Flood Routing

March 24, 2022

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=thPV48SCXKM

https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/massive-flood-in-
dhauliganga/article33773676.ece

Riverine Flood: A hydrological event, characterized by high discharges and/or water levels
that (temporarily) inundate normally dry land adjacent to water bodies (streams, rivers, lakes,
wetlands).

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Flood movement in a river can be characterized as wave propagation.

Flood routing is essentially the determination of the wave propagation, which entails the
determination of flow conditions in a river given initial conditions and river morphology (and
upstream and/or downstream conditions).
Flow volume is always conserved.

Flow Routing
Procedure in which the time and magnitude of water wave at different points on a river are
determined from known upstream inputs and river properties.

Flood waves movement can be divided into two main kinds: uniformly progressive flow and
reservoir action. A uniformly progressive flow denotes downstream movement of a flood wave,
without a change in shape. This would occur only under ideal conditions in a prismatic channel
in which the stage and discharge are uniquely defined at all places. Reservoir action refers to
the modification of a flood wave by reservoir storage. Flood-wave movement in natural-
channel systems is intermediate between the two ideal conditions, one or the other dominates
in a particular place.

Two frequently used terms: translation and attenuation of a flood wave.

Translation: the difference in time between the occurrence of peak discharges of inflow and
outflow hydrographs.

Attenuation is the difference between the inflow and outflow peak discharges.
Speed of travel (flood wave velocity) and the rate of attenuation depend on the properties of
the river in which the flood waves are moving.

Inflow Outflow Outflow – pure

from translation case
storage
Attenuation
Outflow –
translation and
attenuation
Discharge

Translation

tinf ttr ttr-at

Time

Fig. 1 Inflow hydrograph and outflow hydrographs showing storage effect, translation, and
attenuation.

If peak discharges of the inflow and outflow hydrographs are known

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 Attenuation = Peak of inflow hydrograph – Peak of outflow hydrograph (1)

and translation

Translation = Time-to-peak of inflow – Time-to-peak of outflow (2)

In most general classification, flow routing problems can be classified into two groups: (1)
stream channel routing and (2) reservoir (or lake) routing.

 A major difference between these two is that in reservoir routing, water surface slope is
almost zero, while in stream channel routing, it is nonzero.
 Several other criteria are used to classify flood routing methods: (1) equations used to
formulate the problem; (2) and approach to obtain a solution.

Two broad categories of channel routing methods are: (1) hydrologic methods and (2) hydraulic
methods.
Hydraulic routing uses two first-order partial differential equations. These equations are the
equations of gradually varied unsteady open channel flow and are known as the Saint-Venant
equations.

2 Muskingum Method of Channel Routing

In 1938, McCarthy proposed a semi-empirical method of flood routing and applied it to
Muskingum River watershed.
This method is now popularly called the Muskingum method.

Muskingum River, a tributary of the Ohio River, southeastern Ohio, USA. It flows generally
southward through eastern Ohio. Ohio river is part of the Mississippi River watershed.

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Muskingum, method is a hydrologic routing method. It popular because it is simple and
efficient; its parameters can be estimated easily and appropriately.

Muskingum method is based on the continuity equation

𝑑𝑆
𝐼−𝑂 = (3)
𝑑𝑡

Here, I = inflow, O = outflow (m3/s or cumec), S = storage volume (m3), K = a time constant
or storage coefficient, and X a dimensionless weighting factor.

Muskingum method involves the concept of wedge and prism storages. The storage volume
in a river reach can be correctly related to outflow with a simple linear function only when
inflow and outflow are equal.

During the advance of a flood wave inflow exceeds outflow, thus producing a wedge of storage,
called wedge storage.
Wedge can be related to the difference between the instantaneous values of inflow and outflow.
Wedge storage is represented by [KX(I – O)] and the prism storage is represented by KO.
Total storage is

𝑆 = 𝐾[𝑋𝐼 + (1 − 𝑋)𝑂] (4)

During recession, outflow exceeds inflow, resulting in negative wedge storage.

To derive the Muskingum routing equation, discretize Eq. (3) on the x-t plane to yield:
𝐼1 +𝐼2 𝑂1 +𝑂2 𝑆2 −𝑆1
− = (5)
2 2 ∆𝑡

where subscript 1 denotes the beginning of time interval Δt, and 2 denotes the end of the
interval. Equation (4) can be written for the beginning and end of the time step as

𝑆1 = 𝐾[𝑋𝐼1 + (1 − 𝑋)𝑂1 ] (6)

𝑆2 = 𝐾[𝑋𝐼2 + (1 − 𝑋)𝑂2 ] (7)
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where O1 = the outflow discharge at the beginning of time step, O2 = the outflow discharge at
the end of the time step; I1 = the inflow discharge at the beginning of the time step and I2 = the
inflow discharge at the end of the time step.

Substituting values of S1 and S2 in Eq. (5) and solving

𝑂2 = 𝐶0 𝐼2 + 𝐶1 𝐼1 + 𝐶2 𝑂1 (8)

Routing coefficients C0, C1 and C2 are computed as

(∆𝑡/𝐾)−2𝑋
𝐶0 = 2(1−𝑋)+(∆𝑡/𝐾) (9)

(∆𝑡/𝐾)+2𝑋
𝐶1 = 2(1−𝑋)+(∆𝑡/𝐾) (10)

2(1−𝑋)−(∆𝑡/𝐾)
𝐶2 = 2(1−𝑋)+(∆𝑡/𝐾) (11)

Since (C0+C1+C2) = 1 (for no lateral inflow case), the routing coefficients can be interpreted
as weighting coefficients.

Given an inflow hydrograph, an initial flow condition, a chosen time interval t, and routing
parameters K and X, the routing coefficients can be calculated with Eqs. (9) to (11) and the
outflow hydrograph with Eq. (8).

Parameter Estimation and Interpretation

Muskingum routing parameters K and X depend on flow and channel characteristics, K can be
interpreted as the travel time of the flood wave from the upstream end to the downstream end
of the river reach.
Therefore, K accounts for translation in routing = f(flow and channel characteristics).

The river channel provides storage of water as the flood wave moves from upstream to
downstream.
Due to storage, the peak flow is reduced and the hydrograph spreads in time. Parameter X
accounts for the storage part of the routing.
For a given flood hydrograph, there is a unique value of X for which the storage in the
calculated outflow hydrograph is nearly the same as that of the measured outflow hydrograph.

Muskingum parameter X can be interpreted as a dimensionless weighting factor which lies in

the range 0.0 to 0.5. It lacks a strong physical meaning. If X is greater than 0.5, it produces
hydrograph amplification (i.e. negative diffusion), which is not observed in real-life. For real-
life cases, X must range between 0.0 (maximum attenuation) and 0.5 (no attenuation). When
X is 0, storage within the reach is computed solely as a function of outflow; this is equivalent
to level pool routing and results in maximum attenuation. When X is 0.5, equal weight is given
to inflow and outflow when determining storage in the reach. This results in no attenuation of
inflow hydrograph as it progresses through the reach. For most applications, an initial estimate
of 0.25 is further refined through model calibration.

When K = t and X = 0.0, Muskingum routing reduces to reservoir routing.

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Values of Muskingum parameters K and X are computed by using concurrent data of inflow
and outflow for the river reach. These parameters K and X can be estimated by (1) graphical
method, (2) method of moments, (3) least square, and (4) optimization.

Graphical method is popularly used and is described here.

Graphical Method of Parameter Estimation

A widely used method for determination of parameters K and X is the graphical method in
which the instantaneous S values are plotted on the Y axis against the corresponding weighted
discharge values [XI + (1 – X)O] on the X axis. The value of X which gives the narrowest loop
between S and [XI + (1 – X)O] is accepted.

Values of K and X determined here hold good only for the river reach whose data have been
used and strictly for the flood event whose data are used. Use of these parameter values to other
river reaches or to other flood events (particularly of very different magnitudes) in the same
river reach may be attempted with caution.

If data for many flood events are available, each of different magnitude and duration, such data
can be used to determine `average' parameters for the river reach.

Example 1: Table 1 gives inflow and outflow for a river reach for 66 hours. Find the
Muskingum parameters K and X for the reach.

Table 1 Inflow and Outflow for a River Reach

Time (hrs) 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66
Inflow (m3/s) 5 20 50 50 32 22 15 10 7 5 5 5
Outflow (m3/s) 5 6 12 29 38 35 29 23 17 13 9 7

Solution: The computations are shown in Table 2. Here, storage (Col. 4) is calculated by the
use of Eq. (5). Three trial values of X are chosen and for each of these, the quantity [XI + (1 –
X)O] called “weighted flows” is computed and plotted against storage. In each case, a loop
curve is obtained.

Table Computations to determine Muskingum parameter X

Inflow Outflow Storage Weighted flows (m3/s) [XI + (1 – X)O]

Time (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s)-hr X=0.2 X=0.25 X=0.3
0 5 5 0 5 5 5
6 20 6 42 8.8 9.5 10.2
12 50 12 198 19.6 21.5 23.4
18 50 29 375 33.2 34.25 35.3
24 32 38 420 36.8 36.5 36.2
30 22 35 363 32.4 31.75 31.1
36 15 29 282 26.2 25.5 24.8
42 10 23 201 20.4 19.75 19.1
48 7 17 132 15 14.5 14

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 54 5 13 78 11.4 11 10.6
60 5 9 42 8.2 8 7.8
66 5 7 24 6.6 6.5 6.4

Highlighted S = S1 + dt*[(I2 + I1)/2 – (O2 + O1)/2]

= 42 + 6*((50+20)/2 - (12+6)/2) = 42 +6*(35 – 9) = 42+ 156 = 198

Weighted flow = XI + (1-X)O = 0.2*50 + 0.8*12 = 10 + 9.6 = 19.6

Fig. Three loop curves obtained in the graphical estimation of parameters K and X.

Adopt that particular value of X for which the loop is the thinnest or close to a straight line.
Inspection of Fig. shows that for this problem, X = 0.2 gives the thinnest loop and so this value
is adopted. The slope of the narrowest loop gives the value of K. Equation (4) can also be
written as
𝑆
𝐾=
𝑋𝐼+(1−𝑋)𝑂

For the line corresponding to X = 0.2, slope is = (320 – 50)/(30 – 10) = 270/20 = 13.5. Hence
K for this problem is 13.5 hrs.

This procedure assumes that the water surface in the river reach is a uniform unbroken profile
between upstream and downstream ends of the reach. It is also assumed that K and X are
constant throughout the range of flow in the stage of investigation. If significant departures
from these restrictions are present, it may be necessary to work with shorter reaches of the
river, or to employ a more sophisticated approach. A rule of thumb is that the Muskingum
method will fail if the lag of the channel reach defined by K is greater than half the duration of
inflow.

Other ways to estimate K

 Using known hydrograph data.
 Comparing flow length to a flood wave velocity.
 Using regression equations developed from observed data in a similar region.

Using Known Hydrograph Data

Travel time of a flood wave through given reach can be estimated by noting difference between
similar points (peaks of I and O hydrographs, centroids of the two hydrographs, or some

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reference point on rising limb of two hydrographs). May change with the feature used to
estimate it.

By Computing Travel Time

Travel time of a flood wave through the given reach can also be estimated by dividing the
reach length by the flood wave velocity (Manning’s equation).

Routing Procedure
After estimating parameters K and X, compute routing coefficients C0, C1, and C2. Then, the
observed direct inflow hydrograph can be routed through the channel by using Eq. (8).

Example 2: The inflow hydrograph to a river reach is given in Table 3. Route this hydrograph
by using the Muskingum method. Adopt K = 8 hours, x = 0.15, and Δt = 6 hours.

Table 3 Data for Example 2

Time (h) 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66
3
Inflow (m /s) 5 20 50 75 32 22 15 10 7 5 5 5

Solution: By using the given K and x, we complete routing coefficients

(6⁄8) − 2 × 0.15 0.45
𝐶0 = = = 0.184
2(1 − 0.15) + (6⁄8) 2.45
(6⁄8) + 2 × 0.15 1.05
𝐶1 = = = 0.428
2(1 − 0.15) + (6⁄8) 2.45
2(1 − 0.15) − (6⁄8) 0.95
𝐶2 = = = 0.388
2(1 − 0.15) + (6⁄8) 2.45

It is verified that C0 + C1 + C2 = 0.184 + 0.428 + 0.388 = 1.0. Routing computations are shown
in Table 4. As example, for the second time period

Outflow 𝑂2 = 𝐶0 𝐼2 + 𝐶1 𝐼1 + 𝐶2 𝑂1
= 0.184×20 + 0.428×5 + 0.388×5 = 3.68 + 2.14 + 1.94 = 7.76 m3/s.

Table 4 Solution of Example 2

Time Inflow Partial flows (m3/s) Outflow
(hours) (m3/s) C 0I 2 C 1I 1 C2O1 (m3/s)

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 0 5 - - - 5
6 20 3.68 2.14 1.94 7.76
12 50 9.20 8.56 3.01 20.77
18 75 13.80 21.40 8.06 43.26
24 32 5.89 32.10 16.78 54.77
30 22 4.05 13.70 21.25 39.00
36 15 2.76 9.42 15.13 27.31
42 10 1.84 6.42 10.59 18.85
48 7 1.29 4.28 7.32 12.88
54 5 0.92 3.00 5.00 8.91
60 4 0.74 2.14 3.46 6.33
66 2 0.37 1.71 2.46 4.54

3 The Saint-Venant Equations

In most situations, river flow has a higher variation in the longitudinal flow direction than in
the lateral or vertical direction. Thus, one may assume that river flow is typically one-
dimensional except in situations when the flood flow covers vast flood plains.
In 1871, Saint-Venant proposed the governing equations for conservation of mass and
momentum in a river section. These are known as the Saint-Venant equations

Q A
  ql (Conservation of mass) (12)
x t
and
Q   Q 2  y
    gA  gA( S f  S 0 )  L  0 (Conservation of momentum) (13)
t x  A  x

where Q is the discharge, L is the momentum effect of lateral flow, A is the area of cross section,
v is the velocity, S f is the friction slope, S 0 is the bed slope, y is the depth of flow, x denotes the
longitudinal distance along the river, and t is time. Equations (12) and (13) together are also
known as the dynamic wave equations or the full Saint-Venant equations. In Eq. (14), the first
two terms represent the rate of change of momentum of water, the third term represents the
change in the pressure force, the fourth term is due to resistance effects, and the last term is due
to lateral inflow.
These two equations form a set of nonlinear first-order hyperbolic partial differential equations,
describing unsteady flow in open channels. Detailed descriptions of the theory behind these
hydrodynamic equations and their derivation have been given by many authors.

Assumptions underlying the derivation of Saint-Venant equations are

(1) flow is one-dimensional;
(2) the water surface varies gradually, meaning thereby that the pressure distribution along a
vertical is hydrostatic and vertical acceleration is small;
(3) the friction losses in unsteady flow are not significantly different from those in steady flow;
(4) the velocity distribution along the wetted area does not substantially affect the wave
propagation, or the velocity distribution is uniform;
(5) the bottom slope of the channel is small so that Sin θ ≈ 0, tan θ ≈ θ, and Cos θ ≈ 1; and

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(6) the channel is straight and prismatic. Attempts to experimentally verify Saint-Venant
equations show that the results obtained by numerically solving these equations are sufficiently
close to experimental results.

3.1 Simplified forms of Saint-Venant Equations

Saint-Venant equations are nonlinear partial differential equations and their closed form
analytical solution is not available. Therefore, numerical methods are employed to find a
solution.

Momentum equation describes the dynamic behavior of flood wave propagation accounting
for the body, surface, and inertial forces of flow at a given time. In many practical applications,
all the terms in the momentum equation are not equally important. Furthermore, the local and
convective acceleration terms are almost equal but of opposite sign and hence cancel each
other. Therefore, this equation can be approximated by ignoring some of the terms.

Ignoring some of the terms results in simplified equations which are easier to solve and the
solution is numerically more stable (of course, there is a trade-off in using simplified version
and accuracy).
Simplifications of the momentum equation are classified as kinematic wave and diffusive wave
models. The equation for these three waves can be depicted as

Momentum equation
𝜕𝑄 𝜕 𝑄2 𝜕𝑦
+ 𝜕𝑥 ( 𝐴 ) + 𝑔𝐴 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑔𝐴(𝑆𝑓 − 𝑆0 ) + 𝑄𝑠 𝐴𝑣 = 0 (14)
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝑄 𝜕 𝑄2 𝜕𝑦 + 𝑔𝐴𝑆𝑓 − 𝑔𝐴𝑆0 𝑄𝑠 𝐴𝑣 = 0
+ ( ) + 𝑔𝐴
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝐴 𝜕𝑥
Local Convective Pressure Friction Gravity Later inflow
acceleration acceleration force term force term force term
term term
Change in Change in Proportional Proportional Proportional
momentum momentum to change in to the to bed
due to due to water depth friction slope
change in change in along the slope
velocity with velocity along channel
time the channel
Kinematic wave
Diffusion wave
Dynamic wave

Available numerical methods to solve Saint-Venant equations can be classified as (1) method
of characteristics; (2) explicit finite difference methods; (3) implicit finite difference methods;
and (4) finite element methods. The method of characteristics was developed in the twentieth
century and was in use for quite some time.

4 Muskingum-Cunge Method
French scientist Cunge (1969) developed a physically based alternative to the Muskingum
method, popularly known as the Muskingum-Cunge method (MCM).

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 We write the kinematic wave equation as

𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑄
+ 𝑐 𝜕𝑥 = 0 (39)
𝜕𝑡

in which c is the kinematic wave celerity, c = βv, β = 5/3 for wide channels. Cunge (1969)
discretized Eq. (39) on the x-t plane (Fig. 6) such that the spatial derivative was centered and
the temporal derivative was off-centered by means of a weighting factor X. The resulting
equation is given as

𝑋(𝑄𝑗𝑛+1−𝑄𝑗𝑛 )+(1−𝑋)(𝑄𝑗+1
𝑛+1 𝑛
−𝑄𝑗+1 ) 𝑛
(𝑄𝑗+1 𝑛+1
−𝑄𝑗𝑛 )+(𝑄𝑗+1 −𝑄𝑗𝑛+1)
+𝑐 =0 (40)
∆𝑡 2∆𝑥

Solving Eq. (39) for the unknown discharge leads to the following equation

𝑛+1
𝑄𝑗+1 = 𝐶0 𝑄𝑗𝑛+1 + 𝐶1 𝑄𝑗𝑛 + 𝐶2 𝑄𝑗+1
𝑛
(41)

where the routing coefficients are given as

𝑐(∆𝑡/∆𝑥)−2𝑋
𝐶0 = 2(1−𝑋)+𝑐(∆𝑡/∆𝑥) (42)

𝑐(∆𝑡/∆𝑥)+2𝑋
𝐶1 = 2(1−𝑋)+𝑐(∆𝑡/∆𝑥) (43)

2(1−𝑋)+𝑐(∆𝑡/∆𝑥)
𝐶2 = 2(1−𝑋)+𝑐(∆𝑡/∆𝑥) (44)

Define
∆𝑥
𝐾= 𝑐
(45)

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Equation (45) suggests that K is the time taken for a water mass moving with the kinematic
celerity c to cover the reach length Δx. In reality, c varies with discharge.

Cunge (1969) expressed X as:

1 𝑞𝑜
𝑋 = 2 (1 − 𝑆 ) (48)
𝑜 𝑐∆𝑥

When X is calculated by Eq. (48), the routing method is referred to as the Muskingum-Cunge
method (MCM).

An improved version of the MCM was presented by Ponce (1989). The Courant number, C, is
defined as the ratio of wave celerity (c) to grid celerity Δx/Δt, or

∆𝑡
𝐶 = 𝑐 ∆𝑥 (49)

The grid diffusivity is defined as the numerical diffusivity for X = 0. From Eq. (46), the
grid diffusivity is

𝑣𝑔 = 𝑐∆𝑥/2 (50)

The Cell Reynolds number is the ratio of hydraulic diffusivity to grid diffusivity. This leads to
qo
𝐷 = (51)
So cΔx
in which D = the cell Reynolds number. Therefore, from Eqs. (48) and (51)

𝑋 = 0.5(1 − 𝐷) (52)

Substitution of Eqs. (49) and (52) into Eqs. (42) to (44) leads to the routing coefficients
expressed in terms of the Courant and cell Reynolds numbers
−1+𝐶+𝐷
𝐶0 = (53)
1+𝐶+𝐷

1+𝐶−𝐷
𝐶1 = 1+𝐶+𝐷 (54)

1−𝐶+𝐷
𝐶2 = 1+𝐶+𝐷 (55)

Thus, C and D are the two routing parameters required to be estimated for the MCM.

4.1 Estimation of Muskingum-Cunge Parameters

Parameter C can be estimated by Eq. (48). It requires an estimate of wave celerity (c) in addition
to grid size (Δx, Δt). The wave celerity can be calculated with either
c=βv (56)

1 𝑑𝑄
or 𝑐 = 𝑇 𝑑𝑌 (57)

where v is the average flow velocity; T is the top width; and β is an exponent in the discharge-

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area rating equation. Parameter β is a function of cross-sectional properties.

While estimating c, if a stage-discharge rating and cross-section geometry are available,

Eq. (57) is preferred over Eq. (56) because it directly accounts for the cross-sectional shape. In
the absence of these data, Eq. (56) can be used to estimate the celerity of wave. The velocity
term in Eq. (56) can be taken as the velocity at reference flow which can be taken as the average
flow.
The cell Reynolds number (D) can be calculated by using the reach length (Δx),
reference discharge per unit width qo, kinematic wave celerity (c), and bottom slope (So) in Eq.
(51).

4.2 Flood routing by the Muskingum-Cunge Method

The steps involved in flood routing through a channel reach using MCM are as follows

(1) Estimate parameter C (Courant number) by using the expression 𝐶 = 𝑐 ∆𝑥

Δt
.

The wave celerity c is computed using the eq. (56) or (57).

Temporal and spatial resolutions (Δt and Δx) should be chosen such that the routing co-efficient
Co should not be negative.
Value of Courant number (C) should be close to one so as to minimize numerical dispersion.

(2) Estimate parameter D (cell Reynolds number) as 𝐷 = 𝑆𝑜q𝑐∆𝑥

𝑜
.

One should ensure whether –1 + C + D >0 which is the practical criterion to avoid the negative
values of C0 in the Muskingum-Cunge routing.
(3) Estimate routing coefficients C0, C1 and C2.

(4) Route the inflow hydrograph (Q) using the following equation in order to have the
outflow hydrograph (Qj+1):

𝑛+1
𝑄𝑗+1 = 𝐶0 𝑄𝑗𝑛+1 + 𝐶1 𝑄𝑗𝑛 + 𝐶2 𝑄𝑗+1
𝑛
(58)

(5) If the channel is divided into subreaches, steps (1) to (4) should be repeated for all the
subreaches considering the outflow from the first subreach as inflow to the second subreach,
and so on.

Example 4: Use the Muskingum-Cunge method to route a flood wave with the following flood
and channel features: Peak flow Qp = 750 m3 /s, Channel bottom slope So = 0.000868, Flow
area at peak discharge Ap = 400 m2, Top width at peak discharge Tp = 100 m, Rating exponent
β = 1.7, Reach length Δx = 12.0 km, and Time interval Δt = 1 hr.

Time (h) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Flow (m3/s) 0 150 300 450 600 750 550 350 150 0

Solution:
The mean velocity (based on the peak discharge)
υ = Qp /Ap = 750/400 = 1.875 m/s

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 Wave celerity c = βv. Here β = 1.7.

Hence c = 1.7 × 1.875 = 3.1875 m/s

Courant number C = c Δt/Δx = 3.1875 × 1 × 3600 × 10-3 /12 = 0.956

Cell Reynolds number D = qo/So cΔx

where, qo = the flow per unit width (based on the peak discharge)
= Qp/Tp = 750/100 = 7.5 m2/s

Hence D = 7.5/ (0.000868 × 4 × 12 × 103) = 0.226

Routing coefficients:

Co = (–1+C+D)/(1+C+D) = (–1+0.956+0.226)/(1+0.956+0.226) = 0.083

C1 = (1+C–D) /(1+C+D) = (1+0.956–0.226)/(1+0.956+0.226) = 0.793
C2 = (1–C+D) /(1+C+D) = (1–0.956+0.226)/(1+0.956+0.226) = 0.124

Check C0 + C1 + C2 = 0.083 + 0.793 + 0.124 = 1.000

(v) Compute the outflow hydrograph using the following routing equation:

𝑛+1
𝑄𝑗+1 = 𝐶0 𝑄𝑗𝑛+1 + 𝐶1 𝑄𝑗𝑛 + 𝐶2 𝑄𝑗+1
𝑛

= 0.083 𝑄𝑗𝑛+1 + 0.793𝑄𝑗𝑛 + 0.124𝑄𝑗+1

𝑛

The routing calculations are shown in Table 6.

Table 6 Channel Routing by the Muskingum-Cunge Method

Time (hr) Inflow Partial Flows Outflow

Qjn+1(m3/s) CoQjn+1(m3/s) C1Qjn(m3/s) C2Qj+1n(m Qj+1n+1(m3/s)
3
/s)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)=(3)+(4)+(5)
0 0 - - - 0
1 200 16.69 0.00 0.00 16.69
2 400 33.39 158.59 2.06 194.04
3 600 50.08 317.18 23.98 391.24
4 800 66.78 475.78 48.35 590.90
5 1000 83.47 634.37 73.02 790.86
6 800 66.78 792.96 97.73 957.46
7 600 50.08 634.37 118.31 802.76
8 400 33.39 475.78 99.20 608.36
9 200 16.69 317.18 75.17 409.05
10 0 0.00 158.59 50.55 209.14
11 0 0.00 0.00 25.84 25.84
12 0 0.00 0.00 3.19 3.19
13 0 0.00 0.00 0.39 0.39

4.3 Advantages and Limitations of the Muskingum-Cunge Method

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The Muskingum-Cunge method works best when the numerical dispersion is minimized. Since
the method is limited to diffusion waves and does not take into account the substantial loops in
stage-discharge rating (i.e. dynamic waves), its application is restricted to the routing of flows
in natural streams whose backwater effects are without significance and to unsteady flows that
classify under the diffusion wave.

(1) MCM is a physically based alternative to the Muskingum method. In the Muskingum
method, parameters are calibrated by using streamflow data but MCM parameters are
determined by the use of flow and channel physical characteristics, such as rating curves, cross-
sectional data, and channel slope. Hence routing parameters can be computed without time
consuming calibration. Further, channel routing can be carried out in ungauged rivers with
good accuracy.

(2) With the variable parameter feature, nonlinear properties of flood waves can be
described within the context of the Muskingum formulation (Perumal et al. 2001).

(3) The Muskingum‑Cunge method does not consider a looped rating curve. This method
does not take into account strong nonuniformity in flows or unsteady behavior of flows that
display significant loop in the rating relationship, for example, the dynamic waves. MCM is a
suitable method for flow routing in natural streams which do not display significant backwater
effects and for unsteady flows.

(4) The Muskingum method is based on the storage concept and its parameters K and X are
reach averages. However, the Muskingum-Cunge method is kinematic in nature, with
parameters C and D being based on the values evaluated at channel cross sections; these are
not average values for the reach.

Reservoir Routing
Passage of flood hydrograph through a reservoir is an unsteady flow phenomenon.
Primary equation used is the equation of continuity which states that the difference between
the inflow and outflow is equal to the rate of change of storage

I – Q = dS/dt (105)

where I = the inflow, Q = the outflow, S = the storage, and t = time. Over a small time interval
Δt, the difference between total inflow volume and total outflow volume is equal to the change
in storage in the reservoir. Hence Eq. (105) can be written as

𝐼𝑚 ∆𝑡 − 𝑄𝑚 ∆𝑡 = ∆𝑆 (106)

where Im, Qm, and ΔS denote the average inflow, average outflow, and change in storage during
time period Δt, respectively.

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 Input System Output

Q
Q = Q(h)
S = S(h)
I t

S
t
t
Legend I: Inflow, Q: Outflow, S: Storage, h: elevation, t: time.

Schematic representation of reservoir routing.

Reservoir Routing Techniques

Outflow from a reservoir can be either controlled or uncontrolled.
Controlled reservoirs have spillways and other outlets with gates which are operated to release
water.

Outlets of uncontrolled reservoirs are not controlled by gate.

For reservoir routing computations, relationship between reservoir elevation, storage, and
discharge is required. It depends on topography of site near dam and characteristics of outlets.

Reservoir routing methods

Modified Puls Method, Mass Curve Method, Wisler-Brater Method, Goodrich Method,

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Steinberg Method, Coefficient Method.

Modified Puls Method

Also known as the Storage-Indication method.
Continuity equation: For a reservoir, the difference between average inflow and outflow is
equal to the rate of change in storage.

Assuming Im = (I1 + I2)/2, Qm = (Q1 + Q2 )/2 and ΔS = S2 – S1, Eq. (106) is written as

(I1 + I2)Δt/2 – (Q1 + Q2)Δt/2 = S2 – S1 (107)

suffixes 1 and 2 denote the beginning and end of time interval Δt and Q consists of controlled
as well as uncontrolled releases.
Time interval Δt must be sufficiently small so that the inflow and outflow hydrographs can be
assumed to be linear in any time interval.
Δt must be smaller than the time of transit of flood wave through the reservoir.

Separating the known quantities from the unknown ones and rearranging

(I1 + I2) + (2S1/Δt – Q1) = (2S2/Δt + Q2) (108)

Since one equation with two unknowns cannot be solved, another equation is needed, relating
storage, S, and outflow, Q.
Most outflow from the reservoir takes place through spillway  discharge passing through
spillway can be related with water surface elevation in the reservoir which can be related with
reservoir storage.
Typical relationship

Q = Cd L H1.5 (109)

where Q is the outflow discharge (cumec); Cd is the coefficient of discharge (=1.70 in metric
unit); L is the length of spillway (m); and H is the depth of flow above the spillway crest (m).

Thus, left side of Eq. (108) contains known terms and right side is unknown.
Inflow hydrograph is known. The discharge Q, which may pass through the turbines, outlet
works, or over the spillway is also known.
Uncontrolled discharge goes freely over spillway; it depends upon depth of flow over spillway
and spillway geometry. Depth of flow over spillway depends upon the level of water in
reservoir.
Therefore

S = S (Y)
Q = Q (Y) (110)

where Y represents the water surface elevation. The right side of Eq. (101) can be written as:

2S/Δt + Q = f(Y) (111)

One can develop a relation between storage and outflow. This relation is used to develop the
relation between

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storage indication [(2S/Δt) + Q] versus outflow.
To develop this relation, it is necessary to select a time interval such that the resulting
linearization of the inflow hydrograph remains a close approximation of the actual nonlinear
(continuous time varying) shape of the hydrograph. For smoothly rising hydrographs, a
minimum value of tp/Δt = 5 is recommended, in which tp is time to peak of the inflow
hydrograph.
Computer aided calculations normally use a much greater ratio, e.g., 10 to 20.

To utilize Eq. (108), the elevation storage and elevation-discharge relationship must be
known. Before routing, the curves of (2S/Δt ± Q) versus Q are constructed.

Steps of Routing Computations

1. At the start of flood routing, the initial storage, outflow discharge are known. Compute
(2S/Δt – Q).
2. Compute (2S/Δt + Q) = (I1 + I2) + (2S/Δt – Q).
3. Since the relations S = S(h) and Q = Q(h) are known, for computed value of (2S/Δt +
Q), determine reservoir water elevation (h) and thereby discharge (Q) at the end of
time step.
4. For the next time step, (2S /Δt - Q) = (2S /Δt + Q) - 2Q.
5. Same as step 2 …
6. Repeat this procedure to cover entire inflow hydrograph.

Example 5: The spillway of a dam is ogee crested whose crest is at an elevation 101 m.
Initially, the reservoir level is at an elevation 102 m and the initial outflow is 27 cumec. Route
the hydrograph given in Table 7 through the reservoir. Take time interval Δt = 1 hr.

Table 7 Inflow Hydrograph for Example 5

Time (h) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
3
Inflow (m /s) 27 40 60 100 160 240 180 130
Time (h) 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Inflow (m3/s) 90 60 40 35 30 27 27 17
Route the flood through this reservoir.

Solution: The calculations for the Modified Puls method are shown in Table 8 in which
• Column 1: water surface elevation, from 101 m to 107 m.
• Column 2: the head above spillway crest.
• Column 3: the outflow, calculated by Eq. 110.
• Column 4: the storage volume in cubic meters above the spillway crest elevation.
• Column 5: storage volume in (cumec-hour), computed by dividing the values in
Column 4 by Δt × 3600.
• Column 6: the storage indication quantities [(2S/Δt + Q], in m3/s.

Table 8 Reservoir Water Elevation versus Outflow, Storage Table

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Elevation Head (m) Outflow Storage (106 Storage S [(2S/Δt)+Q]
(m) (m3/s) m3) (m3/s)-hr (m3/s)
101 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00

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 102 1 27.00 1.50 416.67 860.33
103 2 58.08 2.50 694.44 1446.97
104 3 98.33 3.50 972.22 2042.77
105 4 166.00 4.50 1250.00 2666.00
106 5 220.07 5.50 1527.78 3275.63
107 6 299.85 6.50 1805.56 3910.96

For storage = 1.5 *106, Storage (m3/s)-hr, 1.5*1000000/(1*3600) = 416.67

[(2S/Δt)+Q] = 2*416.67/1 + 27.0 = 860.33 m3/s.

The routing is summarized in Table 9 in which (Col. 1) shows time; (Col. 2) shows the
inflow hydrograph; (Col. 3) shows elevation, and so on.
Here, the initial outflow is 27 m3/s; the initial storage indication value is 860.33 m3/s
(corresponding to initial elevation 102 m in Table 8. The recursive procedure should continue
until the outflow has substantially declined. Sample calculations are shown in Table 9.

Table 9 Computations and Results of Example 5

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
Time Inflow Average Elevation Storage [2S/Δt)–Q] [2S/Δt)+Q] Outflo
3
(h) (m /s) Inflow (m) (106 m3) (m3/s) (m3/s) w
(m3/s)
0 27 102.00 1.5 27.00
33.5 806.33 873.33
1 40 102.02 1.52 27.69
50 817.96 917.96
2 60 102.10 1.6 30.05
80 857.86 1017.85
3 100 102.27 1.77 35.35
130 947.16 1207.16
4 160 102.59 2.09 45.37
Remaining lines deleted.

Details of calculations
First time step
[2S/Δt)+Q] = 806.33 + (40+27) = 873.33
Corresponding outflow = 27.69 m3/s
Second time step
[2S/Δt)-Q] = 873.33 -2*27.69 = 873.33 - 55.4 = 817.96
[2S/Δt)+Q] = 817.96 + (40 +60) = 817.96 + 100 = 917.96, corresponding Q = 30.05 m3/s

And so on …

6.5 Major Applications of Storage Routing

Although the simplicity of storage routing is well known and it is easy to apply, the variety of
problems which can be solved by this routing method gives it an important practical meaning.
Some of the major applications are given below.

Determination of Reservoir Capacity for Flood Control: Routing of different flood waves

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through a reservoir gives useful information for economic and risk analyses of flood control
storage regulation. It also helps in regulation of the storage capacity reserved for flood control.
Establishing Capacities of Outlet Structures: Routing of flood waves entering the reservoirs
permits the determination of maximum levels in reservoirs for given reservoir features,
operation policy, and initial conditions. The larger is the overall outlet capacities to release
water, the smaller will be the maximum water level attained by the reservoir for a given
incoming flood and the given reservoir level at the beginning of this flood. Storage routing
helps determine the reservoir levels for various flood hydrograph and discharge capacity curves
of outlets. Repeated routing of flood hydrographs of different return periods will provide the
necessary information on the optimal design of outlet structures. The bottom outlets and the
intermediate outlets are then economically analyzed and decisions made on their type and size
by using the information produced by all the relevant storage routing cases.
Sizing of Spillway Capacities: The storage routing provides information for the design of
spillways, such as the type of spillway, number of spillway openings, the width and height of
spillway openings with their discharge capacities at various reservoir levels, and so on.
Computation of Probabilities of Highest Water Levels: Some fixed level reservoirs pose two
problems of importance: (1) what probabilities of occurrence (return periods) should be
assigned to the highest historic flooding levels and inundation consequences, and (2) what are
the probabilities of reaching or exceeding still higher levels than historically observed? By
storage routing of well-defined inflow hydrographs for initial reservoir levels, regulating
policies, and similar information, it then becomes feasible to resolve these two practical
problems.
Rate of Change of Reservoir Levels: The stability of banks along the reservoir shores is an
old but important problem for planning new reservoirs and the defense of shores of existing
reservoirs. Wave erosion is another problem. Landslides into reservoirs are often crucial in
many respects. Any evaluation of dangers of landslides should be based on the rate of change
of reservoir level besides the analysis of all the other factors that trigger landslides, especially
during the highest reservoir levels. To obtain an insight of how fast levels may decrease after
high for a given time, in the form of the rates of change of levels in these decreasing phases,
may be determined by storage routing of flood inflow discharge hydrograph for given initial
and boundary conditions.
Effects of Reservoirs on Downstream Floods: Downstream flood conditions can be well
estimated only if both the forced or uncontrolled reservoir releases are combined with
intermediate inflows between a reservoir on the river and the locations of flood problems.
Proper flood storage routing through reservoirs will provide reliable information, with the
corresponding probability statements, of what will the flood conditions downstream of that
reservoir be.
Computation of Dam Breach Outflows: To determine the hydrologic impacts in the
downstream areas of a dam due to a dam breach, the outflow hydrograph from the dam is
needed. Storage routing is carried out to compute this hydrograph.

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