sensors

Article
A Fiber Optic Ultrasonic Sensing System for High
Temperature Monitoring Using Optically Generated
Ultrasonic Waves
Jingcheng Zhou 1 , Xu Guo 2 , Cong Du 1 , Chengyu Cao 3 and Xingwei Wang 1,2, *
1 Department of Biomedical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Massachusetts Lowell,
1 University Ave., Lowell, MA 01854, USA; Jingcheng_Zhou@student.uml.edu (J.Z.);
Cong_Du@student.uml.edu (C.D.)
2 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Massachusetts Lowell, 1 University Ave,
Lowell, MA 01854, USA; Xu_Guo@student.uml.edu
3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA;
chengyu.cao@uconn.edu
* Correspondence: Xingwei_Wang@uml.edu; Tel.: +1-978-934-1981




Received: 13 December 2018; Accepted: 18 January 2019; Published: 19 January 2019


Abstract: This paper presents the design, fabrication, and characterization of a novel fiber optic
ultrasonic sensing system based on the photoacoustic (PA) ultrasound generation principle and
Fabry-Perot interferometer principle for high temperature monitoring applications. The velocity
of a sound wave traveling in a medium is proportional to the medium’s temperature. The fiber
optic ultrasonic sensing system was applied to measure the change of the velocity of sound. A fiber
optic ultrasonic generator and a Fabry-Perot fiber sensor were used as the signal generator and
receiver, respectively. A carbon black-polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) material was utilized as the
photoacoustic material for the fiber optic ultrasonic generator. Two tests were performed. The system
verification test proves the ultrasound sensing capability. The high temperature test validates the high
temperature measurement capability. The sensing system survived 700 ◦ C. It successfully detects the
ultrasonic signal and got the temperature measurements. The test results agreed with the reference
sensor data. Two potential industry applications of fiber optic ultrasonic sensing system are, it could
serve as an acoustic pyrometer for temperature field monitoring in an industrial combustion facility,
and it could be used for exhaust gas temperature monitoring for a turbine engine.

Keywords: fiber optic sensor; high temperature monitoring; ultrasonic; photoacoustic; Fabry-Perot

1. Introduction
Temperature is one of the most critical parameters in industry and science. In some applications,
temperature sensors which are immune to electromagnetic interference and display durability to harsh
environments, remote sensing capability, multiplexing capability, wide operating range, and allow
long-distance interrogation without an electrical interface are required. Fiber optic sensors provide a
good solution for many of these challenges. The concept of using fiber optic techniques for temperature
sensing purposes was first discussed fifty years ago, and what would now be recognized as fiber optic
sensors were introduced into the market.
Many fiber optic temperature sensors have been designed and built in the past decades, due to
their advantages of miniature design, electromagnetic immunity, excellent stability, and enable
operation in hazardous environments, and so on. Fiber optic temperature sensors with Fiber Bragg
Grating (FBG) and Long Period Fiber Grating (LPFG) inscribed in optical fibers are proposed [1–4],
fiber optic temperature sensing schemes based on the use of fluorescence lifetime decay detection

Sensors 2019, 19, 404; doi:10.3390/s19020404 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2019, 19, 404 2 of 13

are also demonstrated [5,6]. Some other types of fiber optic temperature sensors are also proposed,
which mainly based on Mach-Zehnder interferometer [7], and Michelson interferometer [8]. Besides
the regular optical fiber, special optical fibers, such as hollow-core fiber [9], photonic crystal fiber [10],
no-core fiber [11] and sapphire fiber [12], are used to enhance the temperature measurement sensitivity
or measurement range. Brillouin scattering and low-coherence interferometry are used to for the
distributed fiber-optic temperature systems [13,14].
In some applications, such as temperature field monitoring in coal-fired boilers or exhaust gas
temperature monitoring for turbine engines, industry demands a 2D or 3D temperature distribution
profiler. Traditionally, the industry is using electronic transducers as the acoustic pyrometers for the
temperature field monitoring. So that they can get the temperature information of a line. The 2D or 3D
temperature distribution profiler can be reconstructed by using multiple temperature information lines.
However, these electronic transducers have some drawbacks. They cannot survive in the boiler high
temperature environment, and also have electromagnetic interference. In this paper, the first active
non-contact all-optical fiber sensing system is presented. Since this system is fabricated using optical
fibers, it can survive in a higher temperature than the traditional electronic transducers. Also, the fiber
optic ultrasonic sensing system features immunity to electromagnetic interference, high sensitivity,
and small size. They are especially suitable for applications in harsh environments.
A fiber optic ultrasonic generator was used as a signal generator in this system. This ultrasonic
generator is based on the photoacoustic (PA) principle which converts the light energy to an acoustic
signal. Researchers have developed a variety of materials as the photoacoustic material in the past
ten years. An ideal PA material should feature a high optical energy absorption capability and a high
coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE). Metal films are first used as photoacoustic materials due to easy
fabrication and high light absorption [15]. However, the photoacoustic conversion efficiency of metals is
low since their low thermal expansion. Researchers have developed composite materials with both high
thermal expansion and light absorption, such as gold-nanocomposites [16–18], carbon black combined
with PDMS (black PDMS) [19,20], CNTs [21], candle soot nanoparticles [22], and polymer-thin
metal-polymer [23]. In this paper, black PDMS material was used as a photoacoustic material.
A Fabry-Perot (FP) fiber sensor was used as a signal receiver [24,25]. This FP fiber sensor receiver
is based on FP interferometer principle. Fiber based Fabry-Perot sensors are known for decades, many
of them are high temperature stable and can be used for acoustic detection [26–29]. In this paper, a new
FP fiber sensor was designed and built for the system.
This work has great significance because the fiber optic sensor system can survive high
temperatures (up to 700 ◦ C) and the optically generated acoustic signals can measure even higher
temperature where the fibers do not reach (e.g., 1500 ◦ C). In the future, the 2D and 3D temperature
distribution profile will be reconstructed by using a recursive algorithm based on Gaussian radial basis
functions (GRBF) parameterization.
This paper is organized as follows: Section 2 presents the methodology. This section includes the
design and development of the fiber optic ultrasonic generator and FP fiber sensor, and the principle
of time-of-flight (TOF) temperature measurement method. Section 3 describes the verification for
the proposed sensing system. Section 4 describes the high temperature measurement test. Section 5
concludes the paper.

2. Methodology

2.1. Fiber Optic Ultrasonic Generator

The fiber optic ultrasonic generator is based on the photoacoustic (PA) principle, which
uses optical signals to generate ultrasonic waves (Ultrasonic waves are acoustic waves that the
frequency greater than 20 kHz). Applying photoacoustic involves two major steps: (1) Conversion
of optical energy to thermal energy and (2) Generation of ultrasonic signal due to thermal expansion
effect [30–35].
 Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 13

SensorsThe
Sensors 2018,fiber
2019, 18,404
19, opticPEER
x FOR ultrasonic
REVIEWgenerator converts laser pulse energy, incident on a photoacoustic thin
33of
of 13
13
film into ultrasonic waves. The fiber optic ultrasonic generator is easy to fabricate. Black PDMS (20%
Theblack
carbon fiber +optic
80%ultrasonic
PDMS) was generator
used asconverts laser pulse energy,
the photoacoustic material.incident
For blackon aPDMS
photoacoustic thina
fabrication,
film
PDMSThe fiber
intosiliconeoptic
ultrasonic ultrasonic
waves. kit
elastomer generator
The(Sylgard
fiber optic converts
184, laser
ultrasonic pulse
generator
Dow Corning, energy, incident
is easy to
Midland, MI, on a
fabricate.
USA) and photoacoustic
Black PDMS (20%
a carbon thin
black
film intoblack
carbon
(Conductex ultrasonic
+ 80%
Sc Vara,waves.
Birla The
PDMS) was
Carbon,fiber
usedoptic ultrasonic
as the
Marietta, generator
photoacoustic
GA, USA) is easy
material.
are used for theto
Forfabricate.
black PDMS
fabrication. Black PDMS
carbon (20%
Thefabrication,blacka
carbon
PDMS black
and thesilicone + 80%
PDMS elastomer PDMS)
matrix were was
kit mixed used
(Sylgard as
by184, the photoacoustic
Dowmixer
a speed Corning, material.
Midland, MI,
(SpeedMixer™ For
DAC black
USA) PDMS
150and
FVZ, fabrication,
a carbon
FlackTek black
Inc,
a(Conductex
PDMS silicone
Landrum, SC, elastomer
Sc Vara,
USA) Birla
at 2000 kit
Carbon,
rpm(Sylgard 184, GA,
ofMarietta,
1 minutes Dow Corning,
forUSA) Midland,
are used
10 times. The for
uppertheMI, USA)
fabrication.
layer andThe
suspension a carbon
of theblack
carbon black
mixer
(Conductex
and
werethe PDMS
coated SconVara,
matrix
glass Birla Carbon,
were
slides mixed
and Marietta,
rested GA, mixer
by overnight.
a speed USA) are used for the fabrication.
(SpeedMixer™ DAC 150 FVZ, The FlackTek
carbon black Inc,
and the
Landrum, PDMS
In thisSC, matrix
USA)a at
paper, were
2000
glass mixed
rpmwas
slide by a
of 1coated speed
minutes with mixer
forblack (SpeedMixer™
10 times.
PDMS. The upper
Light DAC 150 FVZ,
layer suspension
launched FlackTek Inc.,
of theI-10
from a Surelite mixer
532
Landrum,
were coated
nm Nd:YAG SC,onUSA)
glassatslides
nanosecond 2000laser
rpm of
and rested 1 min for 10San
overnight.
(Continuum, times.
Jose,The
CA,upper
USA)layer suspension
traveling through of the mixer were
a 1000/1035 µm
coated Inon
optical thisglass
fiber wasslides
paper, andonto
a glass
shone rested
slide the overnight.
was coated
black PDMS with black
and thePDMS. Light
ultrasonic launched
signal fromgenerated.
was thus a Surelite I-10 5321
Figure
nm In this
Nd:YAG
shows paper, a glass
nanosecond
the structure slide
of thelaser was coated
fiber(Continuum, with
optic ultrasonic black PDMS.
Sangenerator. Light launched from a Surelite
Jose, CA, USA) traveling through a 1000/1035 µm I-10 532
nm Nd:YAG
optical nanosecond
fiber was shone ontolaser the(Continuum,
black PDMSSan andJose, CA, USA) signal
the ultrasonic travelingwasthrough a 1000/1035
thus generated. µm1
Figure
optical
shows fiber was shone
the structure onto
of the the optic
fiber blackultrasonic
PDMS and the ultrasonic signal was thus generated. Figure 1
generator.
shows the structure of the fiber optic ultrasonic generator.

Figure 1. The structure of fiber optic ultrasonic generator.

Figure 1. The structure of fiber optic ultrasonic generator.
Figure 2 shows an Figure
ultrasonic
1. Thesignal thatofwas
structure fibergenerated by the
optic ultrasonic fiber optic ultrasonic generator.
generator.
TheFigure
measurement
2 showswas performedsignal
an ultrasonic in water.
thatAwas fiber optic ultrasonic
generated generator
by the fiber opticwas used asgenerator.
ultrasonic the signal
The Figure A
generator. 2 shows
measurement was anperformed
hydrophone ultrasonic
(HGL-0200, signal
in water. that
Onda, was generated
Sunnyvale,
A fiber CA,by
optic ultrasonic thegenerator
USA) fiber optic
was used ultrasonic
as
was the
used signalgenerator.
as thereceiver.
signal
The
The measurement
distance was
between performed
the generator in water.
and A
the fiber
receiveroptic
was ultrasonic
1 mm. generator
The
generator. A hydrophone (HGL-0200, Onda, Sunnyvale, CA, USA) was used as the signal receiver.peak to was
peak used as
amplitudethe signal
of the
generator.
ultrasonic
The distanceA hydrophone
pressure
between was (HGL-0200,
themeasured
generator to
andOnda,
be Sunnyvale,
0.11receiver
the V. the CA,
Sincewas USA)Thewas
1hydrophone
mm. used
used
peak as
toinpeak the
this signal receiver.
experimental
amplitude was
of the
The distance
50.00 nV/Pa. between
The the
pressure generator
can be and
convertedthe receiver
to 2.20 was
MPa. 1 mm.
The The
pulse peak
width
ultrasonic pressure was measured to be 0.11 V. Since the hydrophone used in this experimental was to
waspeak amplitude
measured as of
160 the
ns.
ultrasonic
After pressure
performing was
the measured
Fourier to
transform, be 0.11
the V. Since
bandwidth the hydrophone
of the frequencyused
50.00 nV/Pa. The pressure can be converted to 2.20 MPa. The pulse width was measured as 160 ns. in
range this
wasexperimental
at least 20 was
MHz
50.00 nV/Pa.
as shown
After Thethe
pressure
in Figure
performing 2b [17].can
Fourier be converted
transform, to 2.20 MPa.
the bandwidth The
of the pulse width
frequency rangewaswasmeasured
at least 20asMHz160 ns.
as
After performing the
shown in Figure 2b [17]. Fourier transform, the bandwidth of the frequency range was at least 20 MHz
as shown in Figure 2b [17].
-40
0.06

-60
0.04 -40
0.06
-80
0.02
-60
Power (dB)
Voltage (V)

0.04
0.00 -100
-80
0.02
Power (dB)

-0.02
Voltage (V)

-120
0.00 -100
-0.04
-140
-0.02
-120
-0.06

-0.04 -160
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 -140 0 5 10 15 20

-0.06
Time (μs) Frequency (MHz)
-160
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
(a)1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 0 5 10
(b) 15 20
Time (μs) Frequency (MHz)

Figure2.2.The
Figure Theultrasonic
ultrasonicsignal
signalgenerated
generatedbybythe
thefiber
fiberoptic
opticultrasonic
ultrasonicgenerator.
generator.(a)
(a)The
Theprofile
profileofofaa
generated
(a) (b)
generatedultrasonic
ultrasonicsignal.
signal.(b)
(b)The
Thefrequency
frequencydomain
domainofofthethegenerated
generatedultrasonic
ultrasonicsignal.
signal.
Figure 2. The ultrasonic signal generated by the fiber optic ultrasonic generator. (a) The profile of a
2.2. Fabry–Pérot (FP) Fiber Sensor
generated ultrasonic signal. (b) The frequency domain of the generated ultrasonic signal.
The structure of the Fabry-Perot (FP) fiber sensor is shown in Figure 3a. A quartz coverslip,
an aluminum plate, a ferrule and a single mode fiber (SMF) were used to build this Fabry-Perot
sensor. A beam of laser light was launched into the SMF, partially reflected from the tip of the SMF.
Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 13

2.2. Fabry–Pérot (FP) Fiber Sensor

The structure of the Fabry-Perot (FP) fiber sensor is shown in Figure 3a. A quartz coverslip,
Sensors 2019, 19, 404
an
4 of 13
aluminum plate, a ferrule and a single mode fiber (SMF) were used to build this Fabry-Perot sensor.
A beam of laser light was launched into the SMF, partially reflected from the tip of the SMF. The
The transmitted
transmitted lightlight
waswas reflected
reflected fromfrom coverslip.
coverslip. These
These two
two beams
beams ofofreflected
reflectedlight
lightform
form the
the FP
interference. The
The ultrasonic
ultrasonic signal
signal impinging
impinging on on the
the coverslip
coverslip changed
changed the distance between the
coverslip and the SMF,
SMF, and
and then
then changed
changed the
the interference
interference signal.
signal.

1/4’’ 1/4’’

Quartz coverslip Part A Part B 1/2’’

SMF

3/16’’
1/10 ’’

1/5’’
Ferrule Ferrule
d
Copper tube

13/5’’
SMF
I

13/10’’
Aluminum plate
h
Quartz
coverslip Aluminum disc
15’’

(a) (b)
TheFP
Figure 3. The FPfiber
fibersensor.
sensor.(a)(a)
TheThe structure
structure of an
of an FP FP fiber
fiber sensor.
sensor. (b) The
(b) The packing
packing of anof
FPan FP
fiber
fiber sensor.
sensor.

The sensitivity
The sensitivityofofthethe
sensor defines
sensor that that
defines how how
muchmuch the center
the of the diaphragm
center will be deformed
of the diaphragm will be
when a certain acoustic pressure applied on it. The following equation defines it
deformed when a certain acoustic pressure applied on it. The following equation defines it [36]:[36]:

( / )
Y 3=1 − µ2 (d/2)∙410 9 (1)
Yc = ·10 (1)
3
16Eh10
E is the quartz’s Young’s modulus, E = 7.2 × 10 Pa; µ is the quartz Poisson ratio, µ = 0.17; h is
the thickness of the quartz
E is the quartz’s Young’s coverslip,
modulus,hE==0.10
7.2 × mm;
1010d Pa;
is the
µ isdiameter
the quartzofPoisson
the aluminum
ratio, µ =hole,
0.17;dh=is2.54
the
mm. Y = 0.0032 nm/Pa.
thickness of the quartz coverslip, h = 0.10 mm; d is the diameter of the aluminum hole, d = 2.54 mm.
c

Yc = The
0.0032sensitivity
nm/Pa. of the FP fiber sensor on the optical sensing analyzer:
The sensitivity of the FP fiber sensor on the optical sensing Y analyzer:
S = 1.55 × (2)
I
Yc
where I is the FP cavity length (I = 3 µm), SSCTS = was1.55 ×
calculated (2)
as 1.6 × 10−3 nm/Pa, which means that,
I
with 1 Pa pressure, the spectrum would shift 1.6 × 10 nm. −3

where InI sound

is the FP cavity length
applications, (I = 3 µm),frequency
a resonant SCTS was is calculated 1.6 × 10−of
a naturalasfrequency
3 nm/Pa, which means that,
vibration determined by
with 1 Pa pressure, the spectrum would shift 1.6 × 10 − 3 nm.
the physical parameters of the vibrating object. The resonant frequency of the FP fiber sensor was
In sound
determined byapplications,
[37]: a resonant frequency is a natural frequency of vibration determined by
the physical parameters of the vibrating object. The resonant frequency of the FP fiber sensor was
α E h
determined by [37]: f = [ ]/ [ ] (3)
4π 3w (1 − μ 1/2 ) (d/2)
α00 E h
f00 = [ ] [ ] (3)
where f00 is the lowest resonant frequency; 4π 3w α00(is
1− µ2 )
a constant d/2)2 to the vibrating modes, which is
(related
10.21 for the lowest natural frequency; w is the mass density of the quartz w = 2.50g/cm3. For our
where f00 is the lowest resonant frequency; α00 is a constant related to the vibrating modes, which is
experiment f00 was calculated as 0.19 MHz.
10.21 for the lowest natural frequency; w is the mass density of the quartz w = 2.50g/cm3 . For our
Since this FP fiber sensor will be used in very high temperature environment. The packaging of
experiment f was calculated as 0.19 MHz.
this FP fiber 00sensor is important. The packaging of this FP fiber sensor is shown in Figure 3b. A 4.76
Since this FP fiber sensor will be used in very high temperature environment. The packaging of
mm outside diameter copper tube was used in this packaging. The diameter of the aluminum plate
this FP fiber sensor is important. The packaging of this FP fiber sensor is shown in Figure 3b. A 4.76 mm
Part A hole was 2.54 mm. The diameter of the aluminum plate Part B hole was 5.08 mm. The 4.76 mm
outside diameter copper tube was used in this packaging. The diameter of the aluminum plate Part A
copper tube could be inserted into the aluminum plate Part B. The aluminum adhesive was used to
hole was 2.54 mm. The diameter of the aluminum plate Part B hole was 5.08 mm. The 4.76 mm copper
seal the ferrule with the single mode fiber, the ferrule with the copper tube, as well as the copper tube
tube could be inserted into the aluminum plate Part B. The aluminum adhesive was used to seal the
with the aluminum plate.
ferrule with the single mode fiber, the ferrule with the copper tube, as well as the copper tube with the
aluminum plate.
Sensors 2019,
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x FOR PEER REVIEW 55 of
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13

2.3. Time-of-Flight Temperature Measurement Method

2.3. Time-of-Flight Temperature Measurement Method
The principle of using time-of-flight (TOF) method to measure the temperature of a medium is
The principleThe
straightforward. of using
speedtime-of-flight
of sound can (TOF) methodwith
be correlated to measure the temperature
the temperature of a medium
of a medium in whichis
straightforward. The speed of sound can be correlated with the temperature of a medium
the ultrasonic wave travels. Therefore, if the time-of-flight (TOF) of an ultrasonic pulse between two in which
the
fixedultrasonic wave the
points within travels.
mediumTherefore,
can be ifknown,
the time-of-flight (TOF) of
one can calculate theanspeed
ultrasonic pulsewithin
of sound between
the
two fixed which
medium, points will
within
leadthe
tomedium can be known,
the temperature onepath
along that can calculate
within the the speed ofThe
medium. sound within the
temperature T
medium, which
is governed by: will lead to the temperature along that path within the medium. The temperature T is
governed by:
c
T =c 2 (4)
 
T= B (4)
B
wherecc is
where is the
the sound
sound velocity
velocity and
and B
B is
is the
the acoustic constant of
acoustic constant of the
the air.
air. Sound velocity will
Sound velocity will be
be calculated
calculated
by the flight time of an acoustic wave divided by the flight distance
by the flight time of an acoustic wave divided by the flight distance [24,25]. [24,25].

3. Fiber Optic Ultrasonic Sensing System Verification

Verification

3.1. Experimental Setup

3.1 Experimental Setup
A fiber
fiber optic
optic ultrasonic
ultrasonic sensing
sensing system
system verification
verification experiment
experiment was performed
performed to evaluate
evaluate the
the
performance ◦
performance of the the system.
system. The experiment was held at 20 °C. C. A fiber
fiber optic
optic (ultrasonic)
(ultrasonic) generator
generator
was
was used
used as as the
the signal
signal generator.
generator. Black
Black PDMS
PDMS material
material was
was coated
coated onon aa glass
glass slide.
slide. Light
Light launched
launched
from the
the 532
532 nmnm Nd:YAG
Nd:YAGnanosecond
nanosecond laser
laser traveled
traveledthrough
throughaa1000/1035
1000/1035 µm optical fiber and was was
shone onto the the black
black PDMS
PDMS andand this
this generated
generated the the ultrasonic
ultrasonic signal.
signal. A microphone (TMS 130C21,
PCB,
PCB, Depew,
Depew,NY, NY,USA)
USA)andandananFP
FPfiber
fibersensor
sensor(V20161202TEST2)
(V20161202TEST2) were
wereusedusedas as
thethe
signal receivers,
signal as
receivers,
shown
as shownin Figure 4a,b,4a,b,
in Figure respectively. The distances
respectively. The distancesbetween the generator
between and receiver
the generator were set
and receiver wereas 10,
set 20
as
and 30and
10, 20 mm,30respectively.
mm, respectively.

(a) (b)
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Experimental
Experimental setup for the
the fiber
fiber optic
optic ultrasonic
ultrasonic sensing
sensing system
system verification.
verification. (a) The fiber
fiber
optic generator
optic generator and
and microphone
microphone system.
system. (b)
(b) The
The fiber
fiber optic
optic generator
generator and
and FP
FP sensor
sensorsystem.
system.

For
For the
the microphone
microphone receiver,
receiver, aa power
power supply
supply (482A06,
(482A06, PCB,
PCB, Depew,
Depew, NY,NY, USA)
USA) was
was used
used forfor the
the
microphone. The output electrical signal from the microphone was recorded by
microphone. The output electrical signal from the microphone was recorded by a data acquisition a data acquisition
card
card (DAQ)
(DAQ) (M2i.4032,
(M2i.4032, Spectrum,
Spectrum, Hackensack,
Hackensack, NJ, NJ, USA)
USA) atat aa sampling
sampling rate
rate of
of 50
50 MHz.
MHz. For
For the
the FP
FP
sensor receiver, a tunable laser (TLB-6600, Venturi TM Tunable Laser, Santa Clara, CA, USA) was
sensor receiver, a tunable laser (TLB-6600, Venturi Tunable Laser, Santa Clara, CA, USA) was used
TM

used as asource
as a light light source to the
to excite excite the FP
FP fiber fiberthrough
sensor sensor athrough a circulator.
circulator. The outputThe output
power power
for the for
tunable
the
lasertunable
was setlaser was
as 7.60 mW.set The
as 7.60 mW. light
reflected The reflected
through thelight throughwas
circulator the detected
circulatorbywas detected by
a photodetector
a(PDA10CS,
photodetector
Thorlabs, Newton, NJ, USA), which converted the optical signal into electrical signal
(PDA10CS, Thorlabs, Newton, NJ, USA), which converted the optical signal.into
The
electrical signal. The photodetector was set at 40 dB. The spectrum of the
photodetector was set at 40 dB. The spectrum of the FP fiber sensor is shown in Figure FP fiber sensor is shown
5. The
in Figure 5. The
wavelength wavelength
of the of the
FP fiber sensor FPset
was fiber sensor1557
between wasnmset to
between 1557(between
1557.5 nm nm to 1557.5
these nm (between
wavelengths,
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Sensors 2019,2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW
19, 404 6 of 613of 13
the slope of the waveform was bigger which means a higher sensitivity). The DAQ recorded the
output electrical
the slope signal
of the from photodetector
waveform at a sampling
was bigger which means arate of 50sensitivity).
higher MHz. The DAQ recorded the
these wavelengths,
output electricalthe slope
signal of the
from waveform was
photodetector at abigger which
sampling means
rate of 50aMHz.
higher sensitivity). The DAQ
recorded the output electrical signal from photodetector at a sampling rate of 50 MHz.
-14

-16 -14

-18 -16
p
p -20 -18
p Intensity (dB)
p
Intensity (dB) -22 -20

-24 -22

-26 -24

-28 -26

-30 -28 λ =1557 nm λ2 =1557.50 nm

-32 -30
λ =1557 nm λ2 =1557.50 nm
1550
-32 1552 1554 1556 1558 1560 1562 1564 1566 1568 1570
Wavelength (nm)
1550 1552 1554 1556 1558 1560 1562 1564 1566 1568 1570
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 5. The spectrum of the V20161202TEST2FP fiber sensor.
Figure 5. The spectrum of the V20161202TEST2FP fiber sensor.
Figure 5. The spectrum of the V20161202TEST2FP fiber sensor.
3.2 Results
3.2. Results and
and Discussion
Discussion
3.2 Results
The
The and Discussion
ultrasonic
ultrasonic signalresults
signal resultsare areshown
shownininFigure
Figure6.6.Figure
Figure6a 6aisisthetheultrasonic
ultrasonicsignal
signaldetected
detectedby by
the microphone.
the microphone. Figure
Figuresignal
The ultrasonic 6b is the
6b is the ultrasonic
ultrasonic
results signal
signal
are shown detected
in detected
Figure 6.by by the
the FP
Figure FP fiber
6a fiber sensor.
is thesensor. We
We had
ultrasonic had
signal done
done some
some by
detected
background
background noise
noise reduction
reduction
the microphone. Figure 6b is on
on the
the original
original signal.
signal. We
We first
first found
found the
the baseline
baseline of
of
ultrasonic signal detected by the FP fiber sensor. We had done some the
the original
original signal,
signal,
then
then weused
we usedthe
background the original
original
noise signalto
signal
reduction ontosubtract
subtract
the thebaseline,
the
original baseline,
signal. We then
then we
we
first smoothed
smoothed
found thesignal.
the
the baseline signal. The
The
of the traveltime
travel
original time
signal,
we
we thengot
got waswas the time
the time
we used difference
difference
the original between
between
signal the signals
the signals
to subtract sent
sent from
the baseline, from the
thewe
then generator
generator
smoothed to the
to the signal
thesignal.
signal The detected
detected
travelbyby
time
thewe
the receiver.
receiver. The
The time
time 00 was
was defined
defined as
as the
the signal
signal transmitted
transmitted from
from the
the generator.
generator.
got was the time difference between the signals sent from the generator to the signal detected by The
The time-of-arrival
time-of-arrival
ofofthe
thesignal
the signalwas
receiver.was
The the
the time
time
time atatthe
0 was the startpoint
start
defined point
as ofthe
theultrasonic
theofsignal ultrasonicsignals.
transmitted signals.
from the It’s
It’s nearthe
near
generator.thefirst
firstpeak
The peakofofthethe
time-of-arrival
ultrasonic
ultrasonic signal.
signal.was
of the signal It
It was was
thethe the starting
starting
time at thepoint point
startfor for a big variation
a bigofvariation
point in
in the signal.
the ultrasonic the
signals.Thesignal. The
It’stravel
near time travel time
was peak
the first was
30.12 of
µs,the
30.12 µs,
andultrasonic and 30.20
30.20 µs detected µs
signal. It detected
bywas by
the microphone the microphone
the starting and pointthefor and
FPafiber the FP
big sensor fiber
variation sensor
as shown
in the in as shown
FigureThe
signal. in Figure 6.
6. travel time was
30.12 µs, and 30.20 µs detected by the microphone and the FP fiber sensor as shown in Figure 6.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
1.9
10 mm 10 mm
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 2 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
0.0 1.9
Voltage (mV)

10 mm
Voltage (mV)

10 mm
2
-1.9 0.0 0
Voltage (mV)

Voltage (mV)

-3.8 -1.9 30.12 µs 0

-2 30.20 µs
1.9 30.12 µs
20
-3.8 mm 20 mm 30.20 µs
-2
2
0.0 1.9
Voltage (mV)

Voltage (mV)

20 mm 20 mm
2
-1.9 0.0 0
Voltage (mV)

Voltage (mV)

-3.8 -1.9 0
-2

1.9
-3.8
30 mm 30
-2
mm
2
Voltage (mV)

0.0 1.9
Voltage (mV)

30 mm 30 mm
2
Voltage (mV)

-1.9 0.0 0
Voltage (mV)

-3.8 -1.9 0
-2

-3.8
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
-2
Time (μs) Time (μs)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Time (μs) Time (μs)

(a) (b)
Figure6.6.The
Figure (a)
Theultrasonic
ultrasonicsignal
signaldetected
detectedby
bythe
the(a)
(a)microphone
microphoneand (b)(b)
and(b) FP
FPfiber
fibersensor.
sensor.

Figure 6. The ultrasonic signal detected by the (a) microphone and (b) FP fiber sensor.
 Sensors
Sensors 2018,
2019, 19,18,
404x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 7ofof1313

Since the distances between generator and receiver was 10 mm. The speed of sound v was
calculatedthe
Since as: distances between generator and receiver was 10 mm. The speed of sound v was
calculated as:
s s
v =v = (5)
(5)
t t
The
Thespeed
speedofofsound
soundv vcalculation
calculationresult
resultwas
was331 m/s
331 m/sandand332
332m/s,
m/s,respectively.
respectively.The Thespeed
speedofof
sound ◦
soundininthetheair
airwas
was343343m/s
m/satat20 C [38].
20 °C [38].This
Thisagreed
agreedwith
withthetheexperiment
experimentresults.
results.
AtAtthe
thedistance
distanceof of10
10mm,
mm, the the peak to peakpeak voltage
voltagevalue
value(Vpp)
(Vpp)from
fromthe themicrophone
microphoneand andthetheFP
FP sensor
sensor were5 5mV
were mVandand1.20
1.20mV, mV, respectively.
respectively. The microphone had aa 4.2 4.2 times
timesof ofVpp
VppthanthanthetheFPFP
fiber
fibersensor.
sensor.WeWeassumed
assumedthe themicrophone
microphonealso alsohad
hadaa4.2
4.2times
timesofofsensitivity
sensitivitythanthanthe
theFPFPfiber
fibersensor.
sensor.
The
Thesensitivity
sensitivityofofthe
themicrophone
microphonewas was22.51
22.51mV/Pa.
mV/Pa.Therefore,
Therefore,the thesensitivity
sensitivityofofthetheFP
FPfiber
fibersensor
sensor
was calculated as 5.3 mV/Pa.
was calculated as 5.3 mV/Pa.
The 5 5V/A, the responsivity for the
× ×1010
Thegaingain(at(at4040dB)
dB)forforthethephotodetector
photodetectorwas was0.750.75 V/A, the responsivity for the
photodetector
photodetectorwas was11A/W between 1557
A/W between 1557nm nmtoto1557.5
1557.5nmnmwavelength.
wavelength. TheThe sensitivity
sensitivity of the
of the FP
FP fiber
fiber sensor −
7 × W/Pa. 8
sensor waswas converted
converted as 7as× 10 −8 10 W/Pa.
The
Theoutput
outputpower
powerforforthethetunable
tunable laser was
laser was7.60 mW,
7.60 mW, thethe
power
powerat P (−
at1 P 19 dB)
1 (−19 dB) and
andP2P(2−(−20
20 dB)
dB)
were
were0.096
0.096mWmWand and0.076
0.076mW.mW.
The
Theslope
slopea aofofthe
theFP
FPfiber
fibersensor
sensorbetween
between1557
1557nmnmtoto1557.5
1557.5nmnmwavelength
wavelengthwas wascalculated
calculated as:as:
p −p
a= p |− p | (6)
a = | 1 λ −2 |λ (6)
λ1 − λ2
From Figure 5, λ , λ were 1557 nm and 1557.5 nm. The slope calculation result was 0.04
From Figure 5, λ1 , λ2 were 1557 nm and 1557.5 nm. The slope calculation result was
mW/nm. The sensitivity of the FP fiber sensor on the optical sensing analyzer was converted to 1.7 ×
0.04−3mW/nm. The sensitivity of the FP fiber sensor on the optical sensing analyzer was converted−3
10 nm/Pa. Therefore it matched the calculation results in Section 2.2, which S was 1.6 × 10
to 1.7 × 10−3 nm/Pa. Therefore it matched the calculation results in Section 2.2, which SCTS was
nm/Pa.−3
1.6 × 10 nm/Pa.
After performing the Fourier transform, Figure 7 shows the 10 mm distance test ultrasonic signal
After performing the Fourier transform, Figure 7 shows the 10 mm distance test ultrasonic signal
in the frequency domain. There was a peak at 0.19 MHz. Therefore it matched the resonant frequency
in the frequency domain. There was a peak at 0.19 MHz. Therefore it matched the resonant frequency
calculation results in Section 2.2, which the resonant frequency was 0.19 MHz.
calculation results in Section 2.2, which the resonant frequency was 0.19 MHz.

0.19 MHz

-84

-112
dB

-140

-168

-196
0 1 2 3 4 5

Frequency (MHz)
Figure 7. The frequency domain of the signal from the FP fiber sensor (10 mm distance test).

Figure
4. Fiber Optic 7. The frequency
Ultrasonic domain
Sensing of the
System signal from the FP fiber sensor (10 mm distance test).
Verification

4. Fiber
4.1. Optic Ultrasonic
Experimental Setup Sensing System Verification
Four fiber optic ultrasonic sensing system high temperature tests with different temperature (100,
4.1. Experimental◦Setup
300, 500 and 700 C) were performed to evaluate the high temperature measurement capability of
Four fiber
the system. optic
In this paper, 700 ◦ Csensing
ultrasonic system high
high temperature testtemperature tests with
setup is shown different
in Figure 8. A temperature
fiber optic
(100, 300, 500
(ultrasonic) and 700was
generator °C) used
were as
performed
the signaltogenerator.
evaluate the high temperature
A black measurement
PDMS glass coverslip capability
was attached
of the system. In this paper, 700 °C high temperature test setup is shown in Figure 8. A fiber optic
(ultrasonic) generator was used as the signal generator. A black PDMS glass coverslip was attached
Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 13

to the2019,
Sensors water block of the water
19, 404 cooling system. The water cooling system was used in this test 8 offor
13
Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 13
cooling the black PDMS. Light launched from the Surelite I-10a 532 nm Nd:YAG nanosecond laser
traveled
to the
the waterthrough
water block a 1000/1035
of the
the water
waterµmcooling
optical fiber
system. andThewaswater
shonecooling
onto thesystem
black PDMS
was used andin
used generated test the
this test for
to block of cooling system. The water cooling system was in this for
ultrasonic
cooling the signal.
the black An
black PDMS. FP
PDMS. Lightfiber sensor
Light launched (V20170321TEST1)
launched from from thethe Surelite was
Surelite I-10aused
I-10a 532as the
532 nm signal
nm Nd:YAG receiver.
Nd:YAG nanosecond A TLB-6600
nanosecond laser laser
cooling
tunable
traveled laser
through(TLB-6600,
a 1000/1035 Venturiµm
TM Tunable Laser, Santa Clara, CA, USA) was used as a light source
optical fiber and was shone onto the black PDMS and generated the
traveled through a 1000/1035 µm optical fiber and was shone onto the black PDMS and generated the
to excite the
ultrasonic FP fiber
signal. An sensor
FP fiber through
sensor a circulator. The output
(V20170321TEST1) was power
used as of the
the tunable
signal laserAwas
receiver. set as
TLB-6600
ultrasonic signal. An FP fiber sensor (V20170321TEST1) was used as the signal receiver. A TLB-6600
7.60
tunable mW. laserThe reflectedVenturi
(TLB-6600, light TM through the circulator was CA, detected
USA)by wasaused
Thorlabs PDA10CS
tunable laser (TLB-6600, VenturiTM Tunable Laser,
Tunable Laser, Santa Clara,
Santa Clara, CA, USA) was used as aa light
as light source
source
photodetector
to excite the FP (PDA10CS,
fiber sensor Thorlabs,
through Newton,
a circulator. NJ, USA),
The which
output converted
power of the the
tunableoptical
laser signal
was setinto
as
to excite the FP fiber sensor through a circulator. The output power of the tunable laser was set as
electrical
7.60 mW. signal.
The The photodetector
reflected light was
through set as
the 30 dB. The
circulator spectrum
was of
detectedthe FP
by fiber
a sensor
Thorlabs is shown
PDA10CS in
7.60 mW. The reflected light through the circulator was detected by a Thorlabs PDA10CS photodetector
Figure 9. The(PDA10CS,
photodetector wavelength of tunable
Thorlabs, Newton, laserNJ,was USA),set which
at 1565.7 nm. This
converted FP fiber sensor
(PDA10CS, Thorlabs, Newton, NJ, USA), which converted the optical signalthe optical
into signal
electrical into
signal.
(V20170321TEST1) has the same structure as the FP fiber sensor (V20161202TEST2), but the spectrum
The photodetector was set as 30 dB. The spectrum of the FP fiber sensor is shown in Figure in
electrical signal. The photodetector was set as 30 dB. The spectrum of the FP fiber sensor is shown 9.
is slightly
Figure 9. different. The FP cavitytunable
The ofwavelength lengths and laserthe thicknesses of the wafers were FPslightly
fiberdifferent
The wavelength tunable laserofwas set at 1565.7 was
nm. set FPatfiber
This 1565.7
sensor nm. This
(V20170321TEST1) sensor
has the
which caused the spectrum
(V20170321TEST1) has difference. Theas distance between the(V20161202TEST2),
generator and the receiverbut the was fixed
same structure as the FPthe same
fiber structure
sensor the FP fiber
(V20161202TEST2), sensor
but the spectrum is slightly different. spectrum
The FP
at 10 mm.
is slightly When
different.the laser
The source
FP cavity of released
lengths a pulsed
and the signal,
thicknesses a trigger signal
of the wafers was sent from the laser
cavity lengths and the thicknesses the wafers were slightly different whichwerecausedslightly different
the spectrum
system to trigger
which caused an M2i.4032 data acquisition card between
(M2i.4032, theSpectrum, Hackensack, NJ, USA)fixed at a
difference. Thethe spectrum
distance difference.
between The distance
the generator and the receiver generator
was fixed atand10the
mm. receiver
Whenwas the laser
sampling
at 10 mm. rate
Whenof 50 MHz.
the laser The
sourcedistance between
released a pulsedthe generator
signal, and the receiver was fixed at 10 mm.
source released a pulsed signal, a trigger signal was sent froma the
trigger
lasersignal
systemwas sent from
to trigger the laser
an M2i.4032
Temperature
system to between
trigger an the generator
M2i.4032 data and the receiver
acquisition card was recorded
(M2i.4032, by a thermocouple
Spectrum, Hackensack, (KHXL-116G-
NJ, USA) at a
data acquisition card (M2i.4032, Spectrum, Hackensack, NJ, USA) at a sampling rate of 50 MHz.
RSC-24,
sampling OMEGA,
ratebetween Norwalk,
of 50 MHz. CT, USA).
The distance The door of the furnace was covered with aluminum foils for
The distance the generator andbetween
the receiverthe generator
was fixed and at 10the
mm. receiver was fixed
Temperature at 10 mm.
between the
keeping
Temperature the high temperature inside the furnace. The furnace temperature was set from room
generator and between
the receiver the was
generator
recordedandby thea receiver
thermocouplewas recorded by a thermocouple
(KHXL-116G-RSC-24, OMEGA, (KHXL-116G-
Norwalk,
temperature
RSC-24, (24 °C) to high temperature (700 °C).
CT, USA).OMEGA,
The doorNorwalk,
of the furnace CT, USA). The door
was covered withof the furnacefoils
aluminum wasforcovered
keepingwiththealuminum foils for
high temperature
keeping the high temperature inside the furnace. The furnace temperature
inside the furnace. The furnace temperature was set from room temperature (24 C) to high temperature ◦ was set from room
temperature
◦
(700 C). (24 °C) to high
Furnace temperature (700 °C).

Reference thermocouple Furnace door covered by aluminum foil

Furnace
Glass slide
Water Back
coated with
block plate
black PDMS Furnace door tube
Copper covered
for by aluminum foil
protecting
Reference thermocouple
single mode fiber
Glass slide
Water Back
Holes for fixing fiber
coated with
block plate
black PDMS Copper1000/1035 µm fiber
tube for protecting
Fiber support
single mode fiber
Support beam
Holes for fixing fiber
FP fiber sensor 1000/1035
Fiber support Copper tube for water inµm
andfiber
water out
Support beam

FP fiber sensor
Temperature decreases through this direction. (Furnace set temperature
Copper as 700in
tube for water °C)and water out
700 °C 24 °C
(Furnace temperature) (Room temperature)
Temperature decreases through this direction. (Furnace set temperature as 700 °C)
700 °C 24 °C
Figure 8. Experimental setup for the fiber optic ultrasonic sensing system
(Furnace temperature) (Roomhigh temperature test.
temperature)

Figure 8. Experimental setup for the fiber optic ultrasonic sensing system high temperature test.
Figure 8. Experimental setup for the fiber optic ultrasonic sensing system high temperature test.
24 °C
-15 700 °C

-18
24 °C
-15 700 °C

-21
Intensity (dB)

-18

-24
-21
Intensity (dB)

-27
-24
1565.70 nm

-30
-271550 1552 1554 1556 1558 1560 1562 1564 1566 1568 1570
Wavelength (nm)
1565.70 nm

Figure 9. The spectra -30

of1550
the1552
V20170321TEST1FP fiber sensor at different temperatures.
1554 1556 1558 1560 1562 1564 1566 1568 1570
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 9. The spectra of the V20170321TEST1FP fiber sensor at different temperatures.

Figure 9. The spectra of the V20170321TEST1FP fiber sensor at different temperatures.

 Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 13
Sensors 2019, 19, 404 9 of 13

4.2. Results and Discussions

4.2. Results
Fromand Discussions
Figure 10, it can be inferred that there were clear ultrasonic signals when the furnace was
set From
to temperatures
Figure 10, itofcan
24 be
°Cinferred
(room temperature)
that there wereand 700ultrasonic
clear °C (high temperature),
signals when therespectively.
furnace was ThesetFP
fiber sensor spectrum ◦ became stable at 700 °C after◦ 20 minutes when the furnace
to temperatures of 24 C (room temperature) and 700 C (high temperature), respectively. The FP fiber reached its setting
temperature.
sensor spectrumAt 700 °C,
became the at
stable spectrum of the
700 ◦ C after FP fiber
20 min whensensor had areached
the furnace difference compared
its setting with that
temperature.
under ◦room temperature as shown in Figure 9, that’s caused by the bonding
At 700 C, the spectrum of the FP fiber sensor had a difference compared with that under glue. But, the spectrum
room
became stable after 20 minutes at 700 °C, so that we can use that spectrum for the
temperature as shown in Figure 9, that’s caused by the bonding glue. But, the spectrum became stable ultrasonic signal
detection.
after 20 min at 700 ◦ C, so that we can use that spectrum for the ultrasonic signal detection.

0 10 20 30 40 50
24 °C
2.4

1.6
Voltage (mV)

0.8

0.0

27.24 µs
-0.8
700 °C
2.4

1.6
Voltage (mV)

0.8

0.0

-0.8 16.82 µs
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (μs)

Figure 10. Ultrasonic signals for 700 ◦ C high temperature test.

Figure 10. Ultrasonic signals for 700 °C high temperature test.
The temperature based on the optical system was calculated and one of the results is shown
The10.
in Figure temperature
Since the based on between
distance the optical system was
generator and calculated andnot
receiver was oneexactly
of the results
10 mm.isThe
shownrealin
Figure 10. Since the distance between generator and receiver was not exactly 10 mm. The real distance
distance s1 has been calculated by multiplying the speed of sound v1 with the travel time t1 at 24 ◦ C
s1 has
room been calculated by multiplying the speed of sound v1 with the travel time t1 at 24 °C room
temperature:
temperature: s1 = v1 t1 (7)

The speed of sound is 345.549 m/s at 24 ◦ C [38]. s =Thev treal distance s can be calculated as 9.413 mm. (7)
Then we use the real distance s1 to divide ◦
The speed of sound is 345.549 m/s the travel
at 24 timeThe
°C [38]. t2 atreal
setting 700 C
distance to calculate
s can the speed
be calculated of
as 9.413
sound at setting ◦
700theC:real distance s1 to divide the travel time t2 at setting 700 °C to calculate the speed
mm. Then we use
s
of sound at setting 700 °C: v2 = 1 (8)
t2
s
The speed of sound at setting 700 ◦ C can bevcalculated
= as 559.631 m/s. It represented 506.25(8)
t
◦ C according to the temperature and speed equation calculator [38]. The travel time results and the

furnaceThe speed of sound

temperature setting,atthe
setting 700 °C canreference
thermocouple be calculated as 559.631
temperature arem/s. It in
listed represented 506.25
Table 1. Data was°C
according
recorded to times
three the temperature and speed equation calculator [38]. The travel time results and the
at 700 ◦ C test.
furnace temperature setting, the thermocouple reference temperature are listed in Table 1. Data was
recorded three times at 700 °C test.
Sensors 2019, 19, 404 10 of 13
Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 13

Table1.1.The
Table Therelationship
relationshipbetween
betweendifferent
differenttemperature
temperatureresults.
results.

Temperature
Temperature Reading Reading Travel Time Temperature
Temperature Calculated
Furnace
Furnace Setting Setting
between the Generatorthe Travel Time
between
fromfrom
OurOur Calculated
BasedBased
on the Travel
◦
Temperature Temperature
( C) Generator
and the Receiver from and the
Optical System (µs)
◦
Optical on the Time (◦ C)
Travel
(°C) a Thermocouple
Receiver
( C)from a
System (µs) Time (°C)
24 Thermocouple
24 (°C) 27.24 24
24 24 27.24 24
700 530 16.82 506.25
700 530 16.82 506.25
700 530 16.72 515.60
700 530 16.72 515.60
700 700 530 530 16.60
16.60 527.05 527.05

Otherthree
Other threefiber
fiberoptic
opticultrasonic
ultrasonicsensing
sensingsystem
systemhighhightemperature
temperatureteststests(100,
(100,300,
300,500
500◦ C
°C
temperature test) data and this 700◦ °C test data are plotted in Figure 11. The
temperature test) data and this 700 C test data are plotted in Figure 11. The biggest temperaturebiggest temperature
variationover
variation overthe
themeasurement
measurementisis2.64%.
2.64%.TheThefurnace
furnacesetting
settingtemperature,
temperature,reference
referencethermocouple
thermocouple
temperature and the temperature calculated by travel time are different, because: (1)
temperature and the temperature calculated by travel time are different, because: (1) the temperature the temperature
distribution was not consistent between the generator and the receiver; (2) as the
distribution was not consistent between the generator and the receiver; (2) as the aluminum foil coveredaluminum foil
covered
the furnacethe furnace
door, door, thetemperature
the reference reference temperature
measured bymeasured by the thermocouple
the thermocouple in the middlein the middle
between the
between the generator and the receiver cannot represent the real temperature;
generator and the receiver cannot represent the real temperature; (3) The furnace temperature setting (3) The furnace
temperature
sensor setting
was fixed on thesensor waswall
furnace fixed
andonthus
the furnace wall and thus
cannot represent cannotarea.
the testing represent the testing area.

Temperature calculated based on travel time

600 Reference thermcouple temperature

500

400
Temperature (°C)

300

200

100

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Furnace setting temperature (°C)

Figure 11. Thermocouple reference temperature compared with temperature calculated based on travel
Figure 11. Thermocouple reference temperature compared with temperature calculated based on
time at the same furnace temperature setting.
travel time at the same furnace temperature setting.
The relationship between travel time and thermocouple reference temperature is shown in
FigureThe relationship
12. A between
linear fitting travel in
line is plotted time
theand thermocouple reference temperature is shown in
figure.
Figure 12. A linear fitting line is plotted in the figure.
Sensors 2018,19,
Sensors2019, 18,404
x FOR PEER REVIEW 11
11ofof13
13

28

26

24

Travel time (μs)

22

20

18

16

0 100 200 300 400 500 600

Referece thermocouple temperature (°C)

Figure 12. The relationship between travel time and thermocouple reference temperature.
Figure 12. The relationship between travel time and thermocouple reference temperature.
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
In this paper, we have designed, fabricated, and characterized the fiber optic ultrasonic sensing
system to measure high temperature in air condition. This system is the first active non-contact
In this paper, we have designed, fabricated, and characterized the fiber optic ultrasonic sensing
all optical fiber sensing system using optically generated acoustic signals to operate in the high
system to measure high temperature in air condition. This system is the first active non-contact all
temperature harsh environment. It based on PA generation technique by using black PDMS as the
optical fiber sensing system using optically generated acoustic signals to operate in the high
ultrasound generation material. It also based on Fabry-Perot principle by using FP cavity as the
temperature harsh environment. It based on PA generation technique by using black PDMS as the
signal receiver part. The verification experiment was performed to validate the sensing capability.
ultrasound generation material. It also based on Fabry-Perot principle by using FP cavity as the signal
The experimental results showed that ultrasonic signals can be detected by the system.
receiver part. The verification experiment was performed to validate the sensing capability. The
The fiber optic ultrasonic sensing system high temperature tests were performed to validate the
experimental results showed that ultrasonic signals can be detected by the system.
high temperature measurement capability. The results showed that the novel fiber optic ultrasonic
The fiber optic ultrasonic sensing system high temperature tests were performed to validate the
sensing system could work at 700 ◦ C. It has the potential to be used in high temperature environments.
high temperature measurement capability. The results showed that the novel fiber optic ultrasonic
The system survived in high temperature environment (700 ◦ C) for at least 3 hours, and it’s still
sensing system could work at 700 °C. It has the potential to be used in high temperature
workable. The maximal
environments. The systemandsurvived
minimal in
distance between theenvironment
high temperature generator and reviver
(700 is 1atmm
°C) for to 350hours,
least mm.
Ifand
weit’s
replaced the FP fiber sensor to a microphone, the maximal measurement distance
still workable. The maximal and minimal distance between the generator and reviver is 1 mm could be
increased to 1000 mm. In summary, the fiber optic ultrasonic sensing system could
to 50 mm. If we replaced the FP fiber sensor to a microphone, the maximal measurement distance lead to the
development of a new
could be increased generation
to 1000 mm. Intemperature
summary, the sensor
fiberfor temperature
optic ultrasonicfield monitoring
sensing in coal-fired
system could lead to
boilers or exhaust gas temperature monitoring for turbine engines.
the development of a new generation temperature sensor for temperature field monitoring in coal-
fired boilers
Author or exhaust
Contributions: J.Z. gas temperature
conducted monitoring
the experiments withfor
X.G.turbine engines.
and C.D.’s assistance. X.W. and C.C. guided the
experiment design and provided experimental devices. They also helped with proof reading.
Author Contributions: J.Z. conducted the experiments with X.G. and C.D.’s assistance. X.W. and C.C. guided
Funding: The authors would like to thank the Department of Energy for sponsoring this work (DE-FE0023031).
the experiment design and provided experimental devices. They also helped with proof reading.
Acknowledgments: The authors also grateful to Xinsheng Lou at General Electric for supporting this work.
Funding: The authors would like to thank the Department of Energy for sponsoring this work (DE-FE0023031).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments: The authors also grateful to Xinsheng Lou at General Electric for supporting this work.
References
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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