ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
response to coal combustion
- Provides an overview of how science
affects our environment
- Involves studying biology, chemistry,
physics, geography, social science.
- an interdisciplinary academic field in
science that integrates all the physical,
biological, and information to the study of
the environment, and the solution to
environmental problems
CHEMISTRY
- study of matter
BIODIVERSITY
- group of different individual life that
inhibit the plant Earth
HABITAT
- environment that is naturally occurring to a
specific organism to survive
ENVIRONMENT
- Place, people, things that surround any
living organisms
- Basic life support system
- 3 Components:
 Physical (Atmo, Litho, Hydro)
 Biological (Biotic-Producer,
Consumer, Decomposer; Abiotic)
 Cultural (Politics, society, economy)
FOOD CHAIN
- Linear network of links in a food web
starting from producer organisms and
ending at apex predator species
FOOD WEB
- natural interconnection of food chains
HISTORY OF EVIRONMENTALISM
- Began after industrial revolution
- Britain’s Alkali Acts (1863) combat air
pollution
- Coal Smoke Abatement Society (1898) INHERENT VALUE
- an intrinsic right to exist
- International Union for Conservation of INSTRUMENTAL VALUE
Nature (IUCN) [1948] to protect and - have value because they are useful to
preserve nature in its original form someone who matters
- Clean Air Act 1956 was formed ff the
London Smog Episode (Great Smog of ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS AND
London) 1952. PRINCIPLE:
- 1960-1970
1. Profound respect for nature
 beginning of Modern Environmental
2. Maintain a harmonious relationship with
Movement other species
 World Wildlife Fund (WWF) to protect animals 3. Take responsibility for the impact on nature
and places from human developmental activities 4. Local and indigenous environmental
 Green Revolution in Agriculture 1966 knowledge should be respected
understand the negative impacts of uncontrolled 5. Plan for the long term
and unregulated use of pesticides and fertilizers
on the environment MATTER
 NEPA (1969) ensure environmental health by - anything that can occupy space and has
negotiation policies and acts a mass.
 US EPA (1970) to monitor human activities that - Phases:
are negatively impacting the environment  Solid, liquid, gas, plasma, Bose
 Greenpeace (1971) campaign of committed Einstein Condensate
individuals who tried to stop the American THERMODYNAMICS
Nuclear Weapon test - deals with how energy is transferred in
- Environmental Justice Movement (1980) an natural processes.
international movement that aims to encourage - relationships of heat, work, and energy.
social, economic, and environmental justice by HOMEOSTASIS
identifying the connection between health and - “to stand equally”
environmental issues began in response to the
- dynamic balance in a living ecosystem.
unjust treatment of low-income communities that
HEAT
were exposed to environmental pollution
- transfer or flow of energy because of
- Chernobyl disaster in 1986 was a massive
temperature difference
environmental issue
WORK
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
- transfer of energy that is not due to a
- studies the ethical basis of environment
difference in temperature.
- focus on the moral relationship among
human beings to the value and moral status
of the environment
ECOLOGISTS *Alpine Tundra
- study interactions at the species, ECOLOGY
population, biotic community, or - branch of biology that studies the MARINE ECOSYSTEMS
ecosystem level interactions of living things with each  Open Oceans - associated with a biological
SPECIES other and with the environment desert since it generally has low productivity
- organisms of the same kind that are oikos (home); logos (to study) (e.g. Phytoplankton)
genetically similar enough to breed in  Coastal Zones
nature and produce live, fertile BIOME *coral reefs - Elevated water temperatures
offspring. - Large group of ecosystems that share cause coral bleaching, in which corals expel
- basic unit of classifying and identifying similar climates and types of organisms their algal partner and then die
the taxonomic rank of an organism, as - Terrestrial and aquatic biomes * mangroves - trees that grow in saltwater
well as a unit of biodiversity  Tropical Moist Forest- share *Estuaries - bays where river water meets the
POPULATION standard features such as rainfall sea; salt marshes are shallow wetlands
- consists of all the members of a species and unchanging temperatures.; flooded regularly
living in each area at the same time. (vertical zonation – vegetation * Tide pools - depressions in a rocky
ABIOTIC (nonliving components) zones defined by altitude) shoreline that are flooded at high tide but
- climate, water, minerals, and sunlight  Tropical Seasonal - have annual retain some water at low tide.
BIOTIC FACTORS dry seasons but with periodic rain * Barrier islands - low, narrow, sandy
- organisms, their products (secretions, to support tree growth. islands that form parallel to a coastline.
wastes, and remains), and effects in  Tropical Savannas and
each area Grasslands - areas with too little FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS
TROPHIC LEVEL rainfall to support forests.  Lakes
- storage steps along a food chain or food  Deserts - rainfall is rare and *protists - single-celled organisms such
web unpredictable as amoebae
ECOSYSTEM  Temperate Grasslands - there is *benthos - organisms occupy the
- a biological community of interacting enough rain to support abundant bottom (e.g. snails, burrowing worms);
organisms and their physical grass but not enough for forests. reducing the levels of oxygen in the
environment  Temperate Shrublands benthic environment
- 2 types: (Chaparral) *epilimnion - hypolimnion (hypo =
 AQUATIC below), a colder, deeper layer that is
 Temperate Forests
not combined
- 3 kinds: *Deciduous (losing leaves
* Marine (coral reefs, seasonally)
* Estuary * Coniferous (cone-bearing)
Local conditions that influence the
* Freshwater  Boreal Forests (Taiga/snow forest) – occur at
characteristics of an aquatic community
 TERRESTRIAL high latitudes
include:
 Natural- natural unit  Tundra - treeless landscape located in the
1. Excess nutrients such as nitrates and
 Artificial – created by humans mountaintops
phosphates
*Arctic Tundra
2. suspended matter, such as silt that affects
light penetration
3. depth
4. temperature
5. currents
6. bottom characteristics, such as muddy,
sandy, or rocky floor
7. internal currents 8. connections to, or
isolation from, other aquatic and terrestrial
system

 Wetlands - shallow biological systems

where the land surface is saturated or
lowered in the late part of the year
 Swamps – with trees
 Marshes – w/o trees
 Bogs – areas of concentrated land;
usually comprised of peat
(undecayed vegetation)
 Fens - mainly fed by groundwater

Environmental Variables Affecting the

Biomes:
1. Sunlight
2. Temperature
3. Water and dissolved salts
4. Oxygen
5. Metabolic waste
6. Nutrients

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
- a state of complete physical, mental, and
social well-being - WHO
- branch of public health that is concerned with
all aspects of the natural and built
environment that may affect human health.
- focuses on disease-causing external factors,
including elements of the natural, social,
cultural, and technological worlds in which
we live
DISEASE
- the impairment of an individual's well-being
and capacity to function and is mostly
attributed to inadequate behavioral and
environmental change
- can be influenced by environmental factors
such as Earth’s climate system by impairing
physical and psychological functions.
FACTORS THAT RESULT IN
MORBIDITY (illness) AND MORTALITY
(death):
* diet and nutrition * infectious agent
* hereditary qualities * poisonous substance
* injury * stress
GLOBAL BURDEN OF DISEASE (GBD)
- a comprehensive regional and global research
program of disease burden that assesses
mortality and disability from major diseases,
injuries, and risk factors.
- considers the health, social, political,
environmental, and economic factors to
determine the cost that particular disease and their pathogens and parasites and covers
disability exert upon the individual and society diseases of both humans and wildlife
- Mortality data is now based on Disability * Ebola hemorrhagic fever – kills up to 90%
Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) as a measure of of its human victims. A global outbreak killed
disease burden. ¼ of all the gorillas.
DISEASE BURDEN * Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is caused
- impact of a health problem on a given by a prion. It is one of a family of irreversible,
population and can be measured using a variety degenerative neurological diseases known as
of indicators such as mortality, morbidity or transmissible spongiform encephalopathies
financial cost. (TSE) that include mad cow disease in cattle,
- makes it possible to predict future health care scrapie in sheep, and Creutzfelt-Jacob disease
needs in
humans.
EMERGENT DISEASE
- those not previously known or that have been ECOTOXICOLOGY
absent for at least 20 years. - the study of toxins (poisons) and their effects.
It is a broad field, drawing from biochemistry,
Factors Contributing to Disease Emergence: histology, pathology, pharmacology, and many
* Microbial adaption other disciplines.
* Changing human susceptibility - Toxin’s damage or kill living organisms
* Climate and weather because they react with cellular components to
* Change in human demographics and trade disrupt metabolic functions
* Economic development
* Breakdown of public health
* Poverty and social inequality
* War and famine
* Bioterrorism
* Dam and irrigation system construction
HIV
- originated in chimpanzees
SARS
- from Masked Palm Civet native to China
ECOLOGICAL EPIDEMIOLOGY
- study of the ecology of infectious diseases.
- includes population and community level
studies of the interactions between hosts and
EFFECTS OF TOXINS
* Allergens
- immune-activating agents
- some act as antigens directly
- Formaldehyde
- excellent example of a widely used
chemical that is a potent sensitizer of the
immune system
- Commonly used in plastics, wood
products, insulation, glue, and fabrics.
- sick building syndrome
- people experience headaches, allergies,
and chronic fatigue
* Immune System Depressants
- suppress the immune system
- Dead animals contained high levels of
pesticide residues, polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs), and other contaminants that are
suspected of disrupting the immune system and
making it susceptible to a variety of
opportunistic infections.
* Endocrine disruptors
- chemicals that disrupt the natural activity of
hormones
- Hormones are chemicals released by cells into
the bloodstreams in one part of the body to
regulate the function and development of
tissues and organs in the body.
> HORMONE MIMICS
- have similar shapes to natural hormones and
amply their effects.
- BPA (Bisphenol A)
*a hormone mimic used for plastic products
ranging from water bottles to tooth- protecting
sealants.
* can cause abnormal chromosome numbers
which is the leading cause of miscarriages and
several forms of mental retardation.
> HORMONE BLOCKERS
- prevent natural hormones from attaching to
their target organ.
* Neurotoxins
- a particular class of metabolic poisons that
individually attack nerve cells (neurons).
- The nervous system has an essential function
in controlling the body activities, especially to a
fast-acting and devastating event.
- Heavy metals (e.g. Pb and Hg) - cause
permanent brain damage
- Organophosphates (Malathion, Parathion)
and carbamates (carbaryl, zineb, maneb) -
inhibit acetylcholinesterase, the enzymes that
control the transfer of signals between nerve
cells and the tissues or organs they innervate
(e.g., muscle).
- Anesthetics (ether, chloroform, halothane,
etc.) and chlorinated hydrocarbons (D.D.T.,
Dieldrin, Aldrin) - disrupt nerve cell
membranes needed for nerve action.
* Mutagens
- agents that damage or modify the genetic
material (D.N.A.) in cells, such as chemicals
and radiation.
- genetic damage can contribute to neoplastic
(tumor) formation. If reproductive cells
undergo injury, the effects may be passed on to
future generations
*Teratogens
- chemicals substance which cause different
abnormalities during embryonic growth and
development.
- Alcohol is probably the most popular
teratogen in the world. Drinking during
pregnancy leads to:
fetal alcohol syndrome— a cluster of
complications that persist throughout a child’s
life
* Carcinogens
- substances that cause cancer, invasive, and
out-of-control cell growth resulting in
malignant tumors.
- cancer is now the second leading cause of
death in the U.S., killing more than half a
million people in 2002
TYPES OF TOXICITY
1. Acute – effects usually within 24-72 hrs
after exposure, however, should occur
within 14 days of exposure
2. Chronic – effects manifest several
weeks, months or years after exposure
3. Local – action of toxic substance on
specific area of contact (e.g. skin,
mucous membranes, eyes, throat)
4. Systemic – effect or action is distributed
through the body (e.g. inhalation of
chloroform effects the brain)
TYPES OF TOXIC EFFECT
1. Allergic agents – itching, rashes,
sneezing, watery eyes
2. Asphyxiants – cause displacement of
oxygen and thus suffocation
3. Irritants – cause pulmonary edema
(fluid in the lungs) when inhaled at
high concentrations and rashes when
spilled onto the skin
4. Necrotic agents – cause cell death
5. Carcinogens, mutagens and teratogens
– cancer, mutations, and deformed
embryos, result from chronic exposure
to low levels
6. Systemic Poisons – can have an adverse
effect on the whole body when taken
internally
2 Things that increase concentrations of
toxins:
BIOACCUMULATION
- increase in concentration of a pollutant in an
organism
- occurs in an organism
- a selective absorption and storage of variation
of molecules
BIOMAGNIFICATION
- increase in concentration of a pollutant in a
food chain
- occurs between trophic levels
PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS
(POPs)
Resistant to degradation:
- Metals (3.g Pb)
- PVC plastics
- chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides
- asbestos
Some most significant concerns:
* Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE)
- known as flame retardants usually used
in textiles and plastics found in computers and
appliances
*Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and
perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA, also
known as C8)
- widely used as a nonstick, waterproof stain-
resistant product such as Teflon, Gortex, Scotch
guard, and Stain master
*Phthalates (pronounced thalates)
- present in products such as deodorants,
plastics, cosmetics, children’s toys, medical
equipment, and food packaging.
*Perchlorate
- a waterborne contaminant leftover of fuel
utilized by rockets and from propellants
* Bisphenol A (BPA)
- widely used in various products such as
bottled water and tooth-protecting sealants. It is
a vital component in the creation of
polycarbonate plastics.
*Atrazine
- a substance applied to crops such as corn,
cereal grains, sugarcanes, and Christmas trees
as herbicide in the United States of America
- cause of damage and disruption to the
hormonal functions in mammals of their
endocrine system, resulting in low birth
weights, disorders in the neurological services,
and abortions

ANTAGONISTIC REACTIONS
- materials will interfere with the effects or will
somehow stimulate the breakdown of other
chemicals.
- reaction occurs in Vitamin E and A
SYNERGISM
- an interaction in which one substance
intensifies the impact of another material
- the interaction of different materials, which
results in a total effect more significant than the
added impact of separate substances
Factors that play an essential function in
determining toxicity:
- dose (amount)
- route of entry
- timing of exposure
- sensitivity of the organism
A. Factors Related to Toxic agent.
1. Chemical composition and reactivity
2. Physical characteristics (such as solubility,
state)
3. Presence of impurities or contaminants
4. Stability and storage characteristics of a toxic
agent
5. Availability of vehicle (such as the solvent)
to carry agent
6. Movement of the agent through the
environment and into cells
B. Factors Related to Exposure
1. Dose (concentration and volume of
exposure)
2. Route, rate, and site of exposure
3. Duration and frequency of exposure
4. Time of exposure (day, season, year)
C. Related Factors to Organism
1. Storage, cell permeability of agent and EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
resistance to ingestion - is the process of estimating, measuring,
2. Ability to metabolize, inactivate, sequester, characterizing, and modeling the following:
or eliminate the agent 1. magnitude
3. The tendency to activate or alter nontoxic 2. frequency
substances, so they become toxic. 3. duration, and
4. Concurrent infections or physical or 4. route of exposure to a possible toxin.
chemical stress TOXICITY ASSESSMENT
5. Species and genetic characteristics of an - weighs all available evidence and estimates
organism the potential for adverse health effects to occur.
6. Nutritional status of the subject
7. Sex, body weight, age, maturity, and
immunological status
SOLUBILITY
- one of the essential characteristics in
determining how, where, and when a toxic
material will move through the environment.
Classifications of chemical substances:
1. those that dissolve more easily in oil.
2. Those that dissolve more easily in water.
MEASURING TOXICITY
- the most used and widely accepted toxicity
test to expose a population of laboratory
animals to measured doses of specific TOLERANCE
substances. - the ability to resist or withstand stress from
exposure to a pollutant or harmful condition.
RISK - may result from behavioral, physiological, or
- the possibility or results of suffering harm or genetic adaptation.
loss by hazard and an indication of the severe *Behavioral tolerance
damage. - changes in the behavior (e.g. mice learn to
avoid traps)
RISK ASSESSMENT (R.A.) *Physiological tolerance
- the scientific process of estimating the threat - when the body of an individual adjusts to
that hazards pose to human health. tolerate a higher level of pollutant
- the overall process of hazard identification,
risk analysis, and risk evaluation.

AGRICULTURE
- Is a science and art of growing plants and
other crops, and the raising of animals for food,
other human needs, or economic gain
Negative Impacts of Agriculture on
Environment:
* Land transformation - the use of land to
yield goods and services
*Land degradation - long-term decline in
ecosystem function and productivity such as
soil erosion, soil exhaustion, soil salinization,
overgrazing, frequent burning, and loss of soil
biodiversity due to use of agrochemicals like
pesticides.
PESTICIDE
- a general term for a chemical that kills pests,
usually a toxic chemical
* Biocides
- kill a wide range of living things
*Herbicides
- kill plants
*Insecticides
- kill insects
*Fungicides
- kill fungi
Types of Pesticides:
1. Organophosphates - most abundantly
used synthetic pesticide. Glyphosate,
the single most heavily used herbicide
in the United States, is also known by
the trade name Roundup.
2. Chlorinated hydrocarbons - also known
as organochlorines, are highly toxic and
persistent to sensitive organisms
(atrazine)
3. Fumigants - generally small molecular
compounds, like ethylene dibromide,
methylene bromide, and carbon
tetrachloride. These compounds can be
delivered in the form of gas for easy
penetration into the soil and other
materials.
- used to control fungus in strawberry
fields and other low-growing crops and
prevent decay, rodent, and insect
infestations in stored grain.
4. Inorganic pesticides - compounds made
from toxic elements, like sulfur,
copper, arsenic, and mercury.
- highly poisonous and indestructible,
which means they stay in the
environment forever
5. Natural organic pesticides - also known
as botanicals, are extracts from plants.
(e.g. nicotine and nicotinoid alkaloids
from tobacco)
6. Microbial agents & Biological controls -
use living organisms or toxins extracted
from them that are used instead of
pesticides. Bacillus thuringiensis is
one of the chief pest control agents
allowed in organic farming.
Impacts of Environment on Agriculture
1. Global warming
2. Heavy rainfall
3. Flood
4. Acid rain
5. Wind erosion
6. Landslide
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
- practice of farming using principles of
ecology to produce healthful food without
compromising the future generation’s ability to
do the same
Advantages of Sustainable Agriculture
1. Contributes to environmental conservation
2. Prevents pollution
3. Reduces costs
4. Keeps biodiversity
5. Respects the environment
6. Profits farmers economically
7. Preserves social equity
Drawbacks of Sustainable Agriculture
1. Limited use of land which makes it difficult
to produce large quantities of food. Therefore,
mass production is not possible.
2. It takes more work since the use of machines
is minimal or eliminated, it takes more time and
people to successfully produce plants, which
slows down the production.
3. Shorter shelf life since decomposing occurs
faster in food that is produced sustainably,
causing it to have a shorter shelf life. If a
shipment gets delayed, there is a big chance
that it will never get to the supermarket because
it will already be spoiled.
4. Less fertile lands since it is quite hard to
increase the fertility of land just by rotating
crops and without the use of fertilizers and
other chemicals.
5. Lower income because the land is used
sparingly, the income that is generated from
farming is very limited

850M people are considered chronically

hungry
Food security – ability to obtain sufficient food