available
called the lamps. Fluorescent, HID and low-pressure sodium lamps operate with ballast, a
device that starts the lamp and regulates its operation.
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Lamps and ballasts in turn are part of the luminaire, or light fixture, which houses the
system and includes other components that distribute the light in a controlled pattern.
This chapter will discuss the comparative scientific principles of natural and artificial light
in internal areas. As a general design rule, natural light is first considered following artificial
light. Other information such as design and computations will be in separate chapters.
General requirements for daylight illumination of internal areas
Position of the sun

The radiation and light sources which give rise to daylight are not constant. The sun is the
primary light source of daylight whatever condition of the sky. The axis of inclination of the
Seasons of the year: northern hemisphere
earth (23.5°), the daily rotation of the earth around its own axis and the rotation of the
earth around the sun over a period of one year determine the position of the sun as a
function of the time of year and the day for each point on the surface of the earth.
The position of the earth is defined by two angles: the azimuth and the angle of elevation.
On a plan view the azimuth is the horizontal deviation of the position of the sun from 0°,
where 0° = north, 90° = east, 180 = south, 270 = west as seen by the observer. On the
vertical projection, the angle elevaion is the position of the sun as seen by the observer.
Azimuth and angle of elevation

Document Title
Comparative Analysis of Natural and Artificial Light
Solar position diagrams

An example is shown for a solar diagram for 51°N. the diagram shows the plan projection
of the position of the sun, in terms of azimuth and elevation, at true local time, e.g.
September 23, sunrise is at 6.00,
azimuth = 90° (east), on the same
date at 12.00, 180° (south) and the
elevation angle is 39°; sunset is at 18.00,
azimuth = 270° on the same day.
Solar azimuth and elevation
To determine the local course of the sun, a solar position chart is used. The chart contains
the plan projection of the azimuth ad the angle elevation of the sun as a function of time of
year and time of day for the appropriate angle of latitude and reference meridian. In order
to determine the position of the sun, loop shaped curves are given for each hour of the
day. Violet is used for the first half of the year and green for the second. The looped shape
of the hourly
curves is
attributable to the
elliptical path of
the earth and the
inclination of the
ecliptic. The time
shown relate to
the given time
reference meridian
Solar position chart Stereographic projection chart
i.e., time zone of the location in question.
The intersection of curves with hourly curves of the same color mark the position of the
Document Title
sun at any hour of the day, orange signifies the height of the sun.
Projection of the solar path

By using a stereographic projection, the path of the sun can be determined for each degree
of latitude (for the 21st day of each month) as a function of time of year and time of day.
Solar position, clock time and determination of time

The position of the sun determines the daylight conditions according to the time of day
and time of year. The true local time (TLT) is the usual reference for time of day in
determining daylight. Each location is located on a time zone, within which the same time
applies. If the time zone input is of interest, then the TLT must be converted to the
appropriate time zone.
Illuminance, level of reflection, color rendering and glare

The interplay of these characteristics of daylight has a great influence on the brightness in
internal areas. To fulfill the visual task, specific daylight illuminance levels are required,
depending on the type of activity. Therefore the choice of reflection levels for the walls
has to be coordinated with the requirements of the visual tasks which are to be
performed. The varied structuring of the brightness in a room is dependent on the
reflection levels of the surfaces and the choice of arrangement of windows in the façade.
The uniformity (G) of the daylight illumination (defined as Dmin/Dmax) should be > 1:6 in
the case of light from the side. In the case of light from above, G > Dmin/Dmax 1:2. this in
principle, characterizes the variation of daylight in internal areas. The uniformity is better
in the case of overhead illumination, since the zenith luminance is three times greater than
the luminance on the horizon.
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Measures used to vary the uniformity can be influenced by:

1. level of reflection (if very high)
2. Direction of any glare
3. Arrangement of windows
Glare is caused by direct and indirect reflection from the surfaces and by
unfavorable luminance contrast. Measures to avoid glare:
1. solar shading outside
2. Glare protection, inside and outside, in association with solar shading
3. Matt surface
4. Correct positioning of daylight-enhancing illumination
Shadow is desirable to a certain degree. Measures required for a three-

dimensional shadow effect in side lighting:
1. solar shading
2. Glare protection in all directions
3. Balanced distribution of daylight
4. No direct glare
5. Multi layered or staggered façade
Measures for appropriate shading

with light from above:
Correct arrangement of light
1. incident daylight on the lower edge of

light opening, through translucent
materials, light gratings or similar filters
2. Daylight enhancing illumination
3. Bright matt surfaces combined with
c o l o r e d
Working surfaces should be matt differentiation (supporting
structure)
General requirements for artificial illumination of

internal areas Luminance of indirect lighting
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Level of illumination
A mean level between 300 lx (individual offices with daylight) and 750 lx (large rooms) is
required in work areas. Higher illumination levels can be achieved in uniform general
lighting through the addition of lighting at workplace positions.
Light direction
Light should fall on a workplane from the side. The prerequisite for this is a wing-shaped
light distribution curve
Limitation of glare
To limit direct glare use light with
shading angles > 30°, reelcted glare–
direct light from the side onto the
workplane, using matt surafces on the
surrounding area.
Distribution of luminance
The harmonic distribution of
luminance is the Photometric distance principle result of a careful
balance of all degrees of reflection
in the room. Luminance due to
indirect lighting must not exceed 400
cd/sq.m.
Calculation of point illuminance level

The illuminance levels (horizontal Eh, vertical Ev) which are generated by individual light
sources, can be determined from the luminous intensity and the spatial geometry (height
h, distance d, and light incidence angle ð) using the photometric distance principle.
Page 70 NATURAL LIGHT : DAYLIGHT
Objectives
1. Elaborate the advantages of using natural light instead of artificial
2. Know how to apply daylight factor and other day lighting methods in their
design.
Key Words
Daylight Sky Component Internally Reflective Component

Natural Light
Introduction
Daylighting is the science, theory or method of providing illumination through the use of light
of day. When properly designed and effectively integrated with the electric lighting system,
daylighting can offer significant energy savings by offsetting a portion of the electric lighting
load. A related benefit is the reduction in cooling capacity and use by lowering a significant
component of internal gains. In addition to energy savings, daylighting generally improves
occupant satisfaction and comfort. Recent studies are implying improvements in productivity
and health in daylighted schools and offices. Windows also provide visual relief, a contact with
nature, time orientation, the possibility of ventilation, and emergency egress.
Page 71 NATURAL LIGHT: DAYLIGHT
The Daylight Zone

High daylight potential is found particularly in those spaces that are predominately daytime
occupied. Site solar analysis should assess the access to daylight by considering what is
"seen" from the various potential window orientations. What proportion of the sky is seen
from typical task locations in the room? What are the exterior obstructions and glare
sources? Is your building design going to shade a neighboring building or landscape feature
that is dependent on daylight or solar access?
It is important to establish which spaces will most benefit from daylight and which spaces
have little or no need for daylight. Within the spaces that can use daylight, place the most
critical visual tasks in positions near the window. Try to group tasks by similar lighting
requirements and occupancy patterns. Avoid placing the window in the direct line of sight
of the occupant as this can cause extreme contrast and glare. It is best to orient the
occupant at 90 degrees from the window. Where privacy is not a major concern, consider
interior glazing (known as relights or borrow lights) that allow light from one space to be
shared with another. This can be achieved with transom lights, vision glass, or translucent
panels if privacy is required.
The floor plan configuration should maximize the perimeter daylight zone. This may result
in a building with a higher skin-to-volume ratio than a typical compact building design. A
standard window can produce useful illumination to a depth of about 1.5 times the height
of the window. With lightshelves or other reflector systems this can be increased to 2.0
times or more. As a general rule-of-thumb, the higher the window is placed on the wall,
the deeper the daylight penetration.
Components of daylight reading of a reference point in a room:

1.sky component – light received directly from the sky . Typically the direct sun
component is blocked from occupied spaces because of heat gain, glare, and UV
degradation issues.
2. externally reflected component – light received after reflection from the ground,
building or external surface, pavement, adjacent buildings, wide windowsills, and objects,
excessive ground reflectance will result in glare.
3. internally reflected component – light received after being reflected from the surfaces
inside a building. Once the daylight enters the room, the surrounding wall, ceiling, and
floor surfaces are important light reflectors. Using high reflectance surfaces will better
bounce the daylight around the room and it will reduce extreme brightness contrast.
Window frame materials should be light-colored to reduce contrast with the view and
have a non-specular finish to eliminate glare spots. The window jambs and sills can be
beneficial light reflectors. Deep jambs should be splayed (angled toward the interior) to
reduce the contrast around the perimeter of the window.
The most important interior light-reflecting surface is the ceiling. High reflectance paints
and ceiling tiles are now available with .90 or higher reflectance values. Tilting the ceiling
plane toward the daylight source increases the daylight that is reflected from this surface.
In small rooms the rear wall is the next important surface because it is directly facing the
window. This surface should also be a high reflectance matte finish. The sidewalls followed
by the floor have less impact on the reflected daylight in the space.
Suggested Room Surface Reflectance

Ceilings: > 80%
Walls: 50%-70%
Floors: 20%-40%
Since light essentially has no scale for architectural purposes, the proportions of the room
are more important than the dimensions. A room that has a higher ceiling compared to
the room depth will have deeper penetration of daylight whether from sidelighting
(windows) or toplighting (skylights and clerestories). Raising the window head height will
also result in deeper penetration and more even illumination in the room. Punched
window openings, such as small, square windows separated by wall area, result in uneven
illumination and harsh contrast between the window and adjacent wall surfaces. A more
even distribution is achieved with horizontal strip windows.
Effective Aperture
One method of assessing the relationship between visible light and the size of the window
is the effective aperture method. The effective aperture (EA) is defined as the product of
the visible transmittance and the window-to-wall ratio. The window-to-wall ratio (WWR)
is the proportion of window area compared to the total wall area where the window is
located. For example, if a window covers 25 square feet in a 100 square-foot wall then the
WWR is 25/100 or 0.25. A good starting target for EA is in the range of 0.20 to 0.30. For
a given EA number, a higher WWR (larger window) results in a lower visible
transmittance.
Example: WWR = .5 (half the wall in glazing)
VT = .6, EA = 0.3
Or WWR = .75, VT = .4 for same EA of 0.3
Typically lowering the visible transmittance will also lower the shading coefficient but you
must verify this with glazing manufacturer data since this is not always the case.
Ways to introduce natural light into a building:

1.perimeter lighting / sidelighting – uses the size and
placement of windows and sometimes the use of light shelves
2. top lighting – includes the use of skylights, roof

monitors &translucent membrane roofs
3. core lighting uses atriums and light wells
4. optical lighting uses fiber optics, prisms, mirrors, parabolic reflectors and other means
Perimeter Lighting / Sidelighting (windows or glazed wall areas)

A. For designs that use diffuse daylight from the sky, cloud, or the surrounding
environment, it is difficult to provide adequate daylight when the depth of the space is
more than 1.5 or 2 times the height of the head of the glass. Designs that redirect
daylight and sunlight to the ceiling using

lightshelves or redirected glazing might be able to
expand this to 3 times the ceiling height
B. Typically for office buildings, the first 15’ depth in

from windows gets effective
daylight. The next 15’ gets
daylight but must be
supplemented with artificial light.
Past 30’, there is no daylight.
C. Configuration due to side lighting: In

general, rectangles, elongated in the
EW direction, narrow or elongated
plans, L- or U-shaped plans, and
courtyards or atrium buildings provide
greater access to daylight than more
compact arrangements.
Windows
In temperate climates, large window

apertures with high but diffuse
incidence of light are preferred ,
whereas in hot climates, small window
apertures still allow sufficient light to
enter.
Heat rising up the face of a building should be able to escape

and not be blocked by external sun screens or allowed to
enter the building via open skylights. Internal shades are less
effective than external ones for reducing heat gain because the
heat they absorb is released into the room
Awning keeps sun’s rays

and heat at bay
Partly angled sunblind Sloping awning with verti-

cal fringe
Internal Venetian blind: sun

comes through window (not
good)
Roller shutter External louvered blind
Venetian blinds with flat slats of wood, aluminum or plastic, roller shutters, roller blinds
and partly angled sun blinds are adjustable. Fixed external devices are less flexible , vertical
panel blinds are suitable for tall or angled window surfaces.
Sunshades
Shades are used to prevent glare and the
inflow of heat from sunlight
1.balcony or window ledge

2.Wooden, al or sheet steel sun shades
1 2 3
3.Double sun shade
4.Angled shades
5.Blind alignment gives diffused light or
shadow effect
6.Sun-blocking slats
7.Vertical slats
8.Sun screen
9.Partly angled blind 4 5 6
10.Sloping and vertical blind
11.Cantilevered screen
12.Projecting screen
13.Adjustable awning
14. Double sunshade
15.Arrangement of single sun shades
7 8 9
10 11 12
15
13 14
Light Shelves
Since luminance ratios or brightness
is a major consideration in view
windows, it is often wise to
separate the view aperture from the
daylight aperture. This allows a
higher visible transmittance glazing
in the daylight aperture if it is out of
normal sight lines. Since the ceiling
is the most important light-
reflecting surface, using this surface
to bounce daylight deep into the
room can be highly effective. Both
of these strategies are utilized in
light shelf designs. A light shelf is a
horizontal light-reflecting overhang
placed above eye-level with a
transom window placed above it.
This design, which is most effective
on southern orientations, improves
daylight penetration, creates shading near the

window, and helps reduce window glare. Exterior
shelves are more effective shading devices than the
interior.
Toplighting
Large single level floor areas and the top floors of
multi-story buildings can benefit from toplighting.
Where occupied areas occur directly below roofs,

daylighting may also be provided through top lighting by
either skylights or roof monitors (clearstories). Large
single- story buildings, such as factories, are well suited
to top lighting configurations, as are some top floors of
many multistory buildings. Opportunities for top lighting
can be increased with building sections that step or are
otherwise configured to increase roof areas. Illumination
levels from top lighting are roughly 3 times greater than from sidelighting of the same area.
In predominantly overcast areas, top lighting with clear glazing and no other means of sun
control may be acceptable, but in most areas, top lighting should be oriented away from
the sun or control devices should be used to prevent sunlight passing in unimpeded to the
task area. Interior reflectors, exterior louvers, translucent light-diffusing materials, and
deep openings with reflective surfaces can be effective in this regard. Devices located
exterior to the opening can exclude solar heat from the interior and may be helpful in
areas where high heat gain is common. When these devices are placed on the inside, they
may also be helpful in distributing the daylight farther from the opening and creating more
even illumination within the space.
South-facing clearstories provide illumination levels approximately equal to skylights of the

same glazing area. Clear- stories facing other directions provide approximately half the
illumination of a skylight of the same area. Sources of top lighting should be spread no
more than 1 to 2 times the height of the opening above the floor.
Light distribution form skylights is intrinsically more uniform than that from windows.
Light diffusion can be achieved by using diffusing plastic bubble skylights, high transmission
glazing with a diffusion screen below, some of the fritted glasses, or laminates with diffusing
layers or exterior shading systems.
Light wells can reduce the amount of light entering a space from as little as 10% to as much
as 85%. Splayed wells with high-reflectance finishes are the best performers. Adequate
daylight in most climates is provided with skylight areas of 4% to 8% with relatively high
transmittance glazing.
General Types of Toplighting
1.Skylights can be an energy problem because they tend to receive maximum solar gain
at the peak of the day. The daylight contribution also peaks at
midday and falls off severely in the morning and afternoon.
There are high performance skylight designs that incorporate
reflectors or prismatic lenses that reduce the peak daylight and
heat gain while increasing early and late afternoon daylight
contributions. Another option is lightpipes where a high
reflectance duct channels the light from a skylight down to a
diffusing lens in the room. These may be advantageous in deep roof constructions.
2. Clerestory Window is vertical

glazing located high on an interior wall.
South-facing clerestories can be
effectively shaded from direct sunlight
by a properly designed horizontal
overhang. In this design the interior
north wall can be sloped to better reflect the light down into the
room. Use light-colored overhangs and adjacent roof surfaces to
improve the reflected component. If exterior shading is not
possible, consider interior vertical baffles to better diffuse the light. A south-facing
clerestory will produce higher daylight illumination than a north-facing clerestory. East and
west facing clerestories have the same problems as east and west windows: difficult
shading and potentially high heat gains.
3. Roof Monitor consists of a flat roof section raised

above the adjacent roof with vertical glazing on all sides.
This design often results in excessive glazing area, which
results in higher heat losses and gains than a clerestory
design. The multiple orientations of the glazing can also
create shading problems.
4. Sawtooth Roof is an old design often seen in industrial

buildings. Typically one sloped surface is opaque and the
other is glazed. A contemporary sawtooth roof may have
solar collectors or photovoltaic cells on the south-facing
slope and daylight glazing on the north-facing slope.
Unprotected glazing on the south-facing sawtooth surface
may result in high heat gains. In these applications an
insulated diffusing panel may be a good choice.
Daylight Redirection Systems

As the depth of the room increases (normally 5-7m), the intensity of the daylight in the
room diminishes. Redirecting light allows rooms to be completely illuminated with daylight,
even rooms of considerable depth. The redirection of light is based on the principle that
the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. The aim of this redirection is to
obtain amore distribution of light, obtain a better daylight illumination in the depths of the
room, to avoid glare when the sun is high and make use of winter sun, to mask out zenith
luminance, or to make indirect use of it, to redirect particularly diffuse radiation and to
eliminate the need for additional solar radiation.
1.light shelves (reflectors) placed inside or outside the window area using mirrored,
polished or white surfaces as the reflection plane. They improve the uniformity of the
illumination, particularly if the ceiling is shaped.
2. prisms can be used to achieve a desired selection of radiation a n d

redirection. The plates reflect the sunlight with less deviation and only allows diffuse light
to pass through. Mirrored prism plates guarantee a maximum room depth of 8m.
3. The illumination in the depths of a room can be improved by redirecting the light and
providing reflecting surfaces on the ceiling.
Ceiling design for light redirection
4. Solar control—glass bricks and venetian blinds are used for radiation selection and
redirection
Redirection of light
Page 82 DAYLIGHT DESIGN: DAYLIGHT FACTOR AND CALCULATIONS
Objectives
1. Elaborate the advantages of using natural light instead of artificial light.
2. Compute for the light penetration in a room
Key Words
Effective Aperture Daylight Factor Desirable Illumination Level
Introduction
Daylight factor is a measure of daylight illuminance, expressed as the ratio of daylight

illumination at a point on a given plane to the simultaneously measured illuminance on a
horizontal plane from an unobstructed sky of assumed or known luminance distribution, a
percentage ratio of the instantaneous illumination level inside to that simultaneously occurring
outside in an unobstructed position. See table at appending page.
The daylight factor always remains constant. The illuminance of an internal area varies only in
proportion to the external illuminance prevailing at the time. The external illuminance of a
cloudsed sky varies from 5000 lx in winter to 20000 lx in summer. And depends on the time
of the year and time of the day.
The daylight factor at a point P is influenced by many factors. D = (DH + DV +DR) x t x k1

xk2 xk3, where DH is the component of light from the sky, DV is the effect due to
neighboring buildings, DR is the contribution from internal reflections, and the following
reduction factors are taken into consideration: t, the light transmission factor fro the glass;
k1, the scatter effects due to the construction of the window; k2, the scatter effects due to
the type of glazing; k3, the effects of the angle of incidence of the daylight.
Document Title
The reference plane for the horizontal illuminance of daylight in an internal area is shown
in the illustration given. It can be taken as 0.85m above the floor level, and is separated
from the walls of the room by 1m. The points EP used for the horizontal illuminance are
fixed on the reference plane. The corresponding (to be determined) daylight factors can
then be represented in the form of daylight factor curve. The shape of the curve on the
section provides information about the horizontal illuminance on the reference plane (at
the corresponding points), and the Dmin and Dmax can be established. The curve of the
daylight factor also provides information on the variation of daylight in the room.
Required daylight factors D%. The relevant, currently valid requirements are laid down in
regulations relating to daylight in internal areas and in the guidelines for work areas.
On the assumption that living rooms are comparable in terms of their dimensions in work
rooms, the following values for the required daylight factors should be adhered to:
Dmin > 1% in living rooms, refence point the center of the room
Dmin> 1% in workrooms, refence point the lowest position in the room
Dmin > 2% in workrooms with windows on two sides
Dmin > 2% in workrooms with light coming from above, with the minimum mean daylight
dactor (Dm) > 4%.
With side windows, the associated maximum daylight factor should be at least six times
grater than the minimum reqirement, an din the case of light from above in workrooms,
Dm should be twicw as large as Dmin.
Effective Aperture
One method of assessing the relationship between visible light and the size of the window
is the effective aperture method. The effective aperture (EA) is defined as the product of
the visible transmittance and the window-to-wall ratio. The window-to-wall ratio (WWR)
is the proportion of window area compared to the total wall area where the window is
located. For example, if a window covers 25 square feet in a 100 square-foot wall then the
WWR is 25/100 or 0.25. A good starting target for EA is in the range of 0.20 to 0.30. For
a given EA number, a higher WWR (larger window) results in a lower visible
transmittance.
Example: WWR = .5 (half the wall in glazing),

VT = .6, EA = 0.3
Or WWR = .75, VT = .4 for same EA of 0.3
Document Title
Building type Location Daylight factor* (%)
Living rooms (over ½ 1
dwellings Bedrooms (over ¾ 0.5
Kitchens (over ½ 2
General offices, count- 2

Offices and banks
Typing tables, business 4
General 2
Drawing offices
Drawing boards 6
Assembly and concert Foyers, auditoriums, 1

halls Corridors (on floors) 0.5
Body of church 1
Chancel, choir, pulpit 1.5

Churches
Altars, communion 3-6
Vestries 2
Libraries Shelves (on vertical 1
Art galleries and muse- General 1

ums On pictures (but spe- 6 (max)
Assembly and teaching 2
Art rooms 4
Schools and colleges
Laboratories (benches) 3
Staff rooms, common 1
Wards 1
Hospitals Reception rooms, 2
Pharmacies 3
Sports halls General 2
Pool surfaces 2
Swimming pools
Surrounding floor 1
Daylight factor table

Page 85 ARTIFICIAL LIGHT
Objectives
1. Discuss why and how light affects one’s performance, mood, decisions and
evoke emotion
2. Explain the architect’s role in the lighting design process
Key Words
Incandescent Light Fluorescent Light High Intensity Discharge Lamp
Introduction
Long ago, the sun was the only source of light for the inhabitants of the Earth. Four hundred
thousand years ago Peking Man first used fire as a source of heat and light. Eighty thousand
years ago Neanderthal Man learnt how to make fire so was not forced to keep the embers
burning day and night. 40,000 years ago oil lamps were being used to provide light by which to
make cave paintings. The development of light sources is closely linked to advances in our
understanding of physical processes. Oil lamps, torches and candles were in common use right
up to the 19th century.
Light can subtly and sometimes dramatically affect the tone and colors of a room. It can wash
out some shades, while overemphasizing others. Artificial light unlike the natural light has
uneven distribution of colors . One example is the incandescent light from household bulbs
that is heavy on reds, oranges and yellows, with little blue or violet. The type of light in each
room will change the appearance and perception of color in ways that may play havoc with the
interior design. A great amount of art comes into lighting since colors are perceived
differently by the way how it is lighted. Color then affects the performance, mood, decisions
and evokes emotions. Therefore thoughtful lighting design is necessary because it influences
the way how one lives.
Document Title
Description
Light is defined as an electromagnetic radiation that the unaided human eye can perceive,
having a wavelength in the range from about 370 to 800nm and propagating at the speed of
186.281 mi./sec (299,972 km/sec). Electric lighting is illumination by means of any of a
number of devices that convert electrical energy into light.
History
The visual effects of lighting have been studied for more than 500 years. Leonardo da Vinci
(1452-1519) described the ideas about “street lighting”. Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695)
formulated the wave theory of light, while Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) developed the
corpuscular theory of light. Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749-1832) analyzed the color
effects and aspects of lighting. With the introduction of gaslight and electric light in the
early-to-mid 1800s, the study of visual lighting effects was directed more and more
towards practical lighting application research. British chemist Sir Humphry Davy, who
produced electric arcs and who also made a fine platinum wire incandescent in air by
passing a current through it, conducted the earliest experiments in electric lighting.
Beginning about 1840 a number of incandescent lamps were patented. None were
commercially successful, however, both because the vacuum pumps of the time could not
create a vacuum strong enough to protect the wire filaments and because electricity was
expensive to obtain. In 1878 and 1879, British inventor Joseph Swan and American
inventor Thomas Edison simultaneously developed the carbon-filament lamp. Improved
vacuum pumps and the increased availability of electricity made these lamps a success.
During the same period various arc lamps were introduced. The first practical arc lamp
was installed in a lighthouse at Dungeness, England, in 1862. The American pioneer in
electrical engineering Charles Francis Brush produced the first commercially successful arc
lamp in 1878. Tungsten filaments were substituted for carbon filaments in incandescent
lamps in 1907, and gas-filled incandescent lamps were developed in 1913. The fluorescent
lamp was introduced in 1938.
Document Title
Designing the Lighting System

To produce a new lighting system in a construction or renovation scenario, it must be
designed. The designer must determine desired light levels for tasks that are to be
performed in a given space, determine the light output that will be required to meet those
objectives consistently, taking into account all the factors that degrade both light output
and light levels over time. Equipment must then be chosen and placed in a layout to
produce the desired light distribution. The designer must also consider a range of quality
factors in his or her design choices and equipment selection, including color, minimizing
glare, safety and if required,, aesthetics.
Lighting Metrics: Quantity, Quality, and Efficiency

Because some 85% of human impressions are visual, proper quantity and quality of light are
essential to optimum performance. The mission of lighting management is to provide the
optimum quantity and quality of light to its users at the lowest operating cost. Lighting
metrics are used to understand and predict how a lighting system will operate. They deal
with quantity of light (light output and light levels), quality of light (brightness and color),
and fixture efficiency (electrical efficiency and how much light leaves the fixture).
Quantity of Light
Luminous Flux
Also, light output, this is the quantity of light that leaves the lamp, measured in lumens
(lm). Lamps are rated in both initial and mean lumens.
Initial lumens indicate how much light is produced once the lamp has stabilized; for
fluorescent and high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps, this is typically 100 hours.
Mean lumens indicate the average light output over the lamp's rated life, which reflects the
gradual deterioration of performance due to the rigors of continued operation; for
fluorescent lamps, this is usually determined at 40% of rated life.
A number of factors affect a lamp's light output over time, including lamp lumen
depreciation, the lamp's interaction with the ballast, supply voltage variations, dirt or dust
on the lamp, and the ambient temperature in the fixture.
To avoid confusion, note that "lumen output" is a term also used to describe a fixture's
light output, not just a lamp's. Even more factors can affect light output in this case,
including the distribution characteristics of the fixture, fixture surface depreciation, and
dirt and dust buildup.
Illuminance
Also known as Light Level, amount of light measured on the workplane in the lighted
space. The workplane an imaginary horizontal, tilted or vertical line where the most
Document Title
important tasks in the space are performed. Measured in footcandles (fc) (or lux in
metric), light levels are either calculated or, in existing spaces, measured with a light meter.
A footcandle is actually one lumen of light density per square foot; one lux is one lumen
per square meter. Like lumens, footcandles can be produced as either initial or maintained
quantities. Initial footcandles indicates a light level after new lamps are installed.
Maintained footcandles indicates a light level after light loss factors are considered over a
period of time. Light loss factors include those affecting light output and also room surface
reflectances, room size/proportions, dirt and dust buildup.
While light output may describe either the output of a light source or fixture, maintained
footcandles always takes into account the efficiency of the fixture in transmitting light to
the workplane. The human eye is a sophisticated piece of machinery; it is able to adjust to
a wide range of light levels, including about 10,000 footcandles on a sunny day to about
0.01 footcandles under full moonlight. However, optimum ranges of light levels have been
established for various tasks so that those tasks are performed most efficiently (reading a
magazine, for example, would be difficult under moonlight, while 10,000 footcandles would
be excessive).
Quality of Light
Luminance
Photometric Brightness, the light that we actually see, brightness can be measured as the
light leaving a lamp, or the light reflecting from an object's surface.
If not controlled, brightness can produce levels of glare that either impair or prevent a
desired task being performed.
Fixture Efficiency
There are two ways to look at a light fixture's (luminaire's) efficiency: indicates how well
the lighting system transforms electrical input into useful light output, and the other
indicates how well the fixture itself transmits light from the lamp(s) to the workplane.
Example for Lighting System

Input Wattage 100W
Lumen Output 10,000 lm
Efficacy 100 LPW 10,000 lm ÷ 100W
Hours of Operation 3,120 h 5 days/week x 12 hours/day x 52 weeks/year
Energy Use 312,000 Wh 100W x 3,120 hrs/year
Energy Use 312kWh 312,000 watt-hours (Wh) ÷ 1,000 = 312 kilo-
watt-hours (kWh)
Utility Charge/kWh ETB 0.075
Energy Cost/Year ETB 23.40 312kWh x ETB 0.075/kWh
Document Title
Fixture Efficiency
The light fixture's physical characteristics will affect how much light will leave the fixture
and how much will be directed at the task.
Factors that affect the efficiency of the fixture

1. fixture shape
2. reflectance of its materials
3. how many lamps are inside the fixture
4. how close they are to each other
5. whether shielding material such as lens or louver is used to soften or scatter light.
To compare fixture efficiencies in a given environment, designers often use a derating

factor called the coefficient of utilization (CU).This value shows the percentage of lumens
produced by the lamps that reach the workplane after light is lost due to the fixture's
efficiency at transmitting light, room proportions and ability of room surfaces to reflect
light .
Color Metrics
Basic Principles
Light, like all forms of radiant energy, is represented on the electromagnetic spectrum.
Traveling in waves, light is differentiated from other forms of radiant energy such as heat
and X-rays by the frequency and length of its waveform. A narrow band on the spectrum
is visible light, composed of different colors/wavelengths, from violet at 380 nanometers to
red at 620-760 nanometers. An even balance of these light waves composes white visible
light. To see this principle firsthand, look at a rainbow, which results from sunlight being
refracted by droplets of moisture in the air, or simply shine a beam of white light through a
glass prism to make a rainbow of colors appear on the other side.
Visible light cannot be seen, however. If we turned on a flashlight in a dark room, the beam
of light we are seeing is actually light being reflected from a multitude of dust particles in
the air. Therefore, we see objects only when light is reflected or emitted from them. And
that is how we see color.
All objects are chemically oriented to absorb certain wavelengths of light and reflect
others. The ones that are reflected are perceived by the human eye to be the color of the
object. A red object being struck by visible white light will absorb all wavelengths except
red, which is reflected, and so we see the object as red. A pure white object reflects all
wavelengths and absorbs none. A pure black object absorbs all wavelengths and reflects
none.
Document Title
This is where a great amount of art comes into lighting because few lamp types produce
pure white light. Some lamps produce light that is saturated in blue and green, others red
and yellow. A red object struck by light that contains only blue and green wavelengths
would not appear red as if it were under sunlight. A low-pressure sodium lamp produces
light saturated in yellow, which means that all objects struck by it will appear yellow, black
or a shade of gray. The major lamp manufacturers all have literature and exhibits that
demonstrate the effect of light on color. The slogan of one: "Color is how you light it."
Metrics
To understand how a lamp's light will affect the color of objects in the space, three metrics
are used:
1. Spectral power distribution
shows the visible light spectrum and the wavelength composition for the light from the
lamp. The spikes indicate that the light is stronger in revealing certain colors.
2. Color temperature
is the color appearance of the lamp itself and the light it produces.
color temperature is "the absolute temperature of a blackbody radiator having a
chromaticity equal to that of the light source."
Imagine a block of steel that is steadily heated until it glows first orange, then yellow and
so on until it becomes blue or bluish-white. The color temperature of lamps makes them
visually "warm," "neutral" or "cool" light sources. Lamps with a lower color temperature
(3500K or less) have a warm or red-yellow/orangish-white appearance. The light is
saturated in red and orange wavelengths, bringing out warmer object colors such as red
and orange more richly. Lamps with a mid-range color temperature (3500K to 4000K)
have a neutral or white appearance. The light is more balanced in its color wavelengths.
Lamps with a higher color temperature (4000K or higher) have a cool or bluish-white
appearance. Summer sunlight has a very cool appearance at about 5500K. The light is
saturated in green and blue wavelengths, bringing out cooler object colors such as green
and blue more richly.
3. Color rendering
expressed as a rating on the Color Rendering Index (CRI), from 0-100, describes how a
light source makes the color of an object appear to human eyes and how well subtle
variations in color shades are revealed. The higher the CRI rating, the better its color
rendering ability. Color rendering is the "measure of the degree of color shift objects
undergo when illuminated by the light source as compared with the color those same
objects when illuminated by a reference source of comparable color temperature."
Imagine two objects, one red, and one blue that are lighted by a cool light source with a
Document Title
low CRI. The red object appears muted while the blue object appears a rich blue. Now
take out the lamp and put in a cool light source with a high CRI. The blue object still
appears a rich blue, but the red object appears more like its true color.
Specifying Color
When specifying color characteristics for a lamp, numerous psychological factors must be
considered depending on the lighting goals for the space. Warm light sources are generally
preferred for the home, restaurants and retail applications to create a sense of warmth
and comfort neutral and cool sources are generally preferred for offices and similar
applications to create a sense of alertness. in retail applications, color is a critical design
decision because buyers need to be able to choose products of the correct color, both to
enhance the chance of its sale and to reduce the chance of it being returned once the
buyer gets outside and sees it under sunlight. In other applications such as parking lots,
color is not an important factor, so low-color-rendering lamps can be specified.
Distribution of lighting
direct lighting
lighting which luminaires distribute
90%-100% of the emitted light
downward on the surface area to be
illuminated and 0-10% upward. All
recessed lighting and a pendant
fixture which doesn’t emit light
above the horizontal. The overall
impression of a direct lighting system
is low general brightness with higher
intensity accents.
semidirect lighting
downward and 10-40% upward. All
systems other than direct ones
necessarily imply that the lighting
fixtures are in the space, whether
pendant mounted, surface mounted,
or portable. A semidirect system will
provide good illuminance on horizontal surfaces, with moderate general brightness.
Document Title
general diffuse lighting

lighting from luminaires that emit an
approximately equal distribution of
light upward and downward, 40-60%
upward and downward. Consist of
suspended fixtures, with
predominantly translucent surfaces
on all sides.
direct-indirect lighting
general diffuse lighting in which little
light is emitted in the horizontal
planes of the luminaires, distributes
40-60% upward and downward and
will tend to equally emphasize the
upper (ceiling) and lower (floor)
horizontal planes in a space
semi-indirect lighting
lighting in which luminaires distribute
60%-90% of the emitted light upward
and 10-40% downward. Places
emphasis on the ceiling, with some
downward and outward-directed
light.
indirect lighting
upward, especially to avoid glare or
prevent shadows. Bounces all the
light off the ceiling, resulting in a low-
contrast environment with little
shadow. 90-100% upward and 0-10%
downward.
Document Title
Primary methods of controlling light from a bare light source via a light fixture:
1. Reflection - The most common form of controlling light occurs when light rays impact
and is then reflected from a surface. The types of reflection include:
a. Specular reflection- is when light is reflected from a highly polished surface such
as smooth polished metal, producing a consistent angle
b. Diffuse reflection - is when light is reflected from a rough surface, producing a

variety of angles depending on how the light impacts each tiny part of the rough
surface. Diffuse reflection is typically used to minimize glare, hot spots and
shadows.
c. Spread reflection - is when light is reflected into a cone of light rays from
surfaces such as corrugated or etched metal, plastic or glass.
d. Selective reflection - is when a colored surface is used so that only certain color
wavelengths or reflected as opposed to absorbed or transmitted
2. Transmission - occurs when light rays are passed through a material. Types:
a. Direct transmission - is when light rays go through the material with no change
to their direction or color. Example: Clear plate glass.
b. Diffuse transmission - is when light rays are widely spread, useful when we want
to obscure the light source and produce a uniform appearance of light on the
transmitting surface. Example: Inside-frosted glass.
c. Spread transmission - is when the maximum intensity of light rays passed through
with little change in direction, producing a glow on the transmitting surface and a
sense of sparkle.
d. Selective transmission - is when selected color wavelengths are allowed to pass

through the material. Example: Colored glass.
3. Refraction - used in prismatic lenses in fluorescent fixtures, floodlighting and street

lighting, occurs when light rays pass through one material and into another at a different
intensity.
4. Other methods include polarization, interference and absorption

Document Title
Accent lighting
Lighting that calls attention to a
particular object or feature in the
visual field, or that forms a decorative
pattern on a surface
highlight - to emphasize by illuminating with a strong light
backlight - to illuminate something from behind in order to enhance depth or to separate

the subject from its background
soft light - diffuse light that produces little contrast and poorly defined shadows on the
subject
hard light - direct light that produces high contrast and
sidelight - light coming or produced from the side

3. Silhouetting
Used to emphasize the shape of the object as a silhouette. Soften or even eliminate the
key light and directional fill light And instead provide only fill light, either intense or
diffused,
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4. Uplighting
The effect of uplighting is either very desirable or very undesirable because it is unusual.
Effects range from intimate to eerie. A lot of landscape lighting includes uplighting to
accentuate bushes and trees. Uplighting may work well in an intimate restaurant or to
highlight bottles of alcohol in a bar, but may make people look sinister in the home or
office.
5. Sparkle and Glitter Effects

To add an atmosphere of elegance, little lighting points of interest in the form of sparkle or
glitter should be added. This effect can be produced by either producing sharp reflections
on specular surfaces in the room (sparkle), such as silverware in a restaurant, or by making
the light source itself a source of interest (glitter) such as with a chandelier. Beware of
glare in such cases.
6. Grazing and Washing Surfaces

Changing the way light impacts on them can produce different effects on walls or on the
surface of an object. Suppose a brick wall with a rough texture is to be emphasized, graze
the surface with light, thus the light would strike the surface at a sharp angle. In this case,
the light source would be mounted close to the wall. Now suppose the wall is smoother,
and we want to emphasize that smoothness. We could wash the surface with light,
meaning the light would strike the surface at a wider angle. Sparkle and glitter may work
well in a restaurant, but might prove distracting in many industrial work areas.
Document Title
How is the direction of light

controlled?
1. Key Light
Light shines on an object from a single
point source of light
It highlights contours on the object and
creates shadows; the exact effect depends
on the angle of the beam of light. To see
the front of an object, the light source may
be best place in front of and to the side of
the object at an angle of 45°. In a retail
environment, it might be desirable to
provide strong keylighting to accentuate
and dramatize key merchandise, while in
an office such strong concentrations of
accent lighting and shadowing might prove
visually fatiguing. distinct shadows on the
subject
2. Fill Light Effects of drama is created using fill light. It can

either be directional or diffused.
Shine a directional light on the object from the opposite
direction of the key light, softening or eliminating shadows
depending on the strength of the fill light relative to the
strength of the key light. Also place fill light sources behind
the object to light the entire room evenly. In the figure
keylight supplemented by a single fill light.
Page 97 LIGHT AND GLARE
Objectives
1. Expound on the harmful effects of glare and how to counteract the problems
in the total design of a structure
Key Words
Glare Light trespass Over illumination Sky glow
Introduction
Long ago, the sun was the only source of light for the inhabitants of the Earth. 400,000 years
ago Peking Man first used fire as a source of heat and light. 80,000 years ago Neanderthal Man
learnt how to make fire so was not forced to keep the embers burning day and night. 40,000
years ago oil lamps were being used to provide light by which to make cave paintings.
The development of light sources is closely linked to advances in our understanding of physical
processes. Oil lamps, torches and candles were in common use right up to the 19th century.
Then came gas lamps. All these lamps burned oils or gases to provide light. The smell was
extremely unpleasant, and the smoke and open flames were extremely dangerous. It was not
until the end of the 19th century that advances in material research (leading to the tungsten
filament) enabled electric lamps to be produced in quantity. A short time later came the first
discharge lamps.
Since then, light has been available in almost unlimited quantity. The wide range of ways in
which light can be used, however, has meant that we have had to make decisions. The
discipline of lighting design has arisen as a result, with attention being paid to aspects of safety
and comfort in designing lighting systems
While high ratios of bright to dark in the space can produce contrast or a sense of drama, it
can also be visually fatiguing during transient adaptation, which describes the eye adapting
to changes in brightness. Hence when improperly applied and used, light can reduce
productivity and can even be hazardous. Light pollution comes from two aspects: annoying
light that intrudes on an otherwise natural or low light setting and excessive light, generally
indoors, that leads to worker discomfort and adverse health effects.
Description
"Light pollution" also known as photopollution, luminous pollution, refers to light that
people find annoying, wasteful or harmful. It also causes damage to the environment and
health, as do other forms of pollution such as air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution
and soil contamination. Light pollution comes form building exterior and interior
lighting advertising, commercial offices factories streetlights and illuminated sporting
venues.
Types of light pollution

1. Light trespass occurs when unwanted light enters one's property, for instance, by
shining over a neighbor’s fence. A common light trespass problem occurs when a
strong light enters the window of one's home from outside, causing problems such as
sleep deprivation or the blocking of an evening view.
2. Over-illumination is the excessive use of light. Over-illumination stems from several

factors:Not using timers, occupancy sensors or other controls to extinguish lighting when
not needed, improper design, especially of workplace spaces, by specifying higher levels of
light than needed for a given task, incorrect choice of fixtures or light bulbs, which do not
direct light into areas as needed improper selection of hardware to utilize more energy
than needed to accomplish the lighting task, incomplete training of building managers and
occupants to use lighting systems efficiently, inadequate lighting maintenance resulting in
increased stray light and energy costs.
3. Glare is the result of excessive contrast between bright and dark areas in the field of
view. For example, glare can be associated with directly viewing the filament of an
unshielded or badly shielded light. Light shining into the eyes of pedestrians and drivers can
obscure night vision for up to an hour after exposure. Caused by high contrast between
light and dark areas, glare can also make it difficult for the human eye to adjust to the
differences in brightness. Bright and/or badly shielded lights around roads may partially
blind drivers or pedestrians unexpectedly, and contribute to accidents.
Glare types
A. Blinding Glare - effects caused by staring into the sun. It is completely blinding and
leaves temporary or permanent vision deficiencies.
B. Disability Glare - effects such as being blinded by an oncoming cars lights, with
significant reduction in sight capabilities.
C. Discomfort Glare does not typically cause a dangerous situation in itself, and is annoying
and irritating at best, causes fatigue if experienced over extended periods
What are the strategies for reducing unwanted glare?

Apply indirect lighting that throws more light upward than downward, diffusing the light
and reducing glare on computer screens, use parabolic louvers, special lenses or other
diffusing media on fixtures that diffuse the fixture's light output, in an office, it may be
possible to de-emphasize the ambient lighting system with reduced light output and
diffusing media, while providing adjustable task fixtures at workstations, relocating the light
source, relocating the task or changing its orientation until the glare is removed, changing
the surface reflectance of the task and use blinds or shades on windows to control the
amount or transmittance angle of sunlight entering the space.
Anti-glare Checkpoints
A. Visual Comfort Probability (VCP) is a rating on a scale of 0-100 given to indoor
fixtures (in a uniform system with identical fixtures) to indicate how well accepted they
are likely to be by the area's occupants. A VCP rating of 75, for example, indicates that
75% of the occupants in the poorest location would not be bothered by direct glare.
Generally, office environments require that fixtures have a VCP rating of 70 or more.
Generally, again, the higher the VCP rating, the lower the fixture's efficiency at
transmitting light to the task.
Shielding Medium Fixture Efficiency VCP Rating

VCP Rating
Clear Prismatic Lens 60-75% 50-70

50-70
Low-Glare Clear Lens 60-75% 75-85

75-85
Deep-Cell Parabolic Louver 50-70% 75-95

75-95
Translucent Diffuser 40-60% 40-50

40-50
Shielding Media Characteristics for Fluorescent 2x4 Recessed Troffer Fixtures
B. Brightness Ratios Brightness ratios in a space can affect how it is perceived. While
high ratios of bright to dark in the space can produce contrast or a sense of drama, it can
also be visually fatiguing during transient adaptation, which describes the eye adapting to
changes in brightness. This can reduce productivity and can even be hazardous.
C. Uniformity Uniform light and brightness levels across a space can be desirable but
may also be boring; in such cases, sparkle elements, color and/or other methods can be
employed to create visual interest without causing fatigue.
4. Clutter refers to excessive groupings of lights. Clutter is particularly noticeable on
roads where the street lights are badly designed, or where brightly lit advertising
surrounds the roadways. Clutter may also present a hazard in the aviation environment if
aviation safety lighting must compete for pilot attention with non-relevant lighting. For
instance runway lighting may be confused with a dazzling array of suburban commercial
lighting and aircraft collision avoidance lights may be confused with ground lights.
5. Sky glow refers to the "glow" effect that can be seen over populated areas. It is the
combination of light reflected from what it has illuminated and from all of the badly
directed light in that area, being refracted in the surrounding atmosphere. This refraction is
strongly related to the wavelength of the light. Rayleigh scattering, which makes the sky
appear blue in the daytime, also affects light that comes from the earth into the sky and is
then redirected to become sky-glow, seen from the ground. As a result, blue light
contributes significantly more to sky-glow than an equal amount of yellow light.
What are the consequences of light pollution?

Light pollution indicates wasted energy. lighting consumes one fourth of all energy
consumed worldwide, and case studies have shown that several forms of over-illumination
constitute energy wastage including un-useful upward direction of night-time lighting, as
upward-directed light does not usually provide useful or intended illumination. It obscures
the night sky disabling most urban dwellers see a host of objects in the night sky, with the
exception of the moon and bright planets. This "whiteout" zone can stretch many tens of
kilometers. It harms human health including increased headache incidence, worker fatigue,
medically defined stress, decrease in sexual function and increase in anxiety. Common
levels of fluorescent lighting in offices are sufficient to elevate blood pressure by about
eight points, allow diminished sexual performance, increased stress and increased worker
errors exposure to light at night and risk of breast cancer, due to suppression of the
normal nocturnal production of melatonin. Light pollution disrupts ecosystems such as life
evolved with natural patterns of light and dark, so disruption of those patterns influences
many aspects of animal behavior. Light pollution can confuse animal navigation, alter
competitive interactions, change predator-prey relations, and influence animal physiology.
reduce security It is generally agreed that many people require light to feel safe at night,
but campaigners for the reduction of light pollution often claim that badly or
inappropriately installed lighting can lead to a reduction in safety if measured objectively,
and that at the very least, it is wrong to assume that simply increasing light at night will
lead to improved safety. Badly installed artificial lights can create a deeper contrast of
shadows in which criminals might hide some light emitted by some fixtures can be a
significant hazard to motorists, pedestrians, and bicyclists due to their scattering of light
and glare.
How is light pollution reduced?

Light pollution can be lessened by utilizing light sources of minimum intensity necessary to
accomplish the light's purpose, turning lights off using a timer or occupancy sensor or
manually when not needed, improving lighting fixtures, so that they direct their light more
accurately towards where it is needed, and with less side effects, adjusting the type of
lights used, so that the light waves emitted are those that are less likely to cause severe
light pollution problems, evaluating existing lighting plans, and re-designing some or all of
the plans depending on whether existing light is actually needed, improving lighting fixtures,
adjusting types of light sources, re-designing lighting plans and by turning off unneeded
outdoor lights, and only lighting stadiums when there are people inside. Timers are
especially valuable for this purpose.
Several different types of light sources exist, each having different properties that
determine their appropriateness for certain tasks, particularly efficiency and spectral
power distribution.
Type of light Efficacy

Color
source (lumens per watt)
Low pressure
yellow 80 - 200
sodium
High pressure pink/amber-
90 - 130
sodium white
bluish-white/
Metal Halide 60 -120
white
Mercury Va- blue-greenish
13 - 48
pour white
Incandescent yellow/white 8 - 25
Some types of light sources, in order of energy efficiency
Page 102 ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING DESIGN
Objectives
1. Know how to create a lighting design and compute for the electrical load
2. Identify different lamp types and explain how they are applied
Key Words
Downlight Uplight Floodlight Wall washer Luminaire
Introduction
Artificial light makes us independent of natural daylight, whatever the season and whatever the
location. It enables cultural and technical advances to be made and prolongs production times.
The table below shows the quantitative increase in the use of light at various workplaces over
the last century. The purpose of using light, however, is not just to increase illuminance
indiscriminately but to compose in light, to create bright and dark zones and to provide the
light that meets the needs of the situation.
Modern lighting design also aims to provide the necessary lighting moods for domestic,
commercial, professional and public premises so that these moods can be called up as the
need arises.
What affects lighting?

Light plays an essential role in our ability to perceive the world around us; the lighting
system plays a critical role in how we perceive a space and can even influence how we act
in that space. Light affects one’s performance, mood, ,morale, safety, security and
decisions.
What is lighting design?

Lighting design is the qualitative and functional arrangement of lighting fixtures in the
planning process to meet ergonomic requirements while taking cost-effectiveness into
account.
What should a lighting design guarantee?

It should ensure that the lighting system provides ambient illumination for orientation and
general tasks in the space, task lighting at the workstations for work and accent
illumination to highlight special objects of interest or to guide occupants.
What should be established in the space where lighting will be used?

Determine the quantity of light, color quality, brightness, light direction
Characteristics of the Space

For a good lighting design certain space conditions that will affect the operation of the
lighting system should be looked upon. These are tasks to be performed in the space,
desired light levels based on the tasks performed in the space, room size and dimensions,
structural obstructions such as beams, layout of furniture and obstructions such as
partitions, room and object surface colors and reflectances, special concerns such as safety
and security, hours of operation, assessment of normal operating conditions, possibility or
known existence of abnormal operating conditions, cleanliness of the area during
operation, maintenance schedule and availability of daylight.
Lighting Design in Residential Rooms

1. Kitchen
A.Task areas (counters, sinks, and tables)
Mounting the lights on the underside of the upper cabinets is convenient. For island or
peninsula counter tops, with no upper cabinets to attach lights to, use hanging pendant
style fixtures or project light from the ceiling. If ceiling mounts are used chose
incandescent lamps either in track or recessed fixtures.
B. General Area
Put the fluorescent tubes in a central fixture . Place them on top of the upper cabinets to
indirectly reflect off a light colored ceiling, if there is at least 12 inches of space from the
top of the upper cabinets to the ceiling. have a custom pot rack hanging over an island and
build lighting into it to reflect off the ceiling and down onto the island.
C. Special home objects

(artwork, architectural details, collectibles, or a food presentation area) Use accent lighting
sparingly on those special home objects that we want people to notice and admire.
2. Bathroom
Mirror lighting needs to be bright but not glaring, accurate yet flattering, and for public/
commercial spaces low maintenance and low power. There are three considerations for
mirror lighting; fixture placement, lamp (or bulb) type, and fixture style. The best mirror
lighting surrounds the face with light. This provides light from all sides that minimizes
shadows under the chin, eyes, cheeks, and forehead. A wall sconce on either side of the
mirror can work satisfactorily. Normally the center of the fixture is at about 66" above the
finished floor and at least 30" apart (these specs will vary according to the particulars of
the room and fixture). If the mirror is a whole wall mirror mount the fixtures right on the
mirror. Avoid using ceiling mounted fixtures as the sole source unless the room is very
small with light colored walls. Large bathrooms often need additional lighting besides the
mirror lighting. If a recessed type must be used, consider constructing a luminous soffit
with two 4' fluorescent tubes. The most common placement for mirror lighting is on the
wall above the mirror. Though this is not ideal it avoids most conflicts with mirror size,
medicine cabinet doors, and room dimensions. However the fixture needs to be long
enough to light the sides of the face.
3. Living Room, Family Room, Bedroom

Lighting for living spaces (living rooms, dens, or bedrooms) can be more difficult to design
than lighting for task areas (kitchens, home offices, and baths). The lighting must be flexible
for the many and varied activities in these rooms. The general emphasis is on atmosphere
and mood, with the occasional task (reading a book, packing for a trip, or late night
cleaning.) Start by accent lighting points of interest: artwork, architectural details, and
display areas. These elements are usually at the perimeter of the room -- on or adjacent to
the wall. This is best accomplished with spotlights (low voltage halogen is a good energy-
efficient choice), or wall washing. Track or recessed lighting is a good choice for
spotlighting individual pieces of artwork or points of great interest. Bookshelves, very large
wall art (quilts, murals, etc.) or collections (groups of small objects with equal import) are
best lit with wallwashers. These can take the form of recessed cans or track, but a better
choice may be to use architectural fixtures. A luminous soffit or a valance can be built to
hold fluorescent strips to provide uniform wall lighting. Light 'floating' furniture like coffee
tables, as these provide a nice focal point for seating areas. Once the points of interest
have been lit, look for task areas to light (reading, wet bars, hobby or game tables). The
amount of light needed will vary -- some hobbies can require a lot of light, while casual
reading may use much less. A good strategy is to physically bring the light source to the
task, as in a hanging fixture or a floor lamp, or to project the light to the task as with a
spotlight from track or recessed fixtures, but beware of glare with spotlights! Decorative
elements in these areas such as portable fixtures or a pendant hanging over a game table
can be a nice touch. If recessed lighting is used, the furniture layout should be planned
carefully. If significant changes are made later, the tasks may be in different places. In small
rooms with light surfaces, extra lighting to provide ambient light may not be needed.
Portable fixtures and the light reflecting off of artwork may provide enough light to
comfortably move through the space. However, in a large room, or one with dark
surfaces, additional ambient lighting may be wanted. Recessed lighting is a poor choice for
ambient lighting. Instead, use wall sconces or ceiling lights, or add a portable fixture or two
using switched outlets on the portables. A great way to add ambient light is with indirect
fluorescent lights. Create a cove or lightshelf on the walls to bounce light off of the ceiling.
Lighting the ceiling helps expand the space and can add visual interest to the room itself.
Remember to layer the light and control the layers independently so the room can adapt
to different functions as desired. Dimmers are a good way to help the lighting be more
adaptable and they extend the life of incandescent bulbs.
Lighting Design in Demanding Environments

Some environments can pose difficult conditions for operating lighting systems, either the
light source must be able to operate properly under these conditions or the fixture must
protect the light source from these conditions.
A. Damp and Wet Areas the environment exposes the lighting system to moisture
condensation. Damp location fixtures are specified for indoor or outdoor locations that
experience dry or damp conditions only.
If the lighting system is exposed to direct impact by water, which will make the fixture wet,
then the location is a wet location. Wet location fixtures are specified for indoor or
outdoor locations that experience, dry, damp or wet conditions. If a fixture installed in
concrete will be in direct contact with the earth, it must be approved for use in wet
locations.
B. Corrosive Environments Some environments contain fumes and vapors that

corrode fixtures and supplementary components such as mounting hardware. Corrosive
location fixtures are specially coated to protect them from corrosive fumes and vapors.
They may also be enclosed or feature specially treated reflective surfaces.
C. Hazardous Locations In hazardous environments, the air contains flammable dust,

gas or vapors that can combust if it comes into contact with electrical equipment, including
lighting systems. In addition, equipment such as ballasts may be installed in a remote
location if possible.
D. Areas That Experience Abnormal Temperatures The starting and operation of

fluorescent and high-intensity discharge (HID) lighting systems can be affected by abnormal
temperatures. In such applications, enclosed fixtures, special "cold weather" fluorescent
lamps and/or jacketed lamps can help ensure reliable performance; in addition, fixtures can
be located a suitable distance from cold-air source units. In areas experiencing high
ambient temperatures, the ballast can overheat. Fixtures in areas experiencing high
ambient temperatures should be well ventilated.
E. Areas That Experience Momentary Power Failures In some industrial

environments, momentary power failures can cause HID lamps to shut off; they must then
cool down before restrike, which can take about a minute for high pressure sodium lamps
and as long as 20 minutes for metal halide lamps.
In such environments, HID fixtures can be specified that include a built-in incandescent or
halogen lamp that lights when a power failure occurs. Another option is to specify instant-
restrike high-pressure sodium lamps, which contain two arc tubes. .To provide for the
event that the power failure is long in duration, select fixtures or banks of fixtures should
be connected to a standby generator so as to continue critical operations.
F. Clean Rooms Clean rooms are spaces where temperature, humidity, pressure and
atmospheric particulates are tightly controlled; the requirements for cleanliness can
exceed those for a hospital operating room. Air-handling recessed fixtures may be
required that provide air supply, air return or both.
Lighting Fixtures
Luminaire
A luminaire, often called a light fixture, is a complete lighting unit that produces and
distributes light. It contains the light source, ballast if the lamp is fluorescent or HID
components designed to diffuse or distribute the light in a controlled pattern, components
to protect and position the lamp/s, and a connection to the power source. The light
fixture's basic function is to produce and distribute light to fulfill the design goals for the
lighted space.
Characteristics of Lighting Components and the Fixture

Factors affecting fixture selection
Several factors affect the fixture selection, these are Electrical, physical and operating
characteristics of the light source, appropriate ballasts, controls to be employed, fixture
efficiency (% lamp transmitted out of the fixture),
Fluorescent Lamp Identification

Fluorescent lamps are identified by a
standardized code that reveals valuable
information about operating
characteristics and physical dimensions.
How to “read” a lamp specs

Rapid-start lamps are the most popular
fluorescent lamp type used in
commercial applications such as office
buildings.
Example: F30T12/CW/RS
"F" … fluorescent
"30" … rated nominal wattage
"T" … indicates shape; this lamp is shaped like a tube
"12" … diameter in eighths of an inch; this lamp is 12/8 (1.5) inches in diameter
"CW" … color; this lamp is a cool white lamp
"RS" … mode of starting; the lamp is a rapid-
start lamp. Preheat lamps do not have "RS" as a
suffix
Compact Fluorescent Lamp

Identification
Compact Fluorescent lamps or bulbs are either
pin-based which is plugged into a socket, or
they are medium screw-based screwed into the
same socket as common incandescent bulbs
Requirement Incandescent Lamps Fluorescent Lamps HID Lamps

HID Lamps
Ballast Do not require a ballast Require a ballast Require aa ballast

Require ballast
Color Warm color appearance Range of color tempera- Range of
Range of color
color tempera-
tempera-
with a low color temperatures and color rendering tures and
tures and color
color render-
render-
ture and excellent color capabilities ing abilities
ing abilities depending
depending on
on
rendering (CRI 100) the lamp type
the lamp type
Light source Compact light source Low surface brightness Compact light
Compact light source
source
compared to point Point light
Point light source
source
sources
Maintenance Simple maintenance due Cooler operation High lumen

High lumen packages
packages
to screw-in Edison base
Efficiency Less efficacious light More efficacious com- Highly efficacious

Highly efficacious in
in many
many
source pared to incandescent cases
cases
Service Shorter service life than Ambient temperatures Long service

Long service life
life
other light sources in and convection currents
most cases can affect light output and
life
Special ballast or Filament is sensitive to All fixtures installed in- Ambient temperature
Ambient temperature
filament case vibrations and jarring doors must use a Class P does not
does not affect
affect light
light out-
out-
ballast that disconnects put, although
put, although low
low ambi-
ambi-
Bulb can get very hot the ballast in the event it ent temperatures
ent temperatures can can
during operation begins to overheat; high affect starting,
affect starting, requiring
requiring aa
ballast operating tem- special ballast
special ballast
peratures can shorten
ballast life
Compatibility with Must be properly shielded Requires compatibility
the electrical sys- because incandescent with ballast
tem lamps can produce direct
glare as a point source
Suitability for the Require proper line volt- Low temperatures can Line voltage
Line voltage variations,
variations,
operating environ- age as line voltage varia- affect starting unless a possible line
possible line voltage
voltage
ment tions can severely affect "cold weather" ballast is drops, and
drops, and circuits
circuits sized
sized
light output and service specified for high
for high starting
starting current
current
life requirements must
requirements must bebe
considered
considered
Light Source Specification Checklist
Compact Fluorescent Lamp

Identification
Fluorescent Ballasts
All gas discharge lamps, including fluorescent lamps, require a ballast to operate. The
ballast provides a high initial voltage to initiate the discharge, then rapidly limits the lamp
current to safely sustain the discharge. characteristics like lamp current, starting voltage,
Circuit Type and Operating Mode

Fluorescent ballasts are manufactured for three primary types of fluorescent lamps:
preheat, rapid start, and instant start. Preheat Operation Lamp electrodes are heated prior
to initiating the discharge. Rapid Start Operation Lamp electrodes are heated prior to and
during operation. Instant Start Operation Lamp electrodes are not heated prior to
operation. Ballasts for instant start lamps are designed to provide a relatively high starting
voltage (with respect to preheat and rapid start lamps) to initiate the discharge across the
unheated electrodes.
Energy Efficiency
Fluorescent lamps are reasonably efficient at converting input power to light. Nevertheless,
much of the power supplied into a fluorescent lamp-ballast system produces waste heat
energy. There are three primary means of to improving the efficiency of a fluorescent
lamp-ballast system reduce the ballast losses, operate the lamp/s at a high frequency,
reduce losses attributable to the lamp electrodes.
Ballast Factor
The ballast factor is needed to determine the light output for a particular lamp-ballast
system. Ballast factor is a measure of the actual lumen output for a specific lamp-ballast
system relative to the rated lumen output measured. Ballast factor is not a measure of
energy efficiency. Although a lower ballast factor reduces lamp lumen output, it also
consumes proportionally less input power.
Flicker
Electromagnetic ballasts are designed to condition the 60 Hz input voltage to the electrical
requirements of the lamps. Magnetic ballast alters the voltage, but not the frequency. Thus,
the lamp voltage crosses zero 120 times each second, resulting in 120 Hz light output
oscillations. This results in about 30% flicker for standard halophosphor lamps, operated at
60 Hz. The flicker is generally not noticeable but there is evidence that flicker of this
magnitude can cause adverse effects, such as eyestrain and headache.
Audible Noise
One characteristic of iron-cored electromagnetic ballasts operating at 60 Hz, is the
generation of audible noise. Noise can be increased by high temperatures, and it is

amplified by certain luminaire designs. The best ballasts use high quality materials and
workmanship to reduce noise. Noise is rated A, B, C, or D in decreasing order of
preference. An "A" rated ballast will hum softly; a "D" rated ballast will make a loud buzz.
The number of ballasts, their sound rating, and the nature of ambient noise in the room
determine whether or not a system will create an audible disturbance.
Dimming
Dimming ballasts are available in both magnetic and electronic versions, but there are
distinct advantages to using electronic dimming ballasts. To dim lamps, magnetic dimming
ballasts require control gear containing expensive high power switching devices that
condition the input power delivered to the ballasts. This is economically viable only when
controlling large numbers of ballasts on the same branch circuit. In addition, luminaires
must be controlled in large zones that are determined by the layout of the electrical
distribution system. Since the distribution system is fixed early in the design process,
control systems using magnetic dimming ballasts are inflexible and are unable to
accommodate changes in usage patterns.
Lamp category
Lamps are divided into thermal radiators and luminescence radiators

Lamp Types
1. Incandescent lamp A lamp in which a filament gives off light when heated to
incandescence by an electric current, also called light bulb. Incandescence is the
emission of visible light by a body when heated to a high temperature.
Parts of an incandescent lamp:

1. Bulb- the glass housing of an incandescent lamp, filled with an inert gas mixture,
usually of argon and nitrogen, to retard evaporation of the filament. Its shape is
designated by a letter, followed by a number that indicates the lamp diameter.
2. filament- the threadlike conductor of an electric lamp that is heated to
incandescence by the passage of an electric current
3. lamp base- the part of a lamp that connects to a lamp holder
2. Discharge Lamp light is produced by the discharge of electricity between electrodes

in a gas-filled glass enclosure
A.Fluorescent Lamp A tubular

discharge lamp in which light is
produced by the fluorescence of
phosphors coating the inside of the
tub. Fluorescence is the emission of
radiation especially of visible light, by
a substance during to exposure to
external radiation
Parts of a fluorescent lamp

1. ballast - a device for
maintaining the current through a fluorescent or HID lamp at the desired constant
value, and sometimes also providing the required starting voltage and current
2. starter - a device used with a ballast to provide the starting voltage for a preheat
fluorescent lamp
3. T bulb - a tubular bulb for incandescent, fluorescent and high intensity discharge
lamp
Types of fluorescent lamp

1. preheat lamp - a fluorescent lamp that requires a separate starter to preheat the
cathodes before opening the circuit to the starting voltage
2. rapid-start lamp - a fluorescent lamp designed to operate with a ballast having a low-
voltage winding for continuous heating of the cathodes, which allows the lamp to be
started more rapidly than a preheat lamp
3. instant-start lamp - a fluorescent lamp designed to operate with a ballast having a high
voltage transformer to initiate the arc directly without any preheating of the cathodes
4. high-output lamp - a rapid-start fluorescent lamp designed to operate on a current of

800 milliamperes, resulting in a corresponding increase in luminous flux per unit length of
lamp
5. very-high-output lamp - a rapid-start fluorescent lamp designed to operate on a current

of 1500 milliamperes, providing a corresponding increase in luminous flux per unit length
of lamp
B. High Intensity Discharge Lamp

Types of HID
1. mercury lamp - a high-intensity discharge
lamp producing light by means of an electric
discharge in mercury vapor. Also called
mercury-vapor lamp.
2. sodium lamp - a high-intensity discharge lamp

producing light by means of an electric discharge
in sodium vapor. Also called sodium vapor lamp.
3. low-pressure sodium lamp - a sodium lamp

producing a yellow, glareless light and used
especially to illuminate roadways. Also, LPS
lamp.
4. high-pressure sodium lamp - a sodium lamp

producing broader spectrum, golden-white
a significant amount of light is produced by
light, HPS lamp.
the discharge of electricity through a metal-
lic vapor in a sealed glass enclosure.
5. metal halide lamp - a high-intensity discharge lamp similar in construction to mercury

lamp, but having an arc tube to which more metal halides are added to produce more light
and improve color rendering
C. Cold-cathode lamp - A discharge lamp having cathodes that emit electrons without
having to be heated
Type
1. neon lamp – cold cathode lamp emitting a glow when a high voltage is applied across
two electrodes in a neon-filled glass tube
Luminaire Selection Parameters

1.Distribution - shape of the light output from a luminaire. It is illustrated by the
candlepower distribution curve, a polar plot of intensities at specific angles. Luminaires are
classified by the percentage of their luminous output sent in various directions: direct,
semidirect, general diffuse, direct-indirect, semi-indirect and indirect.
2. Location of the fixture relative to the space

A. outside (recessed) – light major planes: downlights for floors and horizontal work
surfaces (desks, drafting tables, lab tables, etc) and wall washers for wall
B. inside on a surface (ceiling or wall) – can illuminate the ceiling, floor, work surfaces
and walls within: portable (table or floor)
3. Direct glare - produced by excessive luminance in the visual field, which affects the
visual systems as the individual looks around the environment. It is usually associated with
the luminaire zone from 45° to 90°. To minimize direct glare, the luminous intensity
should be kept out of the 45° to 90° zone.
4. Source type and magnitude - lumen output of a fixture must be proportionate to the
desired illuminance level and the size of the space. The color of the source must also be
appropriate to the area/ space and activity being lighted.
Components of a luminaire
1.reflector - a surface for reflecting light, heat, or sound, especially the device on a
luminaire having such a surface for controlling the distribution of light emitted by a lamp
Types of reflector
A. parabolic reflector – a reflector having a
parabolic surface to collimate (to make rays of
light parallel), spread, or focus the rays from a
light source, depending on the location of the
source
B. elliptical reflector – a reflector having an

elliptical surface to focus the rays from a light
source
2. lens - a piece of transparent material, as

glass or plastic, having 2 opposite surfaces
either or both of which are curved, used in
luminaires to focus, disperse, or collimate the
emitted light
Types of lens
A. Fresher lens – a lens having concentric,
prismatic grooves to concentrate light
from a small source
B. Prismatic lens – a lens having a

multifaceted surface with parallel prisms to
redirect the rays from a light source
3. ridge baffle - a series of circular ridges

for reducing the brightness of a light
source at an aperture
Lamp Name Color Appearance Object Colors En- Object Colors

hanced Dulled
Incandescent, includ- Yellowish white Warm colors Cool colors
ing tungsten halogen
Fluorescent
Cool white White Orange, yellow, Blue Red
Warm white Yellowish white Orange, yellow, Blue Red, blue
Cool white deluxe White All nearly equal None appreciable
Warm white deluxe Yellowish white Red, orange, yellow Blue
High-intensity dis-
charge (HID) Blue/green Yellow, green, purple Red, orange
Clear mercury Purplish white Orange, yellow, purple Deep reds
Deluxe mercury Yellowish white Orange, yellow, purple Deep reds
Deluxe warm White Orange, yellow, blue Deep reds
Mercury Yellow/orang Yellow/orange Green, blue
Metal halide Yellow Yellow All except yellow
High-pressure
Sodium Perceived Color Effects from Lamps
Low-pres. Sodium
Downlight– provides uni- Direct symmetrical for Downlight with directed Wall flood for ceiling
form wall illumination while general illumination spotlight provides low room light
the effect is direct lighting on one wall
Wall light for deco- Ceiling flood Floor flood Fluorescent for di-
rative wall lighting rect/indirect
Indirect give impression Wall flood good for spotlight

of bright room free of salerooms, exhibitions,
glare, room must be high museum, galleries
Forms of lighting in internal areas
Lighting Load Calculations and other Useful Formulas
ELECTRICAL FORMULAS
Demand for Power (kW) = System Input Wattage (W) ÷ 1,000
Energy Consumption (kWh) = System Input Wattage (kW) x Hours of Operation/Year
Hours of Operation/Year = Operating Hours/Day x Operating Days/Week x Operating
Weeks/Year
4.Lighting System Efficacy (Lumens per Watt or LPW) = System Lumen Output ÷ Input
Wattage
Unit Power Density (W/sq.ft.) = Total System Input Wattage (W) ÷ Total Area (Square
Feet)
Watts (W) = Volts (V) x Current in Amperes (A) x Power Factor (PF)
Voltage (V) = Current in Amperes (A) x Impedance (Ohms) [Ohm's Law]
ECONOMIC FORMULAS
Simple Payback on an Investment (Years) = Net Installation Cost (ETB) ÷ Annual Energy
Savings (ETB)
5-Year Cash Flow (ETB) = 5 Years - Payback (Years) x Annual Energy Savings (ETB)
Simple Return on Investment (%) = [Annual Energy Savings (ETB) ÷ Net Installation Cost
(ETB)] x 100
DESIGN FORMULAS
Footcandles & Lumens
Footcandles (fc) = Total Lumens (lm) ÷ Area in Square Feet
1 Lux (lx) = 1 Footcandle (fc) x 10.76
Lux = Total Lumens ÷ Area in Square Meters
Calculating Light Level at a Point

For planes perpendicular to the direction of candlepower (Inverse Square Law):
Footcandles (fc) = I ÷ D2
I = Candlepower in candelas (cd)
D = Direct distance between the lamp and the point where light level is
calculated
Many workplanes are not perpendicular to the direction of light intensity, which is why
calculating light level at a point is useful for such applications. In these cases, we often must
determine light levels on workplanes that are not horizontal and perpendicular but tilted
or even vertical. For tilted-horizontal or vertical planes:
Horizontal Footcandles (fch) = (I ÷ D2) x H
Vertical Footcandles (fcv) = (I ÷ D2) x L
I = Candlepower in candelas (cd)

D = Direct distance between the lamp and the point where light level is
calculated
H = Distance between the lamp and the point direct below on the
workplane
L = Distance between that point and the point where light level is
being calculated
D = Square Root of (H2 + L2) or D2 = H2 + L2
Calculating Average Light Level Throughout a Space (three formulas)

Average Maintained Illumination (Footcandles) = (Lamps/Fixture x Lumens/Lamp x
No. of Fixtures x Coefficient of Utilization x Light Loss Factor) ÷ Area in Square
Feet
Average Maintained Illumination (Footcandles) = (Total Lamps x Lumens/Lamp x
Coefficient of Utilization x Light Loss Factor) ÷ Area in Square Feet
Average Maintained Illumination (Footcandles) = (Lamps in One Fixture x Lumens/
Lamp x Coefficient of Utilization x Light Loss Factor) ÷ Area in Square Feet/Fixture
Lumen Method
Required Light Output/Fixture (Lumens) = (Maintained Illumination in Footcandles x Area
in Square Feet) ÷ (Number of Fixtures x Coefficient of Utilization x Ballast Factor x Light
Loss Factor)
Light Loss Factors

Light Loss Factor (LLF) = Ballast Factor x Fixture Ambient Temperature Factor x Supply
Voltage Variation Factor x Lamp Position Factor x Optical Factor x Fixture Surface
Depreciation Factor x Lamp Burnouts Factor x Lamp Lumen Depreciation Factor x Fixture
Dirt Depreciation Factor x Room Surface Dirt Depreciation Factor
Lamp Burnout Factor = 1 - Percentage of Lamps Allowed to Fail Without Being Replaced
Zonal Cavity Method (determining cavity ratios)

Room Cavity Ratio (for regular rooms shaped like a square or rectangle) = [5 x
Room Cavity Depth x (Room Length + Room Width)] ÷ (Room Length x Room
Width)
Room Cavity Ratio (for irregular-shaped rooms) = (2.5 x Room Cavity Depth x
Perimeter) ÷ Area in Square Feet

Ceiling Cavity Ratio = [5 x Ceiling Cavity Depth x (Room Length x Room Width)]
÷ (Room Length x Room Width)
Floor Cavity Ratio = [5 x Floor Cavity Depth x (Room Length x Room Width)] ÷
Room Length x Room Width
Room surface reflectances can be predicted in a new design or measured in an existing
facility. If existing facility:
Room Surface Reflectance (%) = Reflected Reading ÷ Incident Reading
Reflected Reading = Measurement from a light meter holding it about 1.5 feet away
from the surface with the sensor parallel and facing the surface.
Incident Reading = Measurement from a light meter held flat against the surface and
facing out into the room.
Calculating Number of Lamps and Fixtures and Spacing

Required No. of Fixtures = (Lumens/Lamp x No. of Lamps x Coefficient of Utilization x
Light Loss Factor x Area in Square Feet) ÷ (Lumens/Lamp x Lamps/Fixture x Coefficient of
Utilization x Light Loss Factor)
Required Lamps = Required Lumens ÷ Initial Lumens/Lamp
Maximum Allowable Spacing Between Fixtures= Fixture Spacing Criteria x Mounting
Height
Mounting height: Distance in feet between the bottom of the fixture and the
workplane
Spacing Between Fixtures = Square Root of (Area in Square Feet ÷ Required No. of
Fixtures)
Number of Fixtures to be Placed in Each Row (Nrow) = Room Length ÷ Spacing
Number of Fixtures to be Placed in Each Column (Ncolumn) = Room Width ÷ Spacing
For the above two formulas, round results to the nearest whole integer.
Spacing row = Room Length ÷ (Number of Fixtures/Row - 1/3)

Spacing column = Room Width ÷ (Number of Fixtures/Column -1/3)
If the resulting number of fixtures does not equal the originally calculated number,
calculate impact on the designed light level:
% Design Light Level = Actual No. of Fixtures ÷ Originally Calculated No. of Fixtures
To calculate fixtures mounted in continuous rows:

Number of Luminaires in a Continuous Row = (Room Length ÷ Fixture Length) - 1
Number of Continuous Rows = Total Number of Fixtures ÷ Fixtures Per Row
MAINTENANCE
Lamp Life
Calendar Lamp Life (Years) = Rated Lamp Life (Hours) ÷ Annual Hours of Operation
(Hours/Year)
Lamp Burnout Factor

Lamp Burnout Factor = 1 - Percentage of Lamps Allowed to Fail Without Being Replaced
Group Relamping Cost

Annualized Cost ($) = A x (B + C)
A = Operating Hours/Year ÷ Operating Hours Between Relampings
B = (Percentage of Lamps Failing Before Group Relamping x Number of Lamps) x (Lamp
Cost + Labor Cost to Spot Replace 1 Lamp)
C = (Lamp Cost, Group Relamping + Labor Cost to Group Relamp 1 Lamp) x Number of
Lamps
Spot Relamping
Cost
Average Annual
Cost (ETB) =
(Operating Hours/
Year ÷ Rated
Lamp Life) x
(Lamp Cost +
Labor Cost to
Replace 1 Lamp) x
Total Number of
Lamps

Ar. Lght-Light and Architecture

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Ar. Lght-Light and Architecture

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Page 60 LIGHT AND ARCHITECTURE

Light Bries-soleil penetration of light bright white kaleidoscope

Light, Form and Space

The centralized space of the

Romanesque churches, on the other hand, the light at

Gothic architecture celebrates more than any other

Light, Form and Space

Space and Light: the minimalist approach

Artificial Light and Form

Internal Area Illumination Incident Daylight Luminance Visual Task

Criteria Daylight Artificial light

composition Visible band of electromagnetic radiation between ultra-violet and

Unit of measurement Percentage of daylight Luminous flux

source Sunlight Gas, electricity

color Perceived as white, therefore Fluorescent—highlights cool col-

Advantages free Costly, specially if lighting design

Disadvantages Limited use Always available

General requirements for daylight illumination of internal areas

Position of the sun

Seasons of the year: northern hemisphere

Azimuth and angle of elevation

Comparative Analysis of Natural and Artificial Light

Solar position diagrams

Solar azimuth and elevation

Projection of the solar path

Solar position, clock time and determination of time

Illuminance, level of reflection, color rendering and glare

Measures used to vary the uniformity can be influenced by:

Shadow is desirable to a certain degree. Measures required for a three-

Measures for appropriate shading

1. incident daylight on the lower edge of

General requirements for artificial illumination of

Calculation of point illuminance level

Daylight Sky Component Internally Reflective Component

The Daylight Zone

Components of daylight reading of a reference point in a room:

Suggested Room Surface Reflectance

Ways to introduce natural light into a building:

2. top lighting – includes the use of skylights, roof

3. core lighting uses atriums and light wells

Perimeter Lighting / Sidelighting (windows or glazed wall areas)

daylight and sunlight to the ceiling using

B. Typically for office buildings, the first 15’ depth in

C. Configuration due to side lighting: In

In temperate climates, large window

Heat rising up the face of a building should be able to escape

Awning keeps sun’s rays

Partly angled sunblind Sloping awning with verti-

Internal Venetian blind: sun

Roller shutter External louvered blind

1.balcony or window ledge

daylight penetration, creates shading near the

Where occupied areas occur directly below roofs,

South-facing clearstories provide illumination levels approximately equal to skylights of the

General Types of Toplighting

2. Clerestory Window is vertical

3. Roof Monitor consists of a flat roof section raised

4. Sawtooth Roof is an old design often seen in industrial

Daylight Redirection Systems

2. prisms can be used to achieve a desired selection of radiation a n d

Ceiling design for light redirection

1. Elaborate the advantages of using natural light instead of artificial light.

2. Compute for the light penetration in a room

Effective Aperture Daylight Factor Desirable Illumination Level