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    Chapter 3

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    Winda Annisha

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    eee ne eed Chapter 3 Behaviorism searches yield, and the 1 time, a science is simply what its researc) Soon nein thine more than tae problems for which fective aie have been found and for which the times —— Geral step in cen rr depends mt reins oe ad the ro not much hurried by wishing. (Boring, 19: ae Dewey's functional psychology i ied discipline with a variety of interests. The tlerancefor'a range of ews prevented the development of a sere discipline. However, the movement lacked organization and focus; this diffuseness proved its undoing. nae Psychology, with aspirations of becoming a precise science like phys- ics and chemistry, had yet to find a research method. Into that breach came behaviorism, championed by its founder, John R. Watson. From the 1920s until the 1950s, behaviorism was the dominant movement in psychology, and with it, the study of learning. EARLY BEHAVIORIST THEORIES The research method that initiated behaviorism was reflex or classical conditioning. Discovered by two Russian physiologists in independent experiments and adapted by John Watson, classical conditioning seemed to be the precise methodology sought by psychologists. The other ap- Proach implemented in the early 20th century was Edward Thorndike’s connectionism 32 Chapter 3 Behaviorism 33 A Rationale for Behaviorism “The inability of structuralism and functionalism to establish well-defined research methods and a clearly defined subject matter established the climate for change. In that context, John Watson launched the move- ment to study behavior rather than mental processes or states. In the 1913 article “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It:" Watson made a case for the study of behavior. In some 50-odd years, said Watson, psychology had failed to establish itself asa natural science. ‘The focus on consciousness and mental processes had led psychology into a dead end where the topics are “threadbare from much handling” (Watson, 1913, p. 174). Furthermore, when human consciousness is the reference point for research. the behaviorist is forced to ignore all data that do not relate to human mental processes. Other sciences, such as physics and chem istry, he noted, do not restrict their definitions of the subject matter to the extent that information must be discarded. ‘The starting point for psychology, therefore, should be the fact that all organisms adjust to the environment through responses (Watson, 1913). Since certain responses follow certain stimuli, psychologists should be able to predict the response from the stimulus, and vice versa. ‘When this goal is achieved, according to Watson, psychology will then become an objective, experimental science. In addition, the discipline also would provide useful knowledge for the educator, physician, bus ness leader. and others. ‘After the appeal to study behavior, Watson discovered the motor- reflex research of V. M. Bekheterev, a Russian physiologist. His work was important because he had successfully manipulated simple behavioral reactions in the laboratory. On reading the research, Watson was con- vinced that behavioral control in the real world was within reach. His prediction was wrong, but his views were a major force in the use of precise methods of research and measurement by psychologists (Kra- tochwill & Bijou, 1987). Reflex or Classical Conditioning ‘The experiments conducted by Bekheterev “trained” reflexes such as finger retraction to respond to a variety of sights and sounds associated with an electric shock stimulus (Murphy, 1949). The best-known exper- iments, however, were conducted by Ivan Pavlov, for which he received the 1904 Nobel Prize. Pavlov’s Experiment Pavlox, also physiologist, was researching digestive processes in dogs. His experiments involved the presentation of meat powder to dogs to measure salivation. However, Pavlov noticed that after a time the experimental animal began salivating before seeing or smelling the meat powder. undations of Contemporary Psychology on Part Fo Th nd of the laboratory assistant’s footsteps triggered (elicitegy the salivation reaction. this situation, Pavlov sound, ns tematically with this si led a Experimenting orient ntation ofthe meat powder. After sever ae ae oe tone elicited the salvation reaction, ing fork s e gf ing fork alone e! Paling the vary wae important for two Teasons. First, the saliva, The rescareflex, ‘That is, it is a spontaneous reaction that ogcy, response is a ref “smell of food. To alter the “natural” automaticaly ae eand a response was Viewed 2s a major ee’ dior oe eee udy of behavior. To manipulate even a simple react raat the promise that the causes of complex a np might be pe ommad. Second, the research demonstrated the potential of labors. ton cuudies to discover new knowledge. : “The process by which ne events or stimull acquire the power t wiger responses became known as reflex or classical conditioning, fy the classical conditioning methodology, the naturally occurring stimulug dnd the reflex response are unconditioned. That is, they occur together Nithout Uaining and are referred 10 as the unconditioned stimulus (WCS) and unconditioned response (UCR). The UCS is said to elicit the UCR; for example, a foreign object in the eye elicits an eye blink. “Aer training, the new stimulus that elicits the reflex respons referred to as the conditioned stimulus (CS). The reflex, formerly un. Conditioned, is known as a conditioned response (CR) after training able 3.1). cre development of casial conditioning introduced a number of variables and new relationships that could be researched and precisely measured in the laboratory setting. Included are the amount or strength of the response (referred to as amplitude), the length of time between the stimulus and the response (latency), and the tendency of similar stimuli co elicit the reflex (stimulus generalization). For example, studies indicated that a reflex conditioned to a sound pitch of 256 also is con- ditioned to sound pitches of 255 and 257 (Murphy, 1949). Two other relationships introduced in classical conditioning include resistance to extinction and inhibition, Resistance to extinction is the tendency of a response.to persist after the supporting conditions are withdrawn, Inhibition refers othe reduction in a response caused by the introduction of extraneous stimuli. John Watson’s Behaviorism Watson's contribution to psychology is that he organized the findings of current research into a new perspective and persuaded other psycholo- gists of the importance of his views. Behaviorism, as Watson viewed it, should apply the techniques of animal research (i.e., conditioning) to the study of human beings. He therefore redefined mental concepts (which he considered to be unnecessary) as behavioral responses. Thinking, for example, was identified 2s subvocal speech, and feeling was defined as a glandular reaction (Watson, 1995). Uuonsesies s06u4 sezng Uvogoesias soGu1y wezzng oous oMD013 uoqoenes 06s seoys opera qy8y 6g ung 03 1B Wve sug 0h day wana 063 Ind ay 20} Suny, wonenreg 0} Bury vowenwes _sopmod 1eoH4 uonenyes sopmod ear eo) (s9) SasNodsau MINAS (won) (son) x3743u ‘SMINWILS x37338 aaulvd 3SNOdS3u SMNWILS (ONLIOITa) @3NOUIGNCD —_aaNOLLIGNOD xa1s38 G3IvID0SS¥___GBNOLLIGNOONN diysuoneiay ‘s]ej4y yeyuewyedx3 ‘diysuonessy (,1e2meN,,) 1euaWPdxoaIg (evompu09) rewwouliodxoisog 35 36 Part I Foundations of Contemporary Psychology ‘ed that the human personality developed through conditioning of various reflexes. He maintained that the human se cnn a er onl pon Caso, They are fear, rage, and love. The fear response, for exampl fe, begin with the jumping or starting of the body and an interruption in breath, ing. Then, depending on the infant's age, crying falling, and crawling or running away follow. The fear response was observed in the natural environment after a loud noise or loss of support for the infant. Accord. ing to Watson (1928), an adult's complex emotional life is the result of the conditioning of the three basic responses to a variety of situations, Watson also b Conditioning Experiments with Infants. While at Johns Hopkins Uni. versity, Watson and his graduate assistant, Rosalie Rayner, conducted a controversial experiment with an I1-month-old child named Albert (Watson & Rayner, 1920). This experiment, unethical by today’s stan dards, conditioned Albert's fear reaction to several soft furry objects. Albert was tested first to confirm that live animals and objects (such as a human mask and cotton) did not elicit his fear response. Then, for several trials a white rat was presented to Albert, and a laboratory assis- tant behind Albert struck a steel bar with a hammer. On the first pairing of the two stimuli, the infant jumped violently; on the second trial, he began to cry. On the eighth trial, the white rat alone elicited crying and crawling away (Watson & Rayner, 1920). Five days later, the fear reaction also appeared in response to a white rabbit. Nonfurry objects, such as the child’s blocks, did not elicit the fear response, but mild fear reactions occurred in response to a dog and a sealskin fur coat. The child's emotional response had transferred to furry animals and objects, and it persisted for longer than a month. In recent years, questions have been raised about the experiment because the classical conditioning model was not strictly followed. The loud noise was not paired with the presentation of the rat; instead, the noise occurred as Albert reached out his hand to touch the animal. However, the experiment demonstrated that emotions could be studied by controlled research methods, and it promoted research on condition- ing (Kratochwill & Bijou, 1987). A related topic, the elimination or “unconditioning” of children's fear reactions, was pioneered by Mary Cover Jones. She found that ef. forts to talk the child out of the fear or relying on extinction to eliminate the fear were ineffective (Jones, 1924). Instead, a planned program was required. The two successful strategies were (a) the child’s observation of other children’s acceptance of the feared object, and (b) the gradual Presentation ofthe feared object during a favorite activity, such as eating. his experiment that be- a foundation for living. ide the following claims haviorism was the mechanism that could provide In his usual persuasive style, Wats for conditioning: " ec Chapter 3 Behaviorism 37 Ctr me a oven hesiyinfans, wll formed ad my own spec Sisto ting the ap iy and 2 unrest yoo td and train him to become any type of specialist I oe pe of pei Tigh seco Ie Jot rua, erchanrchiel—refard of fa lena pecan aden 3S Shien vuadon and rier of hs ances, pa) Needless to say, behaviorism became inimediately popular. The sim- plicty of the method for conditioning responses and the pire ofthe pro- tedute led to a multitude of applications and experiments. In the 1920s, flmost every ps¥chologistseerned to bea behaviorist, and none appeared to gree with any other (Boring, 1950). The term behaviorsm became attached tp several developments, including a particular research method, objective data in general, a materialistic view of psychology, and others. ‘Watson also believed that behaviorism would place psychology in the ranks of the “true” sciences, along with zoology, physiology, physical themistry, and others. These same views on the potential of behaviorism wwere to be reiterated in the 1950s by B. F. Skinner. In fact, conditioned responses were not shown to add up to complex voluntary behavior. However, it was believed that they would, very likely because the resulting conception of psychology responded to the general scientism of the times (Baars, 1986, p. 53). Conditioned Emotional Reactions “Through paired association, positive and negative reactions may be con- dioned to a variety of objects and events. For example, a whiff of the paste used to fasten labels o boules brought back painful memories of a Piserable childhood for the well-known author Charles Dickens (Acker- man, 1990). The bankruptcy of Dicken's father had driven him'to aban- don the young Charles to a workhouse where such bottles were made. Emotional reactions may, in certain situations, be conditioned in a single paring of stimuli. An example is the automobile driver who nar- owly misses a fatal accident with a large truck on a particular S-shaped furve. He experiences a rapid pulse, sweating palms, and increased blood pressure. A few days later, on approaching the same S-shaped curve, he experiences the same physiological reaction. However, “pure” examples of classical conditioning to aversive uli are difficult to find in the natural setting. Typically, individuals are not “tapped” by emotion-producing stimuli. They may engage instead Jnescape behaviors that may, in some situations, produce saisying out- comes. For example, Albert's fear responses of crying and whining (con- dicioned response) tothe furry object (conditioned stimulus) was followed by crawling away (escape behavior). In the natural setting, the baby’s mother would likely pick him up and comfort him, pethaps even rock him 42 few minutes. Thus, a selected response, the escape behavior of crawling. avai, is followed by receiving the mother’s attention and comfort. "A positive example of classical conditioning isthe nostalgic reaction (response) to song (conditioned stimulus) that was a hit during @ former love affair. The song has acquired the power to elicit some of the 38 Part II Foundations of Contemporary Psychology same feelings originally associated with the person in the former reJa. tionship. Such emotional reactions often occur without the awareness of the individual; thus, their origin may be difficult to identify Television commercials and magazine advertisements also make use of paired association in efforts to elicit positive emotional reactions to a product. One advertisement, for example, shows a soft teddy bear hug. ging a blanket (conditioned stimulus) and sitting beside the product, a Plastic bottle of fabric softener (unconditioned stimulus). Classical Conditioning in the Classroom An essential step in developing the appreciation of literature, art, sci- ence, and other subjects is that of associating students’ early experiences with positive reactions (Estes, 1989). However, the problem is that neg. ative emotional reactions may become suached to ene staat and lead to the passive escape behaviors of apathy and “tuning out: One serauegy to make a of already-established relationships that elicit positive reactions. For example, sustained reading is an important activity in learning to appreciate literature. Carpeting one corner of the room and furnishing it with large sofa cushions to create an area for sustained reading may, over time, elicit positive reactions to the free-time reading included in the daily schedule. ene ae ‘Such strategies are particularly important in situations in which a particular sewing or activity is expected to elicit a negative reaction. For example, the anxiety of children on the first day of school may become associated with certain subjects, particularly ifa difficult activity is intro- duced the first day. Positive strategies observed in some elementary school classes included greeting the children warmly as they arrived and starting the day with drawing or coloring activities (Emmer, Evertson, & Ander- son, 1980). In addition, no difficult activities were introduced the first week while the children were becoming accustomed to classroom rou- tines. The potential for anxiety is reduced by repeatedly pairing the un- familiar setting with warm greetings and enjoyable activities (Figure 3.1). Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism Thorndike’s research also required a behavioral reaction from the subjects in the experiments. However, a major difference is that the behavior researched by Thorndike was not that of reflexes; it was voluntary behavior. Animals were confined in uliand voluntary behaviors. whether animals “solved” a asic process. Research was a Chapter Behaviorism a9 Established Relatonshis, New Associaton a New, utanar ny Fase . iusto ence cic [>] each T | Difficult I manemates } — — — e iciaegaah | [Faas c Severn [of pessarmene | [,,CoBi—5. | LL ecaricss a] Endreieraton | [Supt | ~ | drevetoaion ‘oreasingtne | 0 cchildeen into the 1 new stuabon i ! 1 First day ! tee fos: FIGURE 8.1 Applving classical conditioning in the classroom. needed, according to Thorndike, because objective data were lacking. “Dogs get lost hundreds of times and no one ever notices it or sends an account of it to a scientific magazine. But let one find his way from Brooklyn to Yonkers and the fact immediately becomes a circulating anecdote” (Thorndike, 1911, p. 24), Experimental Procedure Thorndike experimented with baby chicks, dogs, fish, cats, and monkeys. However, while he was a student at Harvard, his landlady forbid him to continue hatching chicks in his room. William James offered the base- ‘ment of his home for Thorndike's research, to the dismay of Mrs. James and the excitement of the children. The typical experimental procedure required each animal to escape from a confined space in order to reach food. A puzzle box was used that required the tripping of a latch or some other mechanism in order to effect escape (Figure 3.2) When confined, the animal often engaged in a variety of behaviors, including scratching, biting, clawing, and rubbing against the sides of the box. Sooner or later the animal tripped the latch and escaped to the food. Repeated confinements were characterized by a decrease in the behav- 15 unrelated to escape and, of course, a shorter escape time. The most dramatic change was observed with monkeys. In one experiment, a box containing a banana was placed inside the cage. The monkey took 36 minutes to pull out the nail that held the wire fastener closed. On the 40 Part Il Foundations of Contemporary Psychology FIGURE 3.2 ; Puzzle cage used in some of Thorndike's experiments ner in only 2 second trial, the monkey successfully released the fastener y minutes 20 seconds (Thorndike, 1911). : The pean ‘data from a series of trials ree ee = 4 learning curve illustrating the faster escape tints Thee conblee from this data that the escape response gradually became TSeke™ att the stimulus situation in trial-and-error learning. For this : theory is referred to as an association theory. The Laws of Learning During the series of trials in the experiment, the correct response was gradually “stamped in" or strengthened. Incorrect responses were weak "In other words, problem solving involves estab- ened or “stamped out’ < Tishing associations or connections between the stimulus (the problem) and appropriate responses. i “Thorndike originally identified three major laws of learning to ex- plain this process. They are the law of effect, the law of exercise, and the law of readiness. The law of effect states that a satisfying state of affairs following the response strengthens the connection between the stimulus and the behavior, whereas an annoying state weakens the connection. Thorndike later revised the law so that punishment was not equal to reward in its influence on learning. “ep, The law of exercite describes the conditions implied in the adage Practice makes perfect.” Repetition of the experience, in other words, increases the probability of a correct response. However, repetition of a wy Chapter 3 Behaviorism 4 task, such as drawing lines blindfolded, does not enhance lear absence of a satisfying state of affairs Thorndike 19156 — The law of readiness describes the conditions that govern the state referred to 25 “satisfying” or “annoying” (Thomdike 19134) Bene summarized, the execution of an action in response toa sttone imnate, iscatisying, whereas the blocking ofthat action ot forcing it urcier eh, onditions is annoying Applications to School Learning In the laboratory, Thorndike researched the relationship betw i ‘on these behavioral studies. However, his theory also includes references to mental events. It thus occupied a middle ground between the concerns of functionalism and the “pure” behaviorism of other researchers, ‘Thorndike described human mental life as composed of both mental states and movements with connections between each type (Thorndike, 1903, p. 12). In his view, connections between ideas accounted for the major portion of “knowledge” in its popular sense (Thorndike, 1913b, p. 19). The process of learning, in other words, is simply that of con. necting: “The mind is man's connection system” (Thorndike, 1913b, p- 122). Examples include numerical problems and their answers, such as 9 X 5 = 43; events and dates, such as Columbus and 1492; and rsons and characteristics, such as John and blue eyes. Of particular interest to the educator is Thorndike's description of his five minor laws in relation to school learning. As the first efforts to account for the complexity of human learning, these laws were believed to interact with the laws of effect and exercise. These subsidiary laws and their applications are summarized in Table 3.2. ‘Of major importance to education is Thorndike’s research on trans- fer of learning. A series of studies conducted by Thorndike and Wood- worth (1901) found that training in particular tasks facilitated the later learning only of similar tasks, not dissimilar ones. In summary, the wo dominant approaches to the study of behavior in the first half of the 20th cencury were classical conditioning and Thorndike's connectionism. Watson attempted to make applications of classical condi- tioning to the emotional life of human beings. Thorndike applied his theory to the analysis of school subjects and the design of curriculum. THE RETREAT TO THE LABORATORY (1930-1950) Edward Thorndike cautioned his fellow psychologists that the proper laboratory for research was the classroom and the appropriate experi mental subject was the student (Shulman, 1970). For the most part, however, the theorists from 1930 to 1950 ignored Thorndike's advice. 2 Part II Foundations of Contemporary Psychology TABLE 3.2 Application of Thorndike’s minor laws to education aw Description ve Pronunci 1. Multiple response A variety of re- foreign wen ° Or varied reaction sponses often occurs Skil in tens initially to a st Coherence in Engi composition : Individual competn, 2, Attitudes, disposi- Goneaton of fre to throw a ball the 0s tions, or states learner that influence: . the leaning; includes stable attitudes and longest distance or throw a player out in a baseball game terran fects of nsucons for tho the situation Fisoes 7 & to add oF to subtract 8. Partial or piece The tendency to re- Responses tothe meal activity of a spond to particular aualtes of shape, situation ttoments or features color, number, use, ofa stimulis situation _ intent, and othors {also refered to a5, Responses to rola analytic learning) tions of space, time, causation, and others . Assi re- Thetendency of siu- The foreigner pro- “ oe byaaogy bon Bb aouse rnouncing English par the same re- sponge es situation A ive siti Successively altering abodes altered to er ce ea nesenae mts abcdef to abedefg and response is bound by soon a new stimulus ‘Source: Thorne (19190, hap. 9, pp. 19-31) Research was conducted instead on animals and human beings in ar ficially contrived situations: Rats ran mazes, rats escaped from boxes, and humans were given puzzles to solve. The goal of the research also shifted in this period. In this “era of grand theories,” the goal was to integrate all known facts around ihe Principal theme of describing, predicting, and controlling learning (Divesta, 1987, p. 207). In other words, the purpose of research eas develop the one comprehensive theory that would explain all learning Chapter 3 Behaviorism 43 ‘The Refinement of Behaviorism ‘The dominant movement in the 1930s and 1940s continued to be be- Taviorsm. However, it was by no means uniany heen only approach to behavioral analysis. Some psychologists, influenced be Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory, were searching for deeper meanings in behavior beyond observed relationships between events sod responses. Included were Robert Woodworth’s “dynamic psychology” and William McDougall’s “hormic psychology” McDougall deseribed drives” as behavioral activators. For example, the “thirst drive” activates the go-to-water mechanism (Boring, 1963, p.’723). In contrast, McDou. I developed an extensive list of instincts that he identified as goal Girected (Right, fear, reproduction, etc). Clark Hull (1935, p. 491), a Yale psychologist, was concerned about the number of competing positions. He proposed a rigorous method of theory development in order to solve this problem: the hypothetico- deductive method (Hull, 1935, 1937). This method of hypothesis testing was applied by Hull in the development of his behavioral system. Others, however, continued to develop theory in a less rigorous man: ner. B. F. Skinner, in fact, disregarded theory development completely because he believed it was counterproductive to scientific progress in psychology: ‘Three theories emerged from the 1930s and 1940s. They are Clark Hull's behavior system, Edwin Guthrie's contiguity theory, and B. F. ‘Skinner's operant conditioning. They are referred to as S-R theories be- cause they define learning as an associative link between a particular stimulus and 2 particular response. They differ, however, in the identi- fication of the specific factors believed to be of primary importance in earning. Hulls theory emphasized processes within the organism, spe- cificalls, intervening variables, Guthrie, however, maintained that the temporal relationship between the stimulus and the response was the critical factor in learning. Skinner, on the other hand, began with Ed- ward Thorndike’s law of effect. He redefined “reward” as reinforcement and described behavioral change as a function of response consequences. ‘These three theorists also are known as “neobehaviorists," to distinguish their work from that of Thorndike and John Watson. Two S-R Theories Hull’s behavioral system and Guthrie's contiguity theory are in sharp contrast to each other. Hull's theory is rigorous, abstract, and complex; Guthrie's theory is informal and loosely organized. Practical advice for parents and teachers also was included in Guthrie's work Clark Hull’s Behavior System Hull's theory is an example of the rigorous method that he recom- mended for theory development, the hypothetico-deductive method. ‘ontemporary Psycholo, “4 part 1 Foundations of Contemporary Psychology procedure was intended to lead to the iden ology (Hull, 1935). iFicatio, Application of this . ofthe primary laws of psye " ive Method. The starting point for g Hs Hype 8S). vy cet of explicitly stated assumprig accor OT erational definitions of basic terms. Then propos postulates and Ptr ced from the postulates with eareful rigoy, qo" Sew cod traction, The propositions, however, aoe menting the process of il they pass the test of controlled «. " theory until they P: me ae ps wee (1937, p. 8), “whenever a theorem ae peck with the relevant facts, the pestultes whch give rise to it muse Palen is agree: 1 agreement is reache ireement cannes in psd we agement a ee atin a eaulates were combined to form 188 theorems. theons 17 as7) also reminded his colleagues of the advantages ofthe, te er ical systems. Both are derived from bare ical systems over philosop! oat Sana, and both include hypothetical statements. However, ony

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