PARASITOLOGY

INTRODUCTION
Intermittent remain on or in the body of the host in a short period
DEFINITION OF TERMS Temporary of time
mosquitoes
Parasitology
Phenomenon of dependence
Normal found in a definite organ of a definitive species of an
• abode or habitat: “para”; procuring food: “sitos”
Plasmodium spp. animal
Biological relationship
Unique habitual and long association relationship
• symbiosis: “living together” of unlike organisms
Periodic larval stage develops on a host different that of an
Taenia spp. adult
Types of Symbiotic Relationship

Phoresis to carry and to travel together Transitory larval stage are within the body of the host while the
NO dependence Strongyloides adult stage develops in a free-living state
e.g. presence of protozoan cyst and ova of a helminth on the legs of flies
and cockroaches
Host
Mutualism partners benefit Organism that harbors the parasite
harmonious
obligatory: presence and absence of one affects the survival of the other
e.g. presence of flagellate in the gut of a termite Types of Hosts

Commensalism eating at the same table Definitive harbors the sexual stage of the parasite
commensals benefit often but not necessarily vertebrate
host is neither helped nor harmed
e.g. Entamoeba gingivalis benefit form a healthy individual (living in the
mouth) without causing harm Intermediate harbors asexual stage of the parasite
1st IH: larva or early stage
2nd IH: infective stage
Parasitism parasites (pathogenic) benefit
host is harmed
Paratenic allows parasite to remain alive and infective
Transport no development

Parasite
Live on or within the host
• parasitism: the parasite must harm the host Reservoir any animal that harbors an infection that can be transmitted to
human
allows parasites to continue their life cycle → another source of
Classification of Parasite infection

As to pathogenicity
HOST-PARASITE RELATIONSHIP

Pathogenic parasitism
Entamoeba histolytica in or on the host Reservoir/Source
harm → parasitic disease

Fecal contaminated soil soil:

Nonpathogenic commensalism and water Ascaris lumbricoides
Entamoeba dispar In or on the host Trichuris trichiura
no harm → no parasitic disease
Stronglyoides stercoralis
hookworms
As to necessity water:
cysts of amoeba: Entamoeba histolytica
flagellates: Giardia lamblia
Obligate cannot complete their life cycle without spending at cercaria: Schistosoma
Plasmodium spp. least a part of their lifetime in a parasitic relationship
inside the host
Food with infective stage freshwater fishes: intestinal and liver flukes
of the parasite crabs: Paragonimus westermani
Facultative can complete life cycle in the absence of a host snails: Artyfechinostomum (Echinostoma)
Strongyloides spp. free-living meat: Trichinella spiralis
parasitic when needs arise

Arthropods as vectors biological

Accidental host and parasite: neither benefited parasite is transmitted only after complete development within the
Incidental vector
Dirofilaria immitis mosquitoes:
Wuchereria bancrofti
Plasmodium spp.
As to number of host
filaria
sandflies: Leishmania
Monoxenous can complete their life cycle on a single host tsetse flies: Trypanosoma brucie
Ascaris lumbricoides reduviid bugs: Trypanosoma cruzi
ticks: Babesia spp.

mechanical
Heteroxenous requires two or more host
transport parasite from one place to another
*autoheteroxenous: the DH of one generation → IH of
not essential for the parasite’s life cycle
the next generation
flies and cockroaches

As to habitat
Animals cows:
Taenia saginata
Endoparasite live inside the body of the host → infection Sarcocystis spp.
Ascaris lumbricoides pigs:
lumen of the intestines: Ascaris, Trichuris Taenia solium
enterozoic red blood cells: Plasmodium Trichinella spiralis
hematozoic tissue cells: Leishmania, Trichinella dogs:
histo/cytozoic body cavities: M. ozardi, M. perstans Echinococcus granulosus
coelozoic Leishmania
passes through intestinal tract: no harm cats:
*spurious/ Toxoplasma
found in an organ which is not usually their habitat
coprozoic: Opisthorchis
*erratic

One’s self Capillaria philippinensis

Ectoparasite live on the surface of the host → infestation autoinfection DH → ingests raw, infected fish → intestine → female worms produce
Pediculus humanus larvae → reinvade the mucosa → internal autoinfection
Enterobius vermicularis
Female gravid parasite → lay eggs on the anal area during the night
→ itchiness → nails may collect the ova → ingested → autoinfection
*in some cases: retroinfection - migration of larva from the anal skin
back to the rectum → autoinfection

Hymenolepis nana
Female gravid parasite → ova through genital atrium → passed in
As to mode of living stool sample (normally) → but in some cases, hexacanth embryo →
attach to the mucosa of the intestine → oncocercoid larva → life
cycle continues
Permanent adult stage live entirely on the host
Ascaris, Trichuris Strongyloides stercoralis
Adult parasite → release ova through fecal sample → in some cases,
developed into rhabditiform larva → gut: infective filariform larva →

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penetrate mucosa or skin of the perianal area →
*superinfection/hyperinfection
*happens when the already infected individual is further infected
with the same species → massive infection
↑ CHON diet: not suitable for intestinal protozoans
↓ CHON diet: favors symptoms of amoebiasis
↑ CHO diet: favors development of some cestodes
Presence or absence of comorbidities or other physiological conditions: pregnancy

Other people patients Parasitic Factors

carriers

Size (large or small): significant in relation the the site of infection

Mode of Transmission

Number: determines parasite’s establishment and worm burden

Digestive tract water-borne:
Entamoeba histolytica
Giardia lamblia Site of attachment: specific parasite have specific site of attachment
Cryptosporidium spp.
Entamoeba histolytica → secretes cysteine proteinases → penetration of mucosa → adherence
*some species under Entamoeba do not have this ability
food-borne:
Taenia solium
Schistosoma → contains penetration glands → produce enzymes capable of digesting skin →
Taenia saginata penetration
Diphyllobothrium latum
Clonorchis Cestodes → has six hooklets → penetration
Opisthorchis
Haporchis Strength: pathogenic or non-pathogenic

Skin penetration via soil: Growth, development and multiplication

Strongyloides
hookworm
via water: Host-specificity:
Schistosoma spp. some - infects single host
via arthropod bite: others - related species
malarial few - non-related species
filarial
Leishmania
Trypanosoma
Babesia DIAGNOSIS OF PARASITIC INFECTIONS

Laboratory diagnosis
Congenital Toxoplasma gondii trophozoites Macroscopic or microscopic examination: feces, urine, blood, sputum, tissue
transplacental Plasmodium Help decrease the prevalence and incidence of parasitic conditions

Types:
Transmammary Ancylostoma • Definitive:
Strongyloides demonstration of parasite: adult, egg larva cyst oocyst and trophozoite; possible only
during active stage of infection
Respiratory tract Enterobius • Presumptive:
Ascaris
detection of host immune response to the parasites; antigen-antibody identification;
light infection; immature parasites
Genitourinary tract Trichomonas vaginalis
– Fecal Sample –

Blood malarial
filarial Specimen Collection and Transport
Leishmania
Trypanosoma
Babesia Container clean; wide-mouthed container w/ tight-fitting lid

Incubation period Free from toilet water or urine

contamination soil and water

From time of infection to the manifestation of signs and symptoms → clinical incubation period
*longer than the biological incubation period Medications leave crystalline residues: interfere identification
• mineral oil
Prepatent period • bismuth
from time of infection to demonstration of infection → biological incubation period *stool samples should • barium
*presence on blood smear be collected a week • laxatives
after the last intake of • antacids
any of these • anti-diarrheals
medications • antimalarials
Parasitic life cycle
decreases number of protozoans
• antibiotics
Direct Does not require an IH
Homogenic compromise motility of trophozoites
• cathartics with an oil base
Ascaris lumbricoides → unembryonated ova released in the
environment → stays in the environment → embryonated ova →
infective stage of the parasite Amount thumb-size of formed stool
5 to 6 spoons of watery stool
Indirect Has more than one IH
Heterogenic Number of specimen normal examination: 3
Opisthorchis → embryonated ova released in the environment → intestinal amoebiasis: 6
ingested by the 1st IH → early stage larva → ingested by the 2nd IH → post-therapy examinatin: 3
infective stage • 3-4 weeks after treatment - protozoan infections
• 5-6 weeks after therapy - Taenia infection
*if stool sample contains scolex: no need for post therapy examination
Parasitosis

Label patient’s name or identification number

State of infection or infestation within animal parasite → harm to the host
age and sex; date and time of collection

Form requesting physician

requested procedure
Pathogenesis of parasitic disease: presumptive diagnosis
A dynamic process that depends on the complex interaction of various factors prior infection
travel history

Host Factors
Specimen transport liquid specimens: within 30 minutes
• trophozoites disintegrate rapidly after defecation
Children and elderly: more commonly prone to infection semi-formed: within 60 minutes
formed: up to 24 hours
• ova and cysts: resistant to environmental conditions
Susceptible: incapable of eliminating the parasite before its establishment
Resistant: prevents establishment and survival of parasite inside or on the host
Immune: associated with sensitivity and specificity; recognise nonself invaders Preservation refrigeration: 3-5C
• advantage: preserves helminth eggs and protozoan cysts
• disadvantage: prolonged → desiccation; kills trophozoites
Protective or non protective: immune response
*should not be frozen or in incubated: destroy morphology

Sickle cell trait and glu-6-PO4 dehydrogenase deficient RBCs: resistant against Plasmodium
falciparum Specimen Processing
Duffy factor (+): increases susceptibility to Plasmodium virals
Duffy factor (-): increases resistance to malaria
Macroscopic Examination
*only in unpreserved specimen
Malnutrition/undernutrition

Color light to dark brown: normal

bright red: bleeding at lower level

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due to stercobilin and black/tarry: bleeding at the GIT

urobilin melena: 50 to 100ml/day *to enhance motility → apply heat by placing a hot penny on the edge of the slide
pale yellow, white, gray, clay/putty (acholic stools): possible post
hepatic obstruction or intake of barium Disadvantages:
green: antibiotic therapy organisms are very pale and transparent → lower light intensity
protozoan cysts and trophozoites appear
more refractile
Consistency coccidian oocysts and microsporidian spores: found in any type of does not demonstrate nuclei & glycogen → switch to iodine mount
cyst samples are stool
highest on formed *Cryptosporidium parvum → isolated in liquid sample (more likely)
stools
helminth eggs: found in any type of stool; chances of isolating ova is
trophozoites are higher in nonliquid samples
highest on watery
samples Iodine mount

Advantage:
Blood bloody mucus in loose or liquid specimen: ulceration on the large stain to highlight the internal structure of internal parasites
intestine
Disadvantages:
patched of mucus on the surface; if blood-tinged: amoebiasis trophozoites are not motile
iodine kills trophozoites and larvae
*bleeding in the GI tract chromatoidal bodies are poorly seen
*early symptoms of colorectal cancer
*bleeding gums, esophageal varices, ulcers, hemorrhoids, diverticulitis, Preparation: 1% solution of iodine
fissures, inflammatory conditions, and various drugs that irritate the D’Antoni’s iodine: 1 g of potassium iodide + 1.5 g of powdered
intestinal mucosa (aspirin, iron supplements) iodine crystals → 100 mL of distilled water

normal excretion: Lugol’s iodine of gram’s stain: too strong to stain protozoans
2.5 mL/day but can be used if a freshly prepared solution is diluted with 1:5
2mg hemoglobin/g of stool distilled water → strong tea appearance
2.5 mL/150g of stool
Quality control:
↑ than the normal range but not macroscopically identified → occult Protozoan cysts
blood yellow-gold cytoplasm
brown glycogen material
Occult blood slide test: paler refractile nuclei
rapid test chromatoidal bodies: not clearly visible → switch to saline mount
pseudoperoxidase activity of hemoglobin

hemoglobin + H2O2 (color developer)

↓ Nair’s buffered methyl blue stain
2H2O + O2 → not routinely used; at low pH (3.6 to 4.8) → effective in showing nuclear detail in trophozoite stages
↓
O2 + guaiac (colorless)
↓ Definitively identified
oxidized guaiac (blue) Results from DFS examination: presumptive; however,
Giardia lamblia cysts
intensity of blue color is proportional to enzymatic activity Entamoeba coli cysts, helminth eggs and larvae
Isospora belli oocysts, may be reported definitively
indicators:
benzidine Reports: “preliminary”
most sensitive; but is carcinogenic
Final reports: available only after results of concentration and permanent stained smears are
orthotolidine released
second most sensitive
*oil-immersion examination is not recommended → organism morphology is not that clear
guaiac
preferred; reduces false positive results
caused by dietary factors

interferences:
KATO THICK SMEAR (KTS)
storage of specimen or slides beyond 6 days
medications:
false (+): salicylates (aspirin), iron supplement
Qualitative: does not measure intensity of infection
false (-): ascorbic acid
Advantages:
patient preparation:
simple and economical
useful in mass stool examination
useful for thick-shelled ova of intestinal helminths and
• avoid eating red meat, horseradish, melons, raw broccoli, cauliflower,
radishes, and turnips
Schistosoma
↓
3 days prior to specimen collection Disadvantages:
not suitable for examination of larvae, cysts, or egg from
certain intestinal parasites
not used to detect protozoan cysts and trophozoites
• ​aspirin and other NSAIDs other than acetaminophen: not be taken for not satisfactory: hard and watery stool
↓
Preparation:
7 days prior to specimen collection
↓
to prevent possible gastrointestinal irritation
50 to 60 mg of stool sample
↓
clean glass slide
• vitamin C
↓
↓
cover with cellophane (soaked with glycerin and malachite green)
avoided for 3 days prior to collection ↓
↓ spread by pressing the sample
ascorbic acid is a strong reducing agent ↓
leave for 10 to 20 minutes for clearing
↓
examine
Presence of adult pinworm (Enterobius vermicularis) and Ascaris lumbricoides:
macroscopic parasite surface or in the stool sample

tapeworm proglottids: Soaking solution

on or beneath the stool sample
Preparation:
100 part distilled water
Microscopic Examination ↓
100 part glycerine
↓
ROUTINE PROCEDURES 1 part 3% malachite green

glycerine: clearing agent

DIRECT FECAL SMEAR (DFS) malachite green: gives color to the background; minimizes the brightness of the microscope *use
only when cellophane is transparent
Qualitative: does not measure intensity of infection
Not recommended for field surveys
Assess burden of parasitic disease using a fresh stool sample CONCENTRATION PROCEDURES
Allows the detection of:
helminth eggs and larvae
protozoan cysts and trophozoites → allows detection of small number of organisms that have been missed during DFS
Preparation: → separate protozoan organisms and helminth eggs and larvae from fecal debris by centrifugation
(sedimentation) and/or differences in specific gravity (floatation)
small portion of fecal material (2mg)
↓
physiologic saline and iodine – Sedimentation Methods –
↓ • by centrifugation
overlay mixture with a coverslip • allows recovery of all protozoa, oocysts, eggs and larvae
• contains more debris
• recommended over floatation
• easier to perform
• least subject to technical error

FORMALIN-ETHER/ETHYL ACETATE SEDIMENTATION

Advantages:
most recommended
easiest to perform
Saline mount allows recovery of the broadest range of organisms
least subject to technical error
Advantage:
detection of motile protozoan trophozoites

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Use of ether: explosive; flammable → replaced by ethyl acetate: but not as efficient as ether in the
extraction of fat and mucoid material from the stool sample

Specimen:
fresh
formalinized stool
• 5% to 10% buffered (most suitable) or non buffered
• sodium acetate-acetic acid-formalin (SAF)
• polyvinyl alcohol
preserved stool

*sediments may be microscopically observed directly or stained first

Iodine-trichrome stain:
Provides contrast
yellow-brown: egg and cysts
green: debris

→ Otherwise known as: Ritchie Sedimentation Method

Recovery of:
protozoan cysts
helminth eggs

→ Modified Ritchie Sedimentation Method

• detect Cryptosporidium oocyst in light infection
*better method compared to Sheather’s sugar floatation

after performing the procedure

↓
sediments: resuspended to 5 ml deionized water
↓
overlaid with 5mL saturated NaCl
↓
centrifuged for 10 minutes
↓
oocysts above NaCl sol’n
↓
debris below the NaCl sol’n

MERTHIOLATE-IODINE-FORMALIN CONCENTRATION

Formalin is replaced by FMI solution

ACID ETHER SEDIMENTATION METHOD

40% HCl (dissolve material) and ether (dissolve neutral fats)

Recommended for the recovery of:

Trichuris
Capillaria
trematodes
Schistosoma

Choice for processing samples from animals (dogs and cats)

Not applicable: protozoan cysts → possible destruction

– Floatation Methods –

→ separation of protozoan cysts, coccidian oocysts, certain helminth eggs and larva through the
use of a liquid with high specific gravity
→ parasitic elements: surface film
→ debris: bottom of the tube

Advantage:
clearer preparation than sedimentation

Disadvantages:
some helminth eggs (very dense) do not concentrate well
specific gravity may be increased
examine both surface film and sediment

ZINC SULFATE FLOATATION CONCENTRATION

33% zinc sulfate → SG: 1.18

SG of protozoa and many of the helminth eggs: lower → allow floatation

Hookworm egg: 1.055

Ascaris egg: 1.110
Trichuria egg: 1.150
G. lamblia cysts: 1.060
Specimen:
fresh
formalinized stool (buffered or nonbuffered)
preserved with SAF or PVA

Preparation:
Sediments → microscopic examination: within 5 to 30 mins. since protozoan cysts collapse upon
prolonged exposure to zinc sulfate
*not routinely used

BRINE FLOATATION

Uses saturated NaCl

Samples are directly mixed with the sol’n → no centrifugation → helminth eggs rise to the surface of
NaCl

Advantages:
Low cost
Simple

Disadvantages:
Does not recover
Hookworm
Schistosoma
operculated eggs

SHEATHER’S SUGAR FLOATATION

Uses boiled sucrose solution preserved with phenol

Best for coccidian oocysts

Cryptosporidium
Cyclospora

Phase contrast microscopy

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HELMINTHOLOGY BUCCAL CAPSULES & COPULATORY BURSAS

SUBKINGDOM METAZOA
Necator americanus
• Triploblastic
• Possess a skin and mouth of sorts
• Body systems mainly alimentary and reproductive pair of semilunar cutting plates
• Possess primitive nervous and excretory systems median teeth
• Sexes may be separate, hermaphroditism frequent

Phylum Nemathelminthes (roundworms)

Unsegmented, cylindrical, bilaterally symmetrical longer than broad
Possess an alimentary system and a body cavity dorsal rays - deep cleft and tips tripartite
two spicules - fused and barbed
→ Class Nematoda (roundworms)
unsegmented
possess mouth, esophagus and anus
generally sexes are separate
reproduction:
• oviparous
• larviparous
Ancylostoma duodenale
infection by:
• ingestion
• penetration of larvae through
surfaces, arthropod vector, ingestion
two ventral pairs of fused teeth
of encysted larvae

Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms)

Flattened, segmented or unsegmented
Gut may or may not be present
No body cavity (syncytium), viscera in gelatinous matrix; bilaterally symmetric; short and broad
acoelomate; triploblastic dorsal rays - shallow left and tips tripartite
two spicules - unfused and NOT barbed
→ Class Cestoda (tapeworms)
segmented
possess scolex, neck and proglottids
hermaphroditic
reproduction: Ancylostoma caninum
• oviparous
• sometimes multiplication with larval forms
infection generally by encysted larvae three ventral pairs of teeth

→ Class Trematoda (flukes)

unsegmented
leaf or cylindrical
generally hermaphroditic
reproduction (digenetic): large, flame-shaped
• oviparous rays - long and slender
• multiplication within larval forms
infection mainly by larval stages entering
intestinal tract, sometimes through skin

PHYLUM NEMATHELMINTHES Ancylostoma braziliense

NEMATODA
two ventral pairs of unfused teeth
→ Location of adult in the body
Intestinal nematodes
Small intestine:
Ascaris, Ancylostoma, Necator, Strongyloides, Trichinella
as broad as long
Large intestine:
rays - stunted
Enterobius, Trichuris
Tissue nematodes
Lymphatic:
Wuchereria, Brugia
Subcutaneous:
Loa loa, Onchocerca, Dracunculus
Mesentery: Mansonella Rhabditiform larvae
Conjunctiva: Loa loa

→ Mode of Transmission
By ingestion
Eggs: Ascaris, Enterobius, Trichuris
Larva within IH: Dracunculus
Encysted larvae in muscle: Trichinella
By penetration of skin:
Ancylostoma, Necator, Strongyloides
By blood sucking insects: filaria
By inhalation of dust containing eggs:
Ascaris, Enterobius

→ Mode of attachment
Anchorage with their attenuated ends: Trichuris
Oral attachment to the mucosa: Ancylostoma Hookworm Strongyloides
Penetration of the tissues: Strongyloides
Retention in the folds of mucosa & pressuring it: Ascaris Filariform larvae

→ Nourishment
Sucking with ingestion of blood: Ancylostoma
Ingestion of lysed tissues/blood: Trichuris
Feeding on intestinal contents: Ascaris
Ingestion of nourishment from body fluid: filarial worm

→ Lay eggs or larvae

Oviparous: lay eggs
unsegmented: Ascaris, Trichuris
segmented: Ancylostoma, Necator
egg containing larvae: Enterobius
Viviparous: produce larvae
Trichinella, Wuchereria, Brugia, Dracunculus
Ovoviparous: lay eggs containing fully formed larvae which hatch out immediately
Strongyloides

Hookworm Strongyloides

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PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES
oncosphere - eggs hatched in water; release ciliated
coracidium containing a hexacanth; indirect life cycle
General Characteristics (procercoid and plerocercoid)
two IH: freshwater cyclops; freshwater fishes, snakes, birds or
frogs
Tegument
Syncytial membrane • Cyclophyllidea: genital opening on the lateral margin of the proglottid
No circulatory organs scolex - four muscular suckers
Digestive tract uterine pore - none; uterus ends blindly
Absent: cestodes uterus - may be branched, sac-like or contain
Incomplete: trematodes egg capsule
Nervous system ova - spherical, non operculated, mature with
Ladder type two coverings (outer shell and inner
Anterior: with paired ganglia embryophore: contains non ciliated hexacanth
Posterior: nerve trunk larvae)
Excretory system oncosphere - nonciliated; 6-hooked develop
Flame cell or protonephridium: cells with flagella into: cysticercus
extending into a tubule cysticercoid
Most are monoecious or hermaphroditic hydatid
Some are dioecious coenocyst
Schistosoma one suitable IH: man, animal or insect
Most are heteroxenous; few homoxenous

Genital pores Unilateral: Hymenolepis

CESTODA Irregular: Taenia
Bilateral: Dipylidium
Gross morphology
Life cycle Heteroxenous
At least one IH: Hymenolepis nana - one host

TREMATODA

General Prominent suckers with a hole in the middle

characteristics “trema”: hole
“eidos”: appearance
Unsegmented helminths
Flat & broad, resembling leaf/flatfish
fluke --- “floc”: flatfish
scolex: attachment Hermaphroditic (monoecious)
neck: growth except Schistosoma
strobila (chain): progressively Has 2 muscular suckers
developing hermaphroditic segments (proglottids) oral: mouth anteriorly
which develops from the neck ventral/acetabulum: middle or ventrally
Absent:
Types of proglottids: body cavity, circulatory organs, respiratory organs
• immature proglottid: undeveloped reproductive organs
• mature proglottid: developed reproductive organs (male and female)
• gravid: developed uterus and egg Gross morphology
oral sucker (acetabulum): into which alimentary canal opens; hooklets or spines
Types of strobila:
• craspedote: proglottids overlap with one another may have: spikes, tubercles, or ridges
• acraspedote: no overlapping
• apolytic: detached or rupture with mature eggs still inside genital pore: position varies
• anapolytic: detach after exhausting eggs
ventral sucker:attachment; posterior in some

General Greek kestos: girdle or ribbon

genital sucker: sometimes in addition
characteristics Exclusively parasitic
Segmented tape-like worms
Common names either reflect host or morphology
Parts and Functions
Host - human:
DH - intestinal infection
IH - tissue infection Alimentary canal mouth with sucker
Exception: muscular pharynx
Hymenolepis nana - larva and esophagus: bifurcate anterior
adult develop in human intestine to the acetabulum → blind
Taenia solium - ova develop into area
larvae in tissues no anus
Has scolex, proglottids; but no gut
Order Pseudophyllidea
scolex has grooves
Genus:
Diphyllobothrium
Order Cyclophyllidea
scolex has suckers
→ Family Taeniidae
proglottid longer than broad, numerous testis,
one genital pore, larva in vertebrae
Genus: Excretory system flame cells
Taenia, Multiceps, Echinococcus collecting tubules
Order Cyclophyllidea median bladder opening
scolex has suckers posteriorly
→ Family Hymenolepididae
transverse proglottids, one genital pore, larva
in insect
Genus:
Hymenolepis
Order Cyclophyllidea
scolex has suckers
→ Family Diaspididae
two genital pores
Genus: Nervous system rudimentary
Dipylidium paired ganglion cells

Reproductive system Monoecious

Generally one set
Two sets: Dipylidium caninum
Self- and cross-fertilization

Female:
→ Uterus Reproductive system well-developed Female:
Lobulated: Hymenolepis self-fertilization
Reticulate: Dipylidium cross-fertilization
Branched: Taenia
Coiled: Diphyllobothrium

Types:
• Pseudophyllidea: genital pores have common opening on the ventral
surface
scolex - almond-shaped; two sucking grooves
(two bothria)
uterine pore - central portion together with the genital pore Male:
uterus - coiled; central portion
ova - oval, operculated, immature

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Lifecycle

A. Adult
B. Eggs
C. Miracidium
D. Sporocyst
E. Redia
F. Cercia
G. Metacercariae

• Digenean trematodes

adult
↓
egg (or shelled embryo)
↓
water
↓
ova release miracidium: a free swimming, ciliated larva
↓
penetrates a snail intermediate host
↓
sporocyst: asexually
↓
more sporocysts or another reproducing stage: redia
↓
more redia | cercariae | metacercariae
↓ ↓ ↓
leave the intermediate host enter an IH enter a DH
↓ ↓ ↓
penetrate skin (IH or DH) encyst in muscle adult fluke; sexually
until consumed (DH) reproduce eggs

Families

Fasciolidae large
cercariae encyst on aquatic vegetation
Genus: Fasciola, Fasciolopsis

Echinostomatidae collar spines behind oral sucker

cercariae encyst in mollusc or fish
Genus: Echinostoma

Triglotrematidae testes side by side behind ovary

cercariae encyst in crustacea
Genus: Paragonimus

Opisthorchiidae testes in tandem behind ovary

cercariae encyst in fish
Genus: Clonorchis, Opisthorchis

Dicrocoelida testes in front of ovary

cercariae encyst in insects
Genus: Dicrocoelium

Heterophyidae minute
cercariae in fish
Genus: Heterophyes, Metagonimus

• Schistosomes:
Diecious
Lack muscular pharynx
Intestinal ceca reunite after bifurcation to form a single canal
No redia stage
Cercaria have pork tails
Cercaria infect by penetrating unbroken skin of DH

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