Unit I: Introduction to Environmental Health

(i) Concept and application of environmental health

Concept of Environment

Environment means the surrounding external conditions influencing development or growth of

people, animal or plants; living or working conditions etc. This involves three questions:

1. What is Surrounded

The answer to this question is living objects in general and man in particular.

2. By what Surrounded

The physical attributes are the answer to this question, which become environment. In fact, the
concern of all education is the environment of man. However, man cannot exist or be understood
in isolation from the other forms of life and from plant life. Hence, environment refers to the sum
total of condition, which surround point in space and time. The scope of the term Environment
has been changing and widening by the passage of time. In the primitive age, the environment
consisted of only physical aspects of the planted earth' land, air and water as biological
communities. As the time passed on man extended his environment through his social, economic
and political functions.

3. Where Surrounded

The answer to this question. It is in nature that physical component of the plant earth,viz land,
air, water etc., support and affect life in the biosphere.

Definitions of Environment :

Some important definitions of environment are as under:

Boring: ‘A person’s environment consists of the sum total of the stimulation which he receives
from his conception until his death.’

It can be concluded from the above definition that Environment comprises various types of
forces such as physical, intellectual, economic, political, cultural, social, moral and emotional.
Environment is the sum total of all the external forces, influences and conditions, which affect
the life, nature, behaviour and the growth, development and maturation of living organisms.

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Douglas and Holland: ‘The term environment is used to describe, in the aggregate, all the
external forces, influences and conditions, which affect the life, nature, behavior and the growth,
development and maturity of living organisms.’

Importance of Environment

All living organisms including human beings depend on the environment, i.e no live can survive
alone. Their basic needs such as food, water, place and so on can only be met through the
environment. Hence, environment plays an important role in the existence of life.

Some of their importance are:

1) Sources of food:
Food is basic need of living organism. It is a source of energy that is transferred from one
living organism to other living organism through the process of eating and being eaten
i.e. Food chain. Environment provides essential requirements and favourable conditions
to all living organism to acquire their food need. For eg.plant receives the light, carbon-
dioxide and moisture from environment and makes the food. Other living organism get
food from them. Various elements/nutrients such as N, P, Ketc are essential for living
organisms which are supplied by environment.

2) Sources of raw material:

Furniture industry- various type of wood
Metallic industry- metals
Cement industry- rocks
Petroleum industry- raw petroleum products

3) Source of Medicine:
In the environment, several types of plants and animals are found that passes medicinal
values. Eg, Neem- antiseptic use, Yarsagumba- treatment of digestive diseases.

4) Aesthetic pleasure:
Environment has always been a source of great attention for her mountains, lakes and
waterfalls etc. Environment always lures people towards it. Feeling like peace, freshness,
enjoy are obtain from the environment; which is must for good thinking and efficiency of
a person.

5) Removes pollutant:
In our day- to- day life, several wastes are generated as by product from our activities.
For eg, household waste from the house, several gas and chemicals from industries. All
these waste are continuously being converted into harmless component in the
environment i.e environment has a capacity to dilute the pollution, minimize and render it
harmless.

6) Provides life sustaining system:

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 The life is made possible by two functions of environment:
I. One way flow of energy
II. Cyclic flow of materials from one living organisms to another living organism
and from living organism to environment and vice-versa. These two process are
called the life sustaining system and are provided by the environment.

Types of Environment:

Environment consists of everything around us including plants and animals. So the environment
can be categorized into 2 classes:

1) Natural Environment
2) Anthropogenic Environment (Built environment)

1) Natural Environment
It refers to the environment made by the nature which consists of mixture of different
factors that are in a state of complete balance with each other. Natural environment is the
gift of nature. Natural environment includes biotic and abiotic environment.

a) Biotic environment
It consists of all living organism. It includes species that range in size from microscopic
organisms that cannot be seen by naked eyes, like bacteria, fungus etc to giant species
such as elephant and whale.

b) Abiotic environment
Non- living environment. It includes air, water, soil, heat, steepness etc. It provides basic
requirement for the entire living organism and helps to maintain the life sustaining
system on earth. Hence it is essential for the sustaining of biotic environment on earth.

2) Anthropogenic environment:
It refers to the environment that is made by human beings. It is the alteration or
modification of the natural environment due to human involvement in nature. The
anthropogenic environment has resulted from human ingenuity and development of new
technology. The main reason for creation of anthropogenic environment is to uplift the
human status and to provide more comfort to human beings. It can be categorized into 2
types namely
a) Social environment
b) Cultural environment

a) Social environment

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 It refers to the environment made by the society (group of people) for the upliftment of
social status. Human beings are social in nature. They have to adapt to the society
throughout their life time. In society, as several people live together, many ideas come
out for the welfare of the society. They want to share ideas, enjoy together and think of
having more comfort. All these thought and efforts have given reality to social
environment. Hence social environment include all infrastructures like temples, public
houses, wells, roads, bridges. Hydropower, parks, agricultural lands etc. Social
environment differs from place to place depending on technology, percieveness as well as
cultural factors. It changes with time. In ancient time, people were inclined towards
religion and customs. So, social environment of that time includes temples, public house
and well. As the time passed on, more people got education; their interest shifted toward
science and technology and as a result, more bridges, more roads, more hydropower etc
are being constructed.

b) Cultural environment:
Culture is of great importance to human beings. Culture is defined as the way of life. It
determines the way we think, the way we behave, the way we wear, the way we get
together and the way we enjoy. Human beings are always inclines toward more comfort,
mental pleasureness, safe environment and good moral behaviors of the offsprings. It
includes settlement, language, customs, religion, festivals, arts and literature etc. The
concept and practices of any culture evolved out long time ago and are inherited from
generation to generation by leaving by seeing. It is different from place to place which
helps to differentiate one place from another place. Eg: Newari&Tharu culture.

Importance of Environmental Studies

The environment studies tell us, about the importance of protection and conservation of our
haphazard release of pollution into the environment. At present a great number of environment
issues, have grown in size and complexity day by day, threatening the survival of mankind on
earth. We study about these issues besides and effective suggestions in the Environment Studies.
Environment studies have become significant for the following reasons:

1. Environment Issues Being of International Importance

It has been well recognized that environment issues like global warming and ozone
depletion, acid rain, marine pollution and biodiversity are not merely national issues but are
global issues and hence must be tackled with international efforts and cooperation.

2. Problems Cropped in the Wake of Development

Development, in its wake gave birth to Urbanization, Industrial Growth, Transportation

Systems, Agriculture and Housing etc. However, it has become phased out in the developed
world.

3. Explosively Increase in Pollution

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 Due to high population growth, there is a heavy pressure on the natural resources
including land. Agricultural experts have recognized soils health problems like deficiency of
micronutrients and organic matter, soil salinity and damage of soil structure.

4. Need for An Alternative Solution

It is essential for developing countries to find alternative paths to an alternative goal. We

need a goal as under:

(a) A goal, which ultimately is the true goal of development an environmentally sound and
sustainable development.

(b) A goal common to all citizens of our earth.

(c) A goal distant from the developing world in the manner it is from the over-consuming
wasteful societies of the “developed” world.

5. Need to Save Humanity from Extinction (death)

It is incumbent upon us to save the humanity from extinction. Consequent to our

activities constricting the environment and depleting the biosphere, in the name of development.

6. Need For Wise Planning of Development

Our survival and sustenance depend. Resources withdraw; processing and use of the
product have all to be synchronized with the ecological cycles in any plan of development our
actions should be planned ecologically for the sustenance of the environment and development.

Environmental Health

Environmental health addresses all the physical, chemical, and biological factors external to a
person, and all the related factors impacting behaviors. It encompasses the assessment and
control of those environmental factors that can potentially affect health. It is targeted towards
preventing disease and creating health-supportive environments.

10 facts on preventing disease through healthy environments

1. Worldwide, 13 million deaths could be prevented every year by making our

environments healthier

2. In children U5 age, one third of all disease is caused by the environmental factors such as
unsafe water and air pollution.

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3. Every year, the lives of four million children under 5 years – mostly in developing
countries – could be saved by preventing environmental risks such as unsafe water and polluted
air.

4. In developing countries, the main environmentally caused diseases are diarrheal disease,
lower respiratory infections, unintentional injuries, and malaria.

5. Better environmental management could prevent 40% of deaths from malaria, 41% of
deaths from lower respiratory infections, and 94% of deaths from diarrheal disease – three of the
world's biggest childhood killers.

6. In the least developed countries, one third of death and disease is a direct result of
environmental causes.

7. In developed countries, healthier environments could significantly reduce the incidence

of cancers, cardiovascular diseases, asthma, lower respiratory infections, musculoskeletal
diseases, road traffic injuries, poisonings, and drowning.

8. 8. Environmental factors influence 85 out of the 102 categories of diseases and

injuries listed in the world health report.

9. Much of this death, illness and disability could be prevented through well targeted
interventions such as promoting safe household water storage, better hygiene measures and the
use of cleaner and safer fuels.

10. Other interventions that can make environments healthier include: increasing the safety
of buildings; promoting safe, careful use and management of toxic substances at home and in the
workplace; and better water resource management.

Environmental Segments

The environment consists of four segments and they are 

i. Atmosphere - the blanket of gases surrounding the earth .

ii. Hydrosphere - the various water bodies on the earth 
iii. Lithosphere - the various types of soil and rocks on earth 
iv. Biosphere - the realm of living organisms and their interactions with the environment
viz., atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere.

(i) Atmosphere
It is protective blanket of gases and protects the earth from the hostile environment of outer
space. It absorbs IR radiations emitted by the sun and reemitted from the earth and thus controls
the temperature of the earth. It acts as a source for CO2 for plant photosynthesis and O2 for

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respiration. It acts as a source for nitrogen for nitrogen fixing bacteria and ammonia producing
plants. It transports water from ocean to land.

(ii) Hydrosphere:
The Hydrosphere comprises all types of water resources oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, streams,
reservoir, polar icecaps, glaciers, and ground water.

(i) Nature 97% of the earth’s water supply is in the oceans,

(ii) About 2% of the water resources is locked in the polar icecaps and glaciers.

(iii)Only about 1% is available as fresh surface water-rivers, lakes streams, and ground water fit
to be used for human consumption and other uses.

(iii) Lithosphere
Lithosphere is the outer mantle of the solid earth. It consists of minerals occurring in the earth’s
crusts and the soil e.g. minerals, organic matter, air and water. The earth is divided in to layers as
shown in figure. The lithosphere consists of upper mantle and the crust. The crust is the earth’s
outer skin that is accessible to human.The crust consists of rocks and soil.

(iv) Biosphere:
Biosphere indicates the kingdom of living organisms and their interactions with environment, viz
atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.The biosphere is very large and complex and is divided
into smaller units called ecosystems. Plants, animals and microorganisms living along with soil,
water and air constitute an ecosystem.Within each ecosystems - inter relationships between
living forms and physical environment.

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Definition of 'Environmental Health’

Environmental health is defined by the World Health Organization as:

“Those aspects of the human health and disease that are determined by physical, chemical,
biological, social and psychosocial factors in the environment. It also refers to the theory and
practice of assessing and controlling factors in the environment that can potentially affect
health.”

Environmental health services are defined by the World Health Organization as:

“Those services which implement environmental health policies through monitoring and control
activities. They also carry out that role by promoting the improvement of environmental
parameters and by encouraging the use of environmentally friendly and healthy technologies and
behaviors. They also have a leading role in developing and suggesting new policy areas.”

Concept of Environmental Health

Environmental health is the branch of public health that is concerned with all aspects of the
natural and built environment that may affect human health.

The relation between environment and health can be described with the relationship among agent
factors, host factors, and environment factors. These three factors are referred to as
epidemiological triad. The mere presence of agent, host and favorable environmental factors in
the pre-pathogenesis period is not sufficient to start the disease in man. What is required is on the
interaction of these three factors to initiate the disease in man. The pathogenesis phase begins
with the entry of the disease agent in the susceptible human host.

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ENVIRONMENT

All that which is external to man is the environment broadly speaking. The concept of
environment is complex. The external environment or the Macro-environment is said to be
responsible for millions of preventable diseases originating in it. Micro-environment is the
Domestic environment in which man lives. The term internal environment is some time used for
the environment inside the body.

EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT:

“All that is external to the individual human host, living and non-living, and with which he is in
constant interaction”.

Environmental health and disease transmission

The description of diarrhoea transmission represents a good way to understand the pathways of
disease through the environment and how environmental health and hygiene can help prevent
disease transmission. Figure below shows the factors that are essential for diarrhoea
transmission. On the left is a person defecating, representing the source of diarrhoea. The
infectious agent or disease agent is actively discharged by a patient or carrier of the disease. On
the right is the host, who is the person that could be affected by the disease.

Figure :Pathways of diarrhoea transmission

The source of diarrhoea is the agent or carrier who discharges infected faeces to the environment.
To remember the possible pathways we can use the six ‘F’s:

 Faeces: resulting from defecation.

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  Fluids: through contaminated water and other contaminated liquids.
 Fingers: contaminated fingers transmit diseases.
 Flies: all sorts of animals such as flies can carry and transmit diseases.
 Fomites or fields: fomites are inanimate objects that carry the infectious agent (e.g.
dishes, cups and other contaminated surfaces in contact with food or water).
 Food: infected by fluids, flies, fingers or fomites and then eaten.

COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENT:

(i) PHYSICAL: air, water, soil, housing, climate, geography, heat, light, noise, debris,
radiation, etc.
(ii) BIOLOGICAL: man, viruses, microbial agents, insects, rodents, animals and plants,
etc.
(iii) PSYCHOSOCIAL: cultural values, customs, beliefs, habits, attitudes, morals,
religion, education, lifestyles, community life, health services, social and political
organization.

Concerns/ Application of Environmental Health:

Environmental health deals with all the fields of the life but the foremost aspects in which
environmental health is directly involved are listed below.

Air: Air is the second essence of life after water. But if the air gets infected than it could take
away lives. Environmental health captures all the issues regarding the quality of indoor and
outdoor air. Air pollution caused by smoke is the main focus in it.

Body art safety: Body art is one of the kinds of art that is getting famous in the foreign states
day by day. Environmental health tells what are the safety measures that’s hold be taken while
dealing with tattooing, body piercing and permanent cosmetics surgeries. Their side effects and
recovery fact are also there.

Climatic changes: Climatic changes also affect the lives of living organism. Environmental
health helps us to better understand the climatic changes and we learn how to live according to
the changing environment. Climatic changing involves air pressures, rain falls, humidity and dry
dust and seasonal viral diseases.

Disasters: Another important aspect of environmental science is natural disasters that can appear
any time. Environmental health prepares us mentally for dealing with the natural disasters, how
to response the immediate destructive situations, and what steps should be for the survival.

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Food safety: Safe food is the right of every human being. Environmental health tells us what
food is safe for use and what’s not, agricultural farming and toxic affects of foods, fungus
protection and preservation, transportation of food.

Water Protection: Clean drinking water is the essence of life. Every human being should know
how to handle the contaminated water. Remedies for water, filtration techniques and leakage
prevention, types of water & their affects all are addressed by environmental health.

Housing Standards: Standard of livings also affect the health of the living being. It is an
important issue that environmental healthy deal with the housing standards, it tells how to live in
the dirty surrounding safely.

Chemical, Medical and Liquid Wastes Management: The major source of water and air pollution
is the chemical and liquids discharging from factories, disposal of waste water and used medical
equipments such as syringes, and needles, used medicine bottles etc. It provide us with all the
details regarding health safety from chemicals and their affects.

Toxicity: Toxicity of many consumer cosmetic.

Importance of Environmental Health

Health is responsible for protecting public health and the environment from the potential
adverse health and environmental impacts associated with different environmental health
problems.

The importance of environmental health in improving the life expectancy of Indigenious peoples.
Environmental Health also manages the proper disposal of liquid waste.

The role of environmental health in public health

Environmental health is a part of public health where the primary goal is preventing disease and
promoting people’s health. Environmental health is associated with recognising, assessing,
understanding and controlling the impacts of people on their environment and the impacts of the
environment on the public. The role of the environmental healthworker, therefore, includes the
following functions of public health:

a. Improving human health and protecting it from environmental hazards.

b. Developing liaison between the community and the local authority, and between the local
and higher levels of administration.

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 c. Acting independently to provide advice on environmental health matters; designing and
developing plans of action for environmental health.

d. Initiating and implementing health/hygiene, sanitation and environmental programmers

to promote understanding of environmental health principles.

e. Enforcing environmental legislation.

f. Monitoring and evaluating environmental health activities, programs and projects.

Environmental health concerns/Scope/Application:

Environmental health addresses all human-health-related aspects both the natural and the built
environment. Environmental health concerns include:

 Air quality, including both ambient outdoor air and indoor air quality, which also
comprises concerns about environmental tobacco smoke.
 Climate change and its effects on health
 Disaster preparedness and response.
 Food safety, including agriculture, transportation, food processing, wholesale and retail
distribution and sale.
 Hazardous materials management, including hazardous waste management, contaminated
site remediation, the prevention of leaks from underground storage tanks and the
prevention of hazardous materials releases to the environment and responses to
emergency situations resulting from such releases.
 Housing, including substandard housing abatement
 Childhood lead poisoning prevention
 Land use planning
 Liquid waste disposal, including city wastewater treatment plants and on-site waste water
disposal systems, such as septic tank systems.
 Medical waste management and disposal.
 Noise pollution control.
 Occupational health and industrial hygiene
 Radiological health, including exposure to ionizing radiation from X-rays or radioactive
isotopes.
 Recreational water illness prevention, including from swimming pools, and ocean and
freshwater bathing places.
 Safe drinking water
 Solid waste management, including landfills, recycling facilities, composting and solid
waste transfer stations.
 Toxic chemical exposure whether in consumer products, housing, workplaces, air, water
or soil.
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  Vector control, including the control of mosquitoes, rodents, flies, cockroaches and other
animals that may transmit pathogens.

Effect of environmental pollution

Pollution effects are indeed many and wide-ranging. There is no doubt that excessive levels of
pollution are causing a lot of damage to human & animal health, tropical rainforests, as well as
the wider environment.

All types of pollution – air, water and soil pollution – have an impact on the living environment.
The effects in living organisms may range from mild discomfort to serious diseases such as
cancer to physical deformities; ex., extra or missing limbs in frogs. Experts admit that pollution
effects are quite often underestimated and that more research is needed to understand the
connections between pollution and its effects on all life forms.

Environmental Pollution Effects on Humans

Air Pollution Effects

 Reduced lung functioning

 Irritation of eyes, nose, mouth and throat
 Asthma attacks
 Respiratory symptoms such as coughing and wheezing
 Increased respiratory disease such as bronchitis
 Reduced energy levels
 Headaches and dizziness
 Disruption of endocrine, reproductive and immune systems
 Neurobehavioral disorders
 Cardiovascular problems
 Cancer
 Premature death

Water Pollution Effects

Waterborne diseases caused by polluted drinking water:

 Typhoid
 Amoebiasis
 Giardiasis

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  Ascariasis
 Hookworm
Waterborne diseases caused by polluted beach water:
 Rashes, ear ache, pink eye
 Respiratory infections
 Hepatitis, encephalitis, gastroenteritis, diarrhea, vomiting, and stomach aches
Conditions related to water polluted by chemicals (such as pesticides, hydrocarbons,
persistent organic pollutants, heavy metals etc.):
 Cancer, incl. prostate cancer and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma
 Hormonal problems that can disrupt reproductive and developmental processes
 Damage to the nervous system
 Liver and kidney damage
 Damage to the DNA
 Exposure to mercury (heavy metal):
o In the womb: may cause neurological problems including slower reflexes,
learning deficits, delayed or incomplete mental development, autism and brain
damage
o In adults: Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease, heart
disease, and even death
 Water pollution may also result from interactions between water and
contaminated soil, as well as from deposition of air contaminants (such as acid rain)
 Damage to people may be caused by fish foods coming from polluted water (a
well-known example is high mercury levels in fish)
 Damage to people may be caused by vegetable crops grown / washed with
polluted water.

Soil Pollution Effects

 Causes cancers including leukaemia

 Lead in soil is especially hazardous for young children causing developmental
damage to the brain
 Mercury can increase the risk of kidney damage; cyclodienes can lead to liver
toxicity
 Causes neuromuscular blockage as well as depression of the central nervous
system

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  Also causes headaches, nausea, fatigue, eye irritation and skin rash
Contact with contaminated soil may be direct (from using parks, schools etc) orindirect (by
inhaling soil contaminants which have vaporized)
 Soil pollution may also result from secondary contamination of water supplies
and from deposition of air contaminants (for example, via acid rain)
 Contamination of crops grown in polluted soil brings up problems with food
security
 Since it is closely linked to water pollution, many effects of soil contamination
appear to be similar to the ones caused by water contamination

Environmental Pollution Effects on Animals

 Acid rain (formed in the air) destroys fish life in lakes and streams
 Excessive ultraviolet radiation coming from the sun through the ozone layer in
the upper atmosphere which is eroded by some air pollutants, may cause skin cancer
in wildlife
 Ozone in the lower atmosphere may damage lung tissues of animals

Effects of Pollution on Animals - Water Pollution

 Nutrient pollution (nitrogen, phosphates etc) causes overgrowth of toxic algae

eaten by other aquatic animals, and may cause death; nutrient pollution can also cause
outbreaks of fish diseases
 Chemical contamination can cause declines in frog biodiversity and tadpole
mass
 Oil pollution (as part of chemical contamination) can negatively affect
development of marine organisms, increase susceptibility to disease and affect
reproductive processes; can also cause gastrointestinal irritation, liver and kidney
damage, and damage to the nervous system
 Mercury in water can cause abnormal behavior, slower growth and
development, reduced reproduction, and death
 Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) may cause declines, deformities and death
of fish life
 Too much sodium chloride (ordinary salt) in water may kill animals

Effects of Pollution on Animals - Soil Pollution

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  Can alter metabolism of microorganisms and arthropods in a given soil
environment; this may destroy some layers of the primary food chain, and thus have a
negative effect on predator animal species
 Small life forms may consume harmful chemicals which may then be passed up
the food chain to larger animals; this may lead to increased mortality rates and
even animal extinction.

Environmental Pollution Effects on Trees and Plants

Air Pollution

 Acid rain can kill trees, destroy the leaves of plants, can infiltrate soil by making it
unsuitable for purposes of nutrition and habitation
 Ozone holes in the upper atmosphere can allow excessive ultraviolet radiation from the
sun to enter the Earth causing damage to trees and plants
 Ozone in the lower atmosphere can prevent plant respiration by blocking stomata
(openings in leaves) and negatively affecting plants’ photosynthesis rates which will stunt
plant growth; ozone can also decay plant cells directly by entering stomata

Water Pollution

 May disrupt photosynthesis in aquatic plants and thus affecting ecosystems that
depend on these plants .
 Terrestrial and aquatic plants may absorb pollutants from water (as their main
nutrient source) and pass them up the food chain to consumer animals and humans
 Plants may be killed by too much sodium chloride (ordinary slat) in water
 Plants may be killed by mud from construction sites as well as bits of wood and
leaves, clay and other similar materials.
 Plants may be killed by herbicides in water; herbicides are chemicals which are
most harmful to plants.

Soil Pollution

 May alter plant metabolism and reduce crop yields .

 Trees and plants may absorb soil contaminants and pass them up the food chain.

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 Unit II

Rural Environmental problems of Nepal

Rural Environment

Rural Environment refers to human settlements in rural settings, their surroundings and their
interrelationship. Population size is the principle criterion for designating urban and rural
localities. The present population size for designating municipalities was set in 1996 at 20,000
for the Terai and 10,000 for the Hill and Mountain regions. All settlements with populations
below these figures are defined as rural population. Rural environment in Nepal vary
considerably with variations in altitude.

Rural Health Problems

1) Poor sanitation and hygiene

2) Indoor air pollution
3) Unsafe drinking water
4) Flooding and drought
5) River siltation
6) Loss of biodiversity
7) Deforestation
8) Soil erosion
9) Desertification

1. Poor sanitation and hygiene

Sanitation

The dictionary meaning of the word Sanitation is the science of safeguarding health.

One of the best definitions is that given by the National Sanitation Foundations of USA:
“Sanitation is the way of life. It is expressed in the quality of living that is expressed in the clean
home, the clean farm, the clean business, the clean neighborhood and clean community.”

Hygiene

The word ‘Hygiene’ derived from hygiea – goddess of health. It is the science of health which
embraces all those factors that contribute to healthful living.

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Situation

Sanitation can be measured in terms of availability of sewerage and toilets. Access of households
to sanitation facilities increased from 6% in 1991 to 25% in 1999 and 46% in 2001 (national).
However, the majority of the population still practices open defecation. This is the major reason
for the contamination of water sources, particularly in rural areas

Lack of access to safe, clean drinking-water and basic sanitation, as well as poor hygiene cause
nearly 90% of all deaths from diarrhoea, mainly in children. While 87% of the world's
population now has access to improved water sources, 39% still lack access to improved
sanitation. Moreover, in developing countries 1.1 billion people still defecate in the open, and
hand washing with soap is practised, on average, only after 17% of toilet uses. (WHO)

Aspects of environmental sanitation

 Disposal of wastes, sewage, excreta

 Supply of clean portable water
 Proper housing
 Distribution of milk and other foods
 Personal hygiene
 Protection from insects and rodents

Causes of Poor Sanitation

1) Poverty
2) Rapid growth of population
3) Lack of proper knowledge about environmental sanitation
4) Ignorance
5) Lack of implementation of Government policy

Effects:

 Lack of sanitation is serious health risk and an affront to human dignity. It affects billions
of people around the world, particularly the poor and disadvantaged.
 Poor sanitation is responsible for 70 percent of childhood illnesses with nearly 10 million
cases of diarrhea among children under five every year, according to Nepal for Water
Health (NEWAH).
 Nearly 13,000 children die every year due to diarrhea-related diseases and only 45
percent of Nepal’s population has access to toilets, according to UN Children’s Fund
(UNICEF).

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  Over 80 percent of diseases (including diarrhea, cholera, intestinal worms, trachoma,
typhoid) among adults and children are caused by lack of basic sanitation, according to a
new government report entitled Nepal Country Plan for International Year of Sanitation
2008.
 In the villages of the Terai, open defecation can fill the fields with hookworms. People
walking on the urinated ground catch the worms, which can enter through their feet and
then enter the blood. Besides diarrhea, open defecation also causes anemia and is a huge
problem in the Terai.
 The study shows poor hygiene and sanitation were causing losses of over US$ 150
million per year in terms of health costs, loss of economic productivity and the adverse
effect on tourism.
 Following defecation, the urine stagnates at one spot and is strong medium for bacteria
which often contaminates the ground water and moist soil. The bacterial parasite reaches
underground waters and contaminates the drinking water system and wells causing
diarrhea and even Hepatitis A.

2. Indoor Air Pollution

One of the four most critical global environmental problems. It probably exposes more people
worldwide to air pollutants than does air pollution in outdoor air. Air in cities as Delhi and Xian
(China) contains an average of 500/m3 of total suspended particulates whereas smoky houses in
Nepal have peak level of 10000/m3 or more.

Almost 85% of Nepal’s total energy needs are met by traditional biomass fuels (fuel wood,
agricultural residue, and animal dung); fuel wood accounts for about 75% of total energy
consumption in Nepal. Rural households use these traditional biomass fuels to meet almost all
their energy demand (almost 98%), primarily for cooking (and heating) with traditional stoves.
Combustion is very incomplete in most of these stoves and results in high emissions, which
combine with often poor ventilation to produce very high levels of indoor pollution.

Poverty seems to be the main barrier to adoption of cleaner fuels. Poor housing further increases
the exposure. The most vulnerable group is young children and women as they spend most of
their time indoors. Smoke from biomass fuel – complex mixture of aerosols containing
significant amount of CO2, CO, suspended particulate matters(SPM), hydrocarbons and NOX.

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Nepal faces a deep and widespread problem of indoor air pollution, since biomass usage is
prevalent. A 2011 national survey indicated that 83% of households in Nepal live in rural areas,
with roughly 92% of that number reporting use of firewood for fuel.

Consistent with findings in other rural settings around the world, indoor air pollution has been
shown to be a major indicator of diseases such as chronic bronchitis, chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease, and acute respiratory infection.

Smoke produced from the kitchen work. Smoke produced by smokers (by family members,
parents; mothers ..highly affects the newborn and children). Using traditional chulos (stoves)
based on fire fuelwood which produces more smokes and potential risk for women and children
and elderly as well.

Sources of Indoor Air Pollutants

Pollutant Sources

Respirable particles Tobacco smoke, Stove, Aerosol sprays

CO Combustion equipment, Stove, Gas heaters

NO2 Gas cookers, Cigarettes,

SO2 Coal combustion

CO2 Combustion , Respiration

Formaldehyde Carpet adhesives

Other organic vapors Solvents, adhesives, resin products

Ozone Electric arcing, UV light sources

It is estimated that indoor air pollution (and the inhaling of acrid smoke and particulates released
by the burning of traditional biomass fuels) is the direct cause of millions of deaths each year,
99% of which occur in developing countries.

Exposure to smoke from cooking is thus ranked as the fifth worst risk factor for disease in these
areas.

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Indoor cooking smoke emits quantities of particulates up to 20 times higher than the maximum
recommended levels by the World Health Organization (WHO), linking it to conditions
including, but not limited to, acute respiratory infections, lung cancer, chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease, heart disease, blindness, and low birth-weight.

Furthermore, nearly half of all pneumonia deaths among children under five occur as a result of
smoke exposure, with pneumonia being the overall leading cause of death among children of this
age group.

In addition to the harmful effects of smoke, open flames from cookstoves are a contributory
cause of the over 200,000 burns that result in death each year.

Limited ventilation increases exposure in poor households, particularly for women and young
children as they spend long periods of time indoors.

The smoke from biomass fuels is a complex mixture of aerosols containing significant amounts
of carbon monoxide, suspended particulate matter, hydrocarbons, and NOx (Naeher et al, .2005)

Exposure to indoor air pollution carries severe health threats. Exposure to the smoke from a
day’s cooking is equivalent to smoking two packets of cigarattes (Warwick et al, 2004), directly
affecting lungs and chest and posing risks for chronic respiratory disorders, acute respiratory
infections (ARI), including pneumonia and bronchitis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(COPD), lung cancer, and other problems.

Pandey et al.(1987) identified the highest rates of chronic bronchitis in Jumla. After many years
of the study, the Nepal Health Research Council (NHRC 2004) found that the prevalence of ARI
among children aged below 5 was 38% (11 of 29 examined)

Bates et al.(2005) confirmed that the use of solid fuel in unflued indoor stoves is associated with
an increased risks of cataracts in women, who do the cooking.

Mean personal exposure to CO in traditional stoves and improved stoves was found to be 380
and 67 ppm, respectively. This implies that improved cooking stoves reduce indoor TSP
concentration by around 70% and CO concentration by 80% compared with traditional stoves.

Lack of awareness, willingness to invest and ability to pay for the new technology are issues
preventing a switch to this cleaner technology.

Improvements in stoves and fuels, along with better-ventilated rooms, are the main tools for
controlling the problem of indoor air pollution.

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Measures to control indoor air pollution in Nepal

 Awareness creation among donors and government agencies on the central level and
advocate for synergies between health and household energy programs and other policy
interventions to address issues related to indoor air pollution and its health impacts.
 Awareness creation among the general public towards the serious health impacts of
indoor air pollution and the need for behavior changes.
 Promotion of cleaner fuels and more efficient cooking devices in both rural and urban
areas.
 Carrying out various activities to address other social and cultural barriers in adopting
new and improved technologies.
 Monitoring of the impacts of social marketing through different indicators like number of
households with improved cooking devices, number of households shift to cleaner fuels,
percentage of population aware of health impacts of indoor air pollution.

1. Unsafe drinking water

Water intended for human consumption should be safe. This has been defined as water that is
free from pathogenic agents, free from harmful chemical substances, free from color and odor
and usable for domestic purposes. Water is said to be unsafe or polluted or contaminated when it
does not fulfill the above criteria. Without ample and safe drinking water, health care to the
community is difficult to provide

According to the Federation of Drinking Water and Sanitation Users Nepal, a national network
advocating water and sanitation rights, half the country is facing drinking water shortages.

According to government statistics, more than 4.4 million people in the Himalayan nation do not
have regular access to safe drinking water in rural and urban areas, be it via piped water, wells,
rainwater or bottled water. Already, more than 10,500 children die before their fifth birthday
from diarrhea, mainly due to inadequate access to safe drinking water, sanitation and hygiene.

More than 80 percent of diseases are the result of unsafe drinking water and poor sanitation,
according to 2009 report of End Water Poverty campaign journey in Nepal. A study conducted
by Environment and Public Health Organization (ENPHO) recently has revealed that 98 percent
consumers in the country are using unsafe drinking water. The study has pointed out that public
health is at risk due to unsafe drinking water.

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According to the study conducted on quality of drinking water, 97.60 percent drinking water gets
unsafe by the time it reaches the consumers. The lack of water supply and sanitation is the
primary reason why diseases transmitted via feces are so common in developing countries like
Nepal.

Studies show that the quality of both surface and groundwater sources in different parts of Nepal
is degraded.

This is the result of contamination by domestic and industrial waste, human –induced natural
disasters, and agro-chemicals and the effects of changes in land use patterns. Groundwater is the
main source of drinking water in the Terai region, meeting over 90% of the demand

Till June 2006, more than 538,689 water samples are tested of 25 districts of Nepal for Arsenic
in groundwater by different organizations. According to the test result, 48,700 (14.0%) samples
have exceeded WHO Guideline value (10ppb) and 12,867 (2.4%) have exceeded National
Standards of Nepal (50ppb).According to this data, 2.4 million and 0.3 million population are at
risk according to WHO guideline value and Nepal Standard respectively in Nepal.

The quantity and quality of water directly or indirectly affect human activity, health and
sanitation.

4) Flood
A flood may be defined as an overflow coming from some river or from some other body of
water. Whenever the water overflows the banks of the river, the river is said to be flooded.

Apart from the overflow of rivers, the floods may be caused by the failure of some dam, with a
sudden release of huge amounts of water, causing considerable damage to life and property.

Floods every year kill thousands of people and cause property damage worth thousands of
billions of rupees.

A flood is an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges land. Floods are considered natural
disasters but since 1960s unsustainable human activities have contributed to sharp rise in floods,
deaths and damages

Urbanization also increases flooding by replacing water absorbing vegetation, soil and wetlands
with highways, building and parking area that causes rapid runoff of rainwater.

Flash floods occur when heavy rainfall persists for only a short time period (usually only a few
hours), yet can cause major damage and death due to their sudden arrival. Flash floods can also
be caused by dam bursts or overflows.
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Riverine floods occur when water rises above its natural banks, often caused by snowmelts in
combination with prolonged and heavy precipitation. Riverine floods take days, weeks, or
months to rise to its max and return to normal, much longer than it takes a flash flood to.

Effects of flood

 Floods can cause major structural damage to buildings, kill plants and animals, destroys
habitats, and removes soil.
 Floods cause many deaths and drown many plants and crops, and hundreds of millions of
dollars in damage.
 Many nutrients in topsoil are brought downstream or deposited in the ocean.
 Rapid runoff causes soil erosion as well as sediment deposition problems downstream.
 Spawning grounds for fish and other wildlife habit are often destroyed.

Health problems due to flood

The early health effects of floods include death through drowning and accidents such as falls,
electrocution and the effect of landslides.

People lose their homes and often also lose their source of food and water. If the drinking water
supply and sanitation system is already inadequate, flooding poses a further major health threat.
Sanitation is a major problem in all flooded areas, as demonstrated by recent floods in Mexico,
Ghana and Mozambique.

Industrial waste, such as engine oil and refuse dumps, adds to the health risks.

In tropical countries, the floodwaters provide an ideal breeding ground for mosquitoes and an
increased risk of diseases such as dengue, malaria and Rift Valley Fever. They also displace
rodent populations, which may cause human outbreaks of leptospirosis and Hantavirus infection.

The combined effects of open sewage and reduced opportunities for good personal hygiene also
favour the spread of infections causing diarrhoea, such as cholera and gastrointestinal viruses.

Flooding in the horn of Africa in 1997, associated with ENSO, caused an upsurge in cholera
deaths due to the lethal combination of damage to sanitation and contamination of water supplies
(WHO, 1998).

During flooding in Bolivia and Peru in the mid-1980s, increases in diarrheal diseases and acute
respiratory diseases were recorded (WHO, 1999).

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Prolonged heavy rainfall causes less deaths than floods, but the infection risk is just as high in
areas of poor sanitation: cholera showed a marked increase after heavy rains in Tanzania, Kenya,
Guinea-Bissau, Chad and Somalia in 1997 (WHO 1998).

5) Drought
Drought can be defined as a period of abnormal and prolonged dry weather causing pronounced
hydrological imbalance in a given area.

A simple meteorological thought, not comprehensive description of drought is 75% deficit in the
annual mean rainfall.

Droughts are caused by a lack of precipitation in an area resulting from weak or less frequent
storms and other weather systems than normal. Most major droughts last for months or years.

Droughts cause major damage to crops and animals, especially if they occur during the region’s
growing season.

During a drought not enough water is provided to support living things. Crops can decrease
10%-20% during a drought.

Droughts affect reservoirs, water supplies, and topsoil. Water levels drop, and topsoil becomes
dry and less favourable to plants.

Areas that are in a drought are more likely to have wildfires than other regions.

Types of Drought:

(a) Meteorological Drought:

Situation where there is more than 25% decrease in precipitation from normal over an
area.

(b) Hydrological Drought:

Hydrological drought refers to deficiencies in surface and subsurface water supplies. It is
measured as streamflow, and as lake, reservoir, and ground water levels. There is a time
lag between lack of rain or snow and less water in streams, rivers, lakes, and reservoirs,
so hydrological measurements are not the earliest indicators of drought. When

25
 precipitation is reduced or deficient for a long time, this storage is reflected in declining
surface and subsurface water levels.

(c) Agriculture Drought:

Agricultural drought occurs when there isn't enough soil moisture to meet the needs of a
particular crop at a particular time. Agricultural drought is typically evident after
meteorological drought but before a hydrological drought.

Causes of Drought:

A drought situation occurs when water supplies are less than the demands. The greater the
demand on an area’s water supply, the more serious the drought.

I. Insufficient rainfall
II. Global warming
III. Overgrazing and Deforestation
IV. Exploitation of natural resources (esp. water resources)

Impacts:

 Disappearance of plants
 Migration of animal
 Agriculture land changes into desert
 Reduces the water quality
 Famine due to lack of water for irrigation
 Diseases (Malnutrition, dehydration)
 War for water and foods
 Fires and dust storms often increase during dry times
 Mass migration, resulting in internal displacement and international refugees.
 Snakes have been known to emerge and snakebites become more common.

Health Impacts due to drought:

 Protein-energy malnutrition;
 Micronutrient deficiency: Vitamin A deficiency increases the risk of death from measles;
severe iron-deficiency anemia increases the risk of child and maternal mortality.
Outbreaks of scurvy due to vitamin C deficiency, of beriberi due to thiamine deficiency,
or of pellagra due to niacin deficiency can also occur.

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  Communicable diseases. Lack of water supply and sanitation services, malnutrition,
displacement and higher vulnerability of the population all increase the risk of infectious
diseases such as cholera, typhoid fever, diarrhea, acute respiratory infections and
measles.
 Migration, loss of buying power and erosion of coping and caring capacities limit
people's access to health services and can contribute to an overall increase in morbidity
and mortality.

Drought mitigation strategies

 Rainwater harvesting- Collection and storage of rainwater from roofs or other suitable
catchments.
 Recycled water- Former wastewater (sewage) that has been treated and purified for reuse.
 Landuse- Carefully plant crop rotation and allow farmers to plant less water-dependent
crops in drier years.
 Rainwater harvesting- Collection and storage of rainwater from roofs or other suitable
catchments.
 Recycled water- Former wastewater (sewage) that has been treated and purified for reuse.
 Landuse- Carefully plant crop rotation and allow farmers to plant less water-dependent
crops in drier years.

6) River Siltation
Process of deposition of sand and rock soil in the river bed, river bank, and coast region.

Siltation:
- Raises River bed

-Causes flood in monsoon

-River flow becomes Stagnant in winter and other season

- No water in dry season (conditional)

River Siltation is also a common problem in the river systems of Nepal. Rivers of Nepal being
originated from high altitudes high mountains, their erosive power is high in hilly and churia
regions and they start to deposit soils, silts and sediments in the terai regions where their velocity
is drastically reduced. In the rivers of Nepal, sedimentation/siltation is an ongoing natural
process, which is influenced by both natural and anthropogenic factors.

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Natural forces include topography, geology, climatic conditions, the intensity, duration and
distribution of rainfall.
Major anthropogenic factors are crop cultivation, deforestation, grazing and infrastructure
development.
Enormous quantities of sediment are transferred each year by rivers from the high lands to the
plains.
The sediment load is a major problem in the design and operation of irrigation, water supply and
power projects in the country.

Similarly, it has been estimated that over 7.71 million m3 sediments were deposited in the
Kulekhani reservoir in three days of rainfall in July 1993, which is very high compared to 1.18
million m3 of sediments deposited per year during the last 15 years.
The damage to human lives and property is immense, in floods precipitated by siltation.
Siltation/ sedimentation phenomenon have widespread impact on aquatic ecosystem, aquatic bio-
diversity, agriculture and hydropower.
Sedimentation and flooding as one of the major environmental issues in the river basin posing
serious threats to the sustainability and the effective use of the infrastructures.

Impact
 changes in river courses,
 occurrences of frequent floods and droughts in the river systems,
 changes in the rate of river flow and rises in river bed level
 Loss of fertile soil
 Hindrance in design and operation of irrigation, water supply and power projects

Prevention and control measures

 Afforestation
 Stall feeding
 Fodder production
 Bioengineering in the improvement and rehabilitation of works
 Slope and river bank protection
 Water management

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 7. Loss of Biodiversity
The term “Biodiversity” is commonly used to describe the number, variety, and variability of life
form, levels and combinations existing within the living world.
It is a practice now to define biodiversity in terms of genes, species and ecosystems
corresponding to three fundamental and hierarchical levels of biological organizations. Although
relatively in a small area, 118 types of ecosystems have been identified in different geographic
regions of Nepal.
Nepal represents over 2 percent of flowering plants, 3 percent of pteridophytes, and 5 percent of
bryophytes of the world’s flora. Of them, 248 species of lower plants and 246 species of higher
plants are endemic to Nepal. In view of the species diversity in wild habitat, Nepal occupies 25th
position and 11th on the global and continental basis respectively.

Components of biodiversity:
1. Genetic diversity-measure of the variety of different versions of the same genes within an
individual species
2. Species diversity-number of different kinds of organisms within individual communities
or ecosystems
3. Ecological diversity-richness and complexity of a biological community, such as niches,
trophic levels energy process, food webs, recycling systems
The currently known number of species in the world is small compared to what is possibly still
undiscovered. It is thought that there are between 3-50 million species still unknown,
particulalrly in hot spots, such as tropics.

Benefits of biodiversity
1. Food sources
2. Drugs and medicines:. Most medicines contain some natural products
3. Ecological benefits-the earths ecosystems are all interdependent. Human life is linked to
ecological services offered by other organisms, such as soil formation, waste
decomposition, air and water purification, nutrient cycling, hydrological cycles etc
4. Aesthetic benefits-fishing, hiking, outdoor activities. Plus spiritual, religious and
emotional connections for some cultures
Extinction threatens biodiversity. This can occur naturally-mutation, natural selection, evolution
etc. human impact can cause extinction-habitat destruction, hunting, commercial products, pest
control, exotic species introduced, disease, pollution.
Approximately 2.1 million species are known to exist. Mostly human activity can threaten
biodiversity. The loss of biodiversity means ecosystems are destabilized, vital resources are lost
and genetic variation is reduced.

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Nepal is also rich in wild animals. About 4.5 percent of the world mammals are reported in
Nepal. Likewise, birds richness in Nepal compared to global species diversity is reported over 9
%. Climatic variation, uneven topography, rising and falling landscape of Nepal has attributed to
ecosystem to species diversity.
Species richness has been the characteristic of the microclimatic variation and other ecological
factors. Biological species establish symbiotic relationships with other resources and contribute
to protecting natural resources. However, these aspects are yet to be documented to make to the
information complete.

Loss of biodiversity: the cause

Natural process:
1) Volcanoes
2) Forest Fire
3) Earthquake
4) Landslide & Floods (75%)

Human activities:
1) Habitat loss, Forest destruction & degradation
 Mainly by forest clearance
 Conversion of forestland into agricultural lands (increased of cultivated area i.e.
38.5% to 49.8% from 1963-1979 in Terai through forest encroachment)

2) Overexploitation of forest resources:

 People to large extent depend on forest resources for their sustenance
 Use forest products for fuel wood, fodder, timber, shelter, medicinal plants
 Several valuable species, in particular timber and medicinal are in threat.

3) Illegal hunting and pouching

 Illegal hunting-common practice throughout Nepal.
Eg: Tiger-killed for its skin, bones
Dolphins- for meat
Pheasants, ungulates- meat
Sloth & Himalayan Bear- gall bladder
Rhino- Horn
Estimated price of Rhino Horn in Illegal market
Nepal: Rs 600000- 800000 per kg
International market- $30,000per kg

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 4) Trade:
 Commercial trade of wild flora and fauna both legally and illegally.
 The trade of wildlife species in terms of furs, skins, musk, tiger bones, snake and
reptile skins has been prime cause in reducing the populations of animal species.
 There has been no control even on the sale of fur coat, prepared from skin of wild
animals, bags from snakes in Kathmandu valley.

5) Population growth & poverty

6) Pollution

Threats of Biodiversity
Threat of biodiversity loss at three major levels
1. The threat of ecosystem loss
2. The threat of species loss
3. The threat of loss of genetic resources

1. The threats of ecosystem loss

Ecosystem loss can be as a result of direct or indirect impact of human activities. Direct causes
include the conversion of natural environment ( forest, grassland, wetland etc) into agriculture,
horticulture, residential or industrial areas. Indirect cause include environmental pollution and
loss of ecosystems.

2. The threats to species loss

Threats to endangered plants and animals are increasing due to high commercial values in local
and international markets for specific plants and animal parts.
Threats to Non timber forest products is mainly due to deforestation, habitat degradation and
unsustainable harvesting

3. The threats of loss of genetic resources

The threats of loss of genetic resources of Nepal is primarily due to destruction of natural habitat,
overgrazing , land fragmentation, commercialization of agriculture and the extension of high
yielding crop varieties, indiscriminate use of pesticides, hybridization of local varieties with alien
species etc.

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How can we reduce biodiversity loss?
2 main approaches – ecosystem or species directed

 Preventing premature extinction of species

 Preserving & restoring ecosystems which provide habitats and resources for the world’s
species

Protection of Wild species

 CITES – convention on international trade in endangered species (1975)

 152 countries – 900 species regulated as endangered, 29,000 species regulated as
threatened
 Helped reduce international trade in many organisms, organized international awareness,
protected habitats
 Enforcement is difficult, Consequences are weak, Countries have a choice, value of
organisms may increase

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 8. Deforestation
Deforestation implies the long-term or permanent loss of forest cover and its transformation into
another land use like conversion of forestland to farms, ranches, or urban use.
Human have begun to cut down trees since ages and it was in the mid-1800s that forests began to
be destroyed at an unprecedented rate. The transformation of forested lands by human actions
represents one of the great forces in global environmental change and one of the great drivers of
biodiversity loss.
Status of Global Deforestation:
Deforestation rates have increased since the 1980s. FAO estimates that the Earth's total forest
area continues to decrease at about 13 million hectares per year (2005 report) down from about
16 million hectares per year in the 1990s.
World Resources Institute reveals that already 80% of forest has been deforestated. At about the
time humankind discovered agriculture, there were approximately 6.2 billion hectares of forests
covering the Earth. Presently, approximately 4.0 billion hectares remain. Thus one third of the
world's forests have already been lost. The net loss of forest area has slowed to 5.2 million
hectare a year between 2000 and 2010; down from 8.3 million hectare a year in the 1990s due to
ambitious tree planting programs in Asia.
Rainforests are being destroyed at an ever quickening pace. It covered 14% of the world's land
surface around 50 years ago, while now it only covers 5–7%.
In South Asia, about 88% of the rainforests have been lost and up to 90% of West Africa's
coastal rainforests have disappeared since 1900.
The annual deforestation rate in Nepal from 1990-2000 was 2.1.% while that in 2000-2005 was
1.4% and the change in forest area from 1990-2005 was 24.52%.
Forest constitutes Nepal’s largest natural resource in terms of coverage. The majority of
Nepalese use forest products as firewood, fodder, timber and medicines. The extensive
utilization and increasing demands for forest products has led to its downsizing both in area and
quality
About 29 percent of the total area of Nepal is under forest coverage with additional 10.6% as
shrubs or degraded forests. The forest area, which was 37 percent in 1986 and 45 percent in 1996
has declined considerably.
The annual deforestation is estimated to be 1.7 percent with 2.3 percent in the hills and 1.3
percent in the terai (MFSC, 1999). Decline in forests and agricultural production has made the
rural population to migrate from Hills to Terai and/or rural to urban areas and there is an
increasing pressure on natural resources and urban services.

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Pressures of Deforestation

 Population growth
 Increasing demand for fuel wood, timber, leaf litter, and other forest products, fuel wood
constitutes 78% of the total fuel consumption
 Increasing number of livestock, 10% of livestock feed comes from forest
 Population migration to the Terai
 Expansion of agricultural land along the hill slopes
 Building of Bhutanese refugee camps in and around the forests in eastern Nepal
 Trans-boundary smuggling of logs to India along the Indo-Nepal Border

Causes of Deforestation:
1) Logging
2) Agriculture shifted cultivators
3) Agriculture- Cash Crops and Cattle Ranching
4) Fuel wood
5) Large Dams
6) Mining and industry
7) Natural causes
8) Tourism
9) Exploitation by Industrialized country
10) Debt burden
11) Role of poverty and over population
12) Development Project

Effects of Deforestation
1) Erosion of Soil:  Deforestation generally increases rates of soil erosion, by increasing the
amount of runoff and reducing the protection of the soil from tree litter.
2) Disruption of the Water Cycle: The water cycle is also affected by deforestation. Trees
extract groundwater through their roots and release it into the atmosphere. When part of a
forest is removed, the trees no longer evaporate away this water, resulting in a much drier
climate. Deforestation reduces the content of water in the soil and groundwater as well as
atmospheric moisture.
3) Loss of Biodiversity: Due to massive deforestation, about 50 to 100 species of animals
are being lost each day (especially due to rainforest deforestation), which equates to
50,000 species a year.
4) Flooding and Drought: One of the vital functions of forests is to absorb and store great
amounts of water quickly when there are heavy rains. When forests are cut down, this
regulation of the flow of water is disrupted, which leads to alternating periods of flood
and then drought in the affected area.
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 5) Climate Change: Deforestation is a contributor to global warming and is often cited as
one of the major causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect. Tropical deforestation is
responsible for approximately 20% of world greenhouse gas emissions.   Trees act as a
major storage depot for carbon, since they absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
When deforestation occurs, many of the trees are burnt or they are allowed to rot, which
results in releasing the carbon that is stored in them as carbon dioxide. This, in turn, leads
to greater concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
In deforested areas, the land heats up faster and reach a higher temperature, leading to
localized upward motions that enhance the formation of clouds and ultimately produce
more rainfall.

Measures to control deforestation:

Trees are indispensable part of our life. But our people cut trees without any discrimination .
This destruction disturbs our ecological balance. So far as the causes are concerned we
should adopt some immediate. The measures are:

 A forest program both at government and local levels should be lunched on wider scale.

Community forest programs should be implemented under the management and supervision
of local communities in order to ensure the fulfillment of local needs with local endeavor.

Public awareness campaign must be carried out.

Formulation of national energy policy that emphasizes increased energy use efficiency and
development of alternative resources.

Government should implement the legislation that would effectively reduce the continued
practice of deforestation.

Afforestation should be done.

Paper use should be limited. Paper is made by cutting trees, so use only that much amount of
paper which is required; do not make unnecessary use of paper. The major purpose of cutting
trees is making paper.

Responses

Policy

 The National Forestry Plan 1976

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  The Master Plan for the Forestry Sector 1989-2010
 Forestry Sector Policy 1989
 Nepal Environmental policy and Action Plan 1993

Program

 Community Forestry – initiated in 1978, emphasizes sustainable management and

development of forests through involving communities as forest user groups
 Leasehold Forest Management- The next striking feature of forest resource developments
recently undertaken is leasehold forest management through user groups.
 In 1993, a total of 270 hectares of state-managed forest was handed over to user groups
for leasehold forestry and this increased to over 7,000 hectares in 2002 which has been
handed over to over 11,200 households
 Protected areas - feature of forest conservation is management of forest areas as protected
areas such as national parks, wildlife reserves, and conservation areas. The coverage of
protected areas increased from 0.976 million hectares in 1984 to 2.697 million hectares
i.e, 18.32 % of the country’s total Territory in 2001

1) Soil Erosion
The wash away or loss of soil by water ( rain, flood) and wind (removes the loose dry soil, a real
problem in. areas subject to drought)
Soil erosion is the transfer of soil components, especially surface litter and topsoil, from one
place to another. It is a natural process unless accelerated by human activities.
Globally, the net effect of this widespread top soil erosion is a reducing factor in crop production
equivalent to reduction about 1% of the world cropland per year.
Deforestation causes 30% of the earth’s severely eroded land and is most prevalent in Asia and
South America. Unsustainable method of farming accounts for 28% of such erosion with two-
third of such damage found in North America. A soil, especially topsoil, is classified as a
renewable resource because it is continuously formed by natural process.

Mechanism of Soil Erosion

Wind and flowing water are the main agents of soil erosion.

36
Water Erosion: It is caused by the action of falling rain drops as well as by its surface flow
action.
Wind Erosion: Erosive force of wind is equal or sometimes more than water, especially in dry
(arid) regions with scanty vegetation cover and on relatively flat lands.
When plant cover and surface litter are removed from the land by agriculture or grazing, the
wind will lift loose soil particles and sweep them away.

Soil Erosion in Nepal

The soil erosion rate is higher in the unmanaged land use category and on the steep slopes than in
the managed land use category.
Similarly, intensity of soil loss is found less in cultivated low lands than in rain-fed sloping
terraces, ranging from as low as 7.8 tons/ha/year in the forested siwalik hills to as much as 570
tons/ha/year in the unforced midhills (CBS 2004)
About 60-80% of the annual soil loss occurs during the pre-monsoon season. The heavy
monsoon rainfall that occurs within a short span of time is an important cause of soil erosion.
Nepal is a country which is highly vulnerable to soil erosion. Soil erosion can cause serious on-
and off-site environmental, economic and social impacts.
Loss of top fertile soil due to soil erosion, landslides, and flood are some serious concerns
pertaining to low food production.
It is estimated that about 1.8 million tones of plant nutrients (Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Potassium
and Calcium are removed away from the soils by crops harvests and soil erosion (Joshi et.al
1997)
Out of this, only 0.3 million tones (approx. 16 percent ) are replenished by organic and mineral
fertilizers.

Causes Soil Erosion in Nepal

The main causes of soil erosion in Nepal are

 inherent fragile geology of mountain slopes,

 high erosive caused by monsoon rainfall regimes, and
 unsustainable human activities
 Land degradation, furrow formation, landslides, riverbank cutting, floods and extremities
of water availability are prevalent.

37
Consequences of soil erosion
The main consequence is fall in food production .This leads to:

 Malnutrition: lack of essentials vitamins and minerals – increased sickness and rising
death rate, in particular child mortality.
 Famine and starvation
 Migration: if things become too tough, people leave – often the men leave to work in the
towns in the hope of making money for their families
 Food aid: if things get serious enough, aid may be brought in to tide the people over, but
it does nothing for the soil erosion.

Soil Erosion (gradually destroying):

Considered to be a big problem and a hot topic in foot hills of Nepal and entire Hindu-Kush
Himalayan Region

 Surface erosion – to be followed by stream bank erosion and Occasional landslides (small
soil loss on grassland)
 Expansive gully (deep, narrow gutter or drain) surface erosion
 degrades the land, streams, river terrace (flat area for cultivation), etc. and losses
throughout the rainy season;
 losses resources, fertility, productivity, nutrients
 Most critical during pre-monsoon season
 People, animals, streams, other natural resources, important catchments at erosive sites -
Injuries, morbidity, deaths
 Steep and fragile land of hills
 The 30 minute maximum rainfall intensity showed a good correlation with the soil loss
 Lacking of vegetation pronounces degrading land
 Conventional Tillage (preparation of land for growing crops)
 Gully surface
 Lack of protection from the force of rain drop splash

Prevention and control of Soil Erosion:

 Population control
 Formulation of policies for the sustainable use of land
 Steep land of hills to be purposively maintained
 Vegetation
 Trees plantation
 Careful Conventional Tillage (preparation of land for growing crops)
 Terrace/step-wise land structure
 Gully surface to be treated/filled up
38
  Protection from the force of rain drop splash and maximum rainfall intensity
 National Guidelines, Legislation, Law and Order, etc.

2) Desertification
Desertification is a process by which once-productive land changes into desert-like conditions.
Deficiency of water, dry land and dry wind.
Both natural and human cause.
Natural process:

 Both low and high rainfall

 Low & high temperature
 Drought
 Steep slopes
 Fragile mountains
Human- induced:

 Cultivation of marginal land

 Deforestation
 Use of excessive chemical fertilizer and agro chemicals.
 Overgrazing
 Poor irrigation
Desertification, the shift to desert like conditions, resulting from human misuse of the land is a
major global concern.
The UN convention to combat desertification defines it “as land degradation in arid, semi-arid
and sub-humid areas resulting from various factors including climatic variations and human
activities”
Land degradation is a natural process and may lead to desertification. This process is accelerated
by erosion, landslides and floods leading to watershed degradation.
In the Nepalese context, land degradation is the reduction of physical, biological and/or
economic productivity of different land systems, and long-term loss of natural vegetation and
nutrients, particularly through water-induced erosion, landslides and floods. Land degradation
and its process is accelerated by physical, biological and anthropogenic activities .
It is estimated that 810 million hectare of land have become desertified during the last 50 years.
The UNEP estimates that worldwide 60% of rainfed cropland are threatened by desertification.
The total area of such threatened land is 33 million square kilometer.

39
Wagle (1997) mentions the loss of productivity is an indicator of desertification, which is
defined as below:

 <25% loss of productivity = Moderate desertification

 25-50% loss of productivity = Severe desertification
 >50% loss of productivity = Very severe desertification
Desertification is a threat in 2 areas in Nepal; the Trans-Himalayan region and the Siwalik range.
Trans-Himalayan area of Dolpa and Mustang are categorized as cold desert. Most of land in this
area has no vegetation and can easily be eroded. It is covered with snow almost half of the year
and vegetation growth is very slow.
About 10,000 hectares of Mustang and Dolpa area are reported to be like desert, mainly due to
low rainfall.
The Siwalik (Churia) range is very unstable and environmentally fragile. The area is proned to
erosion and heavy landslides.

 Excessive use of forest in Siwalik.

 Erosion rate (Eastern Siwalik)= 780 to 3,680 tones per km2 (CBS,1998)
 Recharge zone (water)= Terai ground water
Although Nepal has no desertification problems in the form of dry lands, land degradation is
severe and its product is also declining.

Symptoms of desertification
1) Loss of native vegetation
2) Salt build up in the soil (Salinization)
3) Lowering of the water table
4) Increased erosion of the dry soil (by wind)

Controlling Desertification

 The most effective way to slow the speed of desertification is to drastically reduce
overgrazing, deforestation, and destructive forms of planting, irrigation and mining.
 In addition, reforestation will anchor the soil and hold water while providing fuel wood,
slowing desertification and reducing the threat of global warming.
 Our activities should be designed and implemented in such a way that human needs are
fulfilled without degrading the land and water systems, affecting biodiversity and
emitting greenhouse gases.

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 UNIT II

Environmental Problems in Urban Areas

1) Air Pollution
2) Industrial Pollution
3) Water Pollution

Air Pollution

Air is a mechanical mixture of gases. Normal composition by volume: Nitrogen: 78.1 %,

Oxygen : 20.93 %, Carbon Dioxide :0.03%., Others: 1.03% .

The balance is made up of other gases which occur in traces e.g. Argon, Neon, Krypton, Xenon,
and Helium. Other contents – Water vapor, traces of ammonia & suspended matter such as dust,
bacteria, spores, and vegetable debris.

Air is rendered impure by

 Respiration of men and animals

 Combustion of coal, gas, oil etc
 Decomposition of organic matters and
 Trade, traffic and manufacturing process which gives off dust, fumes, vapors and gases.

Under ordinary conditions, the composition of outdoor air is remarkably constant by certain self-
cleansing mechanisms which operates in nature:

1) Wind: dilutes and sweep away the impurities by its movement

2) Sunlight: by oxidizing impurities and killing bacteria
3) Rain: by removing suspended and gaseous particles
4) Plant life: The green plan utilize CO2 and generate O2 during day time.

The air of occupied room

Human occupancy and activity vitiate air in occupied rooms and give a sense of discomfort to
the occupants. The changes in air may be physical or chemical:

a) Chemical changes: an average person at rest gives off 0.7 c.ft.of co2/hour and up to 2 c.ft.
during physical activity.

41
b) Physical changes:

i. Rise in temperature: The indoor temp tends to rise as a result of the elimination of body heat. A
man at rest gives off 400 Btu/hr. One British thermal unit (Btu) raise the temp of 1 pound of
water by 1 deg F. Under condition of physical exertion, the heat output may up to 4,000 Btu.

ii. Increase of humidity: The expired air contain 6% of water vapour. An adult person at rest
release an average 700 gms of water vapour in 24 hrs in the form of perspiration. 18.4 gms/hr
during sleep and 175 gms /hrs during vigorours exercise.

iii. Decrease in movement: in crowded places, the natural movement of air is impended.

iv. Body odours: Un pleasant odours rise from foul breath, perspiration, bad oral hygiene,, dirty
clothes and other sources. The production of body odours depends upon the social status, age and
personal hygiene of the people.

v. Bacterial pollution: The exhaled air contains microorganisms in suspension. These organisms
are discharged into air during conversation, coughing, sneezing and loud talking.

Unless the vitiated air is replaced by fresh air , it may adversely affect the comfort, health and
efficiency of the occupants.

Comfort zones

Comfort zones may be defined as the range of effective temperature (ET) over which majority of
adults feel comfortable.

Comfortable zones evaluated in India are as below:

Comfortable zones ET deg C

1. Pleasant and cool 20

2. Comfortable and cool 20-25

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 3. Comfortable 25-27

4. Hot and uncomfortable 27-28

5. Extremely hot 28+

6. Intolerable hot 30+

Air Pollution – any disturbance in the balance of natural composition of air that has an adverse
effect on people or the environment.

Types of Air Pollution

Broadly it is classified as

a) Ambient Indoor Pollution

b) Indoor air Pollution

Sources of Ambient Air Pollution

1) Transportation – A major source of air pollution throughout the urban areas. Principal
pollutants CO, HC, NO2 and particulate matter.
2) Industrial Emissions – Generate fumigative emissions directly resulting in air pollution.
Combustion of fuel to generate heat and power produces smoke, sulphur dioxide,
nitrogen oxides, fly ash, hydrogen fluoride, HCL, hydrogen sulphide, etc.
3) Energy Consumptions – mostly residential energy consumption. Biomass energy and use
of household equipment such as refrigerators and AC contribute to air pollution.
4) Domestic combustion of coal, wood or oil is a major source of smoke, dust, sulphur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Most direct and important source – tobacco smoke along
with passive smoking.
5) Population growth and Urbanization– more roads and thus vehicles as well as industries
contribute to pollution.
6) Use of Ozone depleting Substances– releases such as CFC containing aerosols from AC,
Refrigerators etc.
7) Natural Sources – Volcanic eruption, forest fires, pollens from vegetations, salt particles
from sea spray, natural storms etc.

Status and Trends of Air Pollution in Nepal

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Ambient air pollution may be the consequences of both natural and anthropogenic activities. A
typical natural process is a seasonal dust storm.

Kathmandu valley is vulnerable to air pollution because of its bowl shaped topography
restricting the air movement and all sorts of anthropogenic activities happening in this bowl.
Situation gets worse in the winter – layer of cool air under a layer of warm air which traps the
pollutants close to the ground.

Analysis of Environment Sector Program Support (ESPS) data (MOPE 2004) indicates that the
major problem of Kathmandu valley is high level of suspended particulate matter (SPM) together
with increasing NO2 and SO2.

According to the measurement done by ESPS the average PM10 value lies between 30 & 295
micro gm /m3 in core areas and 23 & 130 micro gm /m3 in sub core area and outskirts of the
valley.

The population growth rate in Kathmandu is above 6% and traffic vehicles by 15 %. In April
2005, at the centre of the city it has been seen that the value of PM10 is 170 microgram per cubic
meter.

Twenty five years ago Kathmandu was one of the cleanest cities in the world, but at 2002 AD it
was reported to be second polluted in the world.

A study done by the World Bank in 1993 estimated that the contribution of vehicle exhaust to
Total Suspended Particulate was only 3.5 percent compared to contribution of Himal Cement
Factory (36%), brick kilns (31%) and domestic fuel combustion (14%).

However, the situation in Kathmandu is quite different now. As a result, vehicle is now the
number one source of pollution in Kathmandu. The main reason for the high level of vehicular
emission is the large number of poorly maintained vehicles on congested streets, poor quality
fuels and lubricants, weaknesses in the emission inspection & maintenance system and a poorly
managed transportation system.

In 2002, Ministry of Population and Environment (MOPE) has established an air quality
monitoring system in Kathmandu valley consisting of six monitoring stations in PutaliSadak,
Patan Hospital, Thamel, Bhaktapur, Kirtipur and Matsyagaon. These monitoring stations
automatically collect 24-hour samples of air and the samples are analyzed for PM10. Analysis of
past data available from those monitoring stations revealed that PutaliSadak is the most polluted
station followed by Patan Hospital, Thamel, Bhaktapur, Kirtipur and Matsyagaon.

The seasonal variation in air pollution is especially high in Bhaktapur. In the two months
between November 2002 and January 2003, the PM10 level in Bhaktapur rose by 178 percent.
44
This is mainly due to that most of the valley’s brick kilns are located around Bhaktapur and they
start operating in November /December.

Common Air Pollutants

1. Carbon monoxide CO – mainly a component of vehicle exhaust. Other sources of CO are

industries (metals processing & chemical manufacturing), residential wood burning and natural
sources such as forest fires. It may cause death through asphyxia.

2. Nitrogen dioxide NO2 – a generic term for a group of highly reactive gases, all of which
contain nitrogen and oxygen in varying amounts. Major sources – motor vehicles, electric
utensils and other sources that burn fuels. It is pulmonary irritant.

3. Sulphur dioxide SO2 – belongs to the family of sulphur oxide gases (SOx). Usually formed
when fuel containing sulphur such as coal and oil is burnt. At lower levels, it causes bronchial
smooth muscle spasm and at higher concentration, it includes mucus production.

4. Lead – found naturally as well as in manufactured products. Major sources – motor vehicles
and industrial sources.Now mainly industrial sources. It may cause haematological and
neurological effects in children than adults.

5. Carbon dioxide (CO2) – though not considered as an air pollutant the increasing level of this
globally may affect climate by increasing the global temperature.

6. Hydrocarbons – Sources include incineration, combustion of coal, wood, processing and use
of petroleum. Hydrocarbons exert their pollutant action by taking part in the chemical reactions
that cause photochemical smog.

7. Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) – these are organic compounds with 2 or more
benzene rings. They are formed mainly as a result of incomplete combustion of organic materials
and petrols. It induces lung cancer. Owing to carcinogenicity, no safe level of PAH can be
recommended.

8. Ozone O3 – good ozone and bad ozone. Good one occurs naturally in the stratosphere approx
10 to 30 miles above the earth's surface, ground level ozone is considered bad in the earth’s
lower atmosphere.

9. Particulate matter PM – term for particles found in the air, including dust, dirt, smoke and
liquid droplets. Some particles are emitted directly into the air form variety of sources such as
45
vehicles, factories, construction sites. PM 10 and PM 2.5 ( refers to particles less than 10 microns
and 2.5 microns respectively).

Classification of pollutants

1. Primary pollutants and

2. Secondary pollutants

1. Primary pollutants:

Primary pollutants are directly emitted from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption, the 
carbon monoxide (CO) gas from a motor vehicle exhaust or sulphur dioxide (SO 2)released from
industries. Primary pollutant are those emitted directly from identifiable sources (point sources).

Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include:

 Sulphur oxides  (SOx) 

 Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
 Carbon monoxide(CO)
 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
 Volatile organic compounds - VOCs: CH4
 Particulate matters (PM)
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
 Radioactive pollutants
 Ammonia (NH3)
 Odors

2) Secondary Pollutants

They form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. e.g. NO3, H2SO4 etc.Those
which are produced in the air by the interaction among two or more primary pollutants or by
reaction with normal atmospheric constituents with or without photo activation.

E.g. Smog is caused by the interaction of some hydrocarbons and oxidants under the influence of
sunlight give rise the dangerous PAN (peroxy acetyl nitrates): it Reduces the visibility, eye
irritation, and damage to the vegetation.

Sources of air pollution

46
1. Anthropogenic sources (human activity)
 Anthropogenic sources (human activity) mostly related to burning different kinds
of FUEL.
 Stationary Sources include smoke stacks of power plants, manufacturing facilities
(Industries) and waste incinerators.
 Mobile Sources include motor vehicles, marine vessels, aircraft and the effect of sound
etc.
 Chemicals, dust and controlled burn practices in agriculture and forestry management.
 Fumes from paint, hair sprays and other solvents.
 Waste deposition in landfills,  which generate  methane.
 Military, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germs warfare and rocketry. 

2. Natural sources

Natural air pollutants can include:

 Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no vegetation.
 Methane emitted by the digestion of food by livestock.
 Radon gas from radioactive decay within earth crust.
 Smoke and CO from wild fires
 Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally significant amounts of volatile
organic chemicals (VOCs) on warmer days.
 Volcanic activity, which produce sulfur, chlorine and ash particulates.

Methods of identifying air pollution:

 Sensory recognition (strong or unusual odour, reduction in visibility, eye irritation, acid
taste in mouth, feel of grit/stone under feet)
 Physical measurement of pollution (measurement by standard methods of sampling and
analysis)
 Effects on plants, animals and building:
a) Plants: necrosis, discoloration of leaf, immature graying and dropping
b) Animals: disease in animals
c) Building: fading of colors

What is PM10?

Things floating around in the air. A kind of air pollution called particles or particulate matter.
Particulate matter (PM) may be the air pollutant that most commonly affects people's health. PM
divided into: Big particles and Small particles.
47
BIG PARTICLES: The big particles are between 2.5 and 10 micrometers (from about 25 to 100
times thinner than a human hair). These particles are called PM10 (we say "P M ten", which
stands for Particulate Matter up to 10 micrometers in size). These particles usually contain
earth’s crustal material and fugitive dust from roads and industries.

SMALL PARTICLES: The small particles are smaller than 2.5 micrometers (100 times thinner
than a human hair). These particles are called PM2.5 (we say "P M two point five", as in
Particulate Matter up to 2.5 micrometers in size). These contains secondarily formed aerosols
(gas to particle conversion).

Effects on Health due to Air Pollution

Health effects depend on the given factors:

1) Nature of the pollutants (chemical nature of the pollutants)

2) Concentration of the pollutants (Dose response)
3) Duration of exposures
4) State of health of receptors
5) Age group of the receptors

Susceptible groups

1) Age factors: infant, children, and elderly

2) Chronic disease state
3) Seasonality: winter

Pollutants are generally classified as Gaseous pollutants, Particulate pollutants, Aerosols,

Radioactive pollutants.

Gaseous pollutants – CO2, CO, SOx, NOx, Hydro carbons

Carbon dioxide Traps heat in the atmosphere result in Global warming

Carbon monoxide Harmful to humans, affects respiration, cardiac and pulmonary

Functions

48
 SOx :Oxides of Sulphur Acid rains wash away nutrients, necrosis on leaves
bronchitis, emphysema and psychological disorders in humans
Effects on materials, Stone leprosy: H2SO4 corrodes on marble
Monuments

NOx :Oxides of Nitrogen Toxic produces irritating effect, affects lungs – bronchitis,
emphysema.
chlorosis effects and decreased photosynthetic activity in plants.

Hydro carbons React with NO to form secondary pollutants, Photo Chemical, Smog

Particulate pollutants (fumes, Toxic mist, chronic non specific diseases, soil corrosion.
dust, smoke etc)

Aerosols Air pollutants remain suspended in air

Radioactive Polluts. Cellular damage in man and animals

Major Air pollutants, their sources and adverse effects:

Agent Sources Adverse Effects

Oxides of Nitrogen (Nox) Automobile exhaust gas, Respiratory tract infection,
stove and heaters, wood respiratory symptoms (e.g., cough,
burning, kerosene space chest pain, difficulty breathing).
heater impairs lung defense,

Hydrocarbons Automobile exhaust , Lung Cancer

Cigarette smoke

Ozone Automobile exhaust , Cough, sub-sternal discomfort,

High altitude aircraft cabins Respiratory tract infection

49
Sulphur dioxide Power plant, oil refineries,
kerosene space heater
Lead Automobile exhaust ,
Using leaded gas line
Asthma and COPD, shortness of
breath, eye irritation, death may
occur
Impaired neuropsychological
development in children

Indicators of Air pollution

1) Sulphur Dioxide (SO2): This gas is a major contaminant in many urban and industrial areas.
Its concentration is estimated in monitoring air pollution surveys.

2) Smoke or soiling index: A known volume of air is filtered through a white paper under
specific conditions and the stain is measured by photoelectric meter. Smoke concentration is
estimated and expressed as micrograms/cubic meter of air as an average level over a period
of time.

3) Carbon monoxide (CO): The other indicator is carbon monoxide.

4) Carbon dioxide (CO2): The normal content of CO2 in air is 0.03 % and if it is beyond this
standard concentration, than it is hazardous.

5) Suspended particles: More than 10 micron (PM 10) is considered for total suspended
particles. Suspended particles are harmful to health and is measured full of suspended
particle per unit area.

Prevention and control of Air Pollution

The prevention and control of air pollution is ultimately an engineering problem. The WHO has
recommended the following procedures for the prevention and control of air pollution:

1) Containment: That is, prevention of escape of toxic substance into the ambient air.
Containment can be by a variety of engineering methods such as enclosure, ventilation
and air cleaning.

2) Replacement: That is, replacing a technological process causing air pollution, by a new
process that does not. E.g. increased use of electricity, natural gas and central heating in
place of coal has greatly helped in smoke reduction.

50
 3) Dilution: It is valid so long as it is within the self cleansing capacity of the environment.
For example, some air pollutants are readily removed by vegetation. The establishment of
“green belt” between industry and residential area is an attempt at dilution. The capacity
for dilution is however, limited and trouble occurs when the atmosphere is overburdened
with pollutants.

4) Legislation: Air pollution is controlled in many countries by suitable legislation, e.g.

clean air acts. Legislation covers such matters as height of chimneys, power to local
authority to carry out investigations, research and education concerning air pollution,
creation of smokeless zones and enforcement of standard for ambient air quality.

5) International action: To deal with air pollution a world wide scale, the WHO has
established an international network of laboratories for the monitoring and study of air
pollution. These network consists of international centres at London and Washington,
three centres at Moscow, Nagpur, and Tokyo and 20 laboratories in various parts of the
world. These centres will issues warnings of air pollution where and when necessary.

AIR (PREVENTION & CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT

General measures

 Introduction of relatively inexpensive measures to reduce the pollutants, for example, use
of lower sulphur fuels.
 Increased efficiency of energy production and use, such as more efficient vehicle engines
and design, better industrial processes.

Pollution Control Technologies

 Encouragement and incentives for: research and development of efficient advanced

technologies for pollution control before and during fossil fuel combustion and for
control of pollutant emissions after combustion.
 the development of new cost- effective fossil fuel combustion technologies and for the
improvement of existing technologies, to achieve a more effective reduction of air
pollutant emissions.
 Support for the commercialization and market penetration of new combustion
technologies which are environmentally less polluting than existing ones.

Mobile Sources

51
  Implementation as soon as practicable of internationally harmonized emission standards
by category for major air pollutants from vehicles.
 Encouragement and incentives for: the development of less polluting and more efficient
engines and vehicles. The use of less polluting fuels for transportation (for example,
liquefied petroleum gas and compressed natural gas), where technologically and
economically feasible. The use of public transportation where appropriate.
 Promotion of good vehicle maintenance.
 Regulations or other incentives to ensure the availability and use of unleaded gasoline as
soon as possible and to phase out leaded gasoline as a long-term goal.
 Setting and enforcement of speed limits for driving, especially on highways, if such
limits contribute to a relevant reduction of air pollution.
 Traffic management in urban areas.

Information Needs

 Improvement of the air pollutant emissions data base by adopting comparable techniques
and methods of measuring emissions, and providing reliable emissions inventories.
 Continuous monitoring of air pollutant emissions.
 Encouragement for the transfer, between countries, of available technologies and
methods to reduce air pollution.
 International cooperation on research and development to increase the effectiveness and
to reduce the costs of controlling emissions.

Monitoring

Monitoring and reporting of the application and effectiveness of these guiding principles on a
national basis.

National Threshold Limits

Parameter AVG Time Conc., Max.

TSP 24 hour 230 µg/m3

PM10 24 hour 120 µg/m3

NO2 Annual 80 µg/m3

24 hour 40 µg/m3

52
 SO2 Annual 70 µg/m3
24 hour 50 µg/m3

CO 8 hour 10,000 µg/m3

15 minute 100,000 µg/m3

Lead Annual 0.5 µg/m3

Benzene Annual 20 µg/m3

Response from the GON/N

1) National conservation strategy 1988

– needs to establish policies in response to air pollution and develop standards and
establish monitoring & evaluation system.

2) Nepal environment policy and action plan by environmental protection council 1993

- integrating development efforts and environmental conservation

– basic need fulfillment of people by mitigating adverse environmental effects of development

activities.

3) National transport policy 2002

– zero emission vehicles, expanding solar & electric vehicles.

4) Industrial development perspective plan 2002 (updated 2004),

- emphasis to enhanced productivity in the Nepalese industrial sector, with the

incorporation of the cleaner production/energy efficiency/environmental management system
(CP/EE/EMS).

5) Tenth plan (2002-2007) – well equipped inspection & monitoring system so as to reduce
road accidents and implement vehicle pollution control standards.

53
Sustainable development agenda for Nepal 2003

 Setting strictly enforced ambient air quality standards.

 Encourage the shift towards zero-emission vehicles especially in dense urban areas.
 Shift towards clean sources of industrial energy.
 Create conditions that foster the growth of institutions that increase domestic research &
monitoring capability of air quality including capacity for tracking the trans-boundary
transport of air pollution.
 Promote use of cleaner stove technology and alternative cooking fuel sources to reduce
indoor air pollution.

Legislative response

 Transport management act 1992 and regulation 1997 GON to determine standards in
mechanical conditions of the vehicle, amount of pollution discharged by vehicles and the
lifespan of vehicles.
 Environmental protection act & rules by govt in 1997 provides authority to MOEST to
formulate standards and enforce them.
 Local self-governance Act (LSGA 1997) provides authority to local bodies to introduce
measures to reduce air pollution.
 1991 – Ban on import of new three wheelers.
 1996 – Financial incentives for electric vehicles.
 Import of unleaded fuel.
 Introduction of Nepal vehicle mass emission standard 2056 – only vehicles complying
with these standards can be imported to the country
 1999 - Ban on import of second hand & reconditioned vehicles, 2-stroke engine oils.
 1999 – Phased out three wheeler diesel tempos, three wheeler two-stroke engine vehicles
and 20 year old taxis from kathmandu valley (2004).
 National indoor air quality standard and implementation guidelines 2009 (4/4/2009) by
GON with other stakeholders.

Promotion of alternative energy technologies

 Alternative energy promotion center (AEPC) established in 1996 under MOEST with the
main aim of popularizing and promoting use of renewable energy technology. To
encourage the use of alternative energy, subsidies have been given as follow.
54
 a) Solar photovoltaic - 50% subsidy
b) PV pumping system - 75% subsidy
c) Solar dryer - 50% subsidy (1998)
d) Biogas plants - variable subsidy
 Works with various I/NGOs esp DANIDA and Norway govt.
 Biogas support program started in 1992 and until Dec 2004, 135311 biogas plants
installed.
 Till July 2005, a total of 150000 improved cooking stoves (ICS) installed throughout the
country (smokeless environment & reduction of smoke volume).
 Solar home system (SHS) promotion program started since 1992 and until Dec 2006,
total number reached 96,673.
 Various types of micro hydro plants ranging from 1 kw to 100kw whose power output
totals around 14,600kw till mid July 2003 benefiting around 146,000 rural households in
Nepal.

Initiatives from private sector

 Since 1966 – electric vehicle entrepreneurs invested more than 450 million in building
and operating more than 600 electric 3 wheelers.
 2006 – Hulas motor developed a prototype for an electric 4 wheeler van.

Int’l support - Danida

ESPS (Environmental Sector Program Support) 1999-2005:

 Institute of environmental management.

 Cleaner production in the industry.
 Water management in Hetauda industrial domain.
 Institutional strengthening of environmental authorities.
 Air quality management in Kathmandu.

National commitments

National conservation strategy 1987 – the first environment related policy of govt.

 Mentions problem of air pollution: rural & urban.

 Need of environment impact assessment (EIA) of proposed projects.

Industrial policy 1992:

 Aims to promote industrial activities.

55
  Also mentions the need to minimize adverse environmental effects during establishment,
extension & diversification of the industries.
 Also calls for the formulation and implementation of guideline to control pollution and
tax benefit for investment in activities related to pollution control.

National emission policy & action plan 1993:

 Need to address urban & industrial pollution and calls for appropriate legal and
institutional mechanisms. It also stresses the need of EIA.

The interim constitution recognizes clean environment as a fundamental civil rights and 11th
plan has also incorporated policies plans and activities related to clean the environment,
transportation management and control of environmental pollution including air pollution.

Industrial Pollution
Pollution resulting from an industrial plant discharging pollutants into the atmosphere is known
as industrial pollution. Increase in industries results in increase in air pollution. Emission of
harmful gases as carbon dioxide, sulphur and nitrogen, etc result in various environmental and
health hazards such as acid rain, and various skin disorders in individuals.

Industrial pollution Load in Nepal and the Kathmandu Valley (Industrial Pollution Inventory of
the Kathmandu Valley & Nepal, 1992) BOD = Biological oxygen demand, TSS = total
suspended solid

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 Pollution indicators/year Kathmandu Valley Country

Waste water volume 2.1 8.56

(million m3)

BOD (000 tonnes) 1.15 5.741

TSS ( 000 tonnes) 37.85 76.38

Major Industrial Sector Responsible for BOD Load in Nepal

Textile Carpet
Distillery 7% 6%
22% Leather
16%
Beer
4%

Others
6%
Dairy
3%
Sugar
12% Veg.Oil
24%

Sources of airborne pollutants of industries are

 Combustion of fossil fuels for heating

 Power plants
 Waste gases and dust

Causes of industrial air pollution

 Emission of different type of pollutants

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  3,150 numbers of air polluting industries which emit about 76,400 tons of total suspended
particulate matter (TSP) annually (Industrial Pollution Control Management Project)

Impact of industrial air pollution on health

 PM10 and PM2.5 –major effect

 Deep into the lungs and some gets deeper into the bloodstream
 Decreased lung function, chronic bronchitis, premature deaths, and heart attacks
 85 cases of excess mortality and 1.5 million respiratory symptom due to PM10 exposure -
World bank,1997

Monitoring of industrial air pollution

 Monitoring program in Kathmandu valley initiated in 2002 Co-operated with Danish

government-monitored air quality through 6 stations
 Brick industries, emits black smoke
 Ambient air quality standard 2003

Response from the government/Control strategy

 Ban on the new registration of bull’s trench kiln brick manufacturing industries in the
valley and changed to cleaner technology by the end of 2004
 Pollution generally, including industrial pollution is managed by
a) the Environment Protection Act 1996 (2053 BS),
b) the Environment Protection Regulation 1997 (2054 BS) and
c) the Industrial Enterprises Act 1992 (2049 BS).

The Environmental Protection Act and Regulation are the umbrella legislation for all
kinds of pollution.

Prohibition on Industrial Pollution

Rule 15 of the Environment Protection Regulation 1997 (2054 BS) prohibits industrial pollution
as follows:

 No person shall emit, or cause the emission of noise, heat, radio-active material and
waste from any mechanical means, industrial establishment or any other place in
contravention of the prescribed standards set by the Ministry by notice published in the
Nepal Gazette.
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To control industrial pollution, the Environment Protection Regulation 1997(2054 BS) requires
certain industries to obtain a Pollution Control Certificate.

There are two types of Pollution Control Certificates:

1. Provisional

2. Permanent

1. Provisional: Rule 16(1) of the Environment

Protection Regulation 1997 (2054 BS) provides that: All industries listed in Schedule 7 which
are currently in operation are required to apply to the Ministry of Environment and Population
within 90 days of the date of commencement of this rule, or in the case of such industries which
are not currently in operation, within 60 days from the date of production, for a Provisional
Pollution Control Certificate.

The Ministry of Environment and Population (MOEP) will assess the application and during its
investigations, will consult with the Village Development Committee or Municipality where the
industry is to be operated.

If it is found that the operation of the industry shall cause no substantial adverse impact on the
environment, or if there is a possibility of reducing or controlling such adverse impact, the
Ministry of Environment and Population shall issue a Provisional Pollution Control Certificate,
valid for one year, within 90 days of receipt of the application

The Provisional Pollution Control Certificate shall be renewed every year.

2. Permanent: Rule 16(3) of the Environment

Protection Regulation 1997 provides that a Permanent Pollution Control Certificate is required in
cases where the standards of sound, heat, nuclear radiation and waste disposal for any industry
have been determined by notice published in the Nepal Gazette.

Industries, to which the standard applies, having been examined by the designated laboratory,
within 6 months from the date of determination of such standards, must obtain a Permanent
Pollution Control Certificate which is valid for three years.

The Industrial Enterprise Act 1992 (2049 BS)

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It requires that certain industries listed in Annex 2, which may cause a significant adverse
impact on the security, public health and environment, are required to obtain permission for their
establishment, extension and diversification. Following is the list of such industries:

 Cigarette,
 Modern leather tanning,
 Beer and alcohol,
 Sugar production,
 Pulp and paper,
 Cement, textile,
 Washing and dyeing,
 Bitumen,
 Chemicals,
 Fertilizer, pesticides,
 Lubricating oil,
 Producing foam,
 Carpet washing, soap,
 electroplating, photo Processing,
 Tyre, tubes,
 LP gas, petroleum related mineral based large industries,
 Stone crossings,
 Forest based medium and large industries,
 Paints and bricks industries.

Section 15 of the Industrial Enterprise Act 1992 (2049 BS) provides that a reduction of up to 50
% of taxable income will be granted to an industrial enterprise that invests in a processor or
equipment, which has the objective of controlling pollution or which may minimize the effect on
the environment.

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