TPS 7.2.1.

Frequency Multiplication

by K. Breidenbach

Revised and updated edition

October 1998
“The sensitive electronics of the equipment contained in the present experiment litera-
ture can be impaired due to the discharge of static electricity. Consequently, electro-
static build up should be avoided (particularly by utilizing appropriate rooms) or
eliminated by discharging (e.g. at the panel frames or similar).”
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Table of Contents

Measurement Procedures
1 Practical Information on the Experiments ............................................................... 5
1.1 The Oscilloscope ....................................................................................................... 5
1.2 The Spectrum Analyzer ............................................................................................ 7
1.3 Measurement Assembly ........................................................................................... 9

TPS 7.2.1.1 Frequency Multiplication

1 An Analog Method of Frequency Multiplication ................................................. 13
2 Frequency Synthesis, PLL ...................................................................................... 19

Solutions .................................................................................................................. 25

Appendix ................................................................................................................. 37

3
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Measurement Procedures
1 Practical Information on the Experiments
In Sections 1.1 - 1.3 some fundamental questions
are dealt with so that the experiments in the fol-
lowing chapters can be conducted more easily.
These chapters may be omitted by students whose
knowledge is sufficiently advanced.
1.1 The Oscilloscope
The oscilloscope is one of the most important
measuring instruments used in electrical engi-
neering and electronics. It is used to graphically
display voltages u(t) with respect to time and can
thus be regarded as a 2-dimensional voltmeter.
The signal is represented in the form of cartesian
coordinates with the abscissa (x-axis) usually rep-
resenting the time scale and the y-axis the voltage
scale, e.g. msec./Div. and V/Div., see Fig. 1.1-1.
There are, of course, other voltage measuring in-
struments such as the moving coil meter and the
digital voltmeter and one can ask why, then, the
oscilloscope should be so indispensable for volt-
age measurement. The answer lies in the fact that
normal pointer meters or digital meters are only
suitable for measuring voltages that have a de-
fined voltage – time curve. They can normally
only be used to measure DC or harmonic AC volt-
ages. Each time a non-sinusoidal voltage is mea-
sured with such an instrument, an incorrect
reading results. However, for known signal curves
the incorrect reading can be converted using a
correction factor. Naturally, for this the corre-
sponding form factor of the signal must be
known. If the signal curve is unknown, then a
voltage measurement can only be carried out us-
ing an oscilloscope. Here, we must distinguish
between two cases:
1. The voltage signal to be measured is non-sinu-
soidal, but periodic with a “high” frequency.
The oscilloscope is operated here in repeating
real-time mode. This is the mode which is most
often used. The principle is simple and will be
dealt with here only briefly, since it is assumed
that the student is already familiar with it. A saw-
tooth generator is started each time the periodic
signal to be measured exceeds a level (trigger
level), which can be set. This generator produces
1.1
Fig 1.1-1: The function of the oscilloscope
A : Amplitude window
T : Time window
a voltage which is strictly linear with respect to
time. This voltage operates as the horizontal de-
flector in a cathode-ray tube. The saw-tooth gen-
erator is a component of the time base. The
vertical deflection is controlled by the measured
signal itself. This results in a stationary represen-
tation of the voltage signal on the screen when the
trigger is functioning correctly. It is interesting to
note that the screen displays only a small part of
the signal curve. When the time base is set at e.g.
T = 1 µs/Div. and the screen has a grid of ten divi-
sions, then a “picture window” of duration
T = 10 · 1 ms = 10 ms is formed on the screen. In
real-time operation, the oscilloscope has, there-
fore, a slow-motion function. Processes which are
much too fast to be observed by the human eye
can be made visible.
2. The voltage signal to be measured is either not
periodic, or has a very long period.
The oscilloscope must then be operated in storage
mode.
Note:
It is not practical, within the scope of this book, to
give more than general guidelines about the use of
the oscilloscope. Please take definite setting in-
structions from the manufacturer’s operating in-
structions. With reference to the experiments
described in this book, it is recommended to use a
low-cost storage oscilloscope with 2 channels and
5
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Measurement Procedures 1.1

a bandwidth of 20 MHz. All the experiments have examples. The experiments can, however, to a
been carried out using such a device (LD Cat. No. great extent, be carried out using only a purely
575 29) and produced the results given here in the real-time oscilloscope.

Fig. 1.2-1: Construction of a spectrum analyzer

A: Signal path (amplitude section) B: Oscillator section
 Input amplifier/attenuator V1 $ VCO
Mixer % Saw-tooth generator
! Band filter C: Display unit
" Rectifier
# Output amplifier V2

6
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Measurement Procedures
1.2 The Spectrum Analyzer
The Spectrum Analyzer
Signals can be equally validly described in terms
of their spectrum as well as in terms of their
behaviour with respect to time. Spectrum or fre-
quency analyzers are used in measurement tech-
nology for the recording of signal spectra. These
analyzers operate either in digital mode using
mathematical algorithms such as e.g. the fast Fou-
rier transformation (FFT) or in analog as filter
banks or sweep analyzers. The latter principle is
realised in the spectrum analyzer, training panel
726 94 and should, thus, be investigated more
closely.
The analyzer is made up of a signal path (ampli-
tude component) A, an oscillator component B
and an indicating unit C (see Fig. 1.2-1). The har-
monic signal supplied by the VCO is fed into the
mixer together with the input signal. Depending
on the spectral quality of the input signal and the
oscillator frequency, an IF signal which lies ex-
actly in the pass range of the band filter appears at
the mixer output . The AC voltage signal at the
output of the band filter is produced for various
spectral components in the input signal at corre-
spondingly different frequencies of the VCO. If
the VCO frequency is linearly dependent on its
control voltage, then it can be used for the X de-
flection of a cathode ray tube (or an XY-recorder).
In this way, the X axis also receives a linear fre-
quency division. The desired frequency-depen-
dent amplitude representation of the input signal
is displayed on the monitor when the VCO varies,
if, after rectification and corresponding amplifica-
tion, the output voltage of the band filter is con-
nected to the Y deflection of the beam tube (or
XY-recorder). Therefore, the spectrum analyzer
represents a process of the well-known super-
heterodyne principle used in radio technology,
whereby the band filter can be regarded as a spec-
tral window. The position of this window within
the frequency range is determined by the VCO
frequency. The width of the window is deter-
mined by the selected bandwidth of the band pass
filter.
When the VCO sweeps the set frequency span, the
center position of the spectral window is corre-
1.2
spondingly shifted along with it. The principle of
the operation of the spectrum analyzer is shown in
Fig. 1.2-2. Its assembly is shown in Fig. 1.2-1.
The Time Rule of Electrical Telecommunications
Technology
When using analyzers according to the sweep fil-
ter principle, one of the most fundamental laws of
electrical engineering must be taken into consid-
eration. According to the time rule of telecommu-
nications technology, the transient response of a
low-pass filter system to a voltage jump becomes
all the longer, the smaller its bandwidth b is. This
is also true for band pass filters. If pulses of very
short duration are to be transmitted via a low-pass
filter (LP) then the output signal of the LP needs
more time to reach the pulse amplitude, the
smaller the bandwidth b of the filter is. The time
law of electrical telecommunications technology
is similar to the uncertainty principle in atomic
physics. It states that it is impossible to decrease
the duration of a signal as well as the bandwidth
of the transmission channel for that signal at the
same time. When tuning the VCO, the mixer out-
put signal is all the longer in the pass range of the
following band pass filter (BP), the slower the
Fig. 1.2-2: The principle of the spectrum analyzer
A: Amplitude transfer function of the bandpass
(spectral window) with bandwidth b.
The centre frequency of the BP shifts
with V = SPAN/T.
B: Arbitrary signal spectrum
7
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Measurement Procedures 1.2

Fig. 1.2-3 The time rule of electrical communications technology.

A: Input signal Pulse with duration T and amplitude a
B: Transmission channels with LP character fg1 < fg2
C: Output signals

change in frequency of the VCO is. The change in Where

frequency based on the time unit depends on: fmax : maximum frequency
1. The period T of the saw-tooth generator fmin : minimum frequency
(SCAN TIME) b : bandwidth of the filter
2. The absolute frequency range (SPAN) T : saw-tooth period SCAN-TIME
through which the VCO passes. The difference fmax – fmin is called frequency
SPAN.
If, for example, a spectrum analysis has to be car- Examples:
ried out in a wide frequency range and, in addition 1. SPAN = 200 kHz
to this, a very short saw-tooth period is selected, T = 1/25 s
then a very large change in frequency per time b = 10,000 Hz.
unit is the result. The mixer output signal passes Compare the adjustment possibilities of the spec-
the center frequency of the BP correspondingly trum analyzer 726 94. Using a real time oscillo-
quickly. According to the time rule, the bandwidth scope you can display the spectrum with
of the BP must now be selected “sufficiently” b = 10,000 Hz and SPAN = 200 kHz!
large, if the BP is to build up to the input ampli- The spectral resolution is:
tude, see Fig. 1.2-3. The spectral resolution capa- R = 20,
bility of the analyzer drops with a large bandwidth in other words: 20 spectral lines could theoreti-
of the BP. For this reason, the application of the cally be distinguished.
spectrum analyzer requires a constant compro- 2. SPAN = 1,000 Hz
mise between the spectral RESOLUTION and T = 20 s
fault-free amplitude reproduction. For the rela- ⇒ b = 33 Hz
tionship between SCAN-TIME T, bandwidth b ⇒ R = 30.
and the frequency window SPAN the following For a display on the oscilloscope we require a
approximation is valid: storage oscilloscope.
20
b= ( f max − f min ) Eq. 1.2-1
T

8
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Measurement Procedures
1.3 Measurement Assembly
Preliminary note
Here, an introductory investigation of the spec-
trum and the time curve of a symmetrical square-
wave is made. This is done in order to practice the
handling of the equipment of the complete mea-
surement set-up which is used in the following
experiments. By complete measurement set-up
we always mean the equipment which is required
to permit the investigation of signals in the time
and spectral domains. This means that such a
work place always consists of a spectrum ana-
lyzer, oscilloscope and counter. The measurement
assembly is also a part of the experiment set-up.
The analyzer and the counter are connected to-
gether as a single unit. Therefore, it initially mea-
sures the VCO frequency of the analyzer (toggle
switch in position TTL, rotary switch to freq. A).
If frequency measurements are carried out at other
measurement points, the bridging plug connection
between counter and analyzer is to be removed if
necessary, or the analog input of the counter is to
be used after actuation of the toggle switch.
Equipment:
1 Function generator
0...200 kHz/230 V 726 96
1 Power supply unit ±15 V, 3 A 726 861
1 Spectrum analyzer 726 94
1 Frequency counter 0...10 MHz 726 99
1 Multimeter M3E 531 57
1 Oscilloscope HM 205/2 575 29
2 Probes 10:1 (switchable) 575 231
1 XY Recorder optional 575 662
1 Set of bridging plugs 501 511
1 Set of connecting leads 500 414
Objectives:
The student should:
– attain practice in handling the equipment.
– recognize the effect of the time law of elec-
trical communications technology on prac-
tical measurement.
– recognize the structure of line spectra.
Experiment procedure
– Assemble the experiment according to plug-
in diagram MP-1.
1.3
– Using the frequency counter and the oscillo-
scope, set a square-wave signal with an am-
plitude AR = 5 V and a frequency fR = 2 kHz
on the function generator. The TTL A input
of the frequency counter must remain con-
nected to the analyzer by means of bridging
plugs. Testing the signal frequency fR takes
place via connecting leads, and, after switch-
over of the counter, via the analog input.
1. Draw the true-to-scale curve with respect to
time of the square-wave signal.
2. Record the spectrum of the square wave sig-
nal in the frequency range of approx.
1.5 kHz...20 kHz. The experiment is divided
into Points 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3. However, first
read the following notes on using the spec-
trum analyzer. The terms used are the same
as in Section 1.2.
Operating instructions for the spectrum
analyzer
A. Setting the signal path
It is advantageous to set the gains V1, V2 as high
as possible, as this increases the sensitivity of the
signal path. However, avoid overdriving your sys-
tem (indicated when the LED OVER lights up).
B. Setting the oscillator section
Important operating instructions for the frequency
tuning can be derived from the time law of elec-
trical communications engineering.
The VCO of the spectrum analyzer is controlled
by the saw-tooth generator. The amplitude and
scan time of the latter are set using the control el-
ements SCAN-MODE (fmin, fmax) and SCAN-
TIME. The choice of the correct run time must
be based on the time law and can, therefore, not
be fixed. It is dependent on both the chosen
bandwidth b/Hz and on the frequency window
SPAN = fmax – fmin. In your own experiments use
either Eq. 1.2-1 or trial and error. The LD experi-
ment instructions always offer corresponding set-
ting notes.
Setting the frequency window (SPAN)
First, the lower frequency limit is set. This is car-
ried out in SCAN-MODE fmin with the corre-
9
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Measurement Procedures
sponding control. Then, the upper frequency limit
is set in SCAN-MODE fmax. The frequencies can
be read from the connected counter. Here,
SPAN = fmax – fmin holds true.
Starting the analyzer
In SCAN-MODE RUN, the VCO will now sweep
the set frequency range once. An LED indicates
when the upper frequency limit has been reached.
The VCO stops at fmax, so that an inadvertent over-
writing of the spectrum is avoided when the XY
recorder is used. For the same reason, a premature
reset of the VCO to fmin during the sweep cycle is
also not possible. Reset in RUN-mode is, therefore,
only possible after fmax has been reached. However,
should one desire to interrupt the spectrum record-
ing during the sweep cycle, which can last up to
160 s, because e.g. one notices at an early stage that
Plug-in diagram MP-1
10
1.3
set parameters must be changed, this is only pos-
sible in SCAN-MODE STOP. In this mode, the
locking of the RESET function is cancelled. In ad-
dition, the analyzer can be operated manually in
this setting by means of a toggle switch. The setting
UP of the toggle switch makes the VCO run in the
direction fmax, while the button setting DOWN re-
duces the frequency. When fmax has been reached,
the analyzer carries out an automatic zero balance
(Auto-Zero). During the Auto-Zero phase, the in-
put signal is switched off internally.
Note:
Since the XY recorder cannot be used for a sweep
period T = 1/25 s (see C), the set frequency span
is here repeatedly swept in RUN-MODE. This
makes it possible to use the spectrum analyzer
also as a sweep generator.
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Measurement Procedures
C. Connection of the display unit
External measurement instruments are used as
display units.
1. Analog voltmeter
2. XY recorder
3. Storage oscilloscope
Special features of the different display units for
the experiment procedures are closely dealt with
in more detail under Points 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3.
2.1 Application of the spectrum analyzer as a
frequency selective voltmeter (advantageous
for quantative measurements).
Connect an analog voltmeter, 10 V DC, to
the analyzer output (see plug-in diagram
MP-1).
A. Setting the signal path
V1 =1
V2 = 2, 5, 10
V2 is matched to the magnitude of the re-
spective spectral line and selected as large
as possible.
b = 500 Hz.
B. Setting the oscillator section
Frequency range fr : 20 kHz
SPAN = fmax – fmin : 20 kHz...500 Hz approx.
SCAN-TIME T : 20 s
– Now, record the spectrum of the square-
wave signal by starting the VCO in SCAN
MODE RUN. In the range of spectral en-
ergy, the output signal shows a short dip.
Stop the VCO in SCAN-MODE STOP and
control it UP/DOWN around the spectral
line in manual operation using the
pushbutton UP/DOWN. In manual opera-
tion, the VCO runs with a fixed scan time of
T = 640 s when the pushbutton is actuated.
Stop the scanning process when you find a
spectral line. You then have time to read the
spectral amplitude S(n) from the voltmeter.
Enter these amplitude values S(n), the sweep
indices n and the corresponding frequencies
f in Table 1. Also note down there the
analyzer settings. This should always be
done, as it allows you to check your meas-
urement results by calculation at a later date.
Draw a graph of the spectrum.
2.2 Automatic operation of the spectrum
analyzer with the XY-recorder
Connect the spectrum analyzer as shown in
plug-in diagram MP-1.
1.3
The X+ input of the recorder is connected to
the X socket of the analyzer, while the Y+
input is connected to the analyzer’s output.
The recorder inputs X– and Y– are con-
nected to each other and to ground. Both
axes of the recorder must be calibrated. The
X-axis is set to fmax, and the Y-axis is
matched to the greatest spectral amplitude.
You may need to practice this procedure
first. It is sensible to calibrate the recorder
so that the spectrum you are looking for is
reproduced in a size which conforms to your
recorder paper.
A. Setting the signal path
V1/2 = 1
In automatic operation, switching over the gain V2
during the scan process does not improve the mea-
surement results.
b = 500 Hz.
B. Setting the oscillator section
Frequency range fr : 20 kHz
SPAN = fmax – fmin : 20 kHz...500 Hz approx.
SCAN-TIME T : 160 s
The analyzer cycle is started when the unit is
switched to SCAN-MODE RUN. Record the
spectrum in scan mode RUN. Do not forget to
lower the pen (Pen Down). Unlike manual opera-
tion, the scan procedure is not stopped, but rather
carried out to the end in RUN mode.
2.3 Using the storage oscilloscope as a display
unit.
We are using plug-in diagram MP-1 again
here.
Set the analyzer as when using the XY-re-
corder. Set the scan time to, e.g.
T = 20 s, T = 40 s.
The easiest way to proceed is to record the
spectra with the storage oscilloscope in
ROLL mode. This eliminates the difficulties
of triggering. The storage time base is set so
that the period is greater than or equal to the
SCAN TIME set at the analyzer. The
analyzer output is connected to the Y-input
of the storage oscilloscope. Try to optimize
your use of the screen area for displaying
the spectra by selecting a suitable Y-gain.
When the spectrum you are looking for is
displayed completely on the screen, you can
cancel the ROLL function by pressing the
button marked SINGLE. The contents of the
screen are then “frozen”. If the spectrum is
11
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Measurement Procedures 1.3

to be stored long-term, it is recommended

that the memory contents be saved with the Signal: Analyzer:
HOLD function. Draw the spectrum in a AR = V V1 =
diagram. f0 = Hz b = Hz
fr = kHz
3. Check the time law of electrical communi- T = s
cations technology. Use either an XY-re- SPAN :
corder or a storage oscilloscope as a display
unit. Repeat Experiment 2 using the follow- Measurement Theory
ing settings: f S(n) SR(n) SR(n)
n V2
b = 100 Hz / 10 Hz kHz V V V
T =  5 s, 40 s, 160 s
What do you observe?

4. Describe the envelope curve of the spectrum

of a symmetrical square-wave signal? Draw
the curve you expect as a dotted line in dia-
gram 1. What general statement can you
make about the spectrum?

12
 TPS 7.2.1.1
1 An Analog Method of Frequency Multiplication
Equipment:
1 Power supply ±15V, 3 A
1 Frequency counter 0 - 10 MHz
1 Function generator
0 ... 200 kHz/230 V
1 Spectrum analyzer
1 Frequency multiplier
1 Oscilloscope
2 Experimentierkabel 100 cm
1 Analog-Multimeter C. A. 406
2 Probes, switchable 10:1
2 Sets of bridging plugs
1 Frame
Objectives
1. Understanding systems with non-linear
characteristics
2. Linear and non-linear distortions
3. Principle of analog frequency multiplication
Theoretical background
There is generally a complicated relation between
the input and the output signal for a non-linear
quadrupole. This can be described by a curved
characteristic. An example of a non-linear qua-
drupole is a transistor at a high control level. The
response of the transistor becomes clear through
consideration of the 4-quadrant characteristics
field (Fig. 1-1). This is, for example, based on an
amplifier in a common emitter according to
Fig. 1-2.
Fig. 1-1:  The 4-quadrant characteristics field
Frequency Multiplication 1
The 4-quadrant characteristics field is the joint
726 86 representation of 4 characteristics:
726 99 1st Quadrant (I) : Output characteristics
field
726 96 2nd Quadrant (II) : Current transfer
726 94 characteristic
736 25 3rd Quadrant (III) : Input characteristic
531 29 4th Quadrant (IV) : Voltage reaction
500 444 (not drawn)
531 16 The operating point (OP) of the transistor is deter-
575 231 mined using the base potential dividers R1 and R2.
501 511 The controlling signal u1(t) is superpositioned on
the bias voltage. Consequently, the resulting tran-
sistor base-emitter voltage UBE also takes on the
curve form u1(t) with respect to time. From the
input characteristic, we can see that the corre-
sponding base current IB has a curve which devi-
ates from u1(t). The distortions occurring in the
base current are dependent on the position of the
operating point on the input characteristic and on
the level of control caused by the input signal. As
a current controlled component, the bipolar tran-
sistor converts base current variations into corre-
sponding variations of the collector current with a
current gain factor β. The variations in the curve
of the collector current produce voltage variations
across the load resistor RL which are decoupled
via capacitor C2. There is, therefore, an amplified
voltage u2(t) across C2, whose curve with respect
to time deviates from the controlling signal u1(t).
If the controlling signal is harmonic and periodic
with period T0, the output signal has the same pe-
riod of oscillation, but is non-harmonic (dis-
torted). The output signal can, therefore, be
Fig. 1-2:  Transistor amplifier in common emitter
13
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Frequency Multiplication 1

The power series contains an infinite number

of components of increasing powers. As long as
u1/uT ≤ 1, the following approximation holds:
I B ( UB + UB )

U  u1 
= I B 0 exp.  B  1 +  Eq. 1-3
 UT  uT 
  

In this case, the transistor operates as a linear

amplifier.
Fig. 1-3: The input characteristic For larger input voltages u1, ever more compo-
nents of higher orders in the series expansion
must be taken into consideration. Even the quad-
ratic component has a frequency multiplying or
subjected to Fourier analysis. Spectral component modulating effect. (See advance question 6). In
frequencies which are an integral multiple of the general, if a characteristic of the nth degree is con-
fundamental frequency f0 = 1/T0 are expected in trolled with a harmonic signal of frequency f0, fre-
the spectrum of the distorted output signal. The quency multiplication up to the nth multiple of the
structure of the output spectrum is largely depen- input frequency f0 is obtained in addition to sum
dent on the choice of OP, on the input characteris- and difference frequencies.
tic and the degree of control. An exponential input
characteristic form is assumed for a quantitative Note: Up until now, our discussion has been
investigation. The input characteristic is repre- limited to the exponential characteristic
sented in Fig. 1-3. Let us assume that it has an ex- of the base-emitter junction in the for-
ponential curve form given by Eq. 1-1: ward direction. The transition from the
forward range to the blocking range caus-
 U +u  es an additional strong non-linearity in
I B = I B0 exp.  B 1
 Eq. 1-1
 uT  the characteristic; we will see in the fol-
  lowing experiment that this to a large ex-
IB : Base current tent accounts for the harmonic compo-
IB0 : Bias current at OP nent.
UB : Base bias voltage
u1 : Input voltage The Frequency Multiplier
uT : Temperature voltage The operating point (OP) of the transistor is fixed
The characteristic described by Eq. 1-1 can be ex- in the range 0 ≤ UB ≤ 0.7 V by the base bias volt-
panded around the OP using a Taylor series: age. The angle of current flow of the emitter cur-
rent is controlled by the choice of the operating
I B ( UB + U B ) point. In some cases the transistor is only con-
trolled briefly by the input signal if the base bias
U  u  current is small. The input characteristic sup-
1
= I B 0 exp.  B  exp.  
 UT   uT  presses the negative input voltages completely,
   
and distorts positive input voltages to a greater or
U   lesser extent. In each case, spectral components of
u1 u2 u3
= I B0 exp.  B  1 + + 1 2 + 13 + ... a higher order occur in the emitter current (collec-
 uT  uT 2uT 6uT  tor current). The resulting harmonic oscillations
  
are selected according to frequency using an anti-
Eq. 1-2 resonant circuit.

14
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Frequency Multiplication
When the frequency multiplier is in operation,
the oscillating circuit is fixed to the frequency
f0 = 100 kHz. The selection of the desired har-
monics is carried out by changing the frequency
f1 of the input signal.
Example:
Harmonics with frequencies:
fn  =  nf1 n  =  1, 2, 3..
can be expected for f1 = 10 kHz when a suitable
choice of the OP and the amplitude of the input
signal is made.
Thus, the oscillating circuit tuned to
f10 = 10 f1 = 100 kHz selects the 10th harmonic.
Fig. 1-4:  Frequency multiplier
1
For the arrangement of the voltages in the fre-
quency multiplier, see Fig. 1-4. Here:
U1 : Input voltage
UE : Voltage across the emitter resistor
UC : Voltage between collector and ground
U2 : Output voltage
Due to unavoidable characteristics dispersion,
amplitude measurements using different devices
may vary. This is unimportant and does not affect
the student’s ability to understand the experiment.
15
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Frequency Multiplication 1

Plug-in diagram 1-1

Advance Questions Experiment procedure

– Assemble the experiment according to plug-
1. What properties does the output signal of a
in diagram 1-1.
non-linear system have when a harmonic,
1. Investigate the output signal U2 (transformer
periodic signal (e.g. sinusoidal) is fed into
output) for the occurrence of harmonics in
its input?
relation to the OP and the control signal U1.
2. How are non-linear distortions character- 1.1 Input voltage U1 sinusoidal, 100 kHz, (50-100)
ised? mVPP, operating point set to right limit.
3. Distinguish between linear and non-linear - Display the output signal U2 (10:1 probe
distortions. must be used) and the input signal U1 on the
4. Draw, in the 4-quadrant characteristics field oscilloscope. Oscilloscope settings:
of a transistor in common emitter, the signal TB: 20 ms/Div., Y1, Y2: matched to the cor-
curve for a high sinusoidal control level. responding signal size.
What happens to the output signal? – Adjust the frequency of the resonance cir-
5. What is the total harmonic distortion of a cuit until U2 reaches a maximum. For fine
transistor current dependent on? tuning: U1 and U2 must have a phase-shift of
6. The transfer characteristic of a pn-FET has a 180°.
quadratic curve for UGS ≥ UP. – Now, change the amplitude of the input sig-
nal U1 so that the output signal U2 is almost
  
2  10 VPP. (This typically requires a voltage
U U1 ≈ 60 mVPP.)
ID = I 0  1 −  GS  
  U P 
  Draw the voltages U1 and U2 for the fre-
  quency multiplier, which has been tuned to
Ignoring the fixed component I0, we have: the input signal in the described manner.
2 Why does a phase shift of 180° occur when
U  the frequency adjustment is exact? How
ID ≈ − I 0  GS  large is the resonance impedance of the os-
 UP 
  cillating circuit when the emitter resistance
RE is 330 Ω?
What happens when UGS is the sum of two har- Starting with this pre-setting, now change
monic signals s1(t) and s2(t)?) only the frequency f1 of the input signal U1.
s1 ( t ) = A1 cos( 2 π f1 t ) Set the following frequencies one after the
other:
s 2 ( t ) = A2 cos( 2 π f 2 t )

16
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Frequency Multiplication 1

f1 = 100.0 kHz – Vary the frequency of the resonance circuit

f1 = 50.0 kHz until U2 reaches a maximum.
f1 = 33.3 kHz – Now alter the amplitude of the input signal
f1 = 25.0 kHz U1 so that the output signal U2 is 10 Vpp (you
f1 = 20.0 kHz will usually need a voltage of
f1 = 16.6 kHz U1 ≈ 1200 mVpp).
f1 = 14.3 kHz Determine the amplitude and frequency of
f1 = 12.5 kHz the output signal U2 as a function of the fre-
f1 = 11.1 kHz quency of the input signal U1. Once again
f1 = 10.0  kHz carry out your measurements for the same
Measure the amplitude and frequency of the frequency settings of the input signal listed
output signal U2 and enter the values into in 1.1:
Table 1. Use Table 3.
Draw the curve of the output signal for
Note: The measurements become much f1 = 20 kHz and for f1 = 16.6 kHz.
easier to make when, after f1 has been set,
the resonance circuit is carefully reset. 2. Connect the output of the frequency multi-
plier to the input of the spectrum analyzer,
1.2 Sinusoidal input voltage, i.e. connect the spectrum analyzer in parallel
100 kHz, (500...800)  mVPP, operating point to the oscilloscope. Recalibrate the spectrum
setting control to center position analyzer as described under Point 1.3. To
– Again display signals U1 and U2 on the os- obtain U2 = 10 Vpp you will need an input
cilloscope. signal U1 ≈ 1700 mVpp.
– Adjust the frequency of the resonance cir- Set the frequency of the input signal to
cuit until U2 reaches a maximum. f1 = 20 kHz.
– Now change the amplitude of the input sig- Record the following spectra in a purely
nal U1 so that the output signal U2 is 10 Vpp qualitative manner (in this case, the storage
(you will usually need a voltage of oscilloscope or the XY-recorder is used as
U1 ≈ 600 mVpp). the display unit, cf. Chapter 1.3)
Once again, determine the amplitude and 1. The spectrum SU2 of the output voltage U2
frequency of the output signal U2 as a func- 2. The spectrum SU1 of the input signal U1.
tion of the frequency of the input signal U1. The spectrum analyzer must be connected in
Carry out your measurements for the same parallel with the input of the frequency mul-
frequency settings of the input signal listed tiplier for 2.
in 1.1: Analyzer settings:
Use Table 2. V1 = 10
Draw the curve of the output signal for V2 = 1
f1 = 33.3 kHz and for f1 = 25 kHz. Draw the b = 500 Hz
envelope curves in dotted lines. fr = 200 kHz
1.3 Sinusoidal input voltage, 100 kHz, SPAN : 5 kHz...110 kHz
(1000...1500)mVpp, T = 160 s
operating point setting control to full left de- Draw the spectra.
flection. 3. Interpret your results
– Display the signals U1 and U2 on the oscillo- Note:
scope again. The tables can be found in the appendix.

17
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Frequency Multiplication 1

18
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Frequency Multiplication
2 Frequency Synthesis, PLL
Equipment:
1 Power supply ±15 V, 3 A 726 86
1 Frequency counter 0...10 MHz 726 99
1 PLL frequency multiplier,
series 2 or better (see below) 736 26
1 Oscilloscope 531 29
2 Experimentierkabel 500 411
2 Probes, 10:1, switchable 575 231
1 Analog multimeter, e.g. 531 57
2 Sets of bridging plugs 501 511
1 Panel frame
Objectives:
The function and design of the phase-locked loop
(PLL)
Design of a frequency synthesizer
Note:
It is only possible to feed the bipolar signals of
the function generator to the phase detector with
series 2 or better; cf. Point 1 of the experiment
procedure.
1. PLL applications
Frequency multiplication can be carried out using
analog and digital methods. The analog method
utilizes the generation of harmonics from the con-
trol of a non-linear characteristic and subsequent
frequency selection (see Chapter 1). The result is
a harmonic output signal in the desired frequency
band which is relatively clean with respect to the
spectra. This method is used, for example, for fre-
quency conversion in transmitters.
The digital method of frequency multiplication
and frequency stabilization is referred to as fre-
quency synthesis. In this case, the output is gener-
ally a quartz-stabilized square-wave signal with a
frequency that is a whole or even rational multiple
of the fundamental frequency. Means of selection
such as those used in analog transmission meth-
ods are not required.
In this chapter we will carry out frequency synthe-
sis using a phase-locked loop (PLL). Its function
is to be examined in detail in the experiments. In
addition to frequency synthesis, PLL circuits are
also used in many technical areas. Some examples
are:
– Demodulator circuits
– Synchronisation circuits
2
– Speed control
– Tracking filters
We can see from this list that the PLL is particu-
larly “at home” in telecommunications technol-
ogy. There it is used, e.g. for picture
syncronization in TV sets. If this circuit should
fail, the TV world would degenerate into chaos.
Headless figures would run along the top of their
TV screen, their legs jerking helplessly; mean-
while, the missing heads, separated from their tor-
sos by a big black bar, would populate the bottom
of the screen. This well-known effect occurs
whenever there is a synchronization fault in the
vertical deflection. To ensure perfect reproduction
of the picture, the vertical deflection in the trans-
mitter and the receiver must coincide completely
with respect to frequency and phase.
A PLL is used to achieve the synchonization. It is
a control circuit which has the task of matching
the phase and frequency of an oscillator to a refer-
ence oscillation. In steady-state operation, the os-
cillator of the PLL will oscillate with the same
frequency as the reference signal. Depending on
the type of PLL, the phase shift will either be 0°
or 90°. In either case, the phase shift will not
change in time.
2. Design and function of the PLL
As the PLL is a control circuit, it can be explained
using block circuit diagrams such as are common
in control technology. The voltage-controlled os-
cillator (VCO) is the controlled loop, the phase
detector (PD) compares set and actual values, the
loop filter is the controller and actuator.
Steady-state operation of a PLL
Let us assume that an input signal s1(t) with the
frequency f1 (in terms of control technology, this
is the reference variable W) is applied to the phase
detector. The VCO will probably not be so
friendly as to oscillate at the same frequency right
away. Its frequency f2 will thus initially be differ-
ent from f1. Thus an AC voltage is present at the
output of the phase detector with a frequency
equal to f2 – f1. This AC voltage is then led to the
input of the VCO via the loop filter. The VCO
responds to an AC voltage at its input with a cor-
responding frequency change in its output signal.
19
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Frequency Multiplication
Fig. 2-1: Principle of the PLL
Loop filter
Phase detector
!VCO
Thus, the VCO is frequency-modulated by the AC
voltage. The changing frequency of the VCO is
immediately recognized by the phase detector PD.
If we are lucky, the VCO generates the “right”
frequency f1 for a brief moment. This causes a DC
voltage to appear at the PD output. This too is led
to the VCO via the loop filter, where it causes the
VCO to generate a fixed oscillation of the input
signal with the frequency f1. The VCO thus “locks
into” the frequency of the input signal. The con-
trol-circuit design of the PLL obviously ensures
that each deviation of the VCO frequency from
the input signal frequency results in an automatic
resetting of the VCO. The controller adjusts the
VCO until the VCO frequency again matches the
input frequency. The controlled loop exhibits in-
tegral behavior. For this reason even the smallest
of frequency differences leads in time to consider-
able phase shifts which control the VCO. The
phase shift Φ causes a voltage UΦ after the PD.
This is led to the input of the loop filter. The phase
shift Φ thus directly influences the DC control
voltage Uf of the VCO. There is normally a linear
relationship between Φ and the output voltage of
the PD:
UΦ = kΦΦ Eq. 2-1
Noise behavior of the PLL
In its locked state, the phase detector determines
the phase difference Φ between the VCO and the
reference signal. If the reference signal contains
noise, the phase difference will change stochasti-
20
2
cally, i.e. uncontrolled. The mean phase position,
however, remains constant. Noise superposi-
tioned on the wanted signal thus does not influ-
ence the PLL in the first approximation.
Dynamic behavior of the PLL
Up to now we have examined the PLL in steady-
state operation only. The reference signal has the
constant frequency f1, and the PLL was fortu-
nately able to lock into this frequency. In this
case, its task was to control minor disturbances. In
examining the dynamic behavior, we are inter-
ested in the ability of the PLL to lock into the ref-
erence signal at all, which, under certain
circumstances, can differ greatly in terms of fre-
quency when the unit is switched on. It is obvious
that it cannot accomplish this for every frequency.
The frequency range in which the frequency f1 of
the input signal (reference signal) must lie if the
PLL is to lock into it is called the capture range
of the PLL. The size of the capture range depends
on the time constant TI and the gain Ap of the loop
filter (controller). If the PLL has already locked
in, the VCO frequency f2 will follow the
frequency f1 of the input signal across a particular
range. The frequency range in which f1 may
change without the PLL reaching its tracking
limit is called the hold range. The hold range is
larger than, or at least as large as, the capture
range. It depends on the loop gain and the control
characteristic of the VCO.
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Frequency Multiplication 2

3. Components of the PLL

The function blocks of the PLL shown in Fig. 2-1
can be assembled with discrete parts or realized as
ICs. In the PLL-ICs commonly in use today
(e.g. CD4046, NE560), the loop filter is realized
in the form of a passive RC lowpass and must be
provided externally, while the other two compo-
nents, the VCO and the PD, are integrated on a
single common chip.
The VCO
At low frequencies, harmonic oscillators based on
two cascaded integrators and one inverter are
used. Triangular-square-wave generators or simi-
lar are equally possible. For higher frequencies,
emitter-coupled multivibrators or LC-oscillators
are preferred. The important thing to know about
a VCO is the control characteristic. This describes
the relationship between the input voltage Uf and
the output frequency f2 at the VCO. For a linear
control characteristic, we obtain a relationship
between f2 and Uf according to Eq. 2-2, where:
k : VCO constant (unit: Hz/V)
f0 : VCO zero-current frequency with no
control voltage present
f2  =   kUf + f0 Eq. 2-2
The phase detector
The behavior of the PLL is significantly deter-
mined by the phase detector. If the phase detector
is realized as a circuit in analog technology, e.g.
as a multiplier functioning as a synchronous recti-
fier, then the entire PLL is considered analog.
Digital PLLs have, for example, sample and hold
elements, EXOR gates or flip-flop circuits as
phase detectors. The simplest form of digital PD
is certainly the EXOR gate. It is comparable to an
overdriven multiplier circuit.
The loop filter
The type of loop filter used depends on the PD. If,
for example, it takes the form of a sample-and-
hold element, the output voltage changes in
jumps. For this reason, the loop filter will be de-
signed as a PI controller with no D-component. A
common controller circuit with PI characteristic is
shown in Fig. 2-2. This is a passive lowpass cir-
cuit. The P component Ap is formed by the voltage
Fig. 2-2:   Realizing a loop filter as a passive
PI controller
dividers R1 and R2. R1 and C are mainly respon-
sible for the time constant TI of the I component.
For R2 ≤ R1 the following is approximately true:
R2
AP = TI ≈ 2 π f R1 C Eq. 2-3
R1 + R2
If the P component is too large, the tendency of
the PLL to oscillate increases. Too large a time
constant makes the loop slow. The art of con-
structing an otherwise fully integrated PLL is in-
deed limited to the correct dimensioning of the
loop filter in many cases.
4. Frequency synthesis using the PLL
frequency multiplier
If a frequency divider with the divisor N2 is placed
between the VCO output and the PD, the VCO
locks into the frequency f2 = N2 f1. If an additional
voltage divider with a divisor of N1 is connected
between the input of the PLL and the second input
of the PD, the input frequency f1 is reduced by the
factor of this divisor. According to Fig. 2-3, the
following is true for the relationship between the
input frequency f1 and the VCO frequency f2:
f1 f2
=
N1 N2
Eq. 2-4
N2
f2 = f
N1 1

21
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Frequency Multiplication
Fig. 2-3: Principle of frequency synthesis
Thus, using this relationship, any quartz-stabi-
lized, rational frequency ratios can be derived
from a reference oscillation with the frequency f1.
The PLL frequency multiplier
The training panel contains the following mod-
ules:
1. Clock oscillator, square-wave output signal,
τ = 50%, f1 = 100 kHz, unipolar 0/+10 V.
2. Phase detector constructed as sample-and-
hold element.
3. Loop filter with PI characteristic (lowpass).
The P component is adjustable.
4. VCO
5. Adjustable frequency divider with
N2 = 2...10
Advance questions
1. Draw the function circuit diagram of a PLL.
What functions do the individual elements
have?
2. Name some possible ways of realizing a
VCO and a phase detector.
3. Describe the lock-in process. What is meant
by capture range and hold range?
4. How must the PLL circuit be expanded in
order to be able to use it for frequency syn-
thesis?
5. Where else are PLL circuits used?
Experiment procedure
Set up the experiment according to plug-in dia-
gram 2-1.
1. Record the control characteristic of the VCO
– Apply an external square-wave signal to
input 1 of the PD from the function genera-
tor with f1 = 100 kHz and 20 Vpp.
22
2
– Connect the VCO output directly to the
“lower” input of the PD using a bridging
plug.
Display the signal at the VCO output on
your oscilloscope. Use the corresponding
control to adjust the loop filter so that the
PLL locks in.
The PLL is locked in when the VCO out-
put signal has a symmetrical duty cycle
and has approximately stationary slopes.
– Measure the VCO frequency using the
counter (toggle switch in position: ANA-
LOG). Connect the multimeter to the VCO
input and set the range to 3 V DC. Note
each value for the VCO frequency f2 and
control voltage Uf in Table 1. You must
vary the frequency f1 of the input signal in
the range from 20 kHz...200 kHz in steps
of approx. 20 kHz..
Note: The equation f1 = f2 is valid only when the
VCO is constantly locked in. Sketch the
graph of the control characteristic, i.e. f1
versus Uf.
What happens when you disconnect the
function generator?
2. Investigate the tracking behavior of the
PLL. You can vary the input frequency,
among other means, by switching the fre-
quency decade on the function generator.
Observe whether the locked-in PLL loses its
synchronization; in other words, draw your
conclusions regarding the hold range.
Test whether the PLL is able to lock into the
respective input frequency. In doing so, you
are investigating the capture range of the
PLL. To do this, it is necessary to briefly
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Frequency Multiplication
break the connection between the function
generator and the PD. Vary the input fre-
quency as much as is necessary or possible.
Note:
You may need to adjust the loop.
3. Replace the function generator with the
clock generator of the training panel. Using
the oscilloscope, display the signals at the
two inputs of the PD: Y1,2: 0.5 V/Div.,
TB: 2 ms/Div. Adjust the PLL again until it
locks in. Measure the frequency f1 of the
quartz oscillator. Draw the input signal and
the VCO output signal (the two oscilloscope
signals) in a diagram. What do you observe?
4. Use your oscilloscope to display the curves
of the signals at the VCO input and VCO
output. Draw these signals in a diagram.
5. Investigate the PLL in its unlocked state. To
do this, start from the settings given in Point
3 and move the adjuster control of the loop
filter very slightly to the left. Take another
look at Fig. 2-2. The adjuster control of the
loop filter acts on resistor R2. When the con-
trol is at its right limit, then R2 = min. Ac-
cording to Eq. 2-3, the gain of the P
component is also a minimum. Correspond-
ingly, when the control is at its left limit,
R2 = max., i.e., maximum gain of the P com-
Plug-in diagram 2
2
ponent. Once again, display the signal
curves at the VCO input and output on your
oscilloscope, but this time with a greater
time resolution (TB: 1 ms/Div.). Draw the
signals in a diagram. Compare your results
here with those obtained in Point 4 and in-
terpret them.
6. Assemble a frequency synthesizer. To do
this, connect the adjustable frequency di-
vider in the feedback line from the VCO
output to the PD input. Set the divider ratio
from N = 2 to N = 10 in consecutive order.
Display the signal at the VCO output on the
oscilloscope and, if necessary, adjust the
loop filter so that the PLL remains locked-
in. Measure the frequency of the oscillator
using the counter (gate time: 1 s). Measure
the frequency of the VCO output signal with
the counter for all nine divider settings using
the same time resolution of the counter.
Record your results in Table 2. Display the
signals at the inputs of the PD for all divider
settings, i.e. the reference oscillation and the
output signal of the frequency divider.
What do you observe?
Note
The tables can be found in the appendix.
23
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Frequency Multiplication 2

24
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Solutions MP

Measurement set-up
Results
1. 2.1 Table 1:
Spectrum of a symmetrical square-wave signal
Signal: Analyzer:
AR = 5 V V1 = 1
fP = 2,0 kHz b = 500 Hz
fr = 20 kHz
T = 20 s

Measurement Theory
f S(n) SR(n) SR(n)
Curve of a square-wave signal with respect to time n V2
Parameters: AR = 5.0 V kHz V V V
fR = 2.0 kHz 1 2 6.6 1 6.6 6.37

3 6 4.2 2 2.1 2.12

Note: 5 10 6.6 5 1.32 1.27

The set square-wave amplitude is proportional to
the measurement result. As the amplitude cannot 7 14 4.7 5 0.94 0.91
be determined more precisely than ±5% with the
9 18 3.6 5 0.72 0.71
oscilloscope, we must accept deviations of this
magnitude.
The amplitude SR(1) of the fundamental oscilla-
tion is greater than the square-wave amplitude mation of the spectrum of a symmetrical square-
AR by a factor of 4/π = 1.27. The law for the for- wave signal is:
4 AR
SR ( n ) = n = 1, 2 , 3,...
π ( 2 n − 1)

Spectrum of a square-wave signal

Signal : AR = 5.0 V Analyzer: V1 = 1 V2 = 2, 5, 10
fR = 2.0 kHz b = 500 Hz T = 20 s
fr = 20 kHz Span : 500 Hz...20 kHz
Display in manual operation

25
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Solutions MP

2.2

Spectrum of a square-wave signal

Signal: AR = 5.0 V Analyzer: V1 = 1 V2 = 1
fR = 2.0 kHz b = 500 Hz T = 160 s
fr = 20 Hz Span : 500 Hz...20 kHz
Display with XY-recorder

2.3 cal communications technology. The filters

Spectrum of a square-wave signal
Signal : AR = 5.0 V
fR = 2.0 kHz
Analyzer : V1 = 1 V2 = 1
b = 500 Hz T = 40 s
fr = 20 kHz Span : 500 Hz...20 k Hz
Representation on storage oscilloscope
3. The reduction of the bandwidth b narrows
the spectral window. The manual frequency
setting thus becomes more and more diffi-
cult although the spectral lines become more
pronounced. Even when a storage oscillo-
scope is used as an (almost) inertialess dis-
play instrument, the spectrum cannot be
reproduced at full amplitude. The reason for
this is to be found in the time law of electri-
of the analyzer no longer respond.
If mechanical measurement instruments,
which are subject to inertia, are used as dis-
play instruments, e.g. a multimeter or an
XY-recorder, the low-pass behavior of the
whole system is increased still further. The
needle or pen shows practically no deflec-
tion. It is thus a good idea when using an
XY recorder to select the scan time one step
larger than is required by the time law for
the analyzer filters.
4. The envelope in the spectrum of the sym-
metrical square-wave signal has the hyper-
bolic curve 1/f.
Further general comments on the spectrum of the
symmetrical square-wave signal:
– The spectrum has a line structure.
– The spectral lines occur at odd multiples of
the fundamental frequency fR (3 fR, 5 fR,
7 fR,...)
– The amplitudes SR(n) are inversely propor-
tional to the odd multiples of the funda-
mental frequency (1/3, 1/5, 1/7,...).
– The amplitudes SR(n) are proportional to
the amplitude AR of the square-wave signal.

26
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Solutions 1

An Analog Method of Frequency Multiplication

Answers
1. The output signal will be periodic but not har- 6. U GS = s1 + s 2
monic. As the distortions occurring here do = A1 cos( 2 π f1t ) + A2 cos( 2 π f 2 t )
not depend on the frequency of the input sig-
2
nals, they are termed non-linear distortions. A U 
non-linearly distorted output signal always ID ≈ − I 0  GS 
 UP 
contains new spectral components which  
were not present in the original signal. I0
2. The degree of non-linear distortion is de- = − ( s1 + s 2 ) 2
scribed by the distortion factor k. U P2
3. Linear distortions are frequency dependent.
( s1 + s 2 ) 2 = ( s12 + 2 s1 s 2 + s 22 )
We distinguish between attenuation distor-
tion and delay distortion. Attenuation distor- = A12 cos 2 ( 2 π f1 t ) +
tion is described using the amplitude
2 A1 A2 cos( 2 π f1 t )cos( 2 π f 2 t ) +
frequency response A(f) of the system under
study. Delay distortion is described by the A22 cos 2 ( 2 π f 2 t ) )
frequency-dependent phase difference. Non-
linear distortions depend on the level of the
input signal but not on its frequency.
With: cos x cos y = 1/2 [cos(x + y) + cos
(x–y )] we obtain:

We can recognize the following components

in the drain current:

I0  A12 A12
ID ≈ −  2 + 2 cos( 2 π 2 f1 t ) +
U P2 

A1 A2 cos[ 2 π ( f1 + f 2 ) t ] +
A1 A2 cos[ 2 π ( f1 − f 2 ) t ] +

A22 A22 
+ cos( 2 π 2 f 2 t ) 
4. Due to the bent input characteristic curve, 2 2 
distortions in the base current occur for high
control voltage at the base. With corre- 1. DC voltages proportional to
sponding gain, these cause a distorted col-
lector current. The collector current flows A12 A22
,
across the load resistor RL; thus, the ampli- 2 2
fied non-linearly distorted output voltage 2. Spectral components with twice the signal
can be taken from this resistor. frequencies 2 f1 and 2 f2:
5. The distortions are dependent on the curve
of the input characteristic, the degree of con- A12 A22
trol and the selection of the operating point cos( 2 π 2 f1 t ),cos( 2 π 2 f 2 t )
2 2
(OP). For example, if the operating point is
3. Spectral components with the sum and dif-
fixed at 0 V, the transistor blocks com-
ference frequencies f1 + f2, f1 – f2:
pletely for negative input signals! If we ad-
ditionally select a high control level, i.e. A1A2 cos[2π(f1 + f2)t], A1A2 cos[2π(f1 – f2)t]
input voltage, many higher-order terms of The pn-FET can be used for frequency dou-
the power series according to Eq. 1-2 must bling because of 2, and for modulation be-
be taken into consideration. This in turn re- cause of 3.
sults in stronger distortions.

27
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Solutions 1

Experiment results
1. Table 1:

Y1 : ~ 10 V Y2 : ~ 60 mV
U1 = (50...100) mVss, SINE
OP : right limit
f1 U1 f2 U2
kHz mVss kHz Vss

99.91 50 99.9 100

49.9 50 99.7 0.75

32.9 50 __ 0.1
25.0 50 __ __
Adjustment of the frequency multiplier

1.1 The frequency multiplier is a frequency se- 1.2

lective amplifier in common emitter. Let us
designate the impedance of the frequency-
selection element of the circuit, the
antiresonant circuit, as ZC. Let RE be a pure
ohmic emitter resistance, through which
negative feedback is applied to the circuit.
The frequency-dependent voltage gain is
then calculated as:
Z U
VU ( f ) = − C = − 2
RE U1
Output voltage U2
In the case of resonance, ZC is also a purely Input voltage U1 ≈ 600 mVpp, f1 = 33.3 kHz
OP center position
ohmic resistance, i.e., there is no additional
phase shift.
Resonance resistance:
Z CRES = VURES RE

10 . 0
VURES = = 200 s.Table 1.
0 . 05

Z CRES = 200 ⋅ 330 Ω ≈ 67 kΩ

The output transformer is not taken into con-
sideration here!
Output voltage U2
Note: Input voltage U1 ≈ 600 mVpp, f1 = 25.0 kHz
Output voltages below 300 mVpp are no longer OP center position
recognized by the analog input of the counter.

28
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Solutions 1

Table 2:

U1 = (500...800)mVss, SINE
OP : center position
f1 U1 f2 U2
kHz mVss kHz Vss

100.5 600 100.5 10

51.2 600 102.5 7.2

33.3 600 100.2 4.5

Output voltage U2
24.5 600 98.1 2.4 Input voltage U1 ≈ 1200 mVpp, f1 = 16.6 kHz
OP left limit
20.1 600 100.5 0.9

16.6 600 99.6 0.3 Table 3:

14.3 600 __ __ U1  =  (1000...1500)mVss, SINE

OP : left limit
Note: f1 U1 f2 U2
The strength of the output signal depends on the kHz mVss kHz Vss
characteristic of the particular transistor you are
using, the choice of the operating point and the 97.7 1200 97.7 10.0
control level. As all quantities are subjected to
50.3 1200 100.6 7.0
scatter, it is unlikely that you will obtain the
same numerical values as those here. The sample 33.6 1200 100.8 5.2
solutions thus are only intended as reference val-
ues. 25.2 1200 100.9 3.0

1.3 20.0 1200 100.3 2.0

16.6 1200 99.6 1.4
14.3 1200 100.6 1.0
12.4 1200 99.2 0.5
11.1 1200 (88.8) 0.3
10.0 1200 (10.0) 0.15

Output voltage U2
Input voltage U1 ≈ 1200 mVpp, f1 = 20.0 kHz
Note:
OP left limit When measuring with f1 = 11.1 kHz and
f1 = 10.0 kHz, the counter only responds to the
signal components with amplitudes greater
than the sensitivity limit of the analog input.
For f1 = 11.1 kHz, it has apparently “over-
looked” one oscillation: instead of
9 · 11.1 kHz = 99.9 kHz, it has only counted
8 · 11.1 kHz = 88.8 kHz. For f1 = 10.0 kHz, it
has only counted 1 oscillation out of 10.

29
 TPS 7.2.1.1
Output voltage U2 subjected to load by the spectrum
analyzer.
Input signal with f1 = 20.2 kHz, the fundamental period is
the “high” peak. Output signal frequency f2 = 101.2 kHz
The value of the input resistance Ri of the spec-
trum analyzer is 10 kΩ. The output transformer of
the frequency multiplier converts RE with the
square of its transformation ratio n2 into the
antiresonant circuit. The additional damping due
to the spectrum analyzer causes a reduction in the
quality of the circuit. This lowers the selectivity
of the oscillating circuit. Under certain circum-
stances, the output signal U2 can now contain in-
terfering spectral components which would have
been filtered out if the selectivity had been
greater. At the same time, the damped oscillating
Output spectrum SU2 and input spectrum SU1
V1 = 10 fr = 200 kHz
V2 = 1 SPAN : 5 kHz...110 kHz
b = 500 Hz T = 160 s
30
Solutions 1
Output signal U2 not subjected to load by the spectrum
analyzer.
Same input signal as on the left.
circuit affects the spectrum of the collector volt-
age UC. Thus the use of the spectrum analyzer
leads to two significant error sources:
1. When the analyzer is connected to the out-
put of the frequency multiplier, the input
spectrum before the oscillating circuit (at
the collector) changes.
2. The bandwidth of the oscillating circuit be-
comes wider, i.e. it permits more spectral
components to reach the output.
In spite of this, the spectra allow us to draw the
following qualitative conclusions:
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Solutions 1

– When a non-linear characteristic is control-
led, harmonics are formed from a harmonic
input signal U1 (the single line at f = f1 in the
spectrum SU1) at f = nf1, n = 1,2,3,...
– The desired harmonics can be selected
through the use of a filter with a high-qual-
ity selection device.
3.
– The frequency of the output signal f2 is al-
ways 100 kHz in spite of excitation by a low
frequency input signal.
– At a high control level and in the absence of
a base bias voltage, many harmonics are
formed. At low frequencies of the input sig-
nal U1 these harmonics are so close together
that the antiresonant circuit is no longer se-
lective enough. For this reason, the output
signal U2 contains more than just the desired
spectral component, and the resulting curve
of the output signal with respect to time is
distorted.
– The oscillation with the fundamental fre-
quency f1 is the highest peak in each case. It
is followed by n–1 oscillations with decreas-
ing amplitude.
Example:
f1 = 20 kHz
f2 = 100 kHz
n = 100/20 = 5
In this case, there are four oscillations of de-
creasing amplitude.

31
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Solutions 1

32

TPS 7.2.1.1
Frequency Synthesis, PLL
Answers
1 The PLL can be described using the terminol-
ogy of control technology. The VCO is then
the controlled system, whose frequency and
phase are to be fed to an external reference
variable. The phase detector is used to recog-
nize the phase difference, which is the control
difference; it compares the set and actual val-
ues. The loop filter serves as the controller.
The loop filter generates the control voltage Uf
required for the VCO as a function of the out-
put signal of the PD.
2. Methods of realizing the
LC-oscillators
Phase-shifting oscillators
Multivibrators
Methods of realizing the PD:
Multiplier
Flipflop
EXOR
Sample and hold element
3. Before the reference signal with the frequency
f1 is switched on, the VCO oscillates to a
center frequency, for example, f0. The fre-
quency difference f0 - f1 results in an AC volt-
age at the output of the PD. This is modified
by the loop filter and fed to the input of the
VCO. This control voltage initially frequency-
The functional circuit diagram of the PLL
 Loop filter
 Phase detector
! VCO
Solutions
2
Frequency Multiplication
modulates the VCO. An oscillation with the
frequency f1 of the input signal briefly appears
at its output. In this way the AC voltage com-
ponent is eliminated from the control voltage
of the VCO. The VCO continues oscillating at
the desired constant frequency f1. The capture
range is the frequency range within which the
frequency f1 of the input signal must remain if
the PLL is to lock into it.
Once the PLL is locked in, then it will follow
an input signal with its VCO frequency in a
VCO: particular frequency range without losing its
synchronization. This frequency range is
called the hold range.
4. The frequency synthesizer consists of a PLL
which contains a frequency divider in the
feedback line from the VCO output to the PD.
If the divider is N, then the VCO must gener-
ate N-times the output frequency in order to
lock in. If the divider can be set or pro-
grammed, any multiple of a quartz-controlled
original frequency can be generated from it
with the same frequency stability.
5. PLLs are used in:
Demodulators
Speed controls
Tracking filters
33
 Solutions
TPS 7.2.1.1 2
Frequency Multiplication

Experiment results
1. If the connection from the PD to the function 2. The capture and hold ranges are approxi-
generator is interrupted, the PLL can no mately equal. We can determine only the
longer lock in. The output signal of the VCO lower cut-off frequency, as the function gen-
causes a slightly superpositioned AC voltage erator with fmax = 200 kHz is not sufficient to
at the loop filter output. This in turn causes a determine the upper cut-off frequency limit.
continuing frequency modulation of the VCO. The PLL can be pulled from f1 ≈ 2 kHz to at
least f1 ≥ 200 kHz without losing its “hold”. It
Table 1:
can also synchronize to an external frequency
The control charac- within the same frequency range.
teristic of the VCO
3. The signals are in phase. The oscillator fre-
f2 Uf quency is:
kHz V fosc = f1 = 99.990 kHz
99.1 2.18
80.4 2.12
60.2 2.06
0
40.3 1.96
19.0 1.87
120.7 2.25 0
139.8 2.31
Reference signal and VCO output signal
160.5 2.37
4. The control voltage Uf is essentially a DC
180.8 2.43
voltage of approx. 2.2 V.
200.3 2.50

Control voltage 7f and VCO output signal in locked-in

state

The control characteristic of the VCO

34
 Solutions
TPS 7.2.1.1 2
Frequency Multiplication

5. The DC control voltage now has a clear AC Observation:

voltage superpositioned on it. The VCO signal The PLL is stable; in other words, the output sig-
shows FM (apparent in the multiple slopes). nal of the divider and the reference signal are in
The PLL as a unit has become unstable, i.e., it phase at all divider settings, i.e., Φ = 0°.
oscillates. The PLL was stable in Point 4. The column f2/N shows that the output signal is
always an integral multiple of the input frequency
f1. With the aid of a synthesizer is possible to gen-
erate output signals having stable frequencies
0 which are integral multiples of f1 from a quartz-
stabilized original frequency.

Control voltage 7f and VCO output signal, not in locked-in

state.

6. Table 2:

Frequency synthesis
Frequency of clock oscillator
f1 : 99.990 kHz
Gate time of counter: 1 s
f2 f2
N
kHz N
2 199.980 99.99
3 299.970 99.99
4 399.960 99.99
5 499.950 99.99
6 599.940 99.99
7 699.930 99.99
8 799.919 99.99
9 899.910 99.99
10 999.899 99.99

35
 Solutions
TPS 7.2.1.1 2
Frequency Multiplication

36
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Appendix 1

Worksheet Table 2:
The 4-quadrant characteristics field
U1  =   mVss, SINE
AP :
f1 U1 f2 U2
kHz mVss kHz Vss

Table 1: Table 3:

U1  =   mVss, SINE U1  =   mVss, SINE

AP : AP :
f1 U1 f2 U2 f1 U1 f2 U2
kHz mVss kHz Vss kHz mVss kHz Vss

37
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Appendix 1

To chapter 2:

38
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Appendix 1

Table 1: Table 2:

The control charac- Frequency synthesis

teristic of the VCO
Frequency of clock oscillator
f2 Uf f1  :  99.990 kHz
kHz V Gate time of counter: 1 s
f2 f2
N
kHz N

39
 TPS 7.2.1.1 Key Words
Appendix 1

Key Words Page

4-Quadrant characteristics field ................... Frequency Multiplication 1 ................................... 13

Angle of current flow ................................... Frequency Multiplication 1 ................................... 14
Attenuation distortion .................................. Frequency Multiplication 1 (Solutons) ................. 27
Capture range ............................................... Frequency Multiplication 2 ................................... 20
Delay distortion ............................................ Frequency Multiplication 1 (Solutions) ............... 27
Distortion factor ........................................... Frequency Multiplication 1 ................................... 16
Filter bank .................................................... Measurement Procedures ........................................ 7
Form factor ................................................... Measurement Procedures ........................................ 5
Frequency conversion .................................. Frequency Multiplication 2 ................................... 19
Frequency multiplication ............................. Frequency Multiplication 2 ................................... 19
Frequency stabilization ................................ Frequency Multiplication 2 ................................... 19
Frequency synthesis ..................................... Frequency Multiplication 2 ................................... 19, 21
Hold range .................................................... Frequency Multiplication2 .................................... 20
Input characteristic ....................................... Frequency Multiplication 1 ................................... 13
Linear distortion ........................................... Frequency Multiplication 1 (Solutions) ............... 27
Loop filter..................................................... Frequency Multiplication 2 ................................... 20
Non-linear distortion .................................... Frequency Multiplication 1 (Solutions) ............... 27
Output characteristics field .......................... Frequency Multiplication 1 ................................... 13
Phase detector............................................... Frequency Multiplication 2 ................................... 19
Phase difference ........................................... Frequency Multiplication 1 (Solutions) ............... 27
Phase-locked loop (PLL) ............................. Frequency Multiplication 2 ................................... 19
Resolution ..................................................... Measurement Procedures ........................................ 8
Spectrum analyzer ........................................ Measurement Procedures ........................................ 8
Sweep analyzer ............................................. Measurement Procedures ........................................ 7
The time rule of electrical
telecommunications technology ................... Measurement Procedures ........................................ 7
Time base ..................................................... Measurement Procedures ........................................ 5
Transfer characteristic .................................. Frequency Multiplication 1 ................................... 13
VCO .............................................................. Frequency Multiplication 2 ................................. 19
Voltage reaction ........................................... Frequency Multiplication 1 ................................... 13

40