Human Anatomy &

Physiology

The Digestive
System
 Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Pharynx
(throat)
Oral cavity Salivary
(mouth) glands
Esophagus
Stomach
Pancreas
Small
Liver intestine
Gallbladder Large
intestine

Appendix

Rectum
Anus
Functions of the Digestive
System
1. Ingestion
2. Mastication
3. Propulsion
4. Mixing
5. Secretion
Functions of the Digestive
System
6. Digestion
7. Absorption
8. Elimination
Fig. 16.9

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Digestive tract Bolus
1
Wave of
1 A wave of smooth muscle relaxation moves relaxation
ahead of the bolus, allowing the digestive
tract to expand.

2 A wave of contraction of the smooth muscle

Bolus
behind the bolus propels it through the
moves.
digestive tract.

2 Wave of
contraction
Fig. 16.15

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

1 A secretion introduced into the Secretion or food

digestive tract or into food within
the tract begins in one location.
1

2 Segments of the digestive tract

alternate between contraction 2 Contraction waves
and relaxation.

3 Material (brown) in the intestine is 3

spread out in both directions from
the site of introduction.
4 Contraction waves

4 The secretion or food is spread out

in the digestive tract and becomes more
diffuse (lighter color) through time.
Functions of the Digestive
Tract
ORAL CAVITY
Ingestion, Taste, Mastication, Digestion, Swallowing Communication,
Protection

PHARYNX
Swallowing, Breathing, & Protection

ESOPHAGUS
Propulsion and Protection
Functions of the Digestive
Tract
STOMACH
Storage, Digestion, Absorption,Protection, Mixing and Propulsion

SMALL INTESTINE
Neutralization, Digestion, Absorption, Excretion, Protection, Mixing and
Propulsion

LARGE INTESTINE
Absorption, Storage, Protection, Mixing and Propulsion
HISTOLOGY OF THE DIGESTIVE
TRACT

Histology – the study of the microscopic structure

of tissues

Slide
HISTOLOGY OF THE DIGESTIVE
TRACT
MUCOSA

SUBMUCOSA
Is a thick connective tissue layer containing nerves , blood
vessel and small glands

MUSCULARIS
Consist of an inner layer of smooth circular muscle

Slide
HISTOLOGY OF THE DIGESTIVE
TRACT
SEROSA OR ADVENTITIA

Fourth layer of the digestive tract , serosa covers the

organs in the body cavities whereas adventitia
attaches the organ to the surrounding tissues.

Slide
HISTOLOGY OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT
Regulation of the Digestive System

Elaborate nervous and chemical mechanism

regulate the movement, secretion, absorption,
and elimination process

Slide
Regulation of the Digestive System

• Nervous Regulation of the Digestive System

Some of the nervous control is local, occurring as
the result of local reflexes with in the enteric plexus,
and some is more general, mediated largely by the
parasympathetic division of ANS through the
VAGUS NERVE.

Slide
Regulation of the Digestive System

• Chemical Regulation of the Digestive System

Hormones such as GASTRIN, SECRETIN, and others
which are secreted by endocrine cells of the
digestive system and carried through the circulation
to target organs of the digestive system or to target
tissues in other systems.

Slide
 Peritoneum

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide

 Peritoneum
The body walls and organs of the abdominal cavity are
in lined with SEROUS MEMBRANES, this will secrete a
serous fluid that provides a lubricating films. These
membranes and fluid reduce friction as organs move
within the abdomen. The serous membrane that
covers the organs is the VISCERAL PERITONEUM and
the one that covers the interior surface of the body
wall is the PARIETAL PERITONEUM.

Slide
 Peritoneum

MESENTERIES
A connective tissue sheets that hold many organs in
place w/ in the abdominal cavity.

RETROPERITONEAL
Other abdominal organs lie against the abdominal
wall ( Retroperitoneal Organs : Doudenum,
Pancreas, Ascending/Descending Colon, Rectum ,
Kidneys, Adrenal Glands and the Urinary Bladder)

Slide
 Peritoneum

LESSER OMENTUM
Mesentery connecting the lesser curvature of the stomach
and the proximal end of the duodenum to the liver

GREATER OMENTUM
Mesentery extending as fold from greater curvature
the to the transverse colon
OMENTAL BURSA
Folding, a cavity, or pocket is formed between 2 layers of
mesentery
 Peritoneum

CORONARY LIGAMENT
Attaches the liver to the diaphragm

FALCIFORM LIGAMENT
Attaches the liver to the anterior abdominal wall

MESENTERY PROPER
Serous membranes attached to abdominal organs, it is also
used specifically associated w/ small intestine.
 PERITONITIS
Is the INFLAMATION of the peritoneal membranes.
This inflammation may result from chemical
irritation by substance such as bile that have
escaped from damage digestive tract, or from
infection or when appendix rupture. Symptoms will
be Abd. Pain, bloating or a feeling of fullness in
abdomen, fever, Nausea and vomiting,
diarrhea,etc.
Organs of the Digestive System

Figure 14.1

Slide
 ORAL CAVITY

Figure 14.1

Slide
 Organs of the Alimentary Canal

 Mouth
 Pharynx
 Esophagus
 Stomach
 Small intestine
 Large intestine
 Anus
Slide 14.3
 Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy
 Lips (labia) – protect
the anterior opening
 Cheeks – form the
lateral walls
 Hard palate – forms
the anterior roof
 Soft palate – forms
the posterior roof
 Uvula – fleshy
projection of the Figure 14.2a
soft palate
Slide 14.4
 Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy
 Vestibule – space
between lips
externally and teeth
and gums internally
 Oral cavity – area
contained by the
teeth
 Tongue – attached at
hyoid and styloid
processes of the
skull, and by the
lingual frenulum Figure 14.2a

Slide 14.5
TEETH

Slide 14.5
MOLAR TOOTH

Slide 14.5
 Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy

 Tonsils
 Palatine tonsils
 Lingual tonsil

Figure 14.2a

Slide 14.6
 Processes of the Mouth

 Mastication (chewing) of food

 Mixing masticated food with saliva
 Initiation of swallowing by the tongue
 Allowing for the sense of taste

Slide 14.7
Tongue

●The tongue attaches to

the hyoid bone and to
the styloid process of
the skull
●The inguinal frenulum
holds the tongue to the
floor of the mouth and
keeps it from sliding
posteriorly
FUNCTIONS OF THE TONGUE
>Tasting (gustatory sensation)

>Chewing (aiding in mastication)

>Speech formation.

>Sound formation.
 TONGUE-TIED

A person is “ toungue-tied” in a
more literal sense if the frenulum
extends too far toward the tip of the
toungue, thereby inhibiting normal
movement of the tongue and
interfering with normal speech.
 Frenulum Medical Problem

●When a child has a

short frenulum or an
attachment that is
farther forward, surgery
is sometimes required
to improve speech
SALIVARY GLANDS

Slide 14.7
 Pharynx Anatomy
 Nasopharynx –
not part of the
digestive system
 Oropharynx –
posterior to oral
cavity
 Laryngopharynx –
below the oropharynx
and connected to
the esophagus Figure 14.2a

Slide 14.8
 Pharynx Function
 Serves as a passageway for air and
food
 Food is propelled to the esophagus by
two muscle layers
 Longitudinal inner layer
 Circular outer layer
 Food movement is by alternating
contractions of the muscle layers
(peristalsis)
Slide 14.9
 Esophagus

 Runs from pharynx to stomach through

the diaphragm
 Conducts food by peristalsis
(slow rhythmic squeezing)
 Passageway for food only (respiratory
system branches off after the pharynx)

Slide
 HIATAL HERNIA
hiatal hernia is when your stomach bulges
up into your chest through an opening in
your diaphragm, the muscle that separates
the two areas. The opening is called the
hiatus, so this condition is also called a
hiatus hernia. There are two main types of
hiatal hernias: sliding and paraesophageal
 FUNCTIONS OF MAJOR
DIGESTIVE SECRETION
Saliva Moistens food and mucous membrane
Esophagus Lubricates the esophagus , protects the
mucus esophagus lining

Gastric Secretion Digests protein into smaller pieces

( Pepsinogen &HCL)

Bile Emulsify fats

Pancreas Break down sugars, converting food
into fuel for body’s cell
Slide
Swallowing/Deglutition
3 PHASES

1. Voluntary Phase

2. Pharyngeal Phase

3. Esophageal Phase

Slide
STOMACH

The stomach is an enlarge segment of the

digestive tract in the left superior part of the
abdomen. Its shape and size vary from person
to person. Size and shape change from time to
time depending on its food content and posture
of the body

Slide
STOMACH

Slide
Anatomy of the Stomach

Slide
Stomach Anatomy

Figure 14.4a

Slide
 HYPERTROPHIC PYLORIC
STENOSIS
Hypertrophic pyloric stenosis is blockage of the
passage out of the stomach due to thickening
(hypertrophy) of the muscle at the junction
between the stomach and the intestines. The
thickened muscle creates a partial blockage
(obstruction) that interferes with the passage of
stomach contents into the small intestine.
Symptoms are vomiting, abdominal pain, small
stools, irritability, etc.
Histology of the Stomach

Slide
SECRETIONS OF THE STOMACH
Hydrochloric acid produces a pH of about 2.0 in the stomach.
The acid kills micro-organisms and activates pepsin from its
inactive form, called pep-sinogen. Pepsin breaks covalent
bonds of proteins to form smaller peptide chains. Pepsin
exhibits optimum enzymatic activity at a pH of about 2.0. A
thick layer of mucus lubricates the epithelial cells of the
stomach wall and protects them from the damaging effect of the
acidic chyme and pepsin. Irritation of the stomach mucosa
stimulates the secretion of a greater volume of
mucus. Intrinsic (in-trin′ sik) factor binds with vitamin
B12 and makes it more readily absorbed in the small intestine.
Vitamin B12 is important in deoxyri-bonucleic acid (DNA)
synthesis and in red blood cell production.

Slide
 HEART BURN
Heartburn is a burning pain in your chest, just
behind your breastbone. The pain is often worse
after eating, in the evening, or when lying down
or bending over. Occasional heartburn is
common and no cause for alarm. Most people
can manage the discomfort of heartburn on
their own with lifestyle changes and
nonprescription medications. Heartburn that is
more frequent or interferes with your daily
routine may be a symptom of a more serious
condition that requires medical care.
 REGULATION OF STOMACH
SECRETION
1. CEPHALIC PHASE The cephalic phase of digestion is the stage in
which the stomach responds to the mere sight,
smell, taste, or thought of food.

2. GASTRIC PHASE This phase takes about three to four hours. In gastric
phase, food has entered and distended the stomach.
This stimulates G cells to release gastrin, which
stimulates parietal cells to secrete gastric acid

3. INTESTINAL PHASE Partially digested food fills the duodenum.

This phase has two parts, the excitatory,
and the inhibitory.
 PEPTIC ULCER
Peptic ulcer disease is a condition in which
painful sores or ulcers develop in the lining
of the stomach or the first part of the small
intestine (the duodenum). Normally, a
thick layer of mucus protects the stomach
lining from the effect of its digestive juices.
But many things can reduce this protective
layer, allowing stomach acid to damage the
tissue.
 VOMITING

Can result from irritation anywhere from

the digestive tract . Action potentials travel
through the Vagus Nerve and Spinal
visceral afferent nerves to the vomiting
center in the medulla oblongata.
 MOVEMENT OF THE STOMACH

1. STOMACH FILING As food enters the stomach, the rugae flatten,

and the stomach volume increases.

2. MIXING OF STOMACH Ingested food is thoroughly mixed with the

CONTENTS secretion of the stomach glands to form chime. This
mixing is accomplished by gentle mixing
waves/peristaltic waves.

3. STOMACH EMPTYING Liquids exit the stomach ( 1 ½ - 2 ½ hours) while

a typical meal usually empty with in 3-4 hours
ANATOMY OF THE SMALL INTESTINE

Slide
ANATOMY OF THE SMALL INTESTINE
The small intestine is about 6 meters (m) long and
consists of three parts: the duodenum, the
jejunum, and the ileum The duodenum is about 25
cm long (the term duodenum means 12, suggesting
that it is 12 in. long). The jejunum is about 2.5 m
long and makes up two fifths of the total length of
the small intestine. The ileum is about 3.5 m long
and makes up three-fifths of the small intestine. The
duodenum nearly completes a 180-degree arc as it
curves within the abdominal cavity. Part of the
pancreas lies within this arc. The common bile duct
from the liver and the pancreatic duct from the
pancreas join and empty into the duodenum. Slide
ABSORPTION OF THE SMALL INTESTINE

A major function of the small

intestine is the absorption of
nutrients. Most absorption
occurs in the duodenum and
jejunum, although some
absorption also occurs in the
ileum
 DOUDENAL ULCER
Duodenal ulcers are small holes or
erosions that occur in the lining of your
duodenum, which is the first part of your
small intestine, immediately beyond your
stomach. A duodenal ulcer is a type of
peptic ulcer. The other type of peptic ulcer
is a stomach (gastric) ulcer and this occurs
in your stomach.
 LIVER
The liver weighs about 1.36 kilograms (kg) (3 lb) and is
located in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen,
tucked against the inferior surface of the diaphragm. The
posterior surface of the liver is in contact with the right
ribs 5–12. It is divided into two major lobes, the right lobe
and the left lobe, which are separated by a connective
tissue septum, the falciform (fal′si-fōrm) ligament.
 FUNCTIONS OF THE LIVER
DIGESTION Bile neutralizes stomach acid and emulsifies fats,
which facilitates fat digestion.

EXCRETION Bile contains excretory products, such as cholesterol,

fats, and bile pigments (e.g., bilirubin), that result from
hemoglobin breakdown

NUTRIENT Liver cells remove sugar from the blood and store it in the
form of glycogen; they also store fat, vitamins (A, B12, D,
STORAGE E, and K), copper, and iron.

NUTRIENT Liver cells convert some nutrients into others; for example,
amino acids can be converted to lipids or glucose, fats
CONVERSION can be converted to phospholipids, and vitamin D is
converted to its active form
 FUNCTIONS OF THE LIVER
DETOXIFICATION OF Liver cells remove ammonia from the circulation and
HARMFUL convert it to urea, which is eliminated in the urine; other
CHEMICALS substances are detoxified and secreted in the bile or
excreted in the urine.

SYNTHESIS OF The liver synthesizes blood proteins, such as albumin,

NEW MOLECULES fibrinogen, globulins, and clotting factors.
 LIVER RUPTURE OR
ENLARGEMENT
The liver is easily ruptured because it is a
large, fixed in position, and fragile , or it can be
lacerated by a broken rib. Liver rupture or
laceration results in severe internal bleeding .

The liver may become enlarged as the result of

heart failure, hepatic cancer, cirrhosis, or
Hodgkin’s disease ( a lymphatic Cancer)
 HEPATITIS & CIRRHOSIS

Hepatitis is caused by a Virus which

results to inflammation and damage by
the liver
 PANCREAS
A glandular organ located in the
abdomen. It makes pancreatic
juices, which contain enzymes
that aid in digestion, and it
produces several hormones,
including insulin. The pancreas
is surrounded by the stomach,
intestines, and other organs.
Slide
FUNCTIONS OF THE PANCREAS

MAKES PANCREATIC JUICES (enzymes)

help breakdown
sugars and fats/ helps digestion

SECRETES 2 MAIN HORMONES

(Insulin & Glucagon)
PANCREATITIS & PANCREATIC
CANCER
Pancreatitis is inflammation of the pancreas. The
pancreas is a long, flat gland that sits tucked behind the
stomach in the upper abdomen. The pancreas produces
enzymes that help digestion and hormones that help
regulate the way your body processes sugar (glucose).

Pancreatic cancer occurs within the tissues of the

pancreas, which is a vital endocrine organ located behind
the stomach. The pancreas plays an essential role in
digestion by producing enzymes that the body needs to
digest fats, carbohydrates, and proteins.
 LARGE INTESTINE

The large intestine consists of

the cecum, colon, rectum, and
anal
canal
FUNCTIONS OF THE LARGE
INTESTINES
Normally, 18–24 hours are required
for material to pass through
the large intestine, in contrast to the
3–5 hours required for chyme
to move through the small intestine.
FUNCTIONS OF THE LARGE
INTESTINES
While in the colon, chyme is converted to
feces The formation of FECES involves the
absorption of water and salts, the
secretion of mucus, and extensive action
of microorganisms. The colon stores the
feces until they are eliminated by the
process of DEFECATION
 FUNCTIONS OF THE LARGE
INTESTINES
Every 8–12 hours, large parts of the colon undergo several
strong contractions, called mass movements, which propel the
colon contents a considerable distance toward the anus. Each
mass movement contraction extends over 20 or more
centimeters of the large intestine, which is a much longer part
of the digestive tract than that covered by a peristaltic
contraction. These mass movements are very common
following some meals, especially breakfast.
 Functions of the Large Intestine

 Absorption of water
 Eliminates indigestible food from the
body as feces
 Does not participate in digestion of food
 Goblet cells produce mucus to act as a
lubricant

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide

 MOVEMENT IN THE LARGE
INTESTINE

MASS Transverse and descending colon undergo

MOVEMENT several strong peristaltic movement

GASTROCOLIC Local reflexes in the enteric plexus

REFLEXES

DOUDENOCOLIC Local reflexesinitiated by the doudenum

REFELXES
DEFECATION Distention of the rectal wall by feces act
REFELXE as stimulus
Large Intestine

Figure 14.8

Slide
 APPENDICITIS

Appendicitis is an inflammation of the appendix, a

finger-shaped pouch that projects from your colon
on the lower right side of your abdomen.

Appendicitis causes pain in your lower right

abdomen. However, in most people, pain begins
around the navel and then moves. As
inflammation worsens, appendicitis pain typically
increases and eventually becomes severe.
 HEMORRHOIDS

Hemorrhoids , also called piles, are

swollen veins in your anus and lower
rectum, similar to varicose veins.
Hemorrhoids can develop inside the
rectum (internal hemorrhoids) or under
the skin around the anus (external
hemorrhoids).
DIGESTION, ABSORPTION, AND
TRANSPORT

DIGESTION Is the breakdown of food to molecules that

are small enough to be absorbed into
circulation.
MECHANICAL Breaks large food particles down to
DIGESTION smaller ones

CHEMICAL Involves the breaking of covalent chemical

DIGESTION bonds in organic molecules by digestive
enzymes
ABSORPTION Molecules are move out of the digestive
& TRANSPORT tract and into the circulation for
distribution throughout the body
EFFECTS OF AGING ON DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
THANK YOU
AND GOOD
LUCK!