Torah

Key Terms of the Old Testament
5 November 2021, Release 5
Editors
Dick Kroneman
Paul McLarren
© 2021 SIL International®
About KTOT
Key Terms of the Old Testament (KTOT) is a tool for Bible translators and consultants. Its purpose
is to make current research on some of the most important key terms of the Old Testament available
to the translation community. It intends to do so using a minimum of technical language. Entries
provide extended discussions of the cultural background of terms, grammatical description,
comparisons of similar and contrastive terms, descriptions of the history of the translation of the
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Drew Maust, “‫ּתֹורה‬
ָ Torah,” in Key Terms of the Old Testament, ed. Dick Kroneman and Paul
McLarren, 5th ed. (Dallas, TX: SIL International, 2021), 1–28.
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ָ Torah,” in Key Terms of the Old Testament
‫תורה‬
‫ּתֹורה‬
ָ
instruction, teaching, law, Torah
The Hebrew word ‫ּתֹורה‬

ָ may be defined as:
instruction(s) explaining the way of life which one should follow.
It is often translated in English as instruction or law.
In the Hebrew Bible, ‫ּתֹורה‬
ָ may describe instructions in general or a collection, or
summary, of instructions.
1) Instruction, teaching may function in a variety of ways:
1a) Teaching from a parent, spouse, wise person, or poet-musician (psalmist)
“Listen, my people, to my teaching [‫;]ּתֹורה‬
ָ tilt your ears toward the words of my
mouth.” (Psa 78:1 CEB, “a maskil of Asaph”)
Psa 78:1 Pro 1:8 Pro 3:1 Pro 4:2 Pro 6:20 Pro 6:23 Pro 7:2 Pro 13:14 Pro 31:26
1b) Instruction from a recognized public authority, such as a prophet, priest, judge, or
YHWH God, which often serves as a legally binding decision (like a law); a
regulative custom
“There is to be one instruction [‫]ּתֹורה‬
ָ for the native and for the person who is a
resident among you.” (Exo 12:49 BFE)
Exo 12:49 Exo 16:28 Exo 18:16 Exo 18:20 Lev 11:46 Lev 26:46 Num 15:16 Num
15:29 Deu 17:11 2Sa 7:19 2Ch 15:3 2Ch 19:10 Job 22:22 Psa 119:72 Isa
1:10 Isa 2:3 Isa 5:24 Isa 8:16 Isa 24:5 Isa 30:9 Isa 42:4 Isa 42:21 Isa 42:24
Isa 51:4 Isa 51:7 Jer 6:19 Jer 18:18 Jer 32:23 Lam 2:9 Ezk 7:26 Ezk 22:26
Ezk 43:11 Ezk 43:12 Ezk 44:5 Ezk 44:24 Dan 9:10 Mic 4:2 Zep 3:4 Hag
2:11 Zec 7:12 Mal 2:6 Mal 2:7 Mal 2:8 Mal 2:9
Or perhaps sense 2:
Exo 13:9 Exo 16:4 Isa 8:20
1c) Instructions outlining an action, or series of actions (to be done as a ritual or
ceremony); a legally required ritual, procedure, ritual law
“This will be the ritual [‫]ּתֹורה‬
ָ for the person who has a skin disease on the day of
1
their decontamination...” (Lev 14:2, author’s translation)1

Lev 6:2 Lev 6:7 Lev 6:18 Lev 7:1 Lev 7:7 Lev 7:11 Lev 7:37 Lev 12:7 Lev 13:59
Lev 14:2 Lev 14:32 Lev 14:54 Lev 14:57 Lev 15:32 Num 5:29 Num 5:30
Num 6:13 Num 6:21 Num 19:2 Num 19:14 Num 31:21
1d) Perhaps a communication of knowledge by extraordinary means; a revelation, if
not 1b. See the discussion under “Definition” below.
“What you have done so far was a little thing to you, Lord GOD, for you have also
spoken about your servant’s house in the distant future. And this is a
revelation for mankind [‫]ּתֹורת ָה ָא ָדם‬,
ַ Lord GOD.” (2Sa 7:19 CSB)
2Sa 7:19
2) A collection, or summary, of authoritative instructions
“Across the Jordan in the land of Moab, Moses began to explain this law [‫]ּתֹורה‬,
ָ
saying...” (Deu 1:5 CSB)
Gen 26:5 Exo 24:12 Deu 1:5 Deu 4:8 Deu 4:44 Deu 17:18 Deu 17:19 Deu 27:3
Deu 27:8 Deu 27:26 Deu 28:58 Deu 28:61 Deu 29:20 Deu 29:28 Deu 30:10
Deu 31:9 Deu 31:11 Deu 31:12 Deu 31:24 Deu 31:26 Deu 32:46 Deu 33:4
Deu 33:10 Jos 1:7 Jos 1:8 Jos 8:31 Jos 8:32 Jos 8:34 Jos 22:5 Jos 23:6 Jos
24:26 Jer 2:8 Jer 8:8 Jer 9:12 Jer 16:11 Jer 26:4 Jer 31:33 Jer 32:23 Jer 44:10
Jer 44:23 Hos 4:6 Hos 8:1 Hos 8:12 Amo 2:4 Hab 1:4 Zep 3:4 Zec 7:12 Mal
3:22 Psa 1:2 Psa 19:8 Psa 37:31 Psa 40:9 Psa 78:5 Psa 78:10 Psa 89:31 Psa
94:12 Psa 105:45 Psa 119:1 Psa 119:18 Psa 119:29 Psa 119:34 Psa 119:44
Psa 119:51 Psa 119:53 Psa 119:55 Psa 119:61 Psa 119:70 Psa 119:77 Psa
119:85 Psa 119:92 Psa 119:97 Psa 119:109 Psa 119:113 Psa 119:126 Psa
119:136 Psa 119:142 Psa 119:150 Psa 119:153 Psa 119:163 Psa 119:165 Psa
119:174 Pro 28:4 Pro 28:7 Pro 28:9 Pro 29:18 Ezr 7:6 Ezr 7:10 Ezr 10:3
Neh 8:7 Neh 8:9 Neh 9:3 Neh 9:13 Neh 9:14 Neh 9:26 Neh 9:29 Neh 9:34
Neh 10:29 Neh 10:30 Neh 10:37 Neh 12:44 Neh 13:3 Dan 9:11 Dan 9:13
2Ki 10:31 2Ki 17:13 2Ki 17:34 2Ki 17:37 2Ki 21:8 1Ch 22:12 2Ch 6:16 2Ch
12:1 2Ch 14:3 2Ch 30:16 2Ch 31:4 2Ch 31:21 2Ch 33:8
2a) A written document (scroll, book) containing Torah (Instruction)
“Guard what is owed to the Lord your God, walking in his ways and observing his
laws, his commands, his judgments, and his testimonies, just as it is written
1 Compare with NJPS, NRSV, TOB; NFC “la cérémonie.”

2
in the Instruction [‫]ּתֹורה‬

ָ from Moses.” (1Ki 2:3 CEB)
1Ki 2:3 2Ki 14:6 2Ki 22:8 2KI 22:11 2Ki 23:24 2Ki 23:25 1Ch 16:40 2Ch 17:9
2Ch 23:18 2Ch 25:4 2Ch 31:3 2Ch 34:14 2Ch 34:15 2Ch 34:19 2Ch 35:26
Ezr 3:2 Neh 8:1 Neh 8:2 Neh 8:3 Neh 8:8 Neh 8:13 Neh 8:14 Neh 8:18 Neh
9:3 Neh 10:35
3
Discussion
Table of Contents
1) Definition of ‫תורה‬
1.1) Contextual uses
2) Grammatical information
3) Frequency and distribution
4) Personification
5) Important word combinations with ‫תורה‬
6) Words with closely related meanings
See “Translating words of closely related meaning.”
7) Words with opposite meanings
‫“( ֶׁש ֶׁקר‬falsehood”)
8) Social contexts and cultural expectations related to ‫תורה‬
9) Exegetical notes on select passages
Exo 24:12
Num 19:2; 31:21
Isa 1:10
Neh 9:13
10) ‫ תורה‬in (Bible) translation
10.1) Biblical Aramaic
10.2) Old Greek: Septuagint (LXX)
10.3) Syriac Peshitta and Latin Vulgate
10.4) The German Bible: Martin Buber
10.5) Contemporary English translations
11) Translation issues related to ‫תורה‬
11.1) Translation flowchart
11.2) Translating words of closely related meaning
11.3) Referential ambiguity
11.4) Interlingual comparison
Bibliography
1) Definition of ‫תורה‬
The most basic definition of ‫ תורה‬is instruction or teaching explaining the way of life
4
which one should follow. ‫ תורה‬usage may be divided into two main categories: 1)
instruction, teaching and 2) a collection, or summary, of authoritative instructions. At times
a given occurrence appears to fit equally well into either category.2
In translation, ‫ תורה‬is traditionally and most frequently rendered “law” following the
example of the LXX while at times being also translated as “teaching” or “instruction” (see
section “‫ תורה‬in [Bible] translation” below). In contexts where ‫ תורה‬collocates with Moses or
YHWH (predominately in the Prophets and Writings), it refers by extension to the entire,
collective divine code of conduct delivered to the people of Israel through intermediaries
(most notably Moses). In contrast to modern ideas of legislation, ‫ תורה‬imparts “wisdom for
bringing about order in society.”3 What’s more, ‫ תורה‬spreads knowledge of the traditional
narratives concerning the birth of the people of Israel, including ‫ תורה‬delivery and
implementation, specifically the exodus from Egypt culminating in a divine encounter on
Mt. Sinai.4 Torah knowledge is therefore legally significant knowledge of God5 and his
2 Biblical Hebrew dictionaries demonstrate a variety of ways of dividing the senses of ‫תורה‬. In the 19th
century, Gesenius provided two main senses: 1) instruction, doctrine and 2) law (whether a single law or a
collection of laws). Building on his work, the lexicon of Brown-Driver-Briggs (BDB) adds a third category for
custom, citing the notoriously puzzling occurrence in 2Sa 7:19 (to be discussed below). Published almost one
hundred years later, HALOT divides ‫ תורה‬differently into 1) direction, instruction (everyday and priestly), 2)
instruction, decision from different authorities (prophets), 3) a particular rule (KTOT “ritual”), and finally
adds a fourth main category for 4) a collection, or summary, of laws. Similarly, Clines has four categories, but
based on different senses: 1) instruction, teaching, law, 2) a collection, or summary, of laws, 3) custom,
manner (2Sa 7:19); and, based on a single occurrence in the deuterocanonical book Sirach, 4) a decree, will of
YHWH (Sir 41:4). The foregoing survey aims to highlight for the reader the subjective nature of grouping the
occurrences of a word according to its assumed “senses” in accordance with the aims of the dictionary and its
makers.
3 John H. Walton and J. Harvey Walton, The Lost World of the Torah: Law as Covenant and Wisdom in
Ancient Context (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2019), p. 223.
4 See Psa 119:18. See Marc Zvi Brettler, “Torah ‫תורה‬,” in The Jewish Study Bible, ed. Adele Berlin (New York:
Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 1. Sanders aptly captures this idea: “From a canonical perspective the Torah
is a balanced intermingling of story and law: they go together; they belong together; and Torah means both”
(James A Sanders, “Torah and Christ,” Interpretation 29.4 [1975], p. 372). Jocz remarks: “The term tôrâ must
not be interpreted in a solely legal sense—a connotation that was encouraged by the Septuagint with its
rendition of the Hebrew noun with Greek nomos. Rather, tôrâ is primarily a way of life derived from the
covenant relationship between God and Israel” (J. Jocz, “Torah” in Moisés Silva and Merrill Chapin Tenney,
eds. The Zondervan Encyclopedia of the Bible, Q-Z. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2009). For a contemporary
extension of this narratival aspect, see Carol Ochs, Our Lives as Torah: Finding God in Our Own Stories (San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2001).
5
dealings with his people, involving story, promise6, curse, and regulation.
When traced across the Hebrew canon,7 ‫ תורה‬evinces a semantic development from
general instruction, or individual regulations, to a collection, and at times summary, of
“judicial wisdom”8 which appears at times to more or less encompass words of closely
related meaning (see Deu 4:44-45). Consider, for example, Gen 26:5 where YHWH states
that Abraham listened to YHWH’s voice and observed YHWH’s ‫“ תורה‬instructions,” all of
this hundreds of years before the establishment and formalization of the Sinaitic covenant
and its attendant regulations (Exo 24:12). Apart from the unique law-giving event of Exo
24, the books of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers continue in the vein of generalized usage.
In addition to narrative, they out individual instructions, or regulative customs (like laws),
governing specific aspects of Israelite life, such as the giving of offerings and procedures for
decontamination of mold. All of this is meant to separate the children of Israel from their
neighbors while inclining them toward a holy, appropriate relationship with YHWH, their
God to their collective flourishing.
Continuing on from the mountaintop experience of Sinai, Deuteronomy in its opening
chapter appears to present a decidedly new turn in the semantic development of ‫תורה‬. On
the plains of Moab (Deu 1:1-5), Moses begins to explain ‫ּתֹורה ַהז ֹּאת‬
ָ ‫ה‬, ַ “this torah,” which
regardless of its referent (see section “Translating referential ambiguity” below), presents
‫ּתֹורה‬
ָ for the first time canonically as a singular collective body of instruction.9 In further
development of the Sinai event, ‫ תורה‬in the book of Deuteronomy, especially by chap. 28
(‫ּתֹורה‬
ָ ‫ס ֶׁפר ַה‬,
ֵ “document/book of the law”), becomes the Torah collection (with the possible
exception of 17:11), a meaning that it will all but exclusively adopt throughout the
remainder of the canon (the Prophets and the Writings) when used in connection with
YHWH and Moses.10
5 ‫ תורה‬as a “written body of instruction—the Law of Moses or a portion of it… served as the primary means of
access to the mind of God” (Francis I. Andersen, Habakkuk: A New Translation with Introduction and
Commentary, vol. 25 of Anchor Yale Bible [New Haven; London: Yale University Press, 2001], p. 118).
6 On promise, see Marshall D. Johnson, “The Paralysis of Torah in Habakkuk I 4,” Vetus Testamentum 35.3
(1985): 257–66.
7 The order of the Hebrew canon here adopted is that of Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensisa (BHS).
8 John H. Walton, “Understanding Torah: Ancient Legal Text, Covenant Stipulation, and Christian
Scripture,” Bulletin for Biblical Research 29.1 (2019): p. 8.
9 Exo 24:21 is a possible exception depending on how one analyzes the waw in the phrase ‫ּתֹורה‬
ָ ‫ת־לחֹּת ָה ֶׁא ֶׁבן וְ ַה‬
ֻ ‫א‬,ֶׁ
“the stone tablets with/and the law...” See the section “Exegetical notes” below.
10 Proverbs speaks of ‫ּתֹורה‬,
ָ but in regard to human instruction (with the possible exception of Pro 29:18). See
6
Several examples serve to illustrate the understanding of ‫ תורה‬as an established collection

of instructions:
· Deu 17:18-19, where the incoming king is instructed to make his own copy
(‫ )משנה‬of ‫ תורה‬for personal study.
· Deu 27:8, “Make sure to write all the words of this Instruction [ ‫ּתֹורה‬
ָ ‫ל־ד ְב ֵרי ַה‬
ִּ ‫ָכ‬
ַ on the stones plainly and clearly” (CEB).
‫]הז ֹּאת‬
· Jos 8:32, “…Joshua wrote on the stones a copy of the Instruction from Moses
[‫ּתֹורת מ ֶֹּׁשה‬
ַ ‫]מ ְשנֵ ה‬,
ִּ which Moses had written earlier” (CEB).1
· Dan 9:11, “All Israel broke your Instruction [ ‫…]ּתֹור ֶׁתָך‬
ָ Then the curse that
was…written in the Instruction from Moses [‫תֹורת מ ֶֹּׁשה‬
ַ ‫…]ב‬
ְ swept over us” (CEB),
referring to the curses mentioned in Deu 28:15ff (with possible allusion to Isa 1:4).
1.1) Contextual uses
Instruction, or teaching
1) Instruction, teaching may function in a variety of ways:
1a) Teaching from a parent, spouse, wise person, or poet-musician (psalmist).
1b) Instruction from a recognized public authority, such as a prophet, priest, judge, or
YHWH God, which often serves as a legally binding decision (like a law); a
regulative custom.
1c) Instructions outlining an action, or series of actions (to be done as a ritual or
ceremony); a legally required ritual, procedure, ritual law. ‫ תורה‬may refer to a
specific procedure, or ritual, that the children of Israel must follow in matters
relating to offerings (Lev 6:6), sacrifices (Lev 6:18), or purification
(decontamination; Lev 7:1,7,11,37ss). For example, Lev 14:2 describes the
procedure [‫ ]תורה‬to be followed by someone afflicted with a serious skin disease
in order to decontaminate themselves of their impurity. NLT translates Num 6:13
Michael V. Fox, Proverbs 10–31: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, vol. 18B of Anchor
Yale Bible (New Haven; London: Yale University Press, 2009), p. 821,841: “The torah in the present verse
[28:4] is unlikely to be the divine Law, which in the lack of further context would (at least in Biblical Hebrew)
require definition as ‘the torah of the Lord’ or ‘the torah of Moses,’ or at least ‘the Torah,’ to distinguish it
from the human torah ‘teaching’ or another instruction from God” (p. 821); “Torah elsewhere in Proverbs
means instruction, usually parental. The present verse [29:18] is the one place where torah might refer to
God’s instruction, or even the codified Pentateuch. Still, the pairing of torah with ‘vision’ does not prove this
to be so” (p. 841).
1 Perhaps also 2KI 10:31.
7
as “This is the ritual law.” As Walton and Walton note, torah rituals “(mediated
by the priests) allowed [Israel] to express their worship to Yahweh and to
remediate any threat to the sanctity of Yahweh’s presence, of which they were
hosts.2”
1d) Perhaps a communication of knowledge by extraordinary means; a revelation, if
not 1b.3 The meaning of ‫ תורה‬in the context of 2Sa 7:19 merits exploration as a
separate subpoint to sense 1. DCH offers the translation “custom of humans” if
not “instruction for humans” (HOTTP’s suggested reading). Others have
proposed “revelation for mankind” (CSB; cp. NCV);4 “instruction about a human
being” (BFE); “the law of man” (= procreation?; Eissfeldt); and “law of Adam”
(Vulgate; Yefet ben Ali, 10th c).5 Kaiser suggests “charter for humanity” (see also
ISV), defining it as “nothing less than God’s plan for the whole human race.”6 If
an emendation of the MT is accepted, proposals include “‘the turn of mankind to
come,’ that is, ‘the generation to come,’” assimilating to a parallel passage in 1Ch
17:17 (cp. RSV).7 At 2Sa 7:19, many versions include a footnote indicating that
the Hebrew is uncertain, which may be more clearly expressed as the meaning of
the Hebrew text is uncertain.8 If a “revelation” interpretation is adopted, possible
Ancient Context (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2019), p. 78.
3 “We can certainly expect that the Torah will be unique in some way—it is revelation, not reiteration” (John
H. Walton, “Understanding Torah: Ancient Legal Text, Covenant Stipulation, and Christian Scripture,”
Bulletin for Biblical Research 29.1 [2019]: p. 8).
4 Beecher, curiously suggests the translation “law of mankind” before elaborating that “‘This’ [‫ּתֹורת ָה ָא ָדם‬
ַ ‫]וְ זֹּאת‬
ought logically to mean, from the context, the revelation spoken of in the passage concerning ‘the seed’ of
Abra-ham, Israel, and David, who is to exist and reign forever” (Willis J. Beecher, “Three Notes,” Journal of
the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis 8 [1888], p. 138, emphasis added).
5 For more interpretative possibilities, see Dominique Barthélemy, Critique Textuelle de l’Ancien Testament:
1. Josué, Juges, Ruth, Samuel, Rois, Chroniques, Esdras, Néhémie, Esther (Éditions Universitaires /
Vandenhoeck Ruprecht, 1982), p. 247.
6 Walter Kaiser, The Messiah in the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1995), pp. 79,81, cited in
Maarten Kuivenhoven, “An Everlasting House: An Exegesis of 2 Samuel 7,” Puritan Reformed Journal 2.1
(2010), p. 24.
7 P. Kyle McCarter Jr., II Samuel: A New Translation with Introduction, Notes, and Commentary , vol. 9 of
Anchor Yale Bible (New Haven; London: Yale University Press, 1984), p. 233, following an earlier proposal by
Ewald (1866; see BDB, s.v. ‫ּתֹורה‬
ָ sense 3).
8 Barthélemy asserts the certainty of the MT consonantal text when he writes, “In 2Sa 7:19b the MT has no
8
translations of 2Sa 7:19 might include, “Lord God, (by saying this) you have
shown/revealed (to humanity/people/us) what you will do (in the future).”9
Collection, or summary, of instructions

2) A collection, or summary, of authoritative instructions. In almost 70% of occurrences,
‫ תורה‬refers to the collection, or summary, of YHWH’s instructions for how Israel
should conduct itself in order to honor him within the context of his covenant. It is
“revelation…of what is required for holiness,”10 most frequently in reference to the
teaching of Moses and functioning as a code of conduct for the people of Israel.1
Most often some form of the Pentateuch is in view, although a more general
summary may also be in view.2 In either case, YHWH’s collective ‫ תורה‬is the
instantiation par excellence of his authoritative covenantal instructions for Israel,
both descriptive (story) and instructive (teaching). This sense of ‫ תורה‬thus
differentiates itself from words of related meaning by encompassing them in the
form of a collection. By the 1st century CE, Torah may even be used to refer to the
entire Hebrew Bible (John 10:34).
2a) A written document (scroll, book) containing Torah (Instruction). “The Torah is
aware of itself as a book” (see Deu 28:61; 31:26).3 This written document is what
rival in the textual tradition” (1982, p. 247; author’s translation).

9 In local language translation, this suggested interpretation may end up quite similar in essence, if not
implication, to the rendering proposed by those who would emend the Hebrew text: you have “shown me the
generation to come” (P. Kyle McCarter Jr., II Samuel: A New Translation with Introduction, Notes, and
Commentary, vol. 9 of Anchor Yale Bible [New Haven; London: Yale University Press, 1984], p. 232).
10 John H. Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World
of the Hebrew Bible (Grand Rapids, Mich: Baker Academic, 2006), p. 297.
1 “Alongside ‫ מצוה‬and ‫משפט‬, [torah] ‫ תורה‬does denote a set of directives regarding how Israel is to live its life,
along with associated warnings regarding the consequence of disobedience. The repository of God’s
instructions is the teaching of Moses, the pentateuchal ‘law’” (John E. Goldingay, Daniel, vol. 30 of Word
Biblical Commentary [Dallas: Word Books, 1989], p. 245, emphasis original).
2 In Deu and Jos, most likely the book of Deuteronomy is being referenced (even if only chaps 12—26 or parts
thereof), rather than the entire Pentateuch. So Tigay; NET; Johnson, p. 262 (“The dominant tora in Jerusalem
at the time of the Chaldean threat was that which was promulgated during the reforms of Hezekiah and
Josiah, namely, Deuteronomy—or at least those parts of it current at that time. Habakkuk’s tora and mispadt
are most probably to be sought within the book of Deuteronomy”). For a wider sense wider than just the law
of Moses, Cole comments that ‫ּתֹורת יְ הוָ ה‬
ַ “suggests [in Psa 1:2] a totality of divine instruction beyond the torat
Moshe [sense 2]... although the latter would certainly be included” (p. 59).
3 Chinitz, p. 245; pace Brettler, p. 2.
9
is commonly referred to, even in English, as the Torah, namely the first of three
parts of the Hebrew Bible, being made up of the five books of Moses (also called
the Pentateuch based on the Greek for “five books”; Hebrew: Chumash).4 It
“contains the ‘official and national archives/library’ of the Second Temple
community” and “as a written text… acquires the quality of a normative and
irrevocable document about Israel’s origins and juridical organization.”5 The
Torah document was thus “to be read as the words of God to regulate Judean
society.”6 It is no straightforward task, however, to determine the exact referent
of ‫ּתֹורת מ ֶֹּׁשה‬
ַ (“law of Moses”) in each instance. See comments under sense 2
above.
2) Grammatical information
‫( תורה‬possible root III ‫ירה‬, hiphil “to teach, instruct”7) is a feminine common noun as
indicated by the feminine modifiers it takes (e.g. Deu 1:5 ‫ּתֹורה ַהז ֹּאת‬
ָ ‫)ה‬.ַ
It most frequently occurs in the singular, although 12x in the plural (Gen 26:5; Exo 16:28;
18:16, 20; Lev 26:46; Neh 9:13; Psa 105:45; Isa 24:5; Ezk 43:11; 44:5, 24; Dan 9:10).
Its most common form in the Hebrew Bible is singular construct (120 out of 220
occurrences or 55%), meaning that more often than not ‫ תורה‬is qualified by a suffix or the
noun which directly follows it (the absolute noun in a construct chain). The second most
frequent form is singular absolute (89x or 40%).
In the plural, ‫ תורה‬appears 3x as absolute (Exo 18:20; Lev 26:46; Isa 24:5) and 9x in
construct (Gen 26:5; Exo 16:28; 18:16; Ezk 43:11; 44:5,24; Psa 105:45; Dan 9:10; Neh 9:13).
When in construct, ‫ תורה‬most frequently pairs with a pronominal suffix (e.g. “your” [=
4 “Pentateuch” and “torah” are not, however, entirely synonymous: “In five places in the New Testament,
including nearly a dozen instances in all, non-pentateuchal passages are cited as written in the law (John
10:34; 15:2; 12:34; Rom. 3:10-19; 1 Cor. 14:21). Proverbs, Isaiah in two places, and several psalms are thus
cited. In these citations the term ‘law’ is clearly used to denote a wider body of literature than the Pentateuch,
evidently the Old Testament” (Willis J. Beecher, “Torah: A Word-Study in the Old Testament,” Journal of
Biblical Literature 24.1 [1905], p. 1).
5 Jean Louis Ska, “‘Persian Imperial Authorization’: Some Question Marks,” in Persia and Torah: The Theory
of Imperial Authorization of the Pentateuch, ed. James W. Watts, SBL Symposium Series 17 (Atlanta: Society
of Biblical Literature, 2001), p. 170.
6 Timothy Michael Law, When God Spoke Greek: The Septuagint and the Making of the Christian Bible (New
York: Oxford University Press, 2013).
7 HALOT; DCH.
10
YHWH]; a proper noun like YHWH or Moses; or another common noun to create an
associative construction describing instruction on a specific topic or practice (e.g. mildew in
Lev 13:59).
‫ תורה‬first appears with the definite article in Deu 4:8 where it refers to an authoritative
text, which in this context could refer to either Deuteronomy (4:8; 31:9), or by extension, to
the entire Pentateuch (Genesis-Deuteronomy).8 When prefixed with the definite article
(‫ּתֹורה‬
ָ ‫)ה‬ ַ or when qualified as ‫ּתֹורת מ ֶֹּׁשה‬
ַ “torah of Moses,” ‫ תורה‬often denotes the entirety of
the prophet Moses’s teaching.9 Indefinite ‫( תורה‬i.e. without the definite article ‫ ַה‬or
pronominal suffix) is relatively rare (e.g. Mic 4:2; Hab 1:4; 2:1; Zep 3:2).
3) Frequency and distribution

In the Hebrew Bible, the word ‫ תורה‬occurs 220 times in 214 verses, the bulk being found
in Psa (36x), Deu (22x), and Neh (21x), followed by 2Ch (17x) and Lev (16x). Cole keenly
observes that “torah occurs at major junctures of the Hebrew canon following the
Pentateuch: Jos 1 at the head of Prophets, Isa 1 opening the Latter Prophets, and Ps. 1
opening the Writings,” suggesting that this is “probably not coincidental.”10 Such uncanny
distribution serves to highlight the defining, determinative role that YHWH’s instruction is
meant to occupy in the daily life of his people.1
4) Personification
‫ּתֹורה‬
ָ is personified in the following passages: Ezk 22:26; Hab 1:4; Zep 3:4.2
8 Karina Martin Hogan, “The Meanings of ‘Tôrâ’ in ‘4 Ezra,’” Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian,
Hellenistic, and Roman Period 38.4/5 (2007), pp. 530-31.
9 Eugene H. Merrill, Deuteronomy, vol. 4 of The New American Commentary (Nashville, Tenn.: Broadman &
Holman, 1994), p. 137

10 Robert L. Cole, Psalms 1—2: Gateway to the Psalter, ed. David J.A. Clines, J. Cheryl Exum, and Keith W.
Whitelam, Hebrew Bible Monographs 37 (Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2013), p. 60, fn56.
1 Torah (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Deuteronomy): 56x in 55 verses; Former Prophets (Joshua, Judges, 1-2
Samuel, and 1-2 Kings): 21x in 20 verses; Latter Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the 12 Minor
Prophets): 44x in 43 verses; Writings (Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Lamentations,
Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah, Esther, Ruth, and 1-2 Chronicles): 99x in 96 verses.
2 Personification is a type of metaphor wherein human characteristics are attributed to an otherwise inanimate
or non-human thing. In the Hebrew Bible, ‫ תורה‬is ascribed such features in several passages similarly to how
the apostle Paul describes Scripture “foreseeing” the future justification of Gentiles (Gal 3:8). In Hab 1:4, ‫תורה‬
is said to have become cold, or numb (in the sense of being rendered powerless or ineffective [DCH]), as if it
had previously been a living, feeling warm-bodied entity. Secondly, Ezk 22:26 and Zep 3:4 make ‫ תורה‬the
11
5) Important word combinations with ‫תורה‬

In order of frequency, the most commonly occurring words combinations formed with
‫ תורה‬are:
‫תֹור ֶׁתָך‬
ָ (“your ‫תורה‬,” x31): Deu 33:10; Neh 9:26, 29, 34; Psa 40:9; 94:12; 119:18, 29,
34, 44, 51, 53, 55, 61, 70, 77, 85, 92, 97, 109, 113, 126, 136, 142, 150, 153, 163, 165,
174; Jer 32:23; Dan 9:11.
‫ּתֹורת יְ הוָ ה‬
ַ (“‫ תורה‬of YHWH,” 19x): Exo 13:9; 2Ki 10:31; 1Ch 16:40; 22:12; 2Ch 12:1;
17:9; 31:3, 4; 34:14; 35:26; Ezr 7:10; Neh 9:3; Psa 1:2; 19:8; 119:1; Isa 5:24; 30:9; Jer
8:8; Amo 2:4.
‫ּתֹורת מ ֶֹּׁשה‬
ַ (“‫ תורה‬of Moses,” 14x): Jos 8:31, 32; 23:6; 1Ki 2:3; 2Ki 14:6; 23:25; 2Ch
23:18; 30:16; Ezr 3:2; 7:6; Neh 8:1; Dan 9:11, 13; Mal 3:22 [4:4].
‫ּתֹורה‬
ָ ‫“( ֵס ֶׁפר ַה‬document/book of ‫תורה‬,” x14): Deu 28:61; 29:20 [21]; 30:10; 31:26; Jos
1:8; 8:34; 24:26; 2Ki 22:8, 11; 2Ch 34:15 (perhaps 25:4); Neh 8:3,8,18.
‫ֹלהים‬
ִּ ‫ּתֹורת ֱא‬
ַ (“‫ תורה‬of God,” 7x): Jos 24:26; Isa 1:10; Hos 4:6; Psa 37:31; Neh 8:8,18;
10:29,30.
Two additional word combinations are worth mentioning:
‫ּתֹורה ַהז ֹּאת‬
ָ ‫ה‬, ַ “this law.” In Deu, it is difficult to ascertain the exact referent of “this
law.” Craigie lists numerous options, including:
1. the specific instructions in the immediate context of ‫( תורה‬that is, the
instructions for a king to make his own copy in 17:14-17);
2. Deuteronomy either in part (12—26);
3. the whole of Deuteronomy; or
4. the “covenant scroll” mentioned in Exo 24:7.3
‫ּתֹורה‬
ָ ‫( ֻח ַקת ַה‬Num 19:2). See “Exegetical notes” below.
6) Words with closely related meanings
object of the verb ‫חמס‬, “to treat violently,” to describe the failure of Judah’s priests to make a “distinction
between the holy and the common” (Ezk 22:26). Later, Rabbinic Judaism expands considerably on the notion
of personified Torah. For an overview, see, Warren Harvey, “Torah: Nature and Purpose,” Encyclopaedia
Judaica: To-Wei, p. 41.
3 Peter C. Craigie, The Book of Deuteronomy, The New International Commentary on the Old Testament
(Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1976), p. 256: “However, it should be remembered that Deuteronomy as a
whole describes the renewal of the Sinai Covenant, which had been recorded in writing at an earlier date. It
may be, then, that this law refers to the original written document of the Sinai Covenant, perhaps the so-
called Book of the Covenant (Exod. 24:7).”
12
See below “Translating words of closely related meaning.”
7) Words with opposite meanings

‫“(ש ֶׁקר‬falsehood”).
ֶׁ See Psa 119:163.
8) Social contexts and cultural expectations related to ‫תורה‬

When compared with suzerain-vassal treaties of the ancient Near East (agreements like
those between king-subject or patron-client), ‫ תורה‬may be understood as the covenantal
stipulations between YHWH and the people of Israel (see Isa 24:5; Hos 8:1; Psa 78:10).4
Indeed, as ‫ תורה‬is embedded within a covenant relationship it serves to establish
“community identity” complete with rituals pertaining to holiness, thereby enabling Israel
to be Israel, a people special among the nations, who belong to YHWH, and among whom
YHWH causes his name to dwell.5 The focus of ‫ תורה‬then, in the view of Walton and
Walton, is “to provide wisdom for bringing about order in society” which in turn “enhances
the reputation of the administrator of the social order (the king in most of the ancient
world; Yahweh as suzerain king over Israel).” Walton and Walton thus argue that the
objective of ‫ תורה‬is “to teach the Israelites about the kind of order that they will need to
uphold if they want to receive the blessings of God’s favor and presence.”6
Torah often plays a significant role in the following social contexts, carrying with it any of
the following cultural expectations:
· ‫ תורה‬is not one way of life among many, but the proper way for Israel (and those
living among them) to live daily life and interact with YHWH God.
· ‫ תורה‬is sent by God to his people via the prophets (2Ki 17:13).
· Like the creation of the cosmos, ‫ תורה‬is a creative act of self-revelation of YHWH
4 See John H. Walton and J. Harvey Walton, The Lost World of the Torah: Law as Covenant and Wisdom in
Ancient Context (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2019), proposition 11 (pp. 89-98).
5 See Lev 26:46, “these are... the ‫[ התורת‬plural] which YHWH established between himself and the children of
Israel on Mount Sinai through Moses.” What’s more, ‫ תורה‬sometimes appears to be synonymous with ‫ב ִּרית‬,
ְ
“covenant,” itself (see Hos 8:1). For Josephus (1st century CE), ‫ תורה‬serves as a sort of “constitution” for the
people of Israel (Flavius Josephus, The Antiquities of the Jews, 3.213; 4.194). Jewish theologian Abraham
Joshua Heschel famously wrote that, “The Bible is primarily not man’s vision of God but God’s vision of man.
The Bible is not man’s theology but God’s anthropology” (Man Is Not Alone: A Philosophy of Religion [New
York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1976], p. 129).
Ancient Context (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2019), p. 223,227.
13
God (Psa 19).7

· Complete “whole-hearted” obedience is expected (2Ki 10:31; 17:13).
· Obedience brings peace and success (Psa 119:165; Job 22:21-26; 1Ki 2:3).
· The king will make his own copy and study it all the days of his life (Deu 17:14-
20).
· Careful ‫ תורה‬study leads to the fear of God, observation of all that it contains, and
lengthens the reign of a king over his kingdom (Deu 17:19-20).
· Priests are expected to read the Torah every seventh year at the Festival of Sukkot
(Deu 31:9-13; Neh 8).
· In difficult or hotly disputed legal cases, priests and judges pronounce a verdict
(‫ )משפט‬and give legally binding instructions, ‫( תורה‬Deu 17:8-13). Failure to comply
is met with capital punishment.
· The study of ‫ תורה‬is enjoyable and desirable as an object of meditation (Psa 1:2),
rather than legalistic drudgery which a traditional “law” rendering may conjure up
for some readers.8
· In it and from it flow wisdom and understanding (Sir 24:23-34; Bar 4:1-4).9
9) Exegetical notes on select passages

Exo 24:12. Childs calls the syntax of this verse “particularly baffling” and “confused.”10
The main concern is the best way to understand the waw attached to ‫תורה‬. In this case, we
are left inquiring about the implied relationship between two elements: 1) the tablets of
stone and 2) “the law” (‫ּתֹורה‬
ָ ‫ )וְ ַה‬and “the commandment” (‫)וְ ַה ִּמ ְצוָ ה‬. In other words, are the
7 Gerald H. Wilson, Psalms, vol. 1 of The NIV Application Commentary (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002), p.
360.
8 Nancy deClaissé-Walford, Rolf A. Jacobson, and Beth LaNeel Tanner, The Book of Psalms, The New
International Commentary on the Old Testament (Grand Rapids; Cambridge: Eerdmans, 2014), see discussion
on Psa 1:2.
9 On the debated relationship of wisdom and Torah, see Michael V. Fox, Proverbs 10–31: A New Translation
with Introduction and Commentary, vol. 18B of Anchor Yale Bible (New Haven; London: Yale University
Press, 2009), pp. 951-962.
10 Brevard S. Childs, The Book of Exodus: A Critical, Theological Commentary, ed. Peter Ackroyd et al., The
Old Testament Library (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2004), p. 499. For a fuller discussion of
this verse, see Thomas B. Dozeman, Commentary on Exodus, The Eerdmans Critical Commentary (Grand
Rapids; Cambridge: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2009), p. 584; and Noel D. Osborn and
Howard A. Hatton, A Handbook on Exodus, UBS Handbook Series (New York: United Bible Societies, 1999),
p. 575.
14
tablets distinct from the law and commandment, or are the tablets equal to, or contain, the
law and the commandment? GKC §154a cites Exo 24:12 as an example of wāw explicativum
(“explicative waw” BHRG §40.23.4.2.10), wherein the waw conjunction serves an
explanatory function much like the word “namely.” This is in keeping with Paratext’s
“Hebrew Textual Commentary” (HOTTP) remark and suggestion, that, “The meaning of ‫ו‬,
‘and’ is here either ‘that is, or ‘with.’”1 Accordingly, versions such as NJPS, CSB, and CEB
translate, “the stone tablets with the teachings and commandment.”
Num 19:2; 31:21. The phrase ‫ּתֹורה‬
ָ ‫ ֻח ַקת ַה‬appears in Num 19:2 and 31:21, where it is
variously translated “decree of the Law” (NJB) and “the law of the ritual” (thus “ritual law”
[NJPS]). Since ‫ תורה‬may carry the idea of “ritual” (sense 1c) and ‫ח ָקה‬,
ֻ “statute,” the
construction ‫ּתֹורה‬
ָ ‫ ֻח ַקת ַה‬may be considered a type of hendiadys whereby a noun (‫ תורה‬in
this case) fulfills an adjectival role, i.e. ‫ תורה‬as “ritual law” (similar to Lev 18:30 ‫ּתֹועבֹּת‬
ֵ ‫ֻחקֹות ַה‬
“customs of abomination” meaning “abominable customs”).2
Concerning the transmission of the text itself, a confusion between ‫הפרה‬,
ָ “the cow,” and
‫ּתֹורה‬
ָ ‫ה‬, ַ “the law,” may have resulted in a scribal error in the Hebrew manuscript tradition at
Num 19:2, a variation which may account for the Vulgate’s unique rendering “ista est religio
victimae,” where victimae, “sacrifice,” appears to translate ‫ פרה‬rather than ‫תורה‬. No major
version could be found to have followed the Vulgate in this regard, which likely explains
HOTTP’s lack of comment on this weakly attested textual variation. Accepting the MT text
of Num 19:2, we may describe ‫ תורה‬as fulfilling an adjectival role as an absolute noun in a
construct chain (see also Neh 12:44) in addition to the more widely supported rendering,
“statute of the law” (NRSV).
2Sa 7:19. See notes under sense 1d above.
Isa 1:10. At times in Isaiah and Jeremiah, it is difficult to determine whether ‫ תורה‬should
be taken generally (sense 1) or specifically (sense 2). Nonetheless, true prophetic instruction
ultimately has the same source as a collection of authoritative norms: YHWH God. In Isa
1:10, Oswalt sees irony in the usage of ‫תורה‬:
“…teaching here is probably ironic, for the word being translated is tôrâ or ‘law.’ It
is probable that already in some circles the word was coming to have the exclusively
1 “Hebrew Textual Commentary (HOTTP 1976-79),” in Paratext (United Bible Societies; SIL International,
2020).
2 Oxford English Dictionary (OED) lists this is the first but now “obsolete” and “rare” sense of hendiadys,
giving the example: “a man of wealth for a wealthy man.” BHRG 25.4.4. lists, “Entity–characteristic
(description, attribute, quality)” as one possible semantic relationship between nouns in construct.
15
priestly and cultic cast that it eventually received as ‘law’ (cf. Calvin). Isaiah is saying
that the instruction which God gave Moses did not have chiefly to do with cultic
prescription and legalistic righteousness. Rather, God’s tôrâ has to do with character
and attitudes and relationships, all of which may be symbolized in the ceremonies
but which are not to be replaced by the ceremonies. This tôrâ has been called the
prophetic torah, but recently it has been argued that this understanding stems
originally from the wisdom traditions with their emphasis upon practical character.”3
HALOT suggests that Isa 1:10 be seen as a legal decision given the passage's trial, or
courtroom, setting.
Neh 9:13. In Neh 9:13, Steinmman suggests that in the plural construct phrase ‫וְ תֹורֹות ֱא ֶׁמת‬
(“teachings of truth”) ‫ ֱא ֶׁמת‬functions as an adjectival genitive with the meaning “true laws”
(see also Mal 2:6).4
10) ‫ תורה‬in (Bible) translation
10.1) Biblical Aramaic

In the Aramaic letter recorded in Ezr 7:12-26, a section often seen as “officially
establishing the Mosaic law and ritual in Jerusalem and Judea,”5 king Artaxerxes addresses
“Ezra the priest” as ‫י־א ָלּה ְש ַמיָ א‬
ֱ ‫ס ַפר ָד ָתא ִּ ִּֽד‬,
ָ “scribe of the law (‫)דת‬
ָ of the God of heaven”
(7:12). In the preceding verse (7:11), Ezra is similarly described as “the priest, the scribe”
(or “priestly scribe” NET) further specifying that he is a “scribe in matters (‫)ד ְב ֵרי‬
ִּ of the
commandments of YHWH (‫)מ ְצֹות־יְ הוָ ה‬
ִּ and his statutes over Israel (‫)וְ ֻח ָקיו ַעל־יִּ ְש ָר ֵ ִּֽאל‬. The
Aramaic ‫דת‬,ָ “law” (cp. Heb. ‫“ ָדת‬decree, law”; Akk. dātu ) employed in the first instance is
understood to be a loanword from Persian dāta and “to be taken as the same as ‫”ּתֹורה‬
ָ in the
context of Ezr 7:12,21 (HALOT), for which the most obvious Greek equivalent is νόμος.
10.2) Old Greek: Septuagint (LXX)

In the LXX, νόμος, or νόμιμος, (“custom, law, ordinance” LSJ) consistently translates
‫תורה‬, followed by ἐντολή (“order, commandment”) and several other terms in a minority of
3 John N. Oswalt, The Book of Isaiah, Chapters 1–39, The New International Commentary on the Old
Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1986), p. 96.
4 Andrew E. Steinmann, Ezra and Nehemiah, Concordia Commentary (Saint Louis: Concordia Publishing
House, 2010), p. 525.
5 C. C. Torrey, “The Aramaic Portions of Ezra,” The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures
24.3 (1908), p. 210.
16
cases.
In the LXX translation, Reventlow sees “an adjustment that built a bridge between the
synagogue and the faith of preexilic Israel” in that,
“the translation of the word torah (Hebrew: instruction, teaching) with the Greek
term nomos, ‘law,’ clearly points to an understanding of the interpretation of the
Torah in the context of the synagogue, which was then understood as a book of the
law that comprises a collection of prescriptions that are to regulate the entire life of a
Jew. This understanding was offered as an analogy to the Hellenistic understanding
of juridical law and also was partially influenced by it.”6
Burke calls the Septuagintal choice “nomos ‘law’ for torah ‘instruction, teaching’... fateful
and seriously constricted or chang[ing] the meaning of [these] important Hebrew terms.”7
He is not the only one of this opinion.8 By contrast, an alternative proposal considers that
perhaps the LXX translation more clearly reflects a change of ‫ תורה‬function and political
milieu (post-exilic, second temple), rather than a purposeful change of meaning or
mistranslation on the part of the translators. This becomes all the more plausible if one
accepts the “Persian authorization” of the Torah, where, under Persian rule, the Jews were
permitted to self-regulate using their own, indigenous rule of law.9 Under this
understanding, at the time of translation, ‫ תורה‬as a corpus would have functioned socially
and politically more like an established rule of law (nomos), formally recognized by a ruling
albeit foreign power, rather than (or perhaps in addition to) parochial directives wrapped in
6 Reventlow, History of Biblical Interpretation, p. 24.

7 David G. Burke, “The First Versions: The Septuagint, the Targums, and the Latin,” in A History of Bible
Translation, ed. Philip A. Noss, 2nd ed. (Rome; Manchester: Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura; St. Jerome
Publishing, 2011), p. 66. Sweeney similarly deploys a not-so-sweet sentiment toward Greek influence: “The
term ‫ּתֹורה‬,
ָ frequently mistranslated as ‘law’ under the influence of Paul’s writings in the NT, properly means
‘instruction,’ particularly divine instruction, in that it derives from the hiphil form of the root ‫ירה‬, ‘to guide’”
(Marvin Alan Sweeney, Zephaniah: A Commentary, ed. Paul D. Hanson, Hermeneia [Minneapolis: Fortress
Press, 2003], p. 165).
8 Note, for example, the comments by Waltke and Yu: “The traditional rendering of tôrâ by “lex” (Augustine),
“Gesetz” (Luther), and “Law” (English versions) is misleading, for the sense of law in the Western world
derives from the Roman world” (Bruce K. Waltke and Charles Yu, An Old Testament Theology: An Exegetical,
Canonical, and Thematic Approach, 1st ed. [Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2007], chap. 15). See also the bold
comments by Walton and Walton in The Lost World of the Torah: Law as Covenant and Wisdom in Ancient
Context (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2019), p. 217.
9 See James W. Watts, ed., Persia and Torah: The Theory of Imperial Authorization of the Pentateuch, SBL
Symposium Series 17 (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2001).

17
narrative.10 In any case, even if one is not fully committed to the “Persian authorization”
thesis, it is reasonable to suppose that the Septuagintal preference for nomos to translate
torah more accurately reflects the Sitz im Leben of its translators, than would a translation
resembling “instruction, teaching.”1
10.3) Syriac Peshitta and Latin Vulgate

ܽ ‫ נמוס( ܳܢ‬similar to Greek νόμος) in the vast majority of
The Syriac Peshitta employs ‫ܡܘܣ‬
occurrences of ‫תורה‬, but makes use of ‫ܝܬܐ‬ ܳ ‫ܐܘ ܳܪ‬
ܽ (‫אוריתא‬, cp. Hebrew ‫ תורה‬minus the t-) in
Kings (2Ki 22:11; 23:24,25) and Chronicles (2Ch 23:18; 34:14-15) to refer to the
ܳ ‫ܝܘ‬
Pentateuch.2 In one instance (2Sa 7:19), ‫ܠܦ ܳܢܐ‬ ܽ (‫יולפנא‬, “learning, study, scholarship,
instruction”3) translates ‫תורה‬.

The Latin Vulgate (along with Augustine) consistently translates lex, legis (“law”)
throughout the Hebrew Bible, with the exception of Neh 12:43 (in decore gratiarum
actionis, “in honour of thanksgiving” [DRC])4 and Dan 9:11 (libro Moysi, “book of
Moses”).5
10.4) The German Bible: Martin Buber

In their 1929 German translation, Martin Buber and Franz Rosenzeweig translated ‫תורה‬
by Weisung and Unterweisung (“instruction”), breaking with a tradition established by the
Luther Bible (1545) which translates it as Gesetz (“law”).
10.5) Contemporary English translations

The following chart presents a sampling of contemporary English translations of ‫תורה‬:
| Version | Gen 26:5 | Lev 6:2 (8) | Neh 8:1 | Psa 19:8 (7) | 2Ch 14:3 (4)
| BHS | ‫קֹותי וְ תֹור ָֹּתי‬
ַ ‫ֹותי ֻח‬
ַ ‫ּתֹורת | ִּמ ְש ַמ ְר ִּּתי ִּמ ְצ‬
ַ | ‫ּתֹורת מ ֶֹּׁשה‬
ַ ‫ֵס ֶׁפר‬ | ‫ּתֹורת יְ הוָ ה‬
ַ |
10 See Law, chap. 2, “When the World Became Greek.”

1 For a fuller discussion of this and related issues, see the very entertaining (“If only the Seventy had known
better!” [p. 331]), Stephen Westerholm, “Torah, Nomos, and Law: A Question of ‘Meaning,’” Studies in
Religion/Sciences Religieuses 15.3 (1986): 327–36.
2 Robert Payne Smith, A Compendious Syriac Dictionary (Oxford: Clarendon, 1903), p. 8A.
3 Robert Payne Smith, A Compendious Syriac Dictionary (Oxford: Clarendon, 1903), p. 189.
4 A misreading of ‫ּתֹורה‬
ָ ‫ ַה‬as ‫ּתֹודה‬
ָ ‫“( ַה‬thanksgiving”) may have occasioned this translation. See David Marcus,
Ezra and Nehemiah: Critical Apparatus and Notes, ed. Adrian Schenker, vol. 20 of Biblia Hebraica Quinta
(Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2006), p. 80.
5 In Num 19:2, the Vulgate appears to be following a source text without ‫( תורה‬see BHS apparatus).
18
‫ּתֹורה וְ ַה ִּמ ְצָוִּֽה‬

ָ ‫ַה‬
| NRSV | my charge, my commandments, my statutes, and my laws | ritual
| book of the law of Moses | the law of the Lord | the law and the
commandment
| NJPS | My charge: My commandments, My laws, and My teachings | ritual
| scroll of the Teaching of Moses | the teaching of the LORD | the
Teaching and the Commandment
| ESV | my charge, my commandments, my statutes, and my laws | law | Book
of the Law of Moses | the law of the Lord | the law and the commandment
| CSB | my mandate, my commands, my statutes, and my instructions | law | book
of the law of Moses | the instruction of the Lord | the instruction and the
commands
| NKJV | My charge, My commandments, My statutes, and My laws | law | Book
of the Law of Moses | the law of the Lord | the law and the commandment
| NIV | everything I required of him, keeping my commands, my decrees and my
instructions | regulations | Book of the Law of Moses | the law of the Lord | his
laws and commands
| CEB | my orders, my commandments, my statutes, and my instructions | the
Instruction | Instruction scroll from Moses | the Lord’s instruction | the
Instruction and the commandments
| NLT | my requirements, commands, decrees, and instructions | instructions | Book
of the Law of Moses | the instructions of the Lord | his law and his commands
| GNTUK | all my laws and commands | regulations | the book of the
Law | The law of the LORD | his teachings and commands
| BFE | my charge, my orders, my decrees and my instructions | instruction |
Mosheh’s instruction document | Yahweh’s instruction | the instruction and
the order
| Alter | My charge, My commandments, My statutes, and My teachings. |
teaching |— |— |—
11) Translation issues related to ‫תורה‬

That ‫ תורה‬has its own entry in the Dictionary of Untranslatables bears witness to the rich
and varied cross-cultural voyages this Hebrew term has undertaken. “To speak of
19
untranslatables in no way implies that the terms in question... are not and cannot be
translated: the untranslatable is rather what one keeps on (not) translating.”6 This helps to
explain why we witness a diversity of renderings in the preceding section. In view of this,
each translator has the threefold task of carefully considering the diachronic evolution of
‫ תורה‬across the Hebrew canon, the synchronic nuance on display in a given context, and the
happiest equivalent(s) mapping ‫ תורה‬to the conceptual framework of the target language.
Given the semantic development of ‫ תורה‬across the Hebrew Bible (e.g. “instruction” in
Gen-Num; collection of instructions starting in Deu; hatorah as “law” in Late Biblical
Hebrew (Ezr-Neh and 1-2Chr),7 it may not be advisable to strive to translate ‫תורה‬
concordantly (with the same equivalent) across the entire Old Testament, depending, of
course, on the skopos of the target translation. The Christian Standard Bible (CSB), for
example, employs a number of equivalents for ‫ תורה‬depending on the context:
instruction(s), law(s), teaching(s), legal(ly), revelation, and ruling. Nevertheless, every effort
should be made to render uniformly compound forms such as ‫ּתֹורת יְ הוָ ה (“תורה‬
ַ of YHWH”;
Exo 13:9 et al.), ‫ּתֹורת מ ֶֹּׁשה (“תורה‬
ַ of Moses”; Jos 8:31 et al.), ‫ּתֹורה‬
ָ ‫“( ֵס ֶׁפר ַה‬book of ‫תורה‬,” Deu
29:21 et al.), and ‫ֹלהים (“תורה‬
ִּ ‫ּתֹורת ֱא‬
ַ of God”; Jos 24:26 et al.)
11.1) Translation flowchart

In view of the referential ambiguity of ‫תורה‬, the translator will do well to pay careful
attention to the surrounding context and any collocations with which ‫ תורה‬occurs before
seeking to determine which sense to prefer in a given context. Helpful questions for a
translator to ask include:
1. Is ‫ תורה‬singular or plural? In the plural, ‫ תורה‬regularly refers to instructions in
general (sense 1) even if those instructions are contained within the ‫ תורה‬collection
(sense 2). Daniel 9:10-11 is illustrative: “his instructions” (v. 10) and “Israel has
broken your law[.] The promised curse written in the law of Moses…” (v. 11).
1b. If ‫ תורה‬is singular, we most often understand this to refer to authoritative
teaching as a collection or in summary (e.g. Deu 1:5).
2. Is ‫ תורה‬in construct with a proper noun (frequently Moses) or modified by a
6 Barbara Cassin, “Introduction,” in Dictionary of Untranslatables: A Philosophical Lexicon, ed. Barbara

Cassin, Jacques Lezra, and Michael Wood, trans. Michael Wood et al., ed. Emily Apter (Princeton; Oxford:
Princeton University Press, 2014).
7 Karina Martin Hogan, “The Meanings of ‘Tôrâ’ in ‘4 Ezra,’” Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian,
Hellenistic, and Roman Period 38.4/5 (2007), p. 531-32.
20
pronominal suffix (my, your)? If so, this most regularly refers to the collection or
summary of divine instruction delivered by YHWH to Moses (with the exception of
Gen 26:5).
3. Is ‫ תורה‬definite (appearing, for example, with the definite article ‫?)ה‬
ַ If so, the
sense is likely the same as 1 above, except where further modified by a relative clause
(e.g. ‫ּתֹורה ֲא ֶׁשר יֹורּוָך‬
ָ ‫“ ַה‬the instruction which they are instructing you” Deu 17:11).
4. Is ‫ תורה‬in construct with a common noun (‫ּתֹורת ָהעֹּלָ ה‬,
ַ “the ritual of the burnt
offering,” Lev 6.2 [8] NJPS)? If so, the sense is likely that of instruction concerning
the common noun: “here’s the way that you shall do X...” or “here’s how X is...” (e.g.
the temple in Ezk 43:11,12).
4b. Or, ‫ תורה‬may function adjectivally, modifying the common noun (see
“Exegetical notes” on Num 19:2 below).
5. Is the occurrence of ‫ תורה‬found in “later” books in the Hebrew canon (Ezr-Neh,
1-2Chr)? If so, the sense is likely similar to #1-2, but perhaps best translated as “law”
to describe its function as a formal rule of law, especially if the target equivalent
“teaching, instruction” lacks the authoritative, legal or judicial connotations
supposed by ‫ תורה‬in these contexts.
6. Otherwise, the occurrence of ‫ תורה‬most likely refers to instruction in general and
not to a set collection of instructions like the Pentateuch (Torah). Examples of this
are found in Gen, Lev, Prov, et al.
7. If ‫ תורה‬is coordinated with a word of closely related meaning (for example, Zec
7:12), see below, “Translating words of closely related meaning.”
11.2) Translating words of closely related meaning

In contexts where ‫ תורה‬appears with words of closely related meaning (Exo 18:16,20), an
important question to consider is whether a significant distinction is being made between
terms or whether a certain comprehensiveness is in view, meaning in Gen 26:5, for
example, that Abraham obeyed God completely?8
When ‫ תורה‬occurs in contexts without reference to words with a closely related meaning,
translators will likely have little difficulty finding a natural translation equivalent whether in
a substantival (“instruction, teaching”) or verbal form (“the things Moses taught” or “the
8 See, for example, the CEV translation of Gen 26:5; commentary by Sarna, Genesis; and Everett Fox, The
Five Books of Moses, who comments, “my commandments…: These are not specified; this is probably a poetic
phrase describing a general idea.”
21
things that Moses gave you to do”). However, when ‫ תורה‬appears alongside words with
closely related meanings, additional creativity and target language research may be
required. In such cases, several options present themselves:
1. Identify synonyms reflecting various shades of meaning (teaching,
commandment, rule, law, word, statute, precept, decree, ways, regulations) and
translate concordantly by striving to maintain a unique translational equivalent for
each Hebrew term (see NJPS and RSV in Psa 119, for example).
2. Recycle. In contexts where ‫ תורה‬appears with a single word of closely related
meaning, translators could choose to reuse equivalents; for example, by translating
‫“( חֹּק‬law”) in Exo 18:16 using the same equivalent employed for ‫ִּמ ְצוָ ה‬
(“commandment”) two chapters earlier in Exo 16:28 (so CEV).
3. Use a single, general equivalent to cover multiple words of closely related
meaning. See, for example, Zec 7:12 in TEV and NFC where the combined plural
“instructions” covers “the law and the words” (contrast with CSB9). See also TEV
and CEV translation of Exo 24:12.
4. Qualify a phrase to reflect a variety of instructions. For example, “the different
(different) things the Lord taught/commanded,” “all the various/different
commands,” or “all the words/everything that the Lord commanded…”
11.3) Referential ambiguity

In a given context, does ‫ תורה‬refer to instruction in general, or more specifically to the
collection of YHWH’s instruction delivered through Moses (“the law of Moses”)? If the
latter, does ‫ תורה‬then refer by extension to the entire Pentateuch? It is worth quoting Enns
at length on the difficulty of ascertaining the referent of ‫ תורה‬in a given context:
“…many of the uses of ‫ּתֹורה‬
ָ simply defy clear categorization[.] Not every mention
of ‫ּתֹורה‬
ָ means the same thing. Hence, when ‫ּתֹורה‬
ָ is used without further
specification, it is often difficult to say with certainty precisely what the content of
this ‫ּתֹורה‬
ָ is.”10
Psa 78 provides a striking example of the range of ‫ תורה‬referents.1 In v. 1, the psalmist
encourages the reader/listener to heed his ‫ תורה‬before going on to explain that his ‫תורה‬
9 CSB translates “the law or the words” where most versions translate “the law and the words,” maintaining
the possibility of a distinction.
10 VanGemeren, Willem, ed. NIDOTTE, p. 896.
1 VanGemeren, Willem, ed. NIDOTTE, p. 897.
22
contains mysteries passed down by the ancestors and recounts the mighty acts of YHWH.
Verse 5 describes how YHWH set up a ‫ תורה‬in Israel (in parallel to “a testimony in Jacob”)
only for verse 10 to lament how some refused to live by it. The recounting of Israel’s history
in this psalm underlines the importance of narrative as a vehicle for instruction in addition
to explicit lawmaking (cp. Rom 15:4) while demonstrating the referential ambiguity of ‫תורה‬.
11.4) Interlingual comparison

When referring to the entirety of YHWH’s instructions given through Moses, translators
should compare their proposed equivalent to how languages of wider communication
(LWC) in their area have translated the phrase ‫ּתֹורת מ ֶֹּׁשה‬
ַ or νόμος Μωϋσέως in the NT
(“law of Moses”; see Luk 2:22; 22:44; Act 13:39). For example, in Luk 2:22, Adamawa
Fulfulde (Cameroon) renders τὸν νόμον Μωϋσέως as “tawreeta Muusa,” the word
“tawreeta” clearly being derived from a cognate equivalent to the Biblical Hebrew ‫תורה‬,
likely in this case stemming from Arabic (tawrat).2 Adopting such an equivalent may be
appropriate in contexts referring to the Hebrew Scriptures or the “law of Moses” as
collections, but likely less so when referring to general instructions from YHWH God.3
Drew Maust
Bibliography
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W.W. Norton & Co, 2004. (The Five Books of Moses)
Andersen, Francis I. Habakkuk: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary.
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Barthélemy, Dominique. Critique Textuelle de l’Ancien Testament: 1. Josué, Juges, Ruth,
Samuel, Rois, Chroniques, Esdras, Néhémie, Esther. Éditions Universitaires / Vandenhoeck
Ruprecht, 1982.
Beecher, Willis J. “Three Notes.” Journal of the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis
8 (1888): 137–42.
———. “Torah: A Word-Study in the Old Testament.” Journal of Biblical Literature 24.1
(1905): 1–16.
Biblical Studies Press. The NET Bible First Edition Notes. Biblical Studies Press, 2006.
2 Compare also “moodiɓɓe tawreeta” as the translation of “teachers of the law.”

3 Robert G. Bratcher and William David Reyburn, A Translator’s Handbook on the Book of Psalms, UBS
Handbook Series (New York: United Bible Societies, 1991), p. 192.
23
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45.
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Fox, Everett. The Five Books of Moses: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers,
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Moses)
Fox, Michael V. Proverbs 10–31: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary.
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Arthur Ernest Cowley. 2d English ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1910. (GKC)
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Heschel, Abraham Joshua. Man Is Not Alone: A Philosophy of Religion. New York: Farrar,
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Jenni, E., and C. Westermann, eds. Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament. Peabody,
MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1997. (TLOT)
Jocz, J. “Torah” in Moisés Silva and Merrill Chapin Tenney, eds. The Zondervan
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Koehler, L., W. Baumgartner, M.E.J. Richardson, and J.J. Stamm, eds. The Hebrew and
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Payne Smith, Robert. A Compendious Syriac Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon, 1903.
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———. “Understanding Torah: Ancient Legal Text, Covenant Stipulation, and Christian
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Westerholm, Stephen. “Torah, Nomos, and Law: A Question of ‘Meaning.’” Studies in
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Wilson, Gerald H. Psalms. Vol. 1 of The NIV Application Commentary. Grand Rapids:
Zondervan, 2002.
27

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Key Terms of the Old Testament

5 November 2021, Release 5

© 2021 SIL International®

How to Access KTOT

The Hebrew word ‫ּתֹורה‬

their decontamination...” (Lev 14:2, author’s translation)1

1 Compare with NJPS, NRSV, TOB; NFC “la cérémonie.”

in the Instruction [‫]ּתֹורה‬

Several examples serve to illustrate the understanding of ‫ תורה‬as an established collection

1.1) Contextual uses

Collection, or summary, of instructions

rival in the textual tradition” (1982, p. 247; author’s translation).

3) Frequency and distribution

Holman, 1994), p. 137

5) Important word combinations with ‫תורה‬

6) Words with closely related meanings

See below “Translating words of closely related meaning.”

7) Words with opposite meanings

8) Social contexts and cultural expectations related to ‫תורה‬

God (Psa 19).7

9) Exegetical notes on select passages

10) ‫ תורה‬in (Bible) translation

10.1) Biblical Aramaic

10.2) Old Greek: Septuagint (LXX)

6 Reventlow, History of Biblical Interpretation, p. 24.

Symposium Series 17 (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2001).

10.3) Syriac Peshitta and Latin Vulgate

instruction”3) translates ‫תורה‬.

10.4) The German Bible: Martin Buber

10.5) Contemporary English translations

10 See Law, chap. 2, “When the World Became Greek.”

‫ּתֹורה וְ ַה ִּמ ְצָוִּֽה‬

11) Translation issues related to ‫תורה‬

11.1) Translation flowchart

6 Barbara Cassin, “Introduction,” in Dictionary of Untranslatables: A Philosophical Lexicon, ed. Barbara

11.2) Translating words of closely related meaning

11.3) Referential ambiguity

11.4) Interlingual comparison

2 Compare also “moodiɓɓe tawreeta” as the translation of “teachers of the law.”

Sweeney, Marvin Alan. Zephaniah: A Commentary. Edited by Paul D. Hanson.

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