STRUCTURAL CONTROL AND HEALTH MONITORING

Struct. Control Health Monit. (2016)

Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI: 10.1002/stc.1826

Structural damage detection using wireless passive sensing platform

based on RFID technology

Mateusz Lisowski*,†, Przemyslaw Gonek, Jakub Korta, Tadeusz Uhl and

Wieslaw J. Staszewski
Department of Robotics and Mechatronics, AGH University of Science and Technology, Al. Mickiewicza 30, Krakow 30-059,
Poland

SUMMARY
A wireless and battery-free passive sensing platform is proposed for structural damage detection. The platform is based
on the radio-frequency identification (RFID) technology, where a standard RFID transponder device serves as an inter-
face between low-power sensors – used for damage detection – and RFID reading devices. Sensor data are transmitted
remotely from this sensing platform to a Personal Computer (PC) that controls the entire system. Energy harvesting is
the major novelty of the proposed approach. The magnetic field produced by an antenna of the RFID reading device is
used for energy harvesting. The platform supports different types of sensors that can be positioned in remote locations
and used for structural damage detection. The sensing capability and the damage detection performance of the proposed
system are demonstrated using two simple application examples, that is, vibration measurements in a beam-like struc-
ture subjected to the force excitation and temperature measurements in a bearing that supports a rotating shaft. The re-
sults illustrate the great potential of the proposed sensing platform for structural health monitoring applications,
particularly in remote, difficult-access, or hazardous conditions. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Received 17 March 2015; Revised 13 September 2015; Accepted 23 November 2015

KEY WORDS: structural damage detection; wireless sensing; RFID sensing platform; vibration/modal analysis;
temperature measurements; energy harvesting

1. INTRODUCTION
Wireless sensor networks are very attractive for structural health monitoring (SHM) applications as
discussed in [1–5]. Recent years have brought different wireless technologies that can be used for
structural damage detection. This includes radio-frequency identification (RFID) technology [6–8] that
has been proposed for a wireless damage detection platform in civil engineering applications.
A typical RFID system comprises a reading device (or a reader) and a number of transponders that
could be used for sensing. The reading device can communicate with transponders using an antenna
and electromagnetic waves. In a passive configuration, this device can deliver energy required for tran-
sponder activities. The RFID passive configuration allows one to design a system that, in theory, does
not require any maintenance offering in practice long operation capability without the risk of power
loss or exhaustion. This solution is quite attractive for SHM applications, particularly when sensors
need to be used in hazardous and/or remote locations [9]. It is important to note that RFID battery-
enhanced systems exist and are called in normalized terminology as active. The sensing systems based
on the RFID active technology are also possible and can be used for the damage detection. Such sys-
tems could be treated as normal battery-equipped wireless sensing systems [10].
The idea of using RFID-based systems for damage detection is not a new one. Recent years have
seen some research developments [11–13]. All these investigations are strongly connected with the

*Correspondence to: Lisowski, Mateusz Department of Robotics and Mechatronics, AGH University of Science and Technology.
†
E-mail: mateuszl@agh.edu.pl

Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

 M. LISOWSKI ET AL.

performance evolution of RFID systems. The early systems were often short-range devices based on
the magnetic coupling between readers and transponders. These systems were mainly used in identifica-
tion and access control applications [6–8]. Development of long-range systems resulted in popularization
of ultra high frequency RFID technology with the read range up to 10 m maintaining the passive battery-
free nature of the solution [14]. However, supplying such systems with power is still problematic. There-
fore, short data strings – in the form of unique identification numbers (UIDs) based on a specified
communication protocol – are mainly used in practical applications [15]. Various energy-harvesting
modules [16] can be used to solve the power supply problem. These modules can drain ambient energy
from different physical/atmospheric phenomena, for example, temperature difference [17], sunlight
[18], or vibration [19]. The major problem with the existing energy harvesters relates to possible power
supply interruptions because of the random nature of the phenomenon utilized for harvesting. It is clear
that only systems draining entire energy from the reader could ensure smooth operation of RFID devices.
A comprehensive review of wireless-sensing methods based on the RFID technology, used in SHM
applications is given in [20]. All of the cited works within this review describe a battery-free, so a fully
passive solutions. RFID displacement sensors [21] and RFID sensing systems – operating as transpon-
der grids [22] – form the first group of prototype-sensing wireless systems. Such systems use an impact
of different physical phenomena, that is, the proximity of metal object or the distance between transpon-
ders because of the deformation of measured object on a signal strength between the reader and the tran-
sponder. The signal strength could be measured by a typical RFID reader in the form of received signal
strength indicator. By changes of the received signal strength indicator, one could assess the value of
measured phenomena, in this case, the deformation of the object. Various solutions designed for crack
detection belong to this group of sensors. The lack of signal from a transponder indicates cracks in the
monitored structures. A wireless passive system for crack detection of ceramic parts [23] and RFID-
based sensing system for monitoring of concrete structures [24] are good examples of such systems.
The second group of wireless systems – utilizing RFID sensing platform – consists of devices that
serve as an interface between low-power sensors and a host system (e.g., a PC connected to the reader).
Various types of sensors can be used within such platforms. The first investigation in this area of research
was presented in [25]. A low-energy MSP430 microcontroller was used instead of the standard RFID
chip. The system – powered by the RFID reader – could send wirelessly small UID data sets within the
range of 3 m. It was used for strain monitoring of a carbon fiber plate [26]. A force sensor system – based
on the high frequency (HF) RFID range – was presented in [27]. The operational range of this system was
limited to 32 mm only. Recent research developments related to RFID technologies have brought a new
type of the integrated circuit electronic chip with internal analog-digital converters and energy-harvesting
modules. This new technology was used to develop a sensing platform for pressure measurements [28].
The current paper aims to demonstrate a new concept of self-developed wireless passive sensing
platform for the online damage detection/monitoring in SHM applications. The proposed platform does
not require any batteries and this is the major research novelty of the presented work. It is also impor-
tant to note that although the idea of wireless passive sensing platform is not a new one, application
examples are very limited and mainly related to the static measurements of strain. The work presented
in this paper is the first example of online damage detection/monitoring application of a wireless pas-
sive RFID system based on dynamic measurements according to the best authors’ knowledge.
The paper consists of four major parts. Section 2 starts with a short introduction to the wireless RFID
sensor technology and follows with the detailed description of the proposed battery-free RFID-based sys-
tem. The main working idea, operating principles, and basic features of the platform are presented. Appli-
cation examples related to the damage detection and monitoring are presented in Section 3. Two application
examples – that utilize two different measured signals – are demonstrated in that chapter. Firstly, vibration
measurements are used for the damage detection in a composite beam. Then temperature measurements are
used for the fault detection in a shaft-bearing system. Finally, the paper is concluded in Section 4.

2. RADIO-FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION SENSING PLATFORM

2.1. General idea
The sensing platform presented in this paper is based on the HF RFID technology. The entire platform
was designed in such a way that it can be used for various SHM applications (e.g., continuous vibration

Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Control Health Monit. (2016)
DOI: 10.1002/stc
 STRUCTURAL DAMAGE DETECTION USING WIRELESS PASSIVE SENSING PLATFORM

monitoring of helicopter’s rotor blades). Universality and flexibility are behind the presented design.
The assumption was to design a sensing interface that can send measured data wirelessly from any
low-power sensors to a PC. The entire system was designed to be passive in order to minimize (and
in the ideal scenario to avoid) any maintenance. The sensing platform is intended to be placed in various
locations on a huge construction, especially in places where the battery changes are complicated or even
impossible (under some surface, e.g., under the plaster in some buildings or even inside the concrete
elements). Therefore, the platform could be integrated with the structure itself. The platform could be
interrogated by using handheld remote reader with a small antenna or even by using Near Field Commu-
nication (NFC) protocol-enhanced devices like popular smartphones. In the case of a harsh, dangerous to
human environment, the reader could be placed on some automated or remotely controlled, self-propelled
platform, that is, a mobile robot or drone. It is important to note, because a remote reader is used, that it
could interrogate many platforms. This feature, together with the low cost of one sensing platform on
the level of $10, and relatively low cost of the dedicated reader, ensures scalability of the presented solu-
tion even to large wireless sensor networks. The platform is intended to be used as a first-level diagnostic
information-sensing node that should inform that some more complex tests are needed.
Figure 1 presents a schematic diagram that describes the proposed sensing platform. A standard
RFID reader (i) is connected to a PC (ii) that collects measured signals in a database (e.g., MATLAB,
MS Excel). The sensing platform (iii) is equipped with an energy-harvesting module, some memory,
and a wireless communication chip integrated into the one integrated circuit (iv). In this case, it is
M24LR64E from ST Microelectronic that connects the functionality of a RFID chip, a HF energy
harvester, and an Electrically-Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM). Therefore, this
one chip is responsible for the wireless communication, the energy-harvesting, and the data storage.
More information about its function are given in Section 2.3. The RFID reader acquires remotely data
from the sensing platform, providing energy for all required platform activities at the same time. The
operation of the sensing platform is supervised by a low-power microcontroller (v). Two different
types of sensors, that is, a three-axis accelerometer (vi) and a temperature sensor (vii) – are attached
to the platform to demonstrate possible SHM applications of the system.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the radio-frequency identification (RFID) sensing platform for structural health
monitoring applications.

Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Control Health Monit. (2016)
DOI: 10.1002/stc
 M. LISOWSKI ET AL.

2.2. Design and operation

Generally, RFID systems working in a HF range consist of one reader and few transponders. The sens-
ing platform plays the role of the transponder in the wireless sensing system described in this paper.
The physical principles behind the operation of both readers and transponders are similar. This section
presents only the fundamental physical principles associated with the design of the system. The de-
scribed principles are important for the conducted experiments. For more comprehensive knowledge
related to the operating principles of different RFID systems, one should refer to [6].
The first important physical parameter describing the HF RFID system is the resonance frequency f
of the LC circuit formed by the planar coil antenna (inductance L) and internal capacitor in the RFID
chip (capacitance C). This frequency can be calculated as follows:
1
f ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi ½Hz (1)
2π LC
The operation of HF systems, that is, the power transfer and the communication between the reader and
the transponder – is based on the magnetic coupling between the relevant antennas, and the resonance
peak should occur around 13.56 MHz. This frequency value is standardized in the norms of International
Standards Organization (ISO) - ISO 15693, ISO 14444, and ISO/IEC 18000-3. Because all of the HF stan-
dard readers are compatible with these norms, tuning of the transponder to this frequency ensures the best
performance (the read range and the power transfer between the reader and the transponder).
Another important parameter that affects the read range of the RFID system is the magnetic field
strength H generated by the reader’s antenna. This parameter can be calculated as follows:

INa2
H¼ ½A=m; (2)
2r 3
where I is the current of the antenna (being simultaneously the resultant of the reader power), N is the
number of the antenna’s windings, a is the radius of the planar coil antenna, and r is the distance from
the antenna to the point where the quantity is measured (i.e., the point where the transponder is lo-
cated). One can obtain plenty of useful information from Equation (2). Firstly, the impact of the anten-
na’s dimension on the read distance can be estimated. It is clear that the best performance will be
achieved for bigger antennas. However, the large antennas are not always possible to be used in prac-
tice. Secondly, Equation (2) shows that the attenuation of magnetic field strength is proportional to the
inverse of the cubic distance from the source (i.e., antenna). Exemplary, one can conclude that for the
same voltage supply, doubled read distances require eight times bigger powers of readers. However,
such powers are not always possible because of the relevant norms. Therefore, a typical range offered
by HF systems does not exceed tens of centimeters.

2.3. Sensing platform elements

The sensing platform described in Sections 2.1 and 2.2 needs low-power devices and assumptions re-
lated to the current consumption by different modules. The entire activity of the sensing platform is su-
pervised by the low-power microcontroller MSP430F2132 from Texas Instrument, using the internal
clock oscillator with 1 MHz frequency. For such a solution, signals from externally connected sensors
can be digitized using the internal 10-bit analog-to-digital converter that is a part of the microcontroller.
The core of the platform states the dual-interface EEPROM from ST Microelectronic M24LR64E that
connects the functionality of RFID chip, HF energy harvester, and EEPROM. It could communicate
via the I2C interface and via the contactless interface according to the ISO 15695 and ISO 18000-3
standards. The memory part of this chip offers 64 kbits of data storage. Because the data storage capa-
bility is relatively poor (only 512 B of RAM), sensed signals must be immediately send to the dual in-
terface EEPROM, which is also responsible for the wireless communication. The gathered data can be
sent on demand of the RFID reader according to the ISO 15693 standard of the wireless communica-
tion for HF (13.56 MHz) signals. The EEPROM used is equipped with an energy-harvesting module
that allows powering of external devices (i.e., the sensor and microcontroller in the current applica-
tion). Thus, external power supply elements are not needed, except the ultra-low dropout voltage reg-
ulator NCP583 from ON Semiconductor, which regulates the voltage to the level of 1.8 V. The

Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Control Health Monit. (2016)
DOI: 10.1002/stc
 STRUCTURAL DAMAGE DETECTION USING WIRELESS PASSIVE SENSING PLATFORM

EEPROM chip offers the harvested current of 1 mA as described in Section 2.4. The memory is
connected to the planar coil antenna, which is magnetically coupled with the reader’s antenna. The
latter allows one to exchange data between the reader and the transponder, providing the energy needed
for the transponder operation. The design of the entire sensing platform is presented in Figure 2 (to main-
tain uniformity, the numbers described elements correspond to the numbers in Figure 1).

2.4. Main features of the sensing platform

The design, implementation, and evaluation of wireless passive sensing systems based on the RFID
technology need much research. Some of these researches relate to microwave technology and are con-
nected mostly with the assessment of energy and communication efficiency between the reader and the
transponder. The most important research in this area is connected with the design of the planar coil
antenna that must meet requirements related to the value of the inductance L according to Equation
(1) and the quality factor Q. The quality factor corresponds to the bandwidth of the resonance circuits.
It fulfills the principle that the higher the Q value, the narrower the bandwidth but also more energy
transferred in exactly the resonant frequency. Theoretically, the highest possible value of the Q factor
ensures the best energy transfer; however, because of the communication principles of HF RFID sys-
tems based on the subcarriers modulation, too high value could cause data losses. All these investiga-
tions, although important for the operation and operational features of the entire system, are not
essential for the work presented in this paper. This is due to the microwave nature of the presented sys-
tem. Therefore, the planar coil parameters were selected with the help of the antenna calculator pro-
vided by STMicroelectronics, and the designed system was tested using the Hewlett Packard 4395A
network analyzer. Following these investigations, a planar coil with 60 × 60 mm dimensions and the in-
ductance of 4.92 μH was selected. The selection process took into account the read range maximization
by keeping small dimensions to allow easy installation of the platform as a sensing node in the future.
The internal capacitance of the EEPROM chip was equal to 27.5 pF. From Equation (1), these values re-
sulted in the theoretical resonance frequency peak of 13.68 MHz. It is widely accepted that dimensions of
sensors are important attributes of any SHM systems. All described devices of the sensing system were
placed on the 40 × 20 mm board. However, the size of the planar coil is important in practice. Therefore,
the area of the transponder’s antenna mostly determines the dimensions of the entire sensing platform.
Another significant feature – that describes the sensing platform – is the achieved data rate and the
storage capability. Assuming that the digitized data are stored in two-byte samples, it is possible to col-
lect four thousands of samples that can then be send to the reader. The data sampling rate is limited by
the property of EEPROM related to the time needed to write one block of memory. Regarding the
powering issues, there were no possibilities to use an additional faster memory buffer (i.e., the flash
memory). This resulted in achieved sampling frequency of 200 Hz. This sampling rate is sufficient
for vibration-based monitoring systems because the typical frequency range used in modal analysis

Figure 2. Design of the sensing platform Printed Circuit Board (PCB). Only the main elements are indicated.

Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Control Health Monit. (2016)
DOI: 10.1002/stc
 M. LISOWSKI ET AL.

and vibration testing of civil structures does not exceed 150 Hz. The data sampling rate in ISO 15693
compliant systems is on the level of 27 kBits/s; hence, this value is sufficient to send the collected data
in real time by the sampling frequency of 200 Hz, and the 10-bit analog-to-digital converter as the data
amount collected during 1 s does not exceed 4 kBits. In performed experiments, data were first col-
lected and then sent wirelessly, although, as it was proven earlier – the real-time data collection is also
possible.
More practical investigations are connected with the assessment of the following parameters: pos-
sible read range of the sensing platform, energy consumption of the core elements of the platform,
and the amount of energy available for external sensors. The ID ISC.MR101-USB FEIG reader with
the maximum power of 1 W was used to establish the read range of the sensing system. The reader
was connected to the external ID ISC. ANT340/240 antenna recommended for this model.
The sensing platform, together with planar coil antenna connected to it, was placed in the symmetry
axis of the reader’s antenna. The maximum read range was measured by moving the platform away
from the reader’s antenna and checking the maximal range at which the reader could still receive the
transponder’s UID. The maximal range of energy-harvesting from the reader’s signal should be
assessed separately. It is caused by the fact that the utilized EEPROM chip is equipped with four
energy-harvesting modes with different levels of maximal current that could be provided (i.e., 7 mA,
3 mA, 1 mA, and 300 μA). The mode selection is dependent on the magnetic field strength generated
by the reader’s antenna, which in turn decreases with the third power of the distance according to
Equation (2). The results in [28] show that a similar reader’s antenna offers the maximum field strength
equal to 2 A/m. Therefore, only two harvesting modes, that is, 1 mA and 300 μA – could be utilized in
practice, because the other two modes offered by the chip required the minimum of 2.4 A/m value of
the magnetic field strength. The harvesting mode with the 1-mA maximal current was selected. This
level of power is sufficient for the applications investigated that is presented in Table I.
The effective energy-harvesting range was established experimentally by checking the ability of sensing
platform to power the blinking Light Emitting Diode (LED) on different distance from the reader. The read
and energy-harvesting ranges were determined experimentally as equal to 400 and 100 mm, respectively.

3. APPLICATION EXAMPLES
This section presents the application of the wireless RFID sensing platform. Two typical SHM appli-
cations were investigated. The first application relates to the vibration/modal analysis that can be used
for structural damage detection, as explained in [29–32]. The vibration/modal analysis of a simple
cantilever beam was performed. The second example relates to wireless temperature measurements.
A bearing that supports a rotating shaft was monitored in this investigation. Both measurements, that
is, vibration and temperature were verified using numerical simulations and the infrared camera,
respectively. This section describes the implementation and performance of the proposed wireless
RFID-based damage detection/monitoring system.

3.1. Vibration measurements

It is well known that wireless vibration measurement is attractive in many engineering applications.
The example presented in this section utilizes the wireless, passive RFID-based technology. The

Table I. Power budget table of the sensing platform.

Element Harvested current (μA) Current consumption (μA)
M24LR64E dual-interface EEPROM 1000 —
MSP430F2132 microcontroller — <250
Red LED — 100
ADXL335 accelerometer — 350
LM94021 temperature sensor — 9
NCP583 voltage regulator — 1
Total 290 μA reserve

Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Control Health Monit. (2016)
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 STRUCTURAL DAMAGE DETECTION USING WIRELESS PASSIVE SENSING PLATFORM

proposed sensing platform demonstrates an interesting solution that can be used for vibration measure-
ments, offering a cheap network of wireless sensors that are virtually maintenance-free for the entire
life cycle of monitored structures. This solution is attractive for applications, where vibration measure-
ments are important – giving the added value with respect to load and usage monitoring – but impos-
sible because of remote/hazardous locations and difficult access. The experimental measurements were
conducted on a composite beam-shaped structure, which in the subsequent step of the experimental
procedure, was purposely damaged. The finite element simulation was used to validate the results ob-
tained in the experimental phase.
The selection of appropriate accelerometers is one of the most important issues in vibration mea-
surement tests. The work presented in this paper utilized the ADXL335 accelerometer. This transducer
was selected mainly because of the low-average power consumption level equal to 350 μA. Another
important feature of the accelerometer is its frequency bandwidth that ranges from 0.5 to 1600 Hz, for
the in-plane X, Y directions and 550 Hz for the out-of-plane Z direction. According to the platform sam-
pling frequency value of 200 Hz and the Nyquist Theorem, the analog bandwidth was limited to 100 Hz
by using additional low-pass filtering capacitors with the value of 50 pF. Concerning the information
given in [33], the Root Mean Square (RMS) noise floor value that depends on the bandwidth is calculated
on the level of 1.9 mg; hence, this value does not exceed 1% of the measurement range. The selected
accelerometer can measure vibration amplitudes in the range of +/3 g with the sensitivity of 300 mV/g.
The tested composite beam (Figure 3) was manufactured from a carbo-fiber-reinforced polymer by
pultrusion method, meaning that all the fibers were aligned along the structure and no layers were
present. According to the manufacturing specification, the beam was composed in 63% of volume from
reinforcing fibers and in 37% of volume from a vinyl ester resin. The composite beam was clamped to
obtain a cantilever configuration. The free (unclamped) length of the beam was equal to l = 300 mm.
The other two dimensions of the beam were as follows: thickness equal to d = 2.1 mm and width
equal to w = 50 mm. The beam was instrumented with the proposed RFID sensor platform described
in Section 2. The sensor was placed centrally, on the top surface of the beam, 50 mm away from
the free end.
The composite beam was subjected to the impact excitation using a modal hammer – 150 mm from
the free end of the beam. Vibration responses were gathered 50 mm from the free end of the beam. The
data were collected wirelessly using the ID ISC.MR101-USB FEIG reader connected to a PC. The
reader’s antenna was placed 100 mm away from the transponder’s antenna. A seeded damage – a
0.8-mm deep and 4.5-mm wide groove that was cut out across the beam width – was introduced to
the beam. The seeded damage was located near the clamped edge of the tested specimen as shown
in the Figure 4.
Figure 3 shows the experimental arrangements used for the vibration analysis. The experiment was
performed to demonstrate that the vibration signal can be acquired wirelessly and remotely, using a

Figure 3. Cantilever composite beam instrumented with the radio-frequency identification (RFID)-based sensing
system for the vibration/modal analysis.

Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Control Health Monit. (2016)
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 M. LISOWSKI ET AL.

passive, maintenance-free RFID-based measuring system. Because the two composite beams, that is,
undamaged and damaged were tested, the damage detection application is also demonstrated.
Vibration responses resulting from the impact excitation were acquired by the system using the
maximum 200-Hz sampling frequency. Figure 5 gives examples of time-domain data collected for
the undamaged and damaged beam. The results show that the signal conditioning is not needed, be-
cause the sampling rate used is sufficient to mirror beam’s harmonic oscillations.
Figure 6 gives power spectra calculated for the undamaged (blue solid line) and damaged (red
dashed line) beam. The results show that the predominant spectral component – that corresponds to
the first bending mode of the beam – clearly indicates the seeded damage. The resonance frequency
is shifted from 41.41 to 34.77 Hz due to the stiffness reduction when the beam is damaged.
It is important to note that the objective of this simple illustration was to demonstrate the capability
and performance of the system in terms of wireless data acquisition and to illustrate possible damage
detection application. It is clear that when more complex engineering structures (e.g., bridges or wind
turbines) are monitored, more sophisticated vibration/modal analysis algorithms for damage detection
will be required. These algorithms are widely available from the literature and can be easily
implemented.
In order to verify the experimental damage detection results, numerical simulations were performed.
A simple, finite element model of the beam was developed. The Altair HyperWorks CAE package was
used for this purpose, in particular, the HyperMesh for preparation of the model, the OptiStruct, and the
HyperView for analysis and postprocessing, respectively. Quadrilateral isoparametric shell elements,
with six degrees of freedom in each corner node, were used in the model. This type of element is often
used in dynamic analyses of composite thin-walled structures. The beam was uniformly meshed into
150 elements, resulting in 1116 degrees of freedom, among which 900 were active (unconstrained).

Figure 4. Finite element models of undamaged and damaged cantilever beams.

Figure 5. Wirelessly collected acceleration data in the time domain – undamaged beam (blue solid line) and dam-
aged beam (red dashed line).

Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Control Health Monit. (2016)
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 STRUCTURAL DAMAGE DETECTION USING WIRELESS PASSIVE SENSING PLATFORM

Figure 6. Power spectra for the wirelessly collected acceleration data – undamaged beam (blue solid line) and
damaged beam (red dashed line).

Table II gives the values of material properties used in the considered transverse isotropic constitutive
material model. The stiffness values were assessed using an INSTRON 8872 testing machine, and were
calculated as an average value of the three different composite samples. The remaining material param-
eters were taken from the manufacturing specifications.
The modal analysis was performed using numerical simulations. The natural frequencies of the first
bending mode were estimated numerically as 40.72 Hz for the undamaged beam and 34.61 Hz for the
damaged beam. The numerically estimated values correspond very well to the experimental values ob-
tained from the proposed wireless RFID-based sensor platform Table III.

3.2. Temperature measurements

The second experiment was conducted to demonstrate the performance of the wireless RFID-based
sensor platform related to temperature measurement. A simple shaft-bearing system – shown in
Figure 7 – was used in these investigations. The shaft was connected to an electric alternating current
(AC) motor of 3.0 kW power. The shaft had a diameter of 25 mm and was supported on three bearings.
Bearing locations and the relevant distances involved are illustrated in Figure 7. The central redundant
bearing was selected for monitoring. The wireless RFID-based sensing platform was used to monitor
the temperature of this bearing.
The shaft was rotated with the speed of 1200 rpm. After 15 min of operation, the shaft was impacted
(force amplitude equal to 800 N) to simulate an unexpected load or a damage of the bearing node. The
temperature of central bearing was monitored to control/prevent possible overheating. It is important to
note that the temperature measurement took place in the proximity of metal elements and the electric
motor generating a strong alternating electromagnetic field. This was a major concern, because the ex-
perimental condition could strongly affect the coupling between the reader and the sensing platform’s

Table II. Material parameters for the simulated carbon fiber reinforced polymer.
Young’s modulus Young’s modulus  
g
Parameter E1( MPa) E2, E3 (MPa) Density ccm Poisson’s ratio
Mean value x 91652.42 4923.23 1.6 0.3
Standard deviation s 1798.89 79.13 — —

Table III. Structural resonance frequency values obtained from finite element analysis.
Experimental results (Hz) Simulation results (Hz)
Undamaged beam 41.41 40.72
Damaged beam 34.77 34.61

Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Control Health Monit. (2016)
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 M. LISOWSKI ET AL.

Figure 7. Experimental test rig used for bearing temperature measurement. RFID, radio-frequency identification.

Figure 8. Temperature data from monitored bearing housing – wireless radio-frequency identification (RFID)-
based sensing platform (continuous solid blue line) and infrared camera (red star symbols).

Figure 9. Infrared image example used for temperature estimation of the monitored bearing housing.

Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Control Health Monit. (2016)
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 STRUCTURAL DAMAGE DETECTION USING WIRELESS PASSIVE SENSING PLATFORM

antenna, resulting in false readings and problems with wireless data transfer. Nevertheless, temperature
measurement was taken successfully by the RFID sensing platform, and the data were collected by a
PC. The results were compared with the measurement taken by the FLIR i7 infrared camera.
Figure 8 presents the experimental results. The results show that the temperature of the bearing
housing – measured with the RFID sensing platform (solid blue line) – increases monotonically with
time, as expected. The data were acquired with the sampling frequency of 12 Hz. The low-sampling
rate and relatively high 0.25°C sensitivity of the sensor result in a noisy temperature graph. Neverthe-
less, the results show that the temperature of the bearing housing changed by approximately 8°C in
800 s. These results can be compared with the infrared camera readings taken every 180 s.
Figure 9 gives an example of acquired infrared image that was used for the temperature estimation.
The estimated values of temperature are indicated by red star symbols in Figure 9. Presented results
clearly demonstrate that the measurement from the wireless RFID-based sensing platform corresponds
very well to the infrared camera measurement. However, the major advantage of the RFID system used
was that no direct access was needed when the measurement was taken. Also, the proposed system
allows continuous temperature monitoring and is maintenance free.

4. CONCLUSION
A new wireless RFID-based sensing platform has been presented. The platform is maintenance-free
and can be used for the damage detection/monitoring in SHM applications. The concept, design, and
important features of the platform have been described in the first part of the paper. The sensing capa-
bility and the damage detection/monitoring performance of the system have been illustrated using two
simple examples, that is, structural damage detection in a composite beam and temperature monitoring
in a shaft-bearing system. The results from the former experiment have been validated using numerical
simulations. Similarly, the results from the latter experiment have been verified using experimental
measurements from an infrared camera.
The results show that the system can be used reliably for vibration and temperature monitoring.
Natural frequencies of the monitored composite beam, undamaged and damaged, were estimated
correctly and, what is more important, the seeded damage was detected successfully. No additional
signal conditioning was required because of relatively good signal-to-noise ratios of the acquired data.
The temperature measurements on the monitored bearing housing were also estimated correctly. The
observed background noise in the temperature data occurred mainly because of the sensitivity of the
temperature sensor used. The wireless performance of the proposed sensing platform was tested suc-
cessfully, working reliably for the designed range. Online and continuous monitoring was possible
without any interruptions. It is also important to note that no power supply was required. The proposed
system is virtually maintenance-free. Although the achieved read range is relatively short on the level
of 10 cm, because of the HF technology limitations, benefits of such platform features: low-sensing
node price, savings related to the lack of the wire connections, lack of a battery and maintenance
activities, and possibility to integrate the platform within the structure, cause that it is attractive as a
first-level diagnostic system between another wireless sensing solution.
Although the performance of the system was illustrated using two examples of vibration and tem-
perature, other damage detection applications are possible. The sensor platform was design to accom-
modate different types of low-power sensors (e.g., strain gauges, pressure transducers, and
accelerometers). Wireless and maintenance free operation of the system is particularly attractive for
access-difficult and hazardous applications. It is anticipated that the presented results will open new re-
search investigations, leading inevitably to reliable, online, and maintenance-free monitoring systems
for SHM applications.
Further research effort should focus on developments that could increase the operational range of
the presented system. Similar sensing platform working in the ultra-high frequency range would be
particularly attractive. It is also clear that further damage detection investigations are required to con-
firm real engineering applications. Such studies should involve more complex structures, real structural
damages, and newly developed damage detection methods. Adding the possibility to communicate by
using the NFC protocol should also improve the versatility level of the entire system.

Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Control Health Monit. (2016)
DOI: 10.1002/stc
 M. LISOWSKI ET AL.

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Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Control Health Monit. (2016)
DOI: 10.1002/stc