Afghanistan

Coordinates: 34°31′N 69°11′E

Afghanistan,[d] officially the Islamic Emirate of

Afghanistan,[e] is a landlocked country located at the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan
crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. Referred to ‫د افغانستان اسالمي امارت‬ (Pashto)
as the Heart of Asia,[26] it is bordered by Pakistan to the Də Afġānistān Islāmī Imārat
east and south,[f] Iran to the west, Turkmenistan to the
‫امارت اسالمی افغانستان‬ (Dari)
northwest, Uzbekistan to the north, Tajikistan to the
Imārat-i Islāmī-yi Afghānistān
northeast, and China to the northeast and east.
Occupying 652,864 square kilometers (252,072  sq  mi)
of land, the country is predominantly mountainous with
plains in the north and the southwest, which are
separated by the Hindu Kush mountain range. Kabul is
the country's largest city and serves as its capital. As of
Flag
2021, Afghanistan's population is 40.2 million[6] Emblem
(officially estimated to be 32.9 million).[28]
Motto: ‫ محمد رسول الله‬،‫ال إله إال الله‬
Lā ʾilāha ʾillā llāh, Muhammadun rasūlu llāh
Human habitation in Afghanistan dates back to the "There is no god but God; Muhammad is the
Middle Paleolithic era, and the country's strategic messenger of God." (Shahadah)
location along the historic Silk Road has led it to being
described, picturesquely, as the 'roundabout of the Anthem: ‫دا د باتورانو کور‬
Dā Də Bātorāno Kor
ancient world'.[29] Popularly referred to as the graveyard
"This Is the Home of the Brave"[2]
of empires,[30] the land has historically been home to
various peoples and has witnessed numerous military
campaigns, including those by the Persians, Alexander
the Great, the Maurya Empire, Arab Muslims, the
Mongols, the British, the Soviet Union, and most
recently by a US-led coalition. Afghanistan also served
as the source from which the Greco-Bactrians and the
Mughals, amongst others, rose to form major
empires.[31] The various conquests and periods in both
the Iranian and Indian cultural spheres[32][33] made the
area a center for Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Hinduism,
and later Islam throughout history.[34]

The modern state of Afghanistan began with the Durrani

dynasty in the 18th century, with the Durrani Afghan
Empire being formed by Ahmad Shah Durrani. The
Durrani Empire led conquests in which, at its peak,
encompassed land that spanned from eastern Iran to
northern India.[35][36] However, Dost Mohammad Khan
is sometimes considered to be the founder of the first
modern Afghan state.[37] Following the Durrani
Empire's decline and the death of Ahmad Shah Durrani
and Timur Shah, a succession crisis occurred between
Zaman Shah Durrani, Mahmud Shah Durrani, and Shah
Shuja Durrani. Under the rule of Mahmud Shah, the
execution of Fateh Khan Barakzai led to the overthrow
of the Durrani dynasty, leading it to be divided into
multiple smaller independent kingdoms, including but
not limited to Herat, Kandahar, and Kabul. Afghanistan
would be reunited in the 19th century after seven
decades of civil war from 1793 to 1863, with wars of
unification led by Dost Mohammad Khan from 1823 to
1863, where he conquered the independent principalities
of Afghanistan under the Emirate of Kabul. Dost
Mohammad died in 1863, days after his last campaign to
unite Afghanistan, and Afghanistan was consequently
thrown back into civil war with fighting amongst his
Status UN member state
successors. During this time, Afghanistan became a
under an
buffer state in the Great Game between the British unrecognized
Empire (in British-ruled India) and the Russian Empire. government
From India, the British attempted to subjugate
Afghanistan but were repelled in the First Anglo- Capital Kabul
Afghan War. However, the Second Anglo-Afghan War and largest city 34°31′N 69°11′E[3]
saw a British victory and the successful establishment of Official languages Pashto · Dari
British political influence over Afghanistan. Following
Ethnic groups 42% Pashtun
the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919, Afghanistan
(2019 unofficial 27% Tajik
became free of foreign political hegemony, and emerged
estimates)[a][5][6][7][8]
as the independent Kingdom of Afghanistan in June   9% Hazara
1926 under Amanullah Khan. This monarchy lasted   9% Uzbek
almost half a century, until Zahir Shah was overthrown   4% Aimaq
in 1973, following which the Republic of Afghanistan   3% Turkmen
was established.   2% Baloch
  4% Others
Since the late 1970s, Afghanistan's history has been
dominated by extensive warfare, including coups, Religion (2015) 99.7% Islam (official)
invasions, insurgencies, and civil wars. The conflict 0.3% Others
began in 1978 when a communist revolution established
a socialist state, and subsequent infighting prompted the Demonym(s) Afghan[b][11][12]
Soviet Union to invade Afghanistan in 1979.
Government Unitary totalitarian[13]
Mujahideen fought against the Soviets in the Soviet–
provisional theocratic
Afghan War and continued fighting amongst themselves
Islamic emirate[14]
following the Soviets' withdrawal in 1989. The Islamic
fundamentalist Taliban controlled most of the country by • Supreme Leader Hibatullah Akhundzada
1996, but their Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan received • Prime Minister Abdul Kabir (acting)
little international recognition before its overthrow in the • Chief Justice Abdul Hakim Haqqani
2001 US invasion of Afghanistan. The Taliban returned Legislature None[c]
to power in 2021 after capturing Kabul and
overthrowing the government of the Islamic Republic of Formation
Afghanistan, thus bringing an end to the 2001–2021 • Hotak dynasty 1709–1738
war.[38] In September 2021 the Taliban re-established • Durrani Empire 1747–1823
the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan with an interim • Emirate 1823–1839
government made up entirely of Taliban members.[39] • Restoration of 1839–1842
The Taliban government remains internationally the Durrani
unrecognized.[40] Kingdom
Afghanistan is rich in natural resources, including • Restoration of 1842–1926
lithium, iron, zinc, and copper. It is also the world's the Emirate
largest producer of opium,[41] second largest producer • Dost Mohammad 27 May 1863
unites
of cannabis,[42] and third largest of both saffron[43] and Afghanistan
cashmere.[44] The country is a member of the South • Anglo-Afghan 26 May 1879
Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and a Agreement
founding member of the Organization of Islamic • Independence 19 August 1919
Cooperation. Due to the effects of war in recent • Kingdom 9 June 1926
decades, the country has dealt with high levels of • Republic 17 July 1973
terrorism, poverty, and child malnutrition. Afghanistan • Democratic 27–28 April 1978
remains among the world's least developed countries, Republic
ranking 180th in the Human development Index. • Islamic State 28 April 1992
Afghanistan's gross domestic product (GDP) is $81 • Islamic Emirate 27 September 1996
billion by purchasing power parity and $20.1 billion by • Islamic Republic 26 January 2004
nominal values. Per capita, its GDP is amongst the • Restoration of 15 August 2021
lowest of any country as of 2020. Islamic Emirate
Area
Etymology • Total 652,867[19] km2
(252,073 sq mi) (40th)
Some scholars suggest that the root name Afghān is • Water (%) negligible
derived from the Sanskrit word Aśvakan, which was the
Population
name used for ancient inhabitants of the Hindu
Kush.[45] Aśvakan literally means "horsemen", "horse
• 2022 estimate 38,346,720[20] (37th)
breeders", or "cavalrymen" (from aśva, the Sanskrit and • Density 48.08/km2
Avestan words for "horse").[46] However, others such (124.5/sq mi)
as Ibrahim Khan have contended that the word Afghan GDP (PPP) 2020 estimate
comes from Bactrian.[47] • Total $81.007 billion[21]
• Per capita $2,459[21]
Historically, the ethnonym Afghān was used to refer to
ethnic Pashtuns.[48] The Arabic and Persian form of the GDP (nominal) 2020 estimate
name, Afġān, was first attested in the 10th-century • Total $20.136 billion[21]
geography book Hudud al-'Alam.[49] The last part of • Per capita $611[21]
the name, "-stan", is a Persian suffix meaning "place
of". Therefore, "Afghanistan" translates to "land of the HDI (2021)  0.478[22][23]
Afghans", or "land of the Pashtuns" in a historical low · 180th
sense. According to the third edition of the Currency Afghani (‫( )افغانی‬AFN)
Encyclopedia of Islam:[50]
Time zone UTC+4:30
Lunar Calendar[24]
The name Afghanistan (Afghānistān, land (Afghanistan Time)
of the Afghans / Pashtuns, afāghina, sing. DST is not
afghān) can be traced to the early observed[25]
eighth/fourteenth century, when it Driving side right
designated the easternmost part of the
Kartid realm. This name was later used for Calling code +93
certain regions in the Ṣafavid and Mughal ISO 3166 code AF
empires that were inhabited by Afghans.
While based on a state-supporting elite of Internet TLD .af
Abdālī / Durrānī Afghans, the Sadūzāʾī
Durrānī polity that came into being in 1160
/ 1747 was not called Afghanistan in its
 own day. The name became a state designation
nineteenth century.

The term "Afghanistan" was officially used in 1855, when the British recognized Dost Mohammad Khan
as king of Afghanistan.[51]

Ancient history
Many empires and kingdoms have also risen to power in
Afghanistan, such as the Greco-Bactrians, Indo-Scythians,
Kushans, Kidarites, Hephthalites, Alkhons, Nezaks, Zunbils, Turk
Shahis, Hindu Shahis, Lawiks, Saffarids, Samanids, Ghaznavids,
Ghurids, Khaljis, Kartids, Lodis, Surs, Mughals, and finally, the
Hotak and Durrani dynasties, which marked the political origins of
the modern state.[52] Throughout millennia several cities within the
modern day Afghanistan served as capitals of various empires,
Tents of Afghan nomads in the
namely, Bactra (Balkh), Alexandria on the Oxus (Ai-Khanoum),
northern Badghis province of
Kapisi, Sigal, Kabul, Kunduz, Zaranj, Firozkoh, Herat, Ghazna
Afghanistan. Early peasant farming
(Ghazni), Binban (Bamyan), and Kandahar.
villages came into existence in
Afghanistan about 7,000 years ago.
The country has been home to various peoples through the ages,
among them the ancient Iranian peoples, who established the
dominant role of Indo-Iranian languages in the region. At multiple
points, the land has been incorporated within vast regional empires; among them the Achaemenid Empire,
the Macedonian Empire, the Maurya Empire, and the Islamic Empire.[53] For its success in resisting foreign
occupation during the 19th and 20th centuries, Afghanistan has been called the "graveyard of empires",[54]
though it is unknown who coined the phrase.[55]

Prehistory and antiquity

Excavations of prehistoric sites suggest that humans were living in what is now Afghanistan at least 50,000
years ago, and that farming communities in the area were among the earliest in the world. An important site
of early historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares to Egypt in terms of the historical
value of its archaeological sites.[56][57]

Ancient era

Archaeological exploration done in the 20th century suggests that the geographical area of Afghanistan has
been closely connected by culture and trade with its neighbors to the east, west, and north. Artifacts typical
of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron Ages have been found in Afghanistan. Urban
civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of Mundigak (near
Kandahar in the south of the country) was a center of the Helmand culture. More recent findings
established that the Indus Valley Civilization stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan, making the
ancient civilization today part of Pakistan, Afghanistan, and India. In more detail, it extended from what
today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has been
found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan.[58][59] There are several smaller IVC
colonies to be found in Afghanistan as well. An Indus Valley site has been found on the Oxus River at
Shortugai in northern Afghanistan, which shows Afghanistan to have been a part of Indus Valley
Civilization.[60]
After 2000 BCE, successive waves of semi-nomadic people
from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan;
among them were many Indo-European-speaking Indo-
Iranians. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia,
Western Asia, and toward Europe via the area north of the
Caspian Sea. The region at the time was referred to as
Ariana.[56][61]

By the middle of the 6th century BCE, the Achaemenids

overthrew the Medes and incorporated Arachosia, Aria, and
Bactria within its eastern boundaries. An inscription on the
tombstone of Darius I of Persia mentions the Kabul Valley in
a list of the 29 countries that he had conquered.[62] The The extent of the Indus Valley civilization
region of Arachosia, around Kandahar in modern-day during its mature phase
southern Afghanistan, used to be primarily Zoroastrian and
played a key role in the transfer of the Avesta to Persia and is
thus considered by some to be the "second homeland of
Zoroastrianism".[63][64][65]

Alexander the Great and his Macedonian forces arrived in

Afghanistan in 330 BCE after defeating Darius III of Persia a year
earlier in the Battle of Gaugamela. Following Alexander's brief
occupation, the successor state of the Seleucid Empire controlled
the region until 305 BCE, when they gave much of it to the Maurya
Empire as part of an alliance treaty. The Mauryans controlled the
area south of the Hindu Kush until they were overthrown in about A "Bactrian gold" Scythian belt
185 BCE. Their decline began 60 years after Ashoka's rule ended, depicting Dionysus, from Tillya Tepe
leading to the Hellenistic reconquest by the Greco-Bactrians. Much in the ancient region of Bactria
of it soon broke away from them and became part of the Indo-
Greek Kingdom. They were defeated and expelled by the Indo-
Scythians in the late 2nd century BCE.[66][67]

The Silk Road appeared during the first century BCE, and
Afghanistan flourished with trade, with routes to China,
India, Persia, and north to the cities of Bukhara, Samarkand,
and Khiva in present-day Uzbekistan.[68] Goods and ideas
were exchanged at this center point, such as Chinese silk,
Persian silver and Roman gold, while the region of present
Afghanistan was mining and trading lapis lazuli stones[69]
mainly from the Badakhshan region.

During the first century BCE, the Parthian Empire subjugated

the region but lost it to their Indo-Parthian vassals. In the mid- Approximate maximum extent of the Greco-
to-late first century CE the vast Kushan Empire, centered in Bactrian kingdom, formed by the
Afghanistan, became great patrons of Buddhist culture, fragmentation of Alexander the Great's
making Buddhism flourish throughout the region. The Empire, c. 180 BCE
Kushans were overthrown by the Sassanids in the 3rd
century CE, though the Indo-Sassanids continued to rule at
least parts of the region. They were followed by the Kidarites who, in turn, was replaced by the
Hephthalites. They were replaced by the Turk Shahi in the 7th century. The Buddhist Turk Shahi of Kabul
was replaced by a Hindu dynasty before the Saffarids
conquered the area in 870, this Hindu dynasty was Gaoju Turks

called Hindu Shahi.[70] Much of the northeastern and

JUAN-JUAN
KHAGANATE

southern areas of the country remained dominated by BYZANTINE

NORTHERN
WEI
Buddhist culture.[71][72] EMPIRE
SASANIAN
EMPIRE Alchon
LIANG
Huns
GUPTA
EMPIRE
Medieval history

Islamic conquest
The Imperial Hephthalites c. 500 CE

Arab Muslims brought Islam to Herat and Zaranj in 642  CE and

began spreading eastward; some of the native inhabitants they
encountered accepted it while others revolted. Before the arrival of
Islam, the region used to be home to various beliefs and cults, often
resulting in Syncretism between the dominant religions[73][74] such
as Zoroastrianism,[63][64][65] Buddhism or Greco-Buddhism,
Saffarid rule at its greatest extent Ancient Iranian religions,[75] Hinduism, Christianity,[76][77] and
under Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar Judaism.[78][79] An exemplification of the syncretism in the region
would be that people were patrons of Buddhism but still
worshipped local Iranian gods such as Ahura Mazda, Lady Nana,
Anahita or Mihr (Mithra) and portrayed Greek Gods like Heracles or Tyche as protectors of
Buddha.[80][75][81] The Zunbils and Kabul Shahi were first conquered in 870 CE by the Saffarid Muslims
of Zaranj. Later, the Samanids extended their Islamic influence south of the Hindu Kush. It is reported that
Muslims and non-Muslims still lived side by side in Kabul before the Ghaznavids rose to power in the 10th
century.[82][83][84]

By the 11th century, Mahmud of Ghazni defeated the remaining Hindu rulers and effectively Islamized the
wider region,[85] with the exception of Kafiristan.[86] Mahmud made Ghazni into an important city and
patronized intellectuals such as the historian Al-Biruni and the poet Ferdowsi.[87] The Ghaznavid dynasty
was overthrown by the Ghurids in 1186, whose architectural achievements included the remote Minaret of
Jam. The Ghurids controlled Afghanistan for less than a century before being conquered by the
Khwarazmian dynasty in 1215.[88]

Mongols and Babur with the Lodi Dynasty

In 1219 CE, Genghis Khan and his Mongol army overran the

region. His troops are said to have annihilated the
Khwarazmian cities of Herat and Balkh as well as
Bamyan.[89] The destruction caused by the Mongols forced
many locals to return to an agrarian rural society.[90] Mongol
rule continued with the Ilkhanate in the northwest while the
Khalji dynasty administered the Afghan tribal areas south of
the Hindu Kush until the invasion of Timur (aka Tamerlane),
who established the Timurid Empire in 1370. Under the rule Mongol invasions and conquests
of Shah Rukh the city served as the focal point of the Timurid
Renaissance, whose glory matched Florence of the Italian
Renaissance as the center of a cultural rebirth.[91][92]
In the early 16th century, Babur arrived from Ferghana and captured Kabul from the Arghun dynasty.[93]
Babur would go on to conquer the Afghan Lodi dynasty who had ruled the Delhi Sultanate in the First
Battle of Panipat.[94] Between the 16th and 18th century, the Uzbek Khanate of Bukhara, Iranian Safavids,
and Indian Mughals ruled parts of the territory.[95] During the Medieval Period, the northwestern area of
Afghanistan was referred to by the regional name Khorasan. Two of the four capitals of Khorasan (Herat
and Balkh) are now located in Afghanistan, while the regions of Kandahar, Zabulistan, Ghazni, Kabulistan,
and Afghanistan formed the frontier between Khorasan and Hindustan. However, up to the 19th century
the term Khorasan was commonly used among natives to describe their country; Sir George Elphinstone
wrote with amazement that the country known to outsiders as "Afghanistan" was referred to by its own
inhabitants as "Khorasan" and that the first Afghan official whom he met at the border welcomed him to
Khorasan.[96][97][98][99]

Modern history

Hotak Dynasty

In 1709, Mirwais Hotak, a local Ghilzai tribal leader,

successfully rebelled against the Safavids. He defeated
Gurgin Khan, the Georgian governor of Kandahar under the
Safavids, and established his own kingdom, also defeating
many attempts for the Safavids to annex the Kingdom.[100]
Mirwais died of natural causes in 1715 and was succeeded
by his brother Abdul Aziz, who was soon killed by Mirwais's
son Mahmud for possibly planning to sign a peace with the Map of the Hotak Empire during the reign of
Safavids. Mahmud led campaigns into modern Iran, with his Mirwais Hotak, 1709–1715
first attempt in 1719 besieging Kerman, but this attempt
failed. Mahmud led the Afghan army in 1722 to the Persian
capital of Isfahan, and captured the city after the Battle of Gulnabad and proclaimed himself King of
Persia.[100] The Afghan dynasty was ousted from Persia by Nader Shah after the 1729 Battle of Damghan.

Fall of the Hotak Dynasty

In 1738, Nader Shah and his forces captured Kandahar in the

siege of Kandahar, the last Hotak stronghold, from Shah
Hussain Hotak. Soon after, the Persian and Afghan forces
invaded India, Nader Shah had plundered Delhi, alongside
his 16-year-old commander, Ahmad Shah Durrani who had
assisted him on these campaigns. Nader Shah was
assassinated in 1747.[101][102]

Rise of the Durrani Empire

Map of the Hotak Empire at its height in
After the death of Nader Shah in 1747, Ahmad Shah Durrani 1728, disputed between Hussain Hotak
had returned to Kandahar with a contingent of 4,000 (centered in Kandahar) and Ashraf Hotak
Pashtuns. The Abdalis had "unanimously accepted" Ahmad (centered in Isfahan)
Shah as their new leader. With his ascension in 1747, Ahmad
Shah had led multiple campaigns against the Mughal Empire,
Maratha Empire, and then-receding Afsharid Empire. Ahmad Shah had captured Kabul and Peshawar from
the Mughal appointed governor, Nasir Khan. Ahmad Shah had then conquered Herat in 1750, and had also
captured Kashmir in 1752.[103] Ahmad Shah had launched two campaigns into Khorasan, (1750–1751)
and (1754–1755).[104] His first campaign had seen the siege of Mashhad, however, he was forced to retreat
after four months. In November 1750, he moved to siege Nishapur, but he was unable to capture the city
and was forced to retreat after heavy losses in early 1751. Ahmad Shah returned in 1754; he captured Tun,
and on 23 July, he sieged Mashhad once again. Mashhad had fallen on 2 December, but Shahrokh was
reappointed in 1755. He was forced to give up Torshiz, Bakharz, Jam, Khaf, and Turbat-e Haidari to the
Afghans, as well as accept Afghan sovereignty. Following this, Ahmad Shah had sieged Nishapur once
again, and captured it.

Objectives and Invasions of India

Ahmad Shah invaded India eight times during his reign. With the
capture of Peshawar, Ahmad Shah had a convenient striking point
to lead his military campaigns into Punjab and India.

Ahmad Shah had sought out multiple reasons for his invasions. He
saw Afghanistan in a dire state, and one that needed to expand and
exploit a weak but rich neighboring country, so he sought the
reasons needed to fill his treasury in a conquest-based
economy.[105] Ahmad Shah launched his first invasion in 1748.
Crossing the Indus River, his armies sacked and absorbed Lahore
into the Durrani Realm. He met Mughal armies at the Battle of
Manupur (1748), where he was defeated and forced to retreat to
back to Afghanistan.[106] He returned the next year in 1749 and
captured the area around Lahore and Punjab, presenting it as an
Afghan victory for this campaign. From 1749 to 1767, Ahmad
Portrait of Ahmad Shah Durrani Shah led six more invasions, the most important being the last; the
c. 1757 Third Battle of Panipat created a power vacuum in northern India,
halting Maratha expansion.

Death of Ahmad Shah and his successors

Ahmad Shah Durrani died in October 1772, and a civil war over succession followed, with his named
successor, Timur Shah Durrani succeeding him after the defeat of his brother, Suleiman Mirza.[107]

Timur Shah Durrani ascended to the throne in November 1772, having defeated a coalition under Shah
Wali Khan, the influential prime minister of the Durrani Empire, and Humayun Mirza. Timur Shah began
his reign by consolidating power toward himself and people loyal to him, purging Durrani Sardars and
influential tribal leaders in Kabul and Kandahar to bring support toward himself. One of Timur Shah's
reforms was to move the capital of the Durrani Empire from Kandahar to Kabul. Kabul was better as a base
of operations since it was essentially the heartland of the empire, and Kabul is the modern capital of
Afghanistan today. Timur Shah fought multiple series of rebellions to consolidate and hold the empire
together, and he also led campaigns into Punjab against the Sikhs like his father, though more successfully.
The most prominent example of his battles during this campaign was when he led his forces under Zangi
Khan Durrani – with over 18,000 men total of Afghan, Qizilbash, and Mongol cavalrymen – against over
60,000 Sikh men. The Sikhs lost over 30,000 in this battle and staged a Durrani resurgence in the Punjab
region[108] The Durranis lost Multan in 1772 after Ahmad Shah's death. Following this victory by Timur
Shah, Timur Shah was able to lay siege to Multan and recapture it,[109] incorporating it into the Durrani
Empire once again, reintegrating it as a province until the Siege of Multan (1818). Timur Shah was
succeeded by his son Zaman Shah Durrani after his death on in May 1793. Timur Shah's reign oversaw the
attempted stabilization and consolidation of the empire. However, Timur Shah had over 24 sons, which
plunged the empire in civil war over succession crises.[110]

Zaman Shah Durrani succeeded to the Durrani Throne following the death of his father, Timur Shah
Durrani. His brothers Mahmud Shah Durrani and Humayun Mirza revolted against him, with Humayun
centered in Kandahar and Mahmud Shah centered in Herat.[111] Zaman Shah would defeat Humayun and
force the loyalty of Mahmud Shah Durrani.[111] Securing his position on the throne, Zaman Shah led three
campaigns into Punjab. The first two campaigns captured Lahore, but he retreated due to intel about a
possible Qajar invasion. Zaman Shah embarked on his third campaign for Punjab in 1800 to deal with a
rebellious Ranjit Singh.[112] However, he was forced to withdraw, and Zaman Shah's reign was ended by
Mahmud Shah Durrani.[112] However, just under two years in his reign, Mahmud Shah Durrani was
deposed by his brother Shah Shuja Durrani (on 13 July 1803).[113] Shah Shuja attempted to consolidate the
Durrani Realm but was deposed by his brother at the Battle of Nimla (1809).[114] Mahmud Shah Durrani
defeated Shah Shuja and forced him to flee, usurping the throne again. His second reign began on 3 May
1809.[115]

Barakzai dynasty and British wars

Map of Afghanistan 1839–1863, showing the

First Anglo-Afghan war, and unification of
Afghanistan by Dost Mohammad Khan

By the early 19th century, the Afghan empire was under threat
from the Persians in the west and the Sikh Empire in the east.
Dost Mohammad Khan, ruler of Fateh Khan, leader of the Barakzai tribe, installed many of his
Afghanistan from 1826-1863
brothers in positions of power throughout the empire, mostly
ruling as governors of major cities and provinces. Fateh Khan
was brutally murdered in 1818 by Mahmud Shah. As a result,
the brothers of Fateh Khan and the Barakzai tribe rebelled, and a civil war brewed between the Sadozais
and the Barakzais. During this turbulent period, Afghanistan fractured into many states. These included the
Principality of Qandahar, Emirate of Herat, Khanate of Qunduz, Maimana Khanate, and many more states.
The most prominent state was the Emirate of Kabul, ruled by Dost Mohammad Khan after he declared
himself emir in summer 1826, having usurped the throne from his brother Sultan Mohammad Khan. He
was later granted the title of Amir al-Mu'minin for waging jihad against the Sikhs in 1834.[116][117] With
the collapse of the Durrani Empire, and the exile of the Sadozai Dynasty to be left to rule in Herat while
Afghanistan was in this turbulent period of civil war, Punjab and Kashmir were lost to Ranjit Singh, ruler
of the Sikh Empire, who invaded Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in March 1823 and captured the city of Peshawar
following the Battle of Nowshera, placing the Peshawar Sardars under his suzerainty. (This was one of the
many entities that split following the collapse of the Durrani Empire)[118] In 1837, Dost Mohammad Khan
attempted to conquer Peshawar and sent a large force under his son Wazir Akbar Khan, leading to the
Battle of Jamrud near the Khyber Pass. Akbar Khan and the Afghan army failed to capture the Jamrud Fort
from the Sikh Khalsa Army, but killed Sikh Commander Hari Singh Nalwa, thus ending the Afghan-Sikh
Wars. By this time the British were advancing from the east, conquering the Sikh Empire after it had its
own period of turbulence following the death of Ranjit Singh, which engaged the Emirate of Kabul in the
first major conflict during "The Great Game".[119]

In 1839, a British expeditionary force marched into Afghanistan,

invading the Principality of Qandahar, and in August 1839, seized
Kabul, forcing Dost Mohammad into shelter while he raised
resistance. Dost Mohammad Khan defeated the British in the
Parwan campaign, but surrendered following his victory. He was
replaced with the former Durrani ruler Shah Shuja Durrani as the
new ruler of Kabul, who was, unbeknownst to him, a de facto
puppet of the British on the throne.[120][121] Following an uprising
that saw the assassination of Shah Shuja, the 1842 retreat from
Kabul of British-Indian forces and the annihilation of Elphinstone's Afghan tribesmen in 1841, painted
army, and the punitive expedition of The Battle of Kabul that led to by British officer James Rattray
its sacking, the British gave up on their attempts to try and
subjugate Afghanistan, which allowed Dost Mohammad Khan to
return as ruler. He would spend most of his reign consolidating the parts of Afghanistan that were lost in the
Afghan civil war which raged from 1793 to 1863. He launched numerous campaigns after returning to
power in 1842, ruling only from Kabul, Ghazni, and other cities when he had returned. Dost Mohammad
united most of the Afghan realm in his reign, securing the last major state, Herat, in his final campaign.
During his campaigns of re-unification, he held friendly relations with the British despite internal and
external pressure to invade the British during the Sepoy mutiny, and affirmed their status toward each other
in the Second Anglo-Afghan treaty of 1857. Dost Mohammad died on 9 June 1863, a few weeks after his
campaign to capture Herat. Dost Mohammad's successors would fight for the throne of Afghanistan,
between Sher Ali Khan, Mohammad Afzal Khan, and Mohammad Azam Khan in the Afghan Civil War
(1863–1869). Sher Ali would win this civil war and would go on to rule the realm until 1878, when the
British returned in the Second Anglo-Afghan War to fight over perceived Russian influence in the region.
Abdur Rahman Khan replaced Ayub Khan, who had succeeded Sher Ali Khan after his death in 1879.
Britain gained control of Afghanistan's foreign relations as part of the Treaty of Gandamak of 1879, making
it an official British Protected State.[122] In 1893, Amir Abdur Rahman signed an agreement in which the
ethnic Pashtun and Baloch territories were divided by the Durand Line, which forms the modern-day
border between Pakistan and Afghanistan. Shia-dominated Hazarajat and pagan Kafiristan remained
politically independent until being conquered by Abdur Rahman Khan in 1891–1896. He was known as
the "Iron Amir" for his features and his ruthless methods against tribes.[123] He viewed railway and
telegraph lines coming from the Russian and British as trojan horses and therefore prevented railway
development in Afghanistan.[124] He died in 1901, succeeded by his son, Habibullah Khan.

How can a small power like Afghanistan, which is like a goat between these lions [Britain and
Russia] or a grain of wheat between two strong millstones of the grinding mill, [could] stand in
the midway of the stones without being ground to dust?

— Abdur Rahman Khan, the "Iron Amir", in 1900[125][126]

During the First World War, when Afghanistan was neutral, Habibullah Khan was met by officials of the
Central Powers in the Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition. They called on Afghanistan to declare full
independence from the United Kingdom, join them and attack British India, as part of the Hindu–German
Conspiracy. The effort to bring Afghanistan into the Central Powers failed, but it sparked discontent among
the population about maintaining neutrality with the British. Habibullah was assassinated during a hunting
trip in February 1919, and Amanullah Khan eventually assumed power. A staunch supporter of the 1915–
1916 expeditions, Amanullah Khan provoked the Third Anglo-Afghan War, entering British India via the
Khyber Pass.[127]

After the end of the Third Anglo-Afghan War and the signing of the Treaty
of Rawalpindi on 19 August 1919, Emir Amanullah Khan declared the
Emirate of Afghanistan a sovereign and fully independent state. He moved
to end his country's traditional isolation by establishing diplomatic relations
with the international community, particularly with the Soviet Union and
the Weimar Republic of Germany.[128][129] He proclaimed himself King of
Afghanistan on 9 June 1926, when the Emirate of Afghanistan became the
Kingdom of Afghanistan. Following a 1927–1928 tour of Europe and
Turkey, he introduced several reforms intended to modernize his nation. A
key force behind these reforms was Mahmud Tarzi, an ardent supporter of
the education of women. He fought for Article 68 of Afghanistan's 1923
constitution, which made elementary education compulsory. The institution
of slavery was abolished in the Emirate of Afghanistan in 1923.[130] King
Amanullah's wife, Queen Soraya, was an important figure during this
period in the fight for woman's education and against their oppression.[131]
Emir Amanullah invaded
Some of the reforms that were put in place, such as the abolition of the British India in 1919 and
traditional burqa for women and the opening of several co-educational proclaimed Afghanistan's
schools, quickly alienated many tribal and religious leaders, and this led to full independence thereafter.
the Afghan Civil War (1928–1929). Faced with the overwhelming armed He proclaimed himself King
opposition, King Amanullah abdicated in January 1929, and soon after of Afghanistan in June
Kabul fell to Saqqawist forces led by Habibullah Kalakani. [132] Prince 1926.
Mohammed Nadir Shah, Amanullah's cousin, in turn defeated and killed
Kalakani in October 1929, and was declared King Nadir Shah.[133] He
abandoned the reforms of King Amanullah in favor of a more gradual approach to modernization, but was
assassinated in 1933 by Abdul Khaliq, a 15-year-old Hazara student who was an Amanullah loyalist.[134]

Mohammed Zahir Shah, Nadir Shah's 19-year-old son, succeeded to the throne and reigned as king from
1933 to 1973. During the tribal revolts of 1944–1947, King Zahir's reign was challenged by Zadran, Safi,
Mangal, and Wazir tribesmen led by Mazrak Zadran, Salemai, and Mirzali Khan, among others – many of
whom were Amanullah loyalists. Close relations with the Muslim states Turkey, the Hashemite Kingdom of
Iraq and Iran/Persia were also pursued, while further international relations were sought by joining the
League of Nations in 1934. The 1930s saw the development of roads, infrastructure, the founding of a
national bank, and increased education. Road links in the north played a large part in a growing cotton and
textile industry.[135] The country built close relationships with the Axis powers, with Nazi Germany having
the largest share in Afghan development at the time, along with the Kingdom of Italy and the Empire of
Japan.[136]

Afghanistan has performed the function in central Asia which Korea and Laos-Cambodia have
performed in East and Southeast Asia: a regional flashpoint of colliding Great Power interests.

— James Phillips of The Heritage Foundation[137]

Contemporary history
Until 1946, King Zahir ruled with the assistance of his uncle, who held the
post of prime minister and continued the policies of Nadir Shah. Another of
Zahir Shah's uncles, Shah Mahmud Khan, became prime minister in 1946
and began an experiment allowing greater political freedom, but reversed
the policy when it went further than he expected. He was replaced in 1953
by Mohammed Daoud Khan, the King's cousin and brother-in-law, and a
Pashtun nationalist who sought the creation of a Pashtunistan, leading to
highly tense relations with Pakistan.[138] During his 10 years at the post
(until 1963), Daoud Khan pressed for social modernization reforms and
sought a closer relationship with the Soviet Union. Afterward, the 1964
constitution was formed, and the first non-royal prime minister was sworn
in.[135]

King Zahir Shah, like his father Nadir Shah, had a policy of maintaining
national independence while pursuing gradual modernization, creating King Zahir, the last reigning
nationalist feeling, and improving relations with the United Kingdom. monarch of Afghanistan,
However, Afghanistan remained neutral and was neither a participant in who reigned from 1933 until
World War II nor aligned with either power bloc in the Cold War thereafter. 1973
However, it was a beneficiary of the latter rivalry as both the Soviet Union
and the United States vied for influence by building Afghanistan's main
highways, airports, and other vital infrastructure in the post-war period. On a per capita basis, Afghanistan
received more Soviet development aid than any other country. Afghanistan had, therefore, good relations
with both Cold War enemies. In 1973, while the King was in Italy, Daoud Khan launched a bloodless coup
and became the first president of Afghanistan, abolishing the monarchy.

Democratic Republic and Soviet war

In April 1978, the communist

People's Democratic Party of
Afghanistan (PDPA) seized
power in a bloody coup d'état
against then-President
Mohammed Daoud Khan, in
what is called the Saur
Revolution. The PDPA declared
the establishment of the
Democratic Republic of Soviet troops in Gardez, Afghanistan in Hezb-i Islami Khalis
Afghanistan, with its first leader 1987 fighters in the Sultan
named as People's Democratic Valley of Kunar Province,
Party General Secretary Nur 1987
Muhammad Taraki.[139] This
would trigger a series of events
that would dramatically turn Afghanistan from a poor and secluded (albeit peaceful) country to a hotbed of
international terrorism.[140] The PDPA initiated various social, symbolic, and land distribution reforms that
provoked strong opposition, while also brutally oppressing political dissidents. This caused unrest and
quickly expanded into a state of civil war by 1979, waged by guerrilla mujahideen (and smaller Maoist
guerrillas) against regime forces countrywide. It quickly turned into a proxy war as the Pakistani
government provided these rebels with covert training centers, the United States supported them through
Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI),[141] and the Soviet Union sent thousands of military advisers to
support the PDPA regime.[142] Meanwhile, there was increasingly hostile friction between the competing
factions of the PDPA – the dominant Khalq and the more moderate Parcham.[143]
In September 1979, PDPA General Secretary Taraki was assassinated in an internal coup orchestrated by
fellow Khalq member, then-prime minister Hafizullah Amin, who became the new general secretary of the
People's Democratic Party. The situation in the country deteriorated under Amin, and thousands of people
went missing.[144] Displeased with Amin's government, the Soviet Army invaded the country in December
1979, heading for Kabul and killing Amin just three days later.[145] A Soviet-organized regime, led by
Parcham's Babrak Karmal but inclusive of both factions (Parcham and Khalq), filled the vacuum. Soviet
troops in more substantial numbers were deployed to stabilize Afghanistan under Karmal, marking the
beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War.[146] The United States and Pakistan,[141] along with smaller actors
like Saudi Arabia and China, continued supporting the rebels, delivering billions of dollars in cash and
weapons including two thousand FIM-92 Stinger surface-to-air missiles.[147][148] Lasting nine years, the
war caused the deaths of between 562,000[149] and 2 million Afghans,[150][151][152][153][154][155][156] and
displaced about 6  million people who subsequently fled Afghanistan, mainly to Pakistan and Iran.[157]
Heavy air bombardment destroyed many countryside villages, millions of landmines were planted,[158] and
some cities such as Herat and Kandahar were also damaged from bombardment. Pakistan's North-West
Frontier Province functioned as an organizational and networking base for the anti-Soviet Afghan
resistance, with the province's influential Deobandi ulama playing a major supporting role in promoting the
"jihad".[159] After the Soviet withdrawal, the civil war ensued until the communist regime under People's
Democratic Party leader Mohammad Najibullah collapsed in 1992.[160][161][162]

The Soviet-Afghan War had drastic social effects on Afghanistan. The militarization of society led to
heavily armed police, private bodyguards, openly armed civil defense groups, and other such things
becoming the norm in Afghanistan for decades thereafter.[163] The traditional power structure had shifted
from clergy, community elders, intelligentsia, and military in favor of powerful warlords.[164]

Post–Cold War conflict

Another civil war broke out after the creation of a

dysfunctional coalition government between
leaders of various mujahideen factions. Amid a
state of anarchy and factional
infighting, [165][166][167] various mujahideen
factions committed widespread rape, murder and
extortion,[166][168][169] while Kabul was heavily
bombarded and partially destroyed by the
fighting.[169] Several failed reconciliations and
alliances occurred between different leaders.[170]
The Taliban emerged in September 1994 as a
movement and militia of students (talib) from
Islamic madrassas (schools) in Pakistan,[169][171]
who soon had military support from Pakistan.[172] Development of the civil war from 1992 to late 2001
Taking control of Kandahar city that year,[169]
they conquered more territories until finally
driving out the government of Rabbani from Kabul in 1996,[173][174] where they established an
emirate[175] that gained international recognition from three countries: Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the
United Arab Emirates.[176] The Taliban were condemned internationally for the harsh enforcement of their
interpretation of Islamic sharia law, which resulted in the brutal treatment of many Afghans, especially
women.[177][178] During their rule, the Taliban and their allies committed massacres against Afghan
civilians, denied UN food supplies to starving civilians and conducted a policy of scorched earth, burning
vast areas of fertile land and destroying tens of thousands of homes.[179][180][181][182][183][184]
After the fall of Kabul to the Taliban, Ahmad Shah Massoud and Abdul Rashid Dostum formed the
Northern Alliance, later joined by others, to resist the Taliban. Dostum's forces were defeated by the
Taliban during the Battles of Mazar-i-Sharif in 1997 and 1998; Pakistan's Chief of Army Staff, Pervez
Musharraf, began sending thousands of Pakistanis to help the Taliban defeat the Northern
Alliance.[185][172][186][187][188] By 2000, the Northern Alliance only controlled 10% of territory, cornered
in the northeast. On 9 September 2001, Massoud was assassinated by two Arab suicide attackers in
Panjshir Valley. Around 400,000 Afghans died in internal conflicts between 1990 and 2001.[189]

US invasion and Islamic Republic

In October 2001, the United States invaded Afghanistan to remove the Taliban from power after they
refused to hand over Osama bin Laden, the prime suspect of the September 11 attacks, who was a "guest"
of the Taliban and was operating his al-Qaeda network in Afghanistan.[190][191][192] The majority of
Afghans supported the American invasion of their country.[193][194] During the initial invasion, US and
UK forces bombed al-Qaeda training camps, and later working with the Northern Alliance, the Taliban
regime came to an end.[195]

In December 2001, after the Taliban government was overthrown,

the Afghan Interim Administration under Hamid Karzai was
formed. The International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) was
established by the UN Security Council to help assist the Karzai
administration and provide basic security.[196][197] By this time,
after two decades of war as well as an acute famine at the time,
Afghanistan had one of the highest infant and child mortality rates
in the world, the lowest life expectancy, much of the population
were hungry,[198][199][200] and infrastructure was in ruins.[201] US troops and Chinooks in
Many foreign donors started providing aid and assistance to rebuild Afghanistan, 2008
the war-torn country.[202][203]

Taliban forces meanwhile began regrouping inside Pakistan, while more coalition troops entered
Afghanistan to help the rebuilding process.[204][205] The Taliban began an insurgency to regain control of
Afghanistan. Over the next decade, ISAF and Afghan troops led many offensives against the Taliban, but
failed to fully defeat them. Afghanistan remained one of the poorest countries in the world because of a lack
of foreign investment, government corruption, and the Taliban insurgency.[206][207]

Meanwhile, Karzai attempted to unite the peoples of the country,[208] and the Afghan government was able
to build some democratic structures, adopting a constitution in 2004 with the name Islamic Republic of
Afghanistan. Attempts were made, often with the support of foreign donor countries, to improve the
country's economy, healthcare, education, transport, and agriculture. ISAF forces also began to train the
Afghan National Security Forces. Following 2002, nearly five million Afghans were repatriated.[209] The
number of NATO troops present in Afghanistan peaked at 140,000 in 2011,[210] dropping to about 16,000
in 2018.[211]

In September 2014 Ashraf Ghani became president after the 2014 presidential election where for the first
time in Afghanistan's history power was democratically transferred.[212][213][214][215][216] On 28
December 2014, NATO formally ended ISAF combat operations in Afghanistan and transferred full
security responsibility to the Afghan government. The NATO-led Operation Resolute Support was formed
the same day as a successor to ISAF.[217][218] Thousands of NATO troops remained in the country to train
and advise Afghan government forces[219] and continue their fight against the Taliban.[220]
On 19 February 2020, the US–Taliban deal was made in Qatar. The
2020 US–Taliban deal was one of the critical events that caused the
collapse of the Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF);[221]
following the signing of the deal, the US dramatically reduced the
number of air attacks and deprived the ANSF of a critical edge in
fighting the Taliban insurgency, leading to the Taliban takeover of
Kabul.[222]

Second Taliban era

A map of Afghanistan showing the
NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg announced on 14 April 2021 Taliban offensive
2021 that the alliance had agreed to start withdrawing its troops
from Afghanistan by 1 May.[223] Soon after NATO troops began
withdrawing, the Taliban launched an offensive against the Afghan government and quickly advanced in
front of collapsing Afghan government forces.[224][225] The Taliban captured the capital city of Kabul on
15 August 2021, after regaining control over a vast majority of Afghanistan. Several foreign diplomats and
Afghan government officials, including president Ashraf Ghani,[226] were evacuated from the country, with
many Afghan civilians attempting to flee along with them.[227] An unofficial "coordination council" led by
senior statesmen was formed the next day to transfer the state institutions of the Islamic Republic of
Afghanistan to the Taliban.[228] On 17 August, first vice president Amrullah Saleh proclaimed himself
caretaker president and announced the formation of an anti-Taliban front with a reported 6,000+
troops[229][230] in the Panjshir Valley, along with Ahmad Massoud.[231][232] However, by 6 September, the
Taliban had taken control of most of Panjshir Province, with resistance fighters retreating to the
mountains.[233] Clashes in the valley ceased mid-September,[234] as Saleh and Massoud had fled to
neighboring Tajikistan.[235][236][233]

According to the Costs of War Project, 176,000 people were killed in the conflict, including 46,319
civilians, between 2001 and 2021.[237] According to the Uppsala Conflict Data Program, at least 212,191
people were killed in the conflict.[238] Following the 2001 invasion, more than 5.7 million refugees
returned to Afghanistan;[239] however, in 2021, 2.6 million Afghans remained refugees, primarily in Iran
and Pakistan, and another 4 million were internally displaced.[240]

The Taliban government is led by supreme leader Hibatullah

Taliban fighters in Kabul on a
captured Humvee following the 2021
fall of Kabul
exile instead.[248]
Akhundzada[241] and acting prime minister Hasan Akhund, who
took office on 7 September 2021.[242][243] Akhund is one of the
four founders of the Taliban[244] and was a deputy prime minister
of the previous emirate; his appointment was seen as a compromise
between moderates and hardliners.[245] A new, all-male cabinet was
formed, which included Abdul Hakim Haqqani as minister of
justice.[246][247] On 20 September 2021, United Nations Secretary-
General António Guterres received a letter from acting minister of
foreign affairs Amir Khan Muttaqi to formally claim Afghanistan's
seat as a member state for their official spokesman in Doha, Suhail
Shaheen. The United Nations did not recognize the previous
Taliban government and chose to work with the then-government in

Western nations suspended most of their humanitarian aid to Afghanistan following the Taliban's August
2021 takeover of the country; the World Bank and International Monetary Fund also halted their
payments.[249][250] More than half of Afghanistan's 39 million people faced an acute food shortage in
October 2021.[251] Human Rights Watch reported on 11 November 2021 that Afghanistan was facing
widespread famine due to an economic and banking crisis.[252]

Though the state of war in the country ended in 2021, armed conflict persists in some regions[253][254][255]
amid fighting between the Taliban and the local branch of the Islamic State, as well as an anti-Taliban
Republican insurgency. A year into Taliban rule, former president Hamid Karzai said in an interview: "In
terms of [an] end to widespread fighting and conflict, we are happy – there's more stability, there's more
security. But in terms of Afghanistan having a government that all Afghan people find themselves [in], we
still have a way to go. In terms of the economy of the country, it's a disaster."[256]

Following their return to power, the Taliban have significantly tackled corruption, now being placed as
150th on the corruption watchdog perception index. A massive upgrade from its former position at 180th in
2011, and 174th in 2021. In 2011, the country ranked next to Somalia, and North Korea. The Taliban have
also reportedly reduced bribery and extortion in public service areas.[257]

Geography
Afghanistan is located in Southern-Central Asia.[258][259][260][261][262] The region centered at Afghanistan
is considered the "crossroads of Asia",[263] and the country has had the nickname Heart of Asia.[264] The
renowned Urdu poet Allama Iqbal once wrote about the country:

Asia is a body of water and earth, of which the Afghan nation is the heart. From its discord,
the discord of Asia; and from its accord, the accord of Asia.

At over 652,864  km2 (252,072  sq  mi),[265] Afghanistan is the world's 41st largest country,[266] slightly
bigger than France and smaller than Myanmar, and about the size of Texas in the United States. There is no
coastline, as Afghanistan is landlocked. Afghanistan shares its longest land border (the Durand Line) with
Pakistan to the east and south, followed by borders with Tajikistan to the northeast, Iran to the west,
Turkmenistan to the north-west, Uzbekistan to the north and China to the far northeast; India recognizes a
border with Afghanistan through Pakistani-administered Kashmir.[267] Clockwise from south-west,
Afghanistan shares borders with the Sistan and Baluchestan Province, South Khorasan Province and
Razavi Khorasan Province of Iran; Ahal Region, Mary Region and Lebap Region of Turkmenistan;
Surxondaryo Region of Uzbekistan; Khatlon Region and Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region of
Tajikistan; Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of China; and the Gilgit-Baltistan territory, Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa province and Balochistan province of Pakistan.[268]

The geography in Afghanistan is varied, but is mostly mountainous and rugged, with some unusual
mountain ridges accompanied by plateaus and river basins.[269] It is dominated by the Hindu Kush range,
the western extension of the Himalayas that stretches to eastern Tibet via the Pamir Mountains and
Karakoram Mountains in Afghanistan's far north-east. Most of the highest points are in the east consisting
of fertile mountain valleys, often considered part of the "Roof of the World". The Hindu Kush ends at the
west-central highlands, creating plains in the north and southwest, namely the Turkestan Plains and the
Sistan Basin; these two regions consist of rolling grasslands and semi-deserts, and hot windy deserts,
respectively.[270] Forests exist in the corridor between Nuristan and Paktika provinces (see East Afghan
montane conifer forests),[271] and tundra in the northeast. The country's highest point is Noshaq, at 7,492 m
(24,580 ft) above sea level.[272] The lowest point lies in Jowzjan Province along the Amu River bank, at
258 m (846 ft) above sea level.
Despite having numerous rivers and reservoirs,
large parts of the country are dry. The endorheic
Sistan Basin is one of the driest regions in the
world.[273] The Amu Darya rises at the north of
the Hindu Kush, while the nearby Hari Rud flows
west towards Herat, and the Arghandab River
from the central region southwards. To the south
and west of the Hindu Kush flow a number of
streams that are tributaries of the Indus River,[269]
such as the Helmand River. One exception is the
Kabul River which flows in an easterly direction
to the Indus ending at the Indian Ocean.[274]
Afghanistan receives heavy snow during the
winter in the Hindu Kush and Pamir Mountains,
and the melting snow in the spring season enters The mountainous topography of Afghanistan
the rivers, lakes, and streams.[275][276] However,
two-thirds of the country's water flows into the
neighboring countries of Iran, Pakistan, and Turkmenistan. As reported in 2010, the state needs more than
US$2 billion to rehabilitate its irrigation systems so that the water is properly managed.[277]

The northeastern Hindu Kush mountain range, in and around the Badakhshan Province of Afghanistan, is
in a geologically active area where earthquakes may occur almost every year.[278] They can be deadly and
destructive, causing landslides in some parts or avalanches during the winter.[279] The last strong
earthquakes were in 1998, which killed about 6,000 people in Badakhshan near Tajikistan.[280] This was
followed by the 2002 Hindu Kush earthquakes in which over 150 people were killed and over 1,000
injured. A 2010 earthquake left 11 Afghans dead, over 70 injured, and more than 2,000 houses destroyed.
In June 2022, a destructive 5.9 earthquake struck near the border with Pakistan, killing at least 1,150 people
and sparking fears of a major humanitarian crisis.[281]

Climate

Afghanistan has a continental climate with harsh winters

in the central highlands, the glaciated northeast (around
Nuristan), and the Wakhan Corridor, where the average
temperature in January is below −15 °C (5 °F) and can
reach −26 °C (−15 °F),[269] and hot summers in the low-
lying areas of the Sistan Basin of the southwest, the
Jalalabad basin in the east, and the Turkestan plains
along the Amu River in the north, where temperatures
Köppen climate map of Afghanistan[282]
average over 35 °C (95 °F) in July[272][283] and can go
over 43  °C (109  °F).[269] The country is generally arid
in the summers, with most rainfall falling between December and April. The lower areas of northern and
western Afghanistan are the driest, with precipitation more common in the east. Although proximate to
India, Afghanistan is mostly outside the monsoon zone,[269] except the Nuristan Province which
occasionally receives summer monsoon rain.[284]

Biodiversity
Several types of mammals exist throughout Afghanistan. Snow
leopards, Siberian tigers and brown bears live in the high elevation
alpine tundra regions. The Marco Polo sheep exclusively live in the
Wakhan Corridor region of north-east Afghanistan. Foxes, wolves,
otters, deer, wild sheep, lynx and other big cats populate the
mountain forest region of the east. In the semi-desert northern
plains, wildlife include a variety of birds, hedgehogs, gophers, and
large carnivores such as jackals and hyenas.[285]

Gazelles, wild pigs and jackals populate the steppe plains of the The snow leopard is the official
south and west, while mongoose and cheetahs exist in the semi- national animal of Afghanistan.
desert south.[285] Marmots and ibex also live in the high mountains
of Afghanistan, and pheasants exist in some parts of the
country.[286] The Afghan hound is a native breed of dog known for its fast speed and its long hair; it is
relatively known in the west.[287]

Endemic fauna of Afghanistan includes the Afghan flying squirrel, Afghan snowfinch, Paradactylodon (or
the "Paghman mountain salamander"), Stigmella kasyi, Vulcaniella kabulensis, Afghan leopard gecko,
Wheeleria parviflorellus, amongst others. Endemic flora include Iris afghanica. Afghanistan has a wide
variety of birds despite its relatively arid climate – an estimated 460 species of which 235 breed within.[287]

The forest region of Afghanistan has vegetation such as pine trees, spruce trees, fir trees and larches,
whereas the steppe grassland regions consist of broadleaf trees, short grass, perennial plants and shrublands.
The colder high elevation regions are composed of hardy grasses and small flowering plants.[285] Several
regions are designated protected areas; there are three national parks: Band-e Amir, Wakhan and Nuristan.
Afghanistan had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.85/10, ranking it 15th globally
out of 172 countries.[288]

Demographics
The population of Afghanistan was estimated at
32.9 million as of 2019 by the Afghanistan Statistics and
Information Authority,[290] whereas the UN estimates
over 38.0 million.[291] In 1979 the total population was
reported to be about 15.5 million.[292] About 23.9% of
them are urbanite, 71.4% live in rural areas, and the
remaining 4.7% are nomadic.[293] An additional
3  million or so Afghans are temporarily housed in
neighboring Pakistan and Iran, most of whom were born
and raised in those two countries. As of 2013, A Cold War-era CIA map showing traditional
Afghanistan was the largest refugee-producing country Afghan tribal territories. Pashtun tribes form the
in the world, a title held for 32 years. world's largest tribal society.[289]

The current population growth rate is 2.37%,[272] one of

the highest in the world outside of Africa. This population is expected to reach 82 million by 2050 if current
population trends continue.[294] The population of Afghanistan increased steadily until the 1980s, when
civil war caused millions to flee to other countries such as Pakistan.[295] Millions have since returned and
the war conditions contribute to the country having the highest fertility rate outside Africa.[296]
Afghanistan's healthcare has recovered since the turn of the century, causing falls in infant mortality and
increases in life expectancy, although it has the lowest life expectance of any country outside Africa. This
(along with other factors such as returning refugees) caused rapid population growth in the 2000s that has
only recently started to slow down. The Gini coefficient in 2008 was 27.8.[297]

Ethnicity and languages

Afghans are divided into several ethnolinguistic groups.

According to research data by several institutions in
2019, the Pashtuns are the largest ethnic group,
comprising 42%, followed by Tajiks, comprising
27%[4][5][6][298][8] of the country's population. The
other two major ethnic groups are the Hazaras and
Uzbeks, each at 9%. A further 10 other ethnic groups are
recognized and each are represented in the Afghan
National Anthem.[299]

Dari and Pashto are the official languages of

Afghanistan; bilingualism is very common.[300] Dari,
which is also referred to as Eastern Persian as it is a
variety of and mutually intelligible with Persian (and
Ethnolinguistic map of Afghanistan (2001)
very often called 'Farsi' by some Afghans like in Iran)
functions as the lingua franca in Kabul as well as in
much of the northern and northwestern parts of the
country.[301] Native speakers of Dari, of any ethnicity, are sometimes called Farsiwans.[302] Pashto is the
native tongue of the Pashtuns, although many of them are also fluent in Dari while some non-Pashtuns are
fluent in Pashto. Despite the Pashtuns having been dominant in Afghan politics for centuries, Dari remained
the preferred language for government and bureaucracy.[303] According to CIA World Factbook, Dari
Persian is spoken by 78% (L1 + L2) and functions as the lingua franca, while Pashto is spoken by 50%,
Uzbek 10%, English 5%, Turkmen 2%, Urdu 2%, Pashayi 1%, Nuristani 1%, Arabic 1%, and Balochi 1%
(2021 est). Data represent the most widely spoken languages; shares sum to more than 100% because there
is much bilingualism in the country and because respondents were allowed to select more than one
language. There are a number of smaller regional languages, including Uzbek, Turkmen, Balochi, Pashayi,
and Nuristani.[304]

When it comes to foreign languages among the populace, many are able to speak or understand Hindustani
(Urdu-Hindi), partly due to returning Afghan refugees from Pakistan and the popularity of Bollywood films
respectively.[305] English is also understood by some of the population,[306] and has been gaining
popularity as of the 2000s.[307] Some Afghans retain some ability in Russian, which was taught in public
schools during the 1980s.[305]

Religion

The CIA estimated in 2009 that 99.7% of the Afghan population was Muslim[272] and most are thought to
adhere to the Sunni Hanafi school.[308] According to Pew Research Center, as much as 90% are of the
Sunni denomination, 7% Shia and 3% non-denominational.[309] The CIA Factbook variously estimates up
to 89.7% Sunni or up to 15% Shia.[272]

Afghan Sikhs and Hindus are also found in certain major cities (namely Kabul, Jalalabad, Ghazni,
Kandahar)[310][311] accompanied by gurdwaras and mandirs.[312] According to Deutsche Welle in
September 2021, 250 remain in the country after 67 were evacuated to India.[313]
There was a small Jewish community in Afghanistan, living mainly
in Herat and Kabul. Over the years, this small community was
forced leave due to decades of warfare and religious persecution.
By the end of the twentieth century, nearly the entire community
had emigrated to Israel and the United States, with one known
exception, Herat-born Zablon Simintov. He remained for years,
being the caretaker of the only remaining Afghan synagogue. He
left the country for the US after the second Taliban takeover. A
woman who left shortly after him has since been identified as the
likely last Jew in Afghanistan.[314][315][316] Blue Mosque in Mazar-i-Sharif is the
largest mosque in Afghanistan.
Afghan Christians, who number 500–8,000, practice their faith
secretly due to intense societal opposition, and there are no public
churches.[317][318]

Urbanization

As estimated by the CIA World Factbook, 26% of the population was urbanized as of 2020. This is one of
the lowest figures in the world; in Asia it is only higher than Cambodia, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Urbanization
has increased rapidly, particularly in the capital Kabul, due to returning refugees from Pakistan and Iran
after 2001, internally displaced people, and rural migrants.[319] Urbanization in Afghanistan is different
from typical urbanization in that it is centered on just a few cities.[320]

The only city with over a million residents is its capital, Kabul, located in the east of the country. The other
large cities are located generally in the "ring" around the Central Highlands, namely Kandahar in the south,
Herat in the west, Mazar-i-Sharif, Kunduz in the north, and Jalalabad in the east.[293]

Largest cities or towns in Afghanistan  

2019 estimate[321]

Rank Name Province Pop.

1 Kabul Kabul Province 4,273,200
2 Kandahar Kandahar Province 614,300
3 Herat Herat Province 556,200
4 Mazar-i-Sharif Balkh Province 469,200
Herat
Kabul 5 Jalalabad Nangarhar Province 356,500
6 Kunduz Kunduz Province 263,200
7 Taloqan Takhar Province 253,700
8 Puli Khumri Baghlan Province 237,900
9 Ghazni Ghazni Province 183,000
Kandahar 10 Khost Khost Province 153,300 Mazar-i-Sharif

Education

Education in Afghanistan is overseen by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education.
There are over 16,000 schools in the country and roughly 9 million students. Of this, about 60% are males
and 40% females. However, the new regime has thus far forbidden female teachers and female students
from returning to secondary schools.[322][323] Over 174,000 students are enrolled in different universities
around the country. About 21% of these are females.[324] Former Education Minister Ghulam Farooq
Wardak had stated that construction of 8,000 schools is
required for the remaining children who are deprived of
formal learning.[325] As of 2018 the literacy rate of the
population age 15 and older is 43.02% (males 55.48%
and females 29.81%).[326]

The top universities in Afghanistan are the American

University of Afghanistan (AUAF) followed by Kabul
University (KU), both of which are located in Kabul.
The National Military Academy of Afghanistan,
modeled after the United States Military Academy at UNESCO Institute of Statistics Afghanistan
West Point, was a four-year military development Literacy Rate among population aged 15+ (1980–
institution dedicated to graduating officers for the 2018)
Afghan Armed Forces. The Afghan Defense University
was constructed near Qargha in Kabul. Major
universities outside of Kabul include Kandahar University in the south, Herat University in the northwest,
Balkh University and Kunduz University in the north, Nangarhar University and Khost University in the
east. Kabul University was founded in 1932 and is a respected institute that played a significant part in the
country's education;[327] from the 1960s the Kabul University was also a hotbed of radical political
ideologies such as Marxism and Islamism, which played major parts in society, politics and the war that
began in 1978.[328]

After the Taliban regained power in 2021, it became unclear to what extent female education would
continue in the country. In March 2022, after they had been closed for some time, it was announced that
secondary education would be reopened shortly. However, shortly before reopening, the order was
rescinded and schools for older girls remained closed.[329]

Despite the ban, six provinces, Balkh, Kunduz, Jowzjan, Sar-I-Pul, Faryab, and the Day Kundi provinces
still allow girl's schools from grade 6 and up.[330][331]

Health

According to the Human Development Index, Afghanistan is the

15th least developed country in the world. The average life
expectancy is estimated to be around 60 years.[332][333] The
country's maternal mortality rate is 396 deaths/100,000 live births
and its infant mortality rate is 66[333] to 112.8 deaths in every 1,000
live births.[272] The Ministry of Public Health plans to cut the infant
mortality rate to 400 for every 100,000 live births before 2020. The
country has more than 3,000 midwives, with an additional 300 to The Daoud Khan Military Hospital in
400 being trained each year.[334] Kabul is one of the largest hospitals
in Afghanistan.
There are over 100 hospitals in Afghanistan,[335] with the most
advanced treatments being available in Kabul. The French Medical
Institute for Children and Indira Gandhi Children's Hospital in Kabul are the leading children's hospitals in
the country. Some of the other leading hospitals in Kabul include the Jamhuriat Hospital and Jinnah
Hospital.[336] In spite of all this, many Afghans travel to Pakistan and India for advanced treatment.

It was reported in 2006 that nearly 60% of the Afghan population lives within a two-hour walk of the
nearest health facility.[337] Disability rate is also high in Afghanistan due to the decades of war.[338] It was
reported recently that about 80,000 people are missing limbs.[339][340] Non-governmental charities such as
Save the Children and Mahboba's Promise assist orphans in association with governmental structures.[341]
Demographic and Health Surveys is working with the Indian Institute of Health Management Research and
others to conduct a survey in Afghanistan focusing on maternal death, among other things.[342]

Governance
Following the effective collapse of the Islamic Republic of
Afghanistan during the 2021 Taliban offensive, the Taliban
declared the country an Islamic Emirate. A new caretaker
government was announced on 7 September.[343] As of
8  September  2021, no other country had formally recognized the
Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan as the de jure government of
Afghanistan.[344]

A traditional instrument of governance in Afghanistan is the loya The Arg (the Presidential palace) in
jirga (grand assembly), a Pashtun consultative meeting that was Kabul, photographed in 2020, before
mainly organized for choosing a new head of state, adopting a new the Fall of Kabul
constitution, or to settle national or regional issue such as war.[345]
Loya jirgas have been held since at least 1747,[346] with the most
recent one occurring in August 2020.[347][348]

Development of Taliban government

On 17 August 2021, the leader of the Taliban-affiliated

Hezb-e-Islami Gulbuddin party, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, met
with both Hamid Karzai, the former President of
Afghanistan, and Abdullah Abdullah, the former chairman of
the High Council for National Reconciliation and former
Chief Executive, in Doha, Qatar, with the aim of forming a
national unity government.[349][350] President Ashraf Ghani,
having fled the country during the Taliban advance to either
Tajikistan or Uzbekistan, emerged in the United Arab
Hasan Akhund Sirajuddin Haqqani
Emirates and said that he supported such negotiations and
Acting Prime Minister First Deputy Leader and
was in talks to return to Afghanistan.[351][352] Many figures
(2021–2023) Acting Interior Minister
within the Taliban generally agreed that continuation of the
2004 Constitution of Afghanistan may, if correctly applied,
be workable as the basis for the new religious state as their
objections to the former government were political, and not
religious.[353]

Hours after the final flight of American troops left Kabul on

30 August, a Taliban official interviewed said that a new
government would likely be announced as early as Friday 3
September after Jumu'ah. It was added that Hibatullah
Akhundzada would be officially named Emir, with cabinet Mullah Yaqoob Abdul Ghani Baradar
Second Deputy Leader Third Deputy Leader and
ministers being revealed at the Arg in an official ceremony.
and Acting Defense Acting First Deputy
Abdul Ghani Baradar would be named head of government
Minister Prime Minister
as Prime Minister, while other important positions would go
to Sirajuddin Haqqani and Mullah Yaqoob. Beneath the supreme leader, day-to-day governance will be
entrusted to the cabinet.[354]

According to CNN, the new government is likely to be a unitary

Deobandist Islamic republic. In a report by CNN-News18, sources
said the new government was going to be governed similarly to Iran
with Haibatullah Akhundzada as supreme leader similar to the role
of Saayid Ali Khamenei, and would be based out of Kandahar.
Baradar or Yaqoob would be head of government as Prime
Minister. The government's ministries and agencies will be under a
cabinet presided over by the Prime Minister. The Supreme Leader
would preside over an executive body known Supreme Council US representative Zalmay Khalilzad
with anywhere from 11 to 72 members. Abdul Hakim Haqqani is (left) meeting with Taliban leaders,
likely to be promoted to Chief Justice. According to the report, the Abdul Ghani Baradar, Abdul Hakim
new government will take place within the framework of an Haqqani, Sher Mohammad Abbas
amended 1964 Constitution of Afghanistan.[355] Stanikzai, Suhail Shaheen,
unidentified in Doha, Qatar on 21
However, later interviews disclosed to News18 that negotiations November 2020
were not yet completed and that representatives were still in
Kandahar, and that the announcement of the new government
would not take place until 4 September or later.[356][357][358] Government formation was further delayed
with the announcement postponed to some time during the week of 6 September, due to concerns about
forming a broad-based government acceptable to the international community.[359] It was later added
however that the Taliban's Rahbari Shura, the group's leadership council was divided between the hardline
Haqqani Network and moderate Abdul Ghani Baradar over appointments needed to form an "inclusive"
government. This culminated in a skirmish which led to Baradar being injured and treated in Pakistan.[360]
It was speculated that the government would be announced on 11 September 2021, the 20th anniversary of
the 9/11 attacks, with invitations possibly being extended to the governments of Turkey, China, Iran,
Pakistan, and Qatar.[361]

As of early September, the Taliban were planning the Cabinet to be men-only, stating that women would
not be allowed to "work in high-ranking posts" in the government and that women were "ruled out" from
the Cabinet. Journalists and other human rights activists, mostly women, protested in Herat and Kabul,
calling for women to be included in the Cabinet.[362] The acting Cabinet announced on 7 September was
men-only, and the Ministry of Women's Affairs appeared to have been abolished.[343] On March 23, 2022,
there were reports a cabinet shakeup was underway as another meeting of the Leadership Council was held
in Kandahar for the second time since the Taliban Islamic Movement came to power as a way to get
international recognition. The last meeting of the Leadership Council was held from August 28, 2021, to
August 30, 2021.[363][364]

Administrative divisions

Afghanistan is administratively divided into 34 provinces (wilayat).[365] Each province has a governor and
a capital. The country is further divided into nearly 400 provincial districts, each of which normally covers
a city or several villages. Each district is represented by a district governor.

The provincial governors are now appointed by the Prime Minister of Afghanistan, and the district
governors are selected by the provincial governors.[366] The provincial governors are representatives of the
central government in Kabul and are responsible for all administrative and formal issues within their
provinces. There are also provincial councils that are elected through direct and general elections for four
years.[367] The functions of provincial councils are to take part in provincial development planning and to
participate in the monitoring and appraisal of other provincial governance institutions.

According to article 140 of the constitution and the presidential decree on electoral law, mayors of cities
should be elected through free and direct elections for a four-year term. In practice however, mayors are
appointed by the government.[368]

The following is a list of all the 34 provinces in alphabetical order:

Afghanistan is divided into 34 provinces, which are

further divided into a number of districts.
 1. Badakhshan 18. Kunar
2. Badghis 19. Kunduz
3. Baghlan 20. Laghman
4. Balkh 21. Logar
5. Bamyan 22. Nangarhar
6. Daykundi 23. Nimruz
7. Farah 24. Nuristan
8. Faryab 25. Oruzgan
9. Ghazni 26. Paktia
10. Ghor 27. Paktika
11. Helmand 28. Panjshir
12. Herat 29. Parwan
13. Jowzjan 30. Samangan
14. Kabul 31. Sar-e Pol
15. Kandahar 32. Takhar
16. Kapisa 33. Wardak
17. Khost 34. Zabul

Foreign relations

Afghanistan became a member of the United Nations in 1946.[369] Historically, Afghanistan had strong
relations with Germany, one of the first countries to recognize Afghanistan's independence in 1919; the
Soviet Union, which provided much aid and military training for Afghanistan's forces and includes the
signing of a Treaty of Friendship in 1921 and 1978; and India, with which a friendship treaty was signed in
1950.[370] Relations with Pakistan have often been tense for various reasons such as the Durand Line
border issue and alleged Pakistani involvement in Afghan insurgent groups.

The present Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan is currently internationally unrecognized, but has had notable
unofficial ties with China, Pakistan, and Qatar.[371][372] Under the previous Islamic Republic of
Afghanistan, it enjoyed cordial relations with a number of NATO and allied nations, particularly the United
States, Canada, United Kingdom, Germany, Australia, and Turkey. In 2012, the United States and the then-
republic in Afghanistan signed their Strategic Partnership Agreement in which Afghanistan became a major
non-NATO ally.[373] Such qualification was rescinded by US President Joe Biden in July 2022.[374]

Military

The Armed Forces of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan captured a large amount of weapons, hardware,
vehicles, aerocrafts, and equipment from the Afghan National Security Forces following the 2021 Taliban
offensive and the Fall of Kabul. The total value of the captured equipment has been estimated at US$83
billion.[375][376]

Human rights

Homosexuality is taboo in Afghan society;[377] according to the Penal Code, homosexual intimacy is
punished by up to a year in prison.[378] With implementing Sharia law offenders can be punished by
death.[379][380] However an ancient tradition involving male homosexual acts between children and older
men (typically wealthy warlords or elite people) called bacha bazi persists.

Religious minorities such as Sikhs,[381] Hindus,[382] and Christians have reportedly faced persecution in
the country.[383][384]

Since May 2022, all women in Afghanistan have been required by law to wear full-body coverings when
in public (either a burqa or an abaya paired with a niqāb, which leaves only the eyes uncovered).[385][386]
In a May interview with Christiane Amanpour, First Deputy Leader Sirajuddin Haqqani claimed the decree
is only advisory and no form of hijab is compulsory in Afghanistan,[387] though this contradicts the
reality.[388] It has been speculated that there is a genuine internal policy division over women's rights
between hardliners, including Leader Hibatullah Akhundzada, and pragmatists, though they publicly
present a united front.[389] Another decree was issued shortly after the first, requiring female TV presenters
to cover their faces during broadcasts.[390]

In May 2022, the Taliban dissolved Afghanistan's Human Rights Commission along with four other
government departments, citing the country's budget deficit.[391]

Economy
Afghanistan's nominal GDP was $20.1  billion in 2020, or
$81  billion by purchasing power parity (PPP).[21] Its GDP per
capita is $2,459 (PPP) and $611 by nominal.[21] Despite having
$1  trillion or more in mineral deposits,[392] it remains one of the
world's least developed countries. Afghanistan's rough physical
geography and its landlocked status has been cited as reasons why
the country has always been among the least developed in the
modern era – a factor where progress is also slowed by
contemporary conflict and political instability.[269] The country
Workers processing pomegranates
imports over $7  billion worth of goods but exports only (anaar), for which Afghanistan is
$784 million, mainly fruits and nuts. It has $2.8 billion in external famous in Asia
debt.[272] The service sector contributed the most to the GDP
(55.9%) followed by agriculture (23%) and industry (21.1%).[393]

While the nation's current account deficit is largely financed with donor money, only a small portion is
provided directly to the government budget. The rest is provided to non-budgetary expenditure and donor-
designated projects through the United Nations system and non-governmental organizations.[394]

Da Afghanistan Bank serves as the central bank of the nation[395] and the Afghani (AFN) is the national
currency, with an exchange rate of about 75 Afghanis to 1 US dollar.[396] A number of local and foreign
banks operate in the country, including the Afghanistan International Bank, New Kabul Bank, Azizi Bank,
Pashtany Bank, Standard Chartered Bank, and the First Micro Finance Bank.

One of the main drivers for the current economic recovery is the return of over 5 million expatriates, who
brought with them entrepreneurship and wealth-creating skills as well as much needed funds to start up
businesses. Many Afghans are now involved in construction, which is one of the largest industries in the
country.[397] Some of the major national construction projects include the $35 billion New Kabul City next
to the capital, the Aino Mena project in Kandahar, and the Ghazi Amanullah Khan Town near
Jalalabad.[398][399][400] Similar development projects have also begun in Herat, Mazar-e-Sharif, and other
cities.[401] An estimated 400,000 people enter the labor market each year.[402]
Several small companies and factories began operating
in different parts of the country, which not only
provide revenues to the government but also create
new jobs. Improvements to the business environment
have resulted in more than $1.5  billion in telecom
investment and created more than 100,000 jobs since
2003.[403] Afghan rugs are becoming popular again,
allowing many carpet dealers around the country to
hire more workers; in 2016–17 it was the fourth most Afghan rugs are one of Afghanistan's main
exported group of items.[404] exports.

Afghanistan is a member of WTO, SAARC, ECO,

and OIC. It holds an observer status in SCO. In 2018, a majority of imports come from either Iran, China,
Pakistan and Kazakhstan, while 84% of exports are to Pakistan and India.[405]

Since the Taliban's takeover of the country in August 2021, the United States has frozen about $9 billion in
assets belonging to the Afghan central bank,[406] blocking the Taliban from accessing billions of dollars
held in US bank accounts.[407][408]

The GDP of Afghanistan is estimated to have dropped by 20% following the Taliban return to power.
Following this, after months of free-fall, the Afghan economy began stabilizing, as a result of the Taliban's
restrictions on smuggled imports, limits on banking transactions, and U.N aid. In 2023, the Afghan
economy began seeing signs of revival. This has also been followed by stable exchange rates, low inflation,
stable revenue collection, and the rise of trade in exports.[409]

Agriculture

Agricultural production is the backbone of Afghanistan's

economy[410] and has traditionally dominated the economy,
employing about 40% of the workforce as of 2018.[411] The
country is known for producing pomegranates, grapes, apricots,
melons, and several other fresh and dry fruits. It is also known as
the world's largest producer of opium – as much as 16% or more of
the nation's economy is derived from the cultivation and sale of
opium.[412] It is also one of the world's top producers of Afghan saffron has been recognized
cannabis.[413] as the world's best.

Saffron, the most expensive spice, grows in Afghanistan,

particularly Herat Province. In recent years, there has been an uptick in saffron production, which
authorities and farmers trying to replace poppy cultivation. Between 2012 and 2019, the saffron cultivated
and produced in Afghanistan was consecutively ranked the world's best by the International Taste and
Quality Institute.[414][415] Production hit record high in 2019 (19,469 kg of saffron), and one kilogram is
sold domestically between $634 and $1147.[416]

The availability of cheap diesel-powered water pumps imported from China and Pakistan, and in the 2010s,
of cheap solar power to pump water, resulted in expansion of agriculture and population in the
southwestern deserts of Afghanistan in Kandahar Province, Helmand Province and Nimruz Province in the
2010s. Wells have gradually been deepened, but water resources are limited. Opium is the major crop, but
as of 2022, was under attack by the new Taliban government which, in order to suppress opium
production, was systematically suppressing water pumping.[417][418] In a 2023 report, poppy cultivation in
southern Afghanistan was reduced by over 80% as a result of Taliban campaigns to stop its use toward
Opium. This included a 99% reduction of Opium growth in the Helmand Province.[419]

Mining

The country's natural resources include: coal, copper, iron ore,

lithium, uranium, rare earth elements, chromite, gold, zinc, talc,
barite, sulfur, lead, marble, precious and semi-precious stones,
natural gas, and petroleum.[420][421] In 2010, US and Afghan
government officials estimated that untapped mineral deposits
located in 2007 by the US Geological Survey are worth at least
$1 trillion.[422]

Michael E. O'Hanlon of the Brookings Institution estimated that if

Afghanistan generates about $10  billion per year from its mineral
deposits, its gross national product would double and provide long-
term funding for Afghan security forces and other critical
needs.[423] The United States Geological Survey (USGS) estimated
in 2006 that northern Afghanistan has an average 460  million  m3
(2.9 billion bbl) of crude oil, 440 billion m3 (15.7 trillion cu ft) of
natural gas, and 67  billion  L (562  million  US  bbl) of natural gas Lapis lazuli stones
[424]
liquids. In 2011, Afghanistan signed an oil exploration contract
with China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) for the
development of three oil fields along the Amu Darya river in the north.[425]

The country has significant amounts of lithium, copper, gold, coal, iron ore, and other
minerals.[420][421][426] The Khanashin carbonatite in Helmand Province contains 1,000,000 tonnes
(980,000 long tons; 1,100,000 short tons) of rare earth elements.[427] In 2007, a 30-year lease was granted
for the Aynak copper mine to the China Metallurgical Group for $3  billion,[428] making it the biggest
foreign investment and private business venture in Afghanistan's history.[429] The state-run Steel Authority
of India won the mining rights to develop the huge Hajigak iron ore deposit in central Afghanistan.[430]
Government officials estimate that 30% of the country's untapped mineral deposits are worth at least
$1 trillion.[422] One official asserted that "this will become the backbone of the Afghan economy" and a
Pentagon memo stated that Afghanistan could become the "Saudi Arabia of lithium".[431] The lithium
reserves of 21 Mio. tons could amount to the ones of Bolivia, which is currently viewed as the country with
the largest lithium reserves.[432] Other larger deposits are the ones of bauxite and cobalt.[432] In a 2011
news story, the CSM reported, "The United States and other Western nations that have borne the brunt of
the cost of the Afghan war have been conspicuously absent from the bidding process on Afghanistan's
mineral deposits, leaving it mostly to regional powers."[433]
Access to biocapacity in Afghanistan is lower than world average. In 2016, Afghanistan had 0.43 global
hectares[434] of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global
hectares per person.[435] In 2016 Afghanistan used 0.73 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their
ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use just under double as much biocapacity as
Afghanistan contains. As a result, Afghanistan is running a biocapacity deficit.[434]

Infrastructure

Energy

According to the World Bank, 98% of the rural population have

access to electricity in 2018, up from 28% in 2008.[436] Overall the
figure stands at 98.7%.[437] As of 2016, Afghanistan produces
1,400 megawatts of power, but still imports the majority of
electricity via transmission lines from Iran and the Central Asian
states.[438] The majority of electricity production is via hydropower,
helped by the amount of rivers and streams that flow from the
mountains.[439] However electricity is not always reliable and
blackouts happen, including in Kabul.[440] In recent years an
increasing number of solar, biomass and wind power plants have Afghanistan electricity supply (1980–
been constructed. [441] Currently under development are the CASA- 2019)
1000 project which will transmit electricity from Kyrgyzstan and
Tajikistan, and the Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India
(TAPI) gas pipeline.[440] Power is managed by the Da Afghanistan Breshna Sherkat (DABS, Afghanistan
Electricity Company).

Important dams include the Kajaki Dam, Dahla Dam, and the Sardeh Band Dam.[274]

Tourism

Tourism is a small industry in Afghanistan due to security issues.

Nevertheless, some 20,000 foreign tourists visit the country
annually as of 2016.[442] In particular an important region for
domestic and international tourism is the picturesque Bamyan
Valley, which includes lakes, canyons and historical sites, helped by
the fact it is in a safe area away from insurgent activity.[443][444]
Smaller numbers visit and trek in regions such as the Wakhan
Valley, which is also one of the world's most remote Band-e Amir National Park
communities.[445] From the late 1960s onwards, Afghanistan was a
popular stop on the famous hippie trail, attracting many Europeans
and Americans. Coming from Iran, the trail traveled through various Afghan provinces and cities including
Herat, Kandahar and Kabul before crossing to northern Pakistan, northern India, and Nepal.[446][447]
Tourism peaked in 1977, the year before the start of political instability and armed conflict.[448]

The city of Ghazni has significant history and historical sites, and together with Bamyan city have in recent
years been voted Islamic Cultural Capital and South Asia Cultural Capital respectively.[449] The cities of
Herat, Kandahar, Balkh, and Zaranj are also very historic. The Minaret of Jam in the Hari River valley is a
UNESCO World Heritage Site. A cloak reputedly worn by Islam's prophet Muhammad is kept inside the
Shrine of the Cloak in Kandahar, a city founded by Alexander the Great
and the first capital of Afghanistan. The citadel of Alexander in the western
city of Herat has been renovated in recent years and is a popular attraction.
In the north of the country is the Shrine of Ali, believed by many to be the
location where Ali was buried.[450] The National Museum of Afghanistan
is located in Kabul and hosts a large number of Buddhist, Bactrian Greek
and early Islamic antiquities; the museum suffered greatly by civil war but
has been slowly restoring since the early 2000s.[451]

Communication

Telecommunication services in Afghanistan are provided by Afghan

The Minaret of Jam is a
Telecom, Afghan Wireless, Etisalat, MTN Group, and Roshan. The country
UNESCO World Heritage
uses its own space satellite called Afghansat 1, which provides services to Site, currently under threat
millions of phone, internet, and television subscribers. By 2001 following
by erosion and flooding.
years of civil war, telecommunications was virtually a non-existent sector,
but by 2016 it had grown to a $2  billion industry, with 22  million mobile
phone subscribers and 5 million internet users. The sector employs at least 120,000 people nationwide.[452]

Transportation

Due to Afghanistan's geography, transport between various parts of

the country has historically been difficult. The backbone of
Afghanistan's road network is Highway 1, often called the "Ring
Road", which extends for 2,210 kilometres (1,370 mi) and connects
five major cities: Kabul, Ghazni, Kandahar, Herat and Mazar-i-
Sharif,[453] with spurs to Kunduz and Jalalabad and various border
crossings, while skirting around the mountains of the Hindu
The Salang Tunnel, once the highest Kush.[454]
tunnel in the world, provides a key
connection between the north and
The Ring Road is crucially important for domestic and international
south of the country. trade and the economy.[455] A key portion of the Ring Road is the
Salang Tunnel, completed in 1964, which facilitates travel through
the Hindu Kush mountain range and connects northern and
southern Afghanistan.[456] It is the only land route that connects Central Asia to the Indian
subcontinent.[457] Several mountain passes allow travel between the Hindu Kush in other areas. Serious
traffic accidents are common on Afghan roads and highways, particularly on the Kabul–Kandahar and the
Kabul–Jalalabad Road.[458] Traveling by bus in Afghanistan remains dangerous due to militant
activities.[459]

Air transport in Afghanistan is provided by the national carrier,

Ariana Afghan Airlines,[460] and by the private company Kam Air.
Airlines from a number of countries also provide flights in and out
of the country. These include Air India, Emirates, Gulf Air, Iran
Aseman Airlines, Pakistan International Airlines, and Turkish
Airlines. The country has four international airports: Hamid Karzai
International Airport (formerly Kabul International Airport),
Kandahar International Airport, Herat International Airport, and
Mazar-e Sharif International Airport. Including domestic airports, An Ariana Afghan Airlines Airbus
there are 43.[272] Bagram Air Base is a major military airfield. A310 in 2006
The country has three rail links: one, a 75-kilometre (47  mi) line from Mazar-i-Sharif to the Uzbekistan
border;[461] a 10-kilometre (6.2  mi) long line from Toraghundi to the Turkmenistan border (where it
continues as part of Turkmen Railways); and a short link from Aqina across the Turkmen border to Kerki,
which is planned to be extended further across Afghanistan.[462] These lines are used for freight only and
there is no passenger service. A rail line between Khaf, Iran and Herat, western Afghanistan, intended for
both freight and passengers, is under construction as of 2019.[463][464] About 125 kilometres (78 mi) of the
line will lie on the Afghan side.[465][466] There are various proposals for the construction of additional rail
lines in the country.[467]

Private vehicle ownership has increased substantially since the early 2000s. Taxis are yellow in color and
consist of both cars and auto rickshaws.[468] In rural Afghanistan, villagers often use donkeys, mules or
horses to transport or carry goods. Camels are primarily used by the Kochi nomads.[287] Bicycles are
popular throughout Afghanistan.[469]

Culture
Afghans have both common cultural features and those that differ
between the regions of Afghanistan, each with distinctive cultures
partly as a result of geographic obstacles that divide the
country.[269] Family is the mainstay of Afghan society and families
are often headed by a patriarch.[470] In the southern and eastern
region, the people live according to the Pashtun culture by
following Pashtunwali (the Pashtun way).[471] Key tenets of
Pashtunwali include hospitality, the provision of sanctuary to those
seeking refuge, and revenge for the shedding of blood.[472] The
Pashtuns are largely connected to the culture of Central Asia and An Afghan family near Kholm, 1939
the Iranian Plateau. The remaining Afghans are culturally Persian – most Afghans are tribal.
and Turkic. Some non-Pashtuns who live in proximity with
Pashtuns have adopted Pashtunwali in a process called
Pashtunization, while some Pashtuns have been Persianized. Those who have lived in Pakistan and Iran
over the last 30 years have been further influenced by the cultures of those neighboring nations. The
Afghan people are known to be strongly religious.[308]

Afghans, particularly Pashtuns, are noted for their tribal solidarity and high regard for personal honor.[473]
One writer considers the tribal system to be the best way of organizing large groups of people in a country
that is geographically difficult, and in a society that, from a materialistic point of view, has an
uncomplicated lifestyle.[474] There are various Afghan tribes, and an estimated 2–3  million nomads.[475]
Afghan culture is deeply Islamic,[476] but pre-Islamic practices persist.[477] One example is bacha bazi, a
term for activities involving sexual relations between older men and younger adolescent men, or boys.[478]
Child marriage is prevalent in Afghanistan;[479] the legal age for marriage is 16.[480] The most preferred
marriage in Afghan society is to one's parallel cousin, and the groom is often expected to pay a bride
price.[481]

In the villages, families typically occupy mudbrick houses, or compounds with mudbrick or stone walled
houses. Villages typically have a headman (malik), a master for water distribution (mirab) and a religious
teacher (mullah). Men would typically work on the fields, joined by women during harvest.[470] About
15% of the population are nomadic, locally called kochis.[269] When nomads pass villages they often buy
supplies such as tea, wheat and kerosene from the villagers; villagers buy wool and milk from the
nomads.[470]
Afghan clothing for both men and women typically consists of
various forms of shalwar kameez, especially perahan tunban and
khet partug. Women would normally wear a chador for head
covering; some women, typically from highly conservative
communities, wear the burqa, a full body covering. These were
worn by some women of the Pashtun community well before Islam
came to the region, but the Taliban enforced this dress on women
when they were in power.[482] Another popular dress is the chapan
which acts as a coat. The karakul is a hat made from the fur of a
specific regional breed of sheep. It was favored by former kings of A house occupied by nomadic kochi
Afghanistan and became known to much of the world in the 21st people in Nangarhar Province
century when it was constantly worn by President Hamid
Karzai.[483] The pakol is another traditional hat originating from the
far east of the country; it was popularly worn by the guerrilla leader Ahmad Shah Massoud.[484] The
Mazari hat originates from northern Afghanistan.[485]

Architecture

The nation has a complex history that has survived either in

its current cultures or in the form of various languages and
monuments. Afghanistan contains many remnants from all
ages, including Greek and Buddhist stupas, monasteries,
monuments, temples and Islamic minarets. Among the most
well known are the Great Mosque of Herat, the Blue
Mosque, the Minaret of Jam, the Chil Zena, the Qala-i Bost
in Lashkargah, the ancient Greek city of Ai-Khanoum.[486] Kabul skyline, displaying both historical and
However, many of its historic monuments have been contemporary buildings
damaged in modern times due to the civil wars. [487] The two
famous Buddhas of Bamiyan were destroyed by the Taliban,
who regarded them as idolatrous. Despite that, archaeologists are still finding Buddhist relics in different
parts of the country, some of them dating back to the 2nd century.[488] As there was no colonialism in the
modern era in Afghanistan, European-style architecture is rare but does exist: the Victory Arch at Paghman
and the Darul Aman Palace in Kabul were built in this style in the 1920s by the Afghans themselves.

Afghan Architecture also ranges deep into India such as the Tomb of Sher Shah Suri, an Afghan Emperor
of India.[489]

Art and ceramics

Carpet weaving is an ancient practice in Afghanistan, and many of

these are still handmade by tribal and nomadic people today.[320]
Carpets have been produced in the region for thousands of years
and traditionally done by women.[490] Some crafters express their
feelings through the designs of rugs; for example after the outbreak
of the Soviet–Afghan War, "war rugs", a variant of Afghan rugs,
were created with designs representing pain and misery caused by
the conflict.[491] Every province has its own specific characteristics A traditional Afghan embroidery
pattern
in making rugs.[492] In some of the Turkic-populated areas in the north-west, bride and wedding ceremony
prices are driven by the bride's weaving skills.[493]

Pottery has been crafted in Afghanistan for millennia. The village of Istalif, north of Kabul, is in particular a
major center, known for its unique turquoise and green pottery,[494] and their methods of crafting have
remained the same for centuries.[495][496] Much of lapis lazuli stones were earthed in modern-day
Afghanistan which were used in Chinese porcelain as cobalt blue, later used in ancient Mesopotamia and
Turkey.[497]

The lands of Afghanistan have a long history of art, with the world's earliest known usage of oil painting
found in cave murals in the country.[498][499] A notable art style that developed in Afghanistan and eastern
Pakistan is Gandhara Art, produced by a fusion of Greco-Roman art and Buddhist art between the 1st and
7th centuries CE.[500] Later eras saw increased use of the Persian miniature style, with Kamaleddin Behzad
of Herat being one of the most notable miniature artists of the Timurid and early Safavid periods. Since the
1900s, the nation began to use Western techniques in art. Abdul Ghafoor Breshna was a prominent Afghan
painter and sketch artist from Kabul during the 20th century.

Media and entertainment

Afghanistan has around 350 radio stations and over 200 television stations.[501] Radio Television
Afghanistan, originating from 1925, is the state public broadcaster. Television programs began airing in the
1970s and today there are many private television channels such as TOLO and Shamshad TV. The first
Afghan newspaper was published in 1873,[502] and there are hundreds of print outlets today.[501] By the
1920s, Radio Kabul was broadcasting local radio services.[503] Voice of America, BBC, and Radio Free
Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) broadcast in both of Afghanistan's official languages on radio.[504] Press
restrictions have been gradually relaxed and private media diversified since 2002, after more than two
decades of tight controls.

Afghans have long been accustomed to watching Indian Bollywood films and listening to its filmi
songs.[505] It has been claimed that Afghanistan is among the biggest markets for the Hindi film
industry.[506] The stereotypes of Afghans in India (Kabuliwala or Pathani) have also been represented in
some Bollywood films by actors.[507] Many Bollywood film stars have roots in Afghanistan, including
Salman Khan, Saif Ali Khan, Aamir Khan, Feroz Khan, Kader Khan, Naseeruddin Shah, Zarine Khan,
Celina Jaitly, and a number of others. Several Bollywood films have been shot inside Afghanistan,
including Dharmatma, Khuda Gawah, Escape from Taliban, and Kabul Express.

Music

Afghan classical music has close historical links with Indian

classical music and use the same Hindustani terminology and
theories like raga. Genres of this style of music include ghazal
(poetic music) and instruments such as the Indian tabla, sitar and
harmonium, and local instruments like zerbaghali, as well as
dayereh and tanbur which are also known in Central Asia, the
Caucasus and the Middle East. The rubab is the country's national
instrument and precurses the Indian sarod instrument. Some of the
The Afghan rubab famous artists of classical music include Ustad Sarahang and
Sarban.[508]
Pop music developed in the 1950s through Radio Kabul and was influential in social change. During this
time female artists also started appearing, at first Mermon Parwin.[508] Perhaps the most famous artist of
this genre was Ahmad Zahir, who synthesized many genres and continues to be renowned for his voice and
rich lyrics long after his death in 1979.[509][508] Other notable masters of traditional or popular Afghan
music include Nashenas, Ubaidullah Jan, Mahwash, Ahmad Wali, Farhad Darya, and Naghma.[510]

Attan is the national dance of Afghanistan, a group dance popularly performed by Afghans of all
backgrounds.[511] The dance is considered part of Afghan identity.[512]

Cuisine

Afghan cuisine is largely based upon the nation's chief crops, such
as wheat, maize, barley and rice. Accompanying these staples are
native fruits and vegetables as well as dairy products such as milk,
yogurt, and whey. Kabuli palaw is the national dish of
Afghanistan.[513] The nation's culinary specialties reflect its ethnic
and geographic diversity.[514] Afghanistan is known for its high-
quality pomegranates, grapes, and sweet melons.[515] Tea is a
favorite drink among Afghans. A typical Afghan diet consists of
Non (bread) from a local baker, the
naan, yogurt, rice, and meat.[470]
most widely consumed bread in
Afghanistan
Literature

Classic Persian and Pashto poetry are a cherished part of Afghan culture. Poetry has always been one of the
major educational pillars in the region, to the level that it has integrated itself into culture.[516] One of the
poetic styles is called landay. A popular theme in Afghan folklore and mythology are Divs, monstrous
creatures.[517] Thursdays are traditionally "poetry night" in the city of Herat when men, women and
children gather and recite both ancient and modern poems.[518]

The Afghan region has produced countless Persian-speaking poets and writers from the Middle Ages to the
present day, among which three mystical authors are considered true national glories (although claimed
with equal ardor by Iran), namely: Khwaja Abdullah Ansari of Herat, a great mystic and Sufi saint in the
11th century, Sanai of Ghazni, author of mystical poems in the 12th century, and, finally, Rumi of Balkh, in
the 13th century, considered the persophonist throughout the world as the greatest mystical poet of the
entire Muslim world. The Afghan Pashto literature, although quantitatively remarkable and in great growth
in the last century, has always had an essentially local meaning and importance, feeling the influence of
both Persian literature and the contiguous literatures of India. Both main literatures, from the second half of
the nineteenth century, have shown themselves to be sensitive to genres (novel, theater), movements and
stylistic features imported from Europe.

Khushal Khan Khattak of the 17th century is considered the national poet. Other notable poets include
Rabi'a Balkhi, Jami, Rahman Baba, Khalilullah Khalili, and Parween Pazhwak.[519]

Holidays and festivals

Afghanistan's official New Year starts with Nowruz, an ancient tradition that started as a Zoroastrian
celebration in present-day Iran, and with which it shares the annual celebration along with several other
countries. It occurs every year at the vernal equinox. In Afghanistan, Nowruz is typically celebrated with
music and dance, as well as holding buzkashi tournaments.[520]
Yaldā, another nationally celebrated ancient tradition,[521]
commemorates the ancient goddess Mithra and marks the longest
night of the year on the eve of the winter solstice (čelle ye zemestān;
usually falling on 20 or 21 December),[522][523] during which
families gather together to recite poetry and eat fruits—particularly
the red fruits watermelon and pomegranate, as well as mixed
nuts.[524][525]

Religious festivals are also celebrated; as a predominantly Muslim

country, Islamic events and festivals such as Ramadan, Eid al-Fitr
and Ashura are widely celebrated annually in Afghanistan. The
Sikh festival of Vaisakhi is celebrated by the Sikh community[526]
and the Hindu festival Diwali by the Hindu community.[527]

National Independence Day is celebrated on 19 August to mark the

Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919 under King Amanullah Khan and the
country's full independence.[528] Several international celebrations Haft Mewa (Seven Fruit Syrup) is
are also officially held in Afghanistan, such as International popularly consumed during Nowruz
Workers' Day and International Women's Day. Some regional in Afghanistan.
festivals include the Pamir Festival, which celebrates the culture of
the Wakhi and Kyrgyz peoples, the Red Flower Festival (during
Nowruz) in Mazar-i-Sharif and the Damboora Festival in Bamyan Province.

Sports

Sport in Afghanistan is managed by the Afghan Sports Federation.

Cricket and Association football are the two most popular sports in
the country.[529][530] The Afghan Sports Federation promotes
cricket, association football, basketball, volleyball, golf, handball,
boxing, taekwondo, weightlifting, bodybuilding, track and field,
skating, bowling, snooker, chess, and other sports.

Afghanistan's sports teams are increasingly celebrating titles at

The ancient national sport of
international events. basketball team won the first team sports title at
Afghanistan, Buzkashi
the 2010 South Asian Games.[531] Later that year, the country's
cricket team followed it with the winning of 2009–10 ICC
Intercontinental Cup. [532] In 2012, the country's 3x3 basketball team won the gold medal at the 2012 Asian
Beach Games. In 2013, Afghanistan's football team followed as it won the SAFF Championship.[533]

The Afghan national cricket team, which was formed in 2001, participated in the 2009 ICC World Cup
Qualifier, 2010 ICC World Cricket League Division One and the 2010 ICC World Twenty20. It won the
ACC Twenty20 Cup in 2007, 2009, 2011 and 2013. The team eventually made it and played in the 2015
Cricket World Cup.[534] The Afghanistan Cricket Board (ACB) is the official governing body of the sport
and is headquartered in Kabul. The Alokozay Kabul International Cricket Ground serves as the nation's
main cricket stadium. There are several other stadiums throughout the country, including the Ghazi
Amanullah Khan International Cricket Stadium near Jalalabad. Domestically, cricket is played between
teams from different provinces.

The Afghanistan national football team has been competing in international football since 1941.[535] The
national team plays its home games at the Ghazi Stadium in Kabul, while football in Afghanistan is
governed by the Afghanistan Football Federation. The national team has never competed or qualified for
the FIFA World Cup but has recently won an international football trophy in 2013.[533] The country also
has a national team in the sport of futsal, a 5-a-side variation of football.

The traditional and the national sport of Afghanistan is buzkashi, mainly popular in the north, but also
having a following in other parts of the country.[536] It is similar to polo, played by horsemen in two teams,
each trying to grab and hold a goat carcass.[537] The Afghan Hound (a type of running dog) originated in
Afghanistan and was formerly used in wolf hunting. In 2002, traveler Rory Stewart reported that dogs were
still used for wolf hunting in remote areas.[538]

See also
Afghanistan
portal
Asia portal

Outline of Afghanistan

Explanatory notes
a. The last census in Afghanistan was conducted in 1979, and was itself incomplete. Due to
the ongoing conflict in the country, no official census has been conducted since.[4]
b. Other demonyms that have been used are Afghani,[9] Afghanese and Afghanistani (see
Afghans for further details)[10]
c. Afghanistan is a pure autocracy, with all law ultimately originating from the supreme leader.
Consensus rule was initially used amongst the Taliban, but was phased out as the supreme
leader monopolized control in the months following the 2021 return to power.[15][16][17] There
is an advisory Leadership Council, however its role is in question as the supreme leader has
not convened it for many months (as of March 2023), and increasingly rules by decree.[18]
d. /æfˈɡænɪstæn, æfˈɡɑːnɪstɑːn/ ( listen)

e. Pashto: ‫د افغانستان اسالمي امارت‬

Dari: ‫امارت اسالمی افغانستان‬
f. The Government of India regards Afghanistan as a bordering country, as it considers all of
Kashmir to be part of India. However, this is disputed, and the region bordering Afghanistan
is administered by Pakistan as Gilgit-Baltistan.[27]

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General and cited sources

Mehta, Jaswant Lal (January 2005). Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707–
1813. Sterling Publishers. ISBN 9781932705546.

Further reading
Barfield, Thomas (2012). Afghanistan: A Cultural and Political History (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=tg45ygAACAAJ). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-15441-1.
Bleaney, C. H; Gallego, María Ángeles (2006). Afghanistan: a bibliography (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=qCh41lAvg8oC). BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-14532-0.
Clements, Frank (2003). Conflict in Afghanistan: A Historical Encyclopedia (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=bv4hzxpo424C). ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-402-8.
Dupree, Louis (1997). Afghanistan (2nd ed.). Oxford Pakistan Paperbacks. ISBN 978-0-19-
577634-8.
Ewans, Martin (2002). Afghanistan: A Short History of Its People and Politics. Curzon Press.
ISBN 0060505087.
Fowler, Corinne (2007). Chasing Tales: Travel Writing, Journalism and the History of British
Ideas About Afghanistan (https://books.google.com/books?id=o4IrhX7n66YC). Rodopi.
ISBN 978-90-420-2262-1.
Griffiths, John C (2001). Afghanistan: a History of Conflict (https://books.google.com/books?i
d=M7nMtaXdAS8C). Carlton Books. ISBN 978-1-84222-597-4.
Habibi, Abdul Hai (2003). Afghanistan: An Abridged History. Fenestra Books. ISBN 978-1-
58736-169-2.
Hopkins, B.D. (2008). The Making of Modern Afghanistan (https://books.google.com/books?i
d=FOMUAQAAIAAJ). Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-55421-4.
Johnson, Robert (2011). The Afghan Way of War: How and Why They Fight (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=lNuH5YQJr6UC). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-979856-8.
 Levi, Peter (1972). The Light Garden of the Angel King: Journeys in Afghanistan (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=KakcAAAAMAAJ). Collins. ISBN 978-0-00-211042-6.
Malleson, George Bruce (2005). History of Afghanistan, from the Earliest Period to the
Outbreak of the War of 1878 (https://books.google.com/books?id=pqNGBEmHUd4C)
(Elibron Classic Replica ed.). Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN 978-1-4021-7278-6.
Olson, Gillia M (2005). Afghanistan (https://archive.org/details/afghanistan0000olso).
Capstone Press. ISBN 978-0-7368-2685-3.
Omrani, Bijan; Leeming, Matthew (2011). Afghanistan: A Companion and Guide (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=VVu_NwAACAAJ) (2nd ed.). Odyssey Publications. ISBN 978-962-
217-816-8.
Reddy, L.R. (2002). Inside Afghanistan: End of the Taliban Era? (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=NubtDf2T3cAC). APH Publishing. ISBN 978-81-7648-319-3.
Runion, Meredith L. (2007). The History of Afghanistan (https://books.google.com/books?id=
aZk9XzqCFGUC). Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33798-7.

External links
Afghanistan (https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/afghanistan/). The World
Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
Afghanistan (http://ucblibraries.summon.serialssolutions.com/#!/search?ho=t&l=en&q=Afgha
nistan) web resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries
Afghanistan (https://curlie.org/Regional/Asia/Afghanistan) at Curlie
Wikimedia Atlas of Afghanistan
Research Guide to Afghanistan (https://uiuc.libguides.com/afghanistan_research_guide)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150823112103/http://uiuc.libguides.com/afghanista
n_research_guide) 23 August 2015 at the Wayback Machine

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