2017 Version

Practical Design Examples
of Bridges
in accordance with CAM PW 04.102.99
Rtåg sunßar:a
20177
201
Practical Design Examples
of Bridges
in accordance with
Cambodian Bridge Design Standard
CAM PW 04.102.99
eróberógeday Rtåg sunßar:a
20177
201
Practical Design Examples of Bridges
Disclaimer
This is NOT a professional engineering textbook. I drafted this book to record my experiences
in design of concrete bridges I have gained more than 15 years. Its contents relate to bridge
design in accordance with the Cambodian Bridge Design Standard CAM PW 04.102.99.
Australian Bridge Design Standard is referred here because it is the bridge design standard
that was used to develop Cambodian Bridge Design Standard. All information and data
contained herein have not been verified. The intent of this book is for personal use only and
not for commercial purpose or public use. The person who obtained a copy of this book by
accident or with my consent, he/she may use it with his/her own risks and liabilities dealing
with the copyright laws.
i
TABLE OF CONTENT
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Scope 1-1
1.2 Design Philosophy 1-1
1.2.1 Design life 1-1
1.2.2 Limit states 1-1
1.3 Load Factors and Combinations 1-2
1.3.1 Load factors 1-2
1.3.2 Permanent effects 1-2
1.3.3 Transient effects 1-2
1.3.4 Load combinations 1-2
1.4 Design for Durability 1-4
1.4.1 Concrete exposure classification 1-4
1.4.2 Design crack widths 1-6
1.5 Structural Analysis 1-6
1.6 Factors Affecting Selection of Bridge Structural System 1-7
1.7 Safety-in-Design of Bridges 1-8
Chapter 2: Hydraulic Design

2.1 Flow Discharge 2-1
2.2 Bridge Length 2-4
2.3 Scour 2-4
2.3.1 General scour 2-4
2.3.2 Local scour 2-5
Chapter 3: Bridge Superstructure

3.1 Live Loads 3-1
3.1.1 Design traffic loads 3-1
3.1.2 Design railway load 3-2
3.1.2.1 300-A-12 railway load 3-2
3.1.2.2 Railway derailment loads 3-3
3.1.3 Dynamic load allowance 3-4
3.1.4 Load and lane factors 3-4
3.1.5 Number of design lane 3-5
3.1.6 Collision load on parapet 3-5
3.1.7 Pedestrian load 3-5
3.2 Dead Loads 3-5
3.3 Superstructure 3-5
3.3.1 Types of short-to-medium span superstructure 3-5
3.3.2 Lateral positions of live loads 3-8
3.3.3 Design lanes 3-9
3.3.4 Grillage models 3-9
3.3.5 Limit state design 3-14
3.4 Reinforced Concrete Girder 3-15
3.4.1 Design for ULS 3-15
3.4.2 Design for SLS 3-19
3.5 Reinforced Concrete Deck 3-24
3.6 Reinforced Concrete Flat Slab 3-27
3.7 Prestressed Concrete Girder 3-31
3.8 Precamber and Hog 3-54
3.9 Fatigue Design of Concrete Beam 3-56
3.9.1 Design fatigue loads for road bridges 3-56
3.9.2 Design fatigue loads for rail bridges 3-56
3.9.3 Allowable fatigue stress 3-57
3.10 Temperature, Shrinkage and Creep Effects 3-59
3.10.1 Temperature Effects 3-59
3.10.2 Differential temperature 3-60
3.11 Shrinkage effects 3-64
3.11.1 Uniform shrinkage 3-64
3.1.2 Differential shrinkage 3-65
3.12 Creep effects 3-68
3.12.1 Uniform creep 3-68
3.12.2 Residual creep 3-69
3.12.3 Effect of residual creep on continuity 3-71
3.13 Fixed and Expansion Articulation 3-73
3.13.1 Temperature, shrinkage and creep effects 3-74
3.13.2 Design of bridge articulation 3-74
3.13.2.1 Fixed-expansion articulation girder 3-74
3.13.2.2 Fixed-fixed articulation girder 3-77
3.14 Elastomeric Bearing 3-77
3.15 Diaphragm 3-81
3.16 Expansion Joints 3-84
3.17 Link Slab 3-85
3.18 Approach Slab 3-86
3.19 Railing/Barrier 3-89
3.20 Composite Steel Girder 3-91
3.20.1 Effective width of top flange 3-92
3.20.2 Elastic modulus of concrete 3-93
3.20.3 Continuous composite girder 3-93
3.20.4 Design for ULS 3-93
3.20.4.1 Bending capacity 3-93
3.20.4.2 Shear capacity 3-94
3.20.4.3 Bearing capacity 3-96
3.20.4.4 Longitudinal shear 3-97
3.20.4.5 Shear connector 3-98
3.20.4.6 Connections 3-99
3.20.5 Design for SLS 3-100
3.20.6 Design for fatigue 3-100
Chapter 4: Bridge Substructure

4.1 Loading 4-1
4.1.1 Permanent effects 4-1
4.1.1.1 Dead load 4-1
4.1.1.2 Earth Pressure 4-1
4.1.2 Transient Effects 4-2
4.1.2.1 Live load surcharge 4-2
4.1.2.2 Horizontal load on superstructure 4-3
4.1.2.3 Minimum restraint load 4-5
4.1.2.4 Seismic force 4-5
4.1.2.5 Wind load 4-5
4.1.2.6 Forces resulting from water flow 4-6
4.2 Soil Parameters 4-11
4.2.1 Type of soil and consistency 4-11
4.2.2 Spring stiffness for footing 4-11
4.2.3 Soil spring constants for pile modelling 4-13
4.3 Abutments 4-14
4.3.1 Inverted T abutment 4-15
4.3.2 Diaphragm abutment 4-23
4.3.3 Spill-through abutment 4-27
4.4 Piers 4-38
4.4.1 Design of column 4-41
4.4.2 Design of headstock and pile cap 4-42
4.4.2.1 Non-flexural design 4-42
4.4.2.3 Heat of hydration, shrinkage and temperature 4-43
variation
4.5 Design of Pile 4-68
4.5.1 Design of driven pile 4-68
4.5.1.1 Shaft resistance 4-68
4.5.1.2 Pile tip resistance 4-69
4.5.1.3 Pile group resistance 4-70
4.5.1.4 Uplift resistance 4-70
4.5.1.5 Downdrag loads 4-70
4.5.2 Design of bored pile 4-71
4.5.2.1 Shaft resistance 4-71
4.5.2.2 Tip resistance 4-72
4.5.3 Design of continuous flight auger pile 4-72
4.5.4 Geotechnical strength reduction factor 4-73
4.5.5 Pile buckling 4-75
4.5.6 Settlement of pile 4-76
4.5.5.1 Horizontal movement 4-76
4.5.5.2 Vertical settlements 4-76
Chapter 5: Special Bridges
5.1 Abutments 5-1

5.2 Piers 5-2
5.3 Superstructure 5-3
5.3.1 Continuous post-tensioned girder 5-3
5.3.1.1 Loss of prestress 5-3
5.3.1.2 Anchorage zone 5-4
5.3.1.3 Design for SLS and ULS 5-4
5.3.1.4 Uplift force and parabolic profile geometry 5-5
5.3.1.5 Bearing 5-5
5.3.2 Precast segmental box girder 5-18
5.3.2.1 Type of tendon 5-18
5.3.2.2 Anchorage of tendon 5-18
5.3.2.3 Shear lag of box section 5-19
5.3.2.4 Construction sequence and creep analysis 5-21
5.3.2.5 Allowable stress 5-22
5.3.2.6 Shear capacity of dry joint 5-22
5.4 Integral Bridges 5-35
5.4.1 Earth pressure for abutment design 5-36
5.4.2 Skew effects 5-38
5.4.3 Earth pressure for wing wall 5-39
5.4.4 Design of continuous girder 5-39
5.4.5 Design of integral abutment 5-39
5.4.6 Design of integral pier 5-41
5.5 Footbridges 5-43
References
Practical Design Examples of Bridges Chapter 1
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Scope
This book presents fundamentals and logical examples to analyse and design bridges
according to CAM PW 04.102.99 with the collaboration of the Australian Bridge
Design Standard AS5100 which is the major reference in the development of CAM
PW standards.
The following standards are applicable for structural design of bridges:

• Cambodian Bridge Design Standard CAM PW 04.102.99
• Cambodian Bridge Design Standard CAM PW 04.102.99 Commentary
• Cambodian Road Design Standard CAM PW 03.103.99, Part 3 - Drainage
• Australian Bridge Design Standard AS5100 new draft (2016)
• Australian Standard, Concrete Structures, AS3600 - 2009
In addition to these standards, references from other textbooks and technical papers
have been referred throughout the examples and numeric calculations.
1.2 Design Philosophy

1.2.1 Design life
The design life of bridge structures shall be 100 years. Other elements such as
bearings and expansion joints have shorter life but they shall be designed to be long-
lasting. Design shall be made in consideration for future maintenance and/or
replacement of such elements.
1.2.2 Limit states
Bridge design shall be carried out in two limit states:
• Ultimate limit state (ULS) includes:

a- Stability limit state: the structures shall be safe against sliding, overturning,
and uplift.
b- Strength limit state: the structures shall be safe against a sudden collapse.
• Serviceability limit state (SLS):

Bridge shall be safe against excessive deformation, deflection, foundation
settlement, cracking, corrosion, erosion, scour, etc.
Page 1-1
1.3 Load Factors and Combinations
1.3.1 Load factors
Load factors for permanent effects (dead load, superimposed dead load, creep and
shrinkage) are taken from AS5100.2 and shown in Table 1.1 below. The load factors
for live loads are presented in Chapter 3.
Table 1.1 (Source: AS5100.2)

Type of material Type of Ultimate limit state Serviceability
load Reduces Increases limit state
safety safety
Steel Permanent 1.1 0.9 1.0
Concrete Permanent 1.2 0.85 1.0
Wearing surface and Permanent 2.0 0.7 1.3
other superimposed Removable 2.0 0 1.3
loads
Soil Permanent 1.5 0.7 1.2
ground water - 1.0 1.0 1.0
Ballast and track Permanent 1.7 0.7 1.3
Transom track Permanent 1.4 0.9 1.2
Creep and shrinkage Permanent 1.2 1.0
effects
1.3.2 Permanent effects
Permanent effects (PE) can be weight of structure/element, normal water flow,

soil/water pressure, prestress, bearing friction, settlement, movement, creep and
shrinkage.
1.3.3 Transient effects
Transient effects include thermal effects, vehicle traffic load, pedestrian load,
collision load, wind load, earthquake load, flood load, debris and log impact load.
1.3.4 Load combinations
• For Ultimate Limit State design: load combinations for ULS design shall
include permanent effects and one of the transient effects:
(1) PE + ultimate thermal effects
(2) PE + ultimate traffic loads
(3) PE + ultimate pedestrian load
(4) PE + collision load
(5) PE + ultimate wind load
(6) PE + earthquake load
(7) PE + ultimate flood load
(8) PE + ultimate debris load
(9) PE + ultimate log impact load
Page 1-2
Where item (1) and (7) produce the worst effects, the serviceability traffic loads shall
be included in these combinations if they may produce more adverse effect.
Where item (2) and (5) produce the worst effects, the serviceability thermal effects
and water flow effects shall be included in these combinations if they may produce
more adverse effect. Where item (4) produces more severe loading, the service traffic
load shall be included in this load combination with a load factor of 0.4 for railway
traffic and 1.0 for other traffic loading.
• For Serviceability Limit State design: more than one transient load may be
included in the combination by applying the appropriate load factors:
PE + any serviceability load from one transient effects + (0.7 x serviceability load
of any second transient effect + 0.5 x serviceability load of any third or fourth
transient effect)
The items in the bracket are possible additional serviceability transient loads that may
be included in the combination to produce the most adverse effect. For example, to
check horizontal pile displacement for an abutment, a load combination could be:
[Soil pressure (may include ground water) + Creep and shrinkage] + [Braking
force + Surcharge] + [0.7 Thermal effect]
All bridge structural elements may be designed with different load combinations as
shown in Table 1.2 below.
Table 1.2
Bridge element Possible load Design for
combination ULS SLS
RC Girder and deck PE + Traffic load + Bending, shear, Deflection,
(Thermal) torsion precamber,
PE + Pedestrian + cracking
(Thermal)
PSC girder PE + Traffic load + Bending, shear, Stresses, hogs,
(Thermal) torsion cracking
PE + Pedestrian +
(Thermal)
Diaphragm/cross girder PE due to jacking for Deep beam theory -
bearing replacement
Barrier/Parapet/Railing PE + collision load Bending -
Elastomeric Bearing pad PE + Traffic load + - Vertical load,
0.7xThernal shear, rotation and
or PE + Thermal + stability
0.7xTraffic load
Restraint device and block PE + Traffic load + Shear, -

(Thermal) Deep beam theory
PE + Earthquake
PE + 500 kN
PE + Thermal +
(Braking)
PE + Flood on
superstructure
Abutment wing wall, back PE + Traffic load + Bending, shear Cracking
wall and main wall (Thermal)
PE + Earthquake
PE + 500 kN
PE + Thermal +
(Traffic load)
Page 1-3
Table 1.2 (Cont.)

Bridge element Possible load Design for
combination ULS SLS
Abutment and pier PE + Traffic load Bending, shear, Cracking
headstock PE + Flood or Debris torsion or deep
PE + Eartquake beam theory
Pier column/wall PE + Traffic load + Column design: Displacement
(Thermal) Axial load +
PE + Flood load + Bending
(Traffic load) Shear
PE + Wind load +
(Thermal)
PE + Debris load +
(Traffic load)
PE + Earthquake
Pile See load combination Column design: Settlement,
for abutment or pier Axial load + displacement
Bending, shear
Pile bearing
capacity
Pile cap Pile reaction Deep beam theory Cracking
Expansion joint PE + Thermal + Total movement
(Traffic load) and opening gap
or PE + Traffic load
+ (Thermal)
1.4 Design for Durability
1.4.1 Concrete exposure classification
To achieve bridge design life of 100 years, bridge structures shall withstand in place
with a minimum cost of maintenance and repair. Durability of concrete structures is
the main key to fulfill this requirement. The concept of durability design is to select
the right concrete cover to protect reinforcing/prestressing steel against corrosion.
Concrete cover shall be chosen to match up with concrete exposure classification as
defined in Table 1.3 and 1.4.

Surface and Exposure Environment Exposure
Classification
1. Surface of member in contact with the ground:
• Member in non-aggressive soils B1
• Member protected by water-proof membrane A
• Member in aggressive soils (Mg ≥ 1g/L) U
• Member in aggressive soils (Mg < 1g/L See Table 1.4
• Member in salt-rich soils See Table 1.4
2. Surface of member above ground:
• In land environment (greater than 50 km from coastline) A
• Near coastal zone (between 1 and 50 km from coastline) B1
• Coastal zone (up to 1 km from coastline) B2
Page 1-4
Table 1.3 (Cont.)

Surface and Exposure Environment Exposure
Classification
3. Surface of member in water:
• In fresh water (chloride content < 300 ppm) B1
• In brackish water (chloride content 300-600 ppm) B2
• In running water U
4. Surface of maritime structures in sea water
• Permanently submerged B2
• In spray zone C1
• In tidal/splash zone C2
5. Surfaces of members in other environments not listed in 1 to 4 U

Exposure classification for concrete in sulfate and saline soils
Exposure conditions Exposure classification
Sulfates (SO4) pH Chloride in Soil Soil
groundwater conditions conditions
In soil (ppm) In groundwater (ppm) A B
(ppm)
<1000 <400 >5.5 <2000 B1 A
1000 – 10000 400 – 1500 4.5 – 5.5 2000 – 8000 B2 B1
3000 – 20000 1500 – 10000 4 – 4.5 8000 – 18000 C1 B2
>20000 >10000 <4 >18000 C2 C1
Soil conditions A – high permeability soils

Soil conditions B – low permeability soils
Concrete cover to reinforcing steel bars or prestressing tendons shall be adopted in

regard of concrete exposure classification and concrete strength as follows:

Type of Exposure Nominal cover (mm) for concrete strength (f'c)
formwork classification not less than
25 MPa 32 MPa 40 MPa 50 MPa ≥ 55 MPa
Standard A 45 35 30 30 30
formwork B1 - 50 45 40 40
and B2 - - 60 50 50
compaction C1 - - - 70 70
C2 - - - - 80
Rigid A 45 35 30 25 30
formwork B1 - 40 35 30 30
and intense B2 - - 50 40 40
compaction C1 - - - 65 65
C2 - - - - 75
Where concrete is cast on or against excavated ground, the concrete cover as shown in
the table above shall be increased by:
i. 10 mm if the concrete surface is protected by a damp-proof membrane
ii. 30 mm otherwise
Page 1-5
Concrete members subject to exposure classification U shall be specifically

determined to ensure concrete durability under exposure environment. Concrete mix
proportions, method of placement, cover and curing shall be considered.
1.4.2 Design crack widths
Alternatively, cracking in reinforced concrete structures is limited to prevent

corrosion in reinforcement. According to CAM PW 04.102.99 Commentary, Table
5.8.6, design crack widths are specified as follows:
Table 1.6 – Design crack widths

Environment Examples Design crack
width (mm)
Extreme 0.10
Concrete surface exposed to Marine structures
abrasive action by sea water Parts of structure in contact with
or water with pH < 4.5 moorland water
Very severe 0.25
Concrete surfaces directly Concrete adjacent to the sea
affected by:
Sea water spray
Severe 0.25
Concrete surfaces exposed to Wall and structure supports remote from
driving rain the carriageway
Or alternate wetting and
drying
Moderate 0.25
Concrete surfaces above Surface protected by bridge deck water-
ground level and fully proofing of by permanent formwork
sheltered against all the
following:
- Rain
- Sea water spray
Concrete surfaces Interior surface of pedestrian subways,
permanently saturated by voided superstructures or cellular
water with pH ≥ 4.5 abutment
Concrete permanently under water
Moderate = Class A and B1

Severe = Class B1 to B2
Very severe = Class C1 and C2
Extreme = Class U
For procedures of crack width calculation refer Chapter 3.
1.5 Structural Analysis
Linear elastic analysis shall be used for design in strength, stability and serviceability.
All assumptions shall be made consistently throughout the analysis. Material
properties, cracking effects of concrete, linear properties of materials and geometric
effects shall be included in the analysis.
Any computer structural program capable of producing moving loads and with ability
to carry out grillage analysis can be used in analysing bridge structures.
Page 1-6
1.6 Factors Affecting Selection of Bridge Structural System
Bridge design shall be initially evolved from a concept design in which many factors
and considerations shall be taken into account as follows:
• Constraints of the crossing site, e.g. canals, rivers, creeks, railway lines,
roads/highways
• Vertical clearance of the bridge
• Bridge alignment
• Ground conditions: soft soils, stiff/hard strata, rocks
• Environmental impact in waterways
• Maintenance, e.g. concrete vs steel
• Methods of construction
• Cost of construction
• Aesthetic view of the bridge
Furthermore, bridge structure selection shall be carefully studied to optimise bridge
design as well as cost of bridge construction and maintenance. Below are examples of
advantages and disadvantages of bridge structural systems.
Table 1.7 – Advantages and disadvantages of bridge structural systems

Structural system Advantage Disadvantage
Reinforced • Can be cast in remote • Cannot be cast in long
concrete beam areas where transport of span
precast/prestressed • Require large amount of
girders is impossible formwork
• Cannot be built in deep
and large waterways
• Take a lot of time to
complete construction
• Can be very heavy
• May have poor crack
control
Reinforced • Can be cast in remote • Cannot be cast in long
concrete flat slab areas where transport of span
precast/prestressed • Require large amount of
girders is impossible formwork
• Can be built where • Cannot be built in deep
shallow superstructure is and large waterways
required • Take a lot of time to
• Can be built with small complete construction
radius of bridge curvature • May have poor crack
control
Prestressed • Can be built with longer • Require to set up casting
concrete span comparing with RC yard
girders/deck units structure • Require large crane to
• Take less time to install install
• Can be lighter structure • Unable to be transported
• Have better crack control to remote areas
Page 1-7
Table 1.7 (Cont.)

Composite • Can be erected with smaller • Require regular inspection
steel girders crane due to light weight and high cost of maintenance
• Can be built with small • Unable to be transported to
radius of bridge curvature remote areas
• Not require crack control
Prestressed • Can be built with long span • Can cause corrosion for
box girder • Can be built in segments external prestressing strands
• Can be built with small • Require large lifting system
radius of bridge curvature such as launching truss,
crane
Simply • Allow girder to rotate as • Require large girder, heavy
supported much as possible weight
system
Continuous • Can be built with longer • May cause problem with
system span comparing to simply differential settlement
supported system • Require large amount of
• Save materials reinforcement in deck slab
for hog moment
Integral • Not require bearings and • Cannot be built with large
expansion joints skew
• Can be built with longer • Cannot be built with long
span comparing to simply bridge
supported system • May cause problem with
• Save materials differential settlement
• Require large amount of
reinforcement in deck slab
for hog moment
Driven pile • Provide good construction • Cause noise
control • Cause vibration
• Can be built in both vertical • Cannot be built near dense
and racked position residential area
• Can be tested with static • Cannot be driven into rocks
load • Cannot take heavy load
Bored pile • Can be built with large • Require sacrificial steel liner
diameter to prevent collapse of soil
• Can be built with less soils
vibration and noise • Require good quality control
• Can be socketed into rocks to ensure the bored hole is
• Can provide high pile clean prior to casting
capacity concrete
• Cannot be built in racked
position
• Cannot be tested with static
load
1.7 Safety-in-Design of Bridges

Designers have responsibility to ensure safety of bridge construction, operation and
maintenance at all time. Safety-in-design shall be completed/evaluated during the
bridge preliminary design. All risks shall be mitigated/managed with acceptable
Page 1-8
methods. Residual risks shall be accepted and agreed between the designer and the
client. Here are examples of safety-in-design to be examined during the design stage.
Table 1.8 – Examples of safety-in-design

Structure/Activity Safety promotion
Design • Establish a design basis report/design criteria and it shall be
agreed with all involved parties
• All design assumptions shall be stated clearly. The
assumptions shall be appropriately matched with the real
behaviour or material properties of the structure.
• Establish an appropriate method for structural analysis, e.g.
linear vs non-linear analysis, grillage vs finite element model
• The design shall be carried out by registered
professional/competent engineer(s)
• The design shall be verified by registered
professional/competent engineer(s)
Utilities • Check and make sure that the existing utilities do not clash
with the new structures.
• Confirm with the relevant authority to detect underground,
buried, hidden utilities.
• Excavation shall not be made if location of the existing
utilities is not confirmed.
• Propose adequate access and ease for maintenance and
inspection of new utilities
Earth work • Provide adequate slope and bracing for stability of cuts and
fills
• Provide adequate drainage for earth work
Erection/installation • Construction sequence shall be stated in design

• Method of erection and assumed safety factor shall be
mentioned in design
• Provide temporary supports and bracings if required
• Ensure stability of structures and machinery during erection
Substructure • Be beware of scour effects due to contraction of waterways

• Provide adequate and appropriate scour protection
• Design for appropriate collusion loads for bridges overpassing
roads, highways and railways. Provide necessary protection
such as road barriers, fender walls, etc.
Barriers • Determine appropriate level of barrier performance

• Determine appropriate loading for pedestrian barrier (bridge
subject to crowd loading or non-crowd loading)
• Separate shared path from traffic by providing a traffic barrier
Maintenance and • Provide adequate access and room for maintenance and
inspection inspection
• Provide adequate walkway and refuge for railway bridges
Page 1-9
Table 1.8 (Cont.)

Demolition • Where safety is an issue during demolition of structure (e.g.
stability of structures during demolition), a method and
sequence of demolition shall be mentioned in the design
drawings
Temporary works • If temporary works are required, they must be designed and
verified by registered professional engineer(s)
Noise and vibration • Avoid pile driving if there are residential buildings nearby
• Provide noise walls/barriers
Materials • Use non-toxic materials
Fire • Avoid welding on site

• Use non-combustible materials
Lighting and anti- • Provide adequate lighting for bridges

glare • May provide anti-glare walls if necessary
Confined space • Provide ventilation in confined space
Working on height • Reduce the work on height by optimizing design to

fabricate/assemble structures on the ground and lift them into
place
Page 1-10
Chapter 2: Hydraulic Design
Bridges are designed not to be overtopped by flood in design recurrence intervals as

mentioned in Table 2.1 below, however they shall withstand without failure during 2000
years flood occurrence. This means lateral load due to flood shall be adopted from 2000 years
flood occurrence for the design of bridge structures in strength and stability limit state.
Hydraulic design shall be performed by hydraulic engineers. Nonetheless, in the absence of a

detail study/investigation, primary design of bridge hydraulic can be investigated and studied
in this Chapter.
2.1 Flow Discharge
The design recurrence intervals of flood depend on road category as shown in Table 3.3.1 of
CAM PW 03-101-99 which are shown in Table 2.1 here
Table 2.1 (Source: CAM PW 03.101.99)
Design discharge for specific design recurrence flood intervals can be approximated by
Rational Method:
Q = 0.278CIA (2.1)
Where: Q – Flow discharge in m3/s

C – Run-off coefficient
I – Rainfall intensity in mm/h
A – Drainage catchment’s area in km2
Values of run-off coefficient C for urban and rural areas are presented in Table 2.2 below.
Page 2-1
Alternatively, if flood level is known, i.e. area of flood is known, discharge can be estimated
by Manning’s formula as follows:
Q = A [(A/p)2/3] S /n (2.2)
And flow velocity, V = Q/A (2.3)
Where: Q – Flow discharge in m3/s

p – Wetted perimeter in m
S – River slope in longitudinal direction of river
n – Manning’s roughness coefficient, can be taken from Table 2.3
A – Flood area in m2
In Figure 2.1, the solid thick line represents wetted perimeter and the shaded area represents
flood area. The minimum clearance of bridge waterway (freeboard) shall be 1.0 m for major
watercourse and 0.6 m for secondary watercourse.
Page 2-2
Superstructure
≥ Bmax + W
0.6 – 1.0 m DFL

Abutment
A
Pier p
W
Figure 2.1 Bridge and Flood Level
Page 2-3
2.2 Bridge Length
Using Lacey’s equations:

Maximum waterway width of an open channel is Bmax = 4.75 Q (2.4)
The bridge shall be constructed such that its length shall not be less than the modified
waterway width, i.e. the distance between outer face of each abutment shall not be less than
Bmax in equation (2.4) plus pier width, W.
2.3 Scour
Estimation of bridge scour is very complex and it shall be done by a qualified hydraulic
engineer. The procedure of scour estimation here is based on the equilibrium approach only.
2.3.1 General Scour
General scour will happen when flow velocity exceeds competence mean flow velocity.
Competence velocity of flow is the greatest velocity that will not cause scour to river bed. The
competence velocity depends upon average flow depth and materials of river bed. Typical
competence mean velocities are shown in Table 2.4 and Figure 2.2 for cohesive and non-
cohesive river bed materials respectively.
Ao = Q/Vc (2.5)
Where Q – Flow discharge in m3/s

Ao – Area of waterway without/after scour in m2
Vc – Competence velocity in m/s
An average depth of flow can be estimated that y = A/b (2.6)
Where b – Width of waterway in m
Assuming uniform scour, Ys = (Ao – A)/p (2.7)
And maximum depth of scour is estimated as Ymax = 1.5Ys (2.8)
Table 2.4 Competence mean velocities for cohesive materials

(Source: Overseas Road Note 9)
Depth of flow (m) Competence mean velocity, Vc

Low values (easily Average values High values (resistant
erodible material) material)
(m/s) (m/s) (m/s)
1.5 0.6 1.0 1.8
3 0.65 1.2 2.0
6 0.7 1.3 2.3
15 0.8 1.5 2.6
Page 2-4
Vsc (m/s)
7
5
4
3
Depth = 15m
2
Depth = 6m
Depth = 3m
1 Depth = 1.5m
0.7
0.5
0.3 0.5 1.0 2 3 5 7 10 20 30 50 70 100 200 300

Bed material size, d50 (mm)
Figure 2.2 Competence Mean Velocities for Non-Cohesive Materials (Source: Overseas Road Note 9)
2.3.2 Local Scour
Local scour usually appears at pier locations since pier blocks waterway. The factors affecting
local scour are shown in Table 2.5.
Table 2.5
Local scour at pier:
Pier shape Φs Angle of Φa, L/W ratio
skew,
Circular 1.5 deg 4 8 12
Wall with semi-circular nose 1.5 0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Rectangular 2.0 15 1.5 2.0 2.5
Multiple circular column 1.5 30 2.0 2.5 3.5
Multiple rectangular column 2.0 45 2.5 3.5 4.5
Yls = WΦsΦa (2.9)
Where Yls – Local scour at pier in m

L – Total bridge pier length in m
W – Pier width or diameter perpendicular to flow in m
Total scour depth at pier location is Ymax = Yls + 1.5Ys (2.10)
To protect pier from scour, some kinds of protection such as gabions/mattresses or bulk
ripraps are used. Size of stone can be selected by the following:
D50 = 0.693(KV)2/[(S – 1) x 2g] (2.11)

Where D50 – Medium stone diameter/size in m
K – coefficient = 1.5 for round nose pier and 1.7 for rectangular pier
V – Flow velocity in m/s
S – Specific gravity of stone, usually = 2.65
Page 2-5
g – Gravity acceleration = 9.8 m/s2
The protection area can be arranged in this manner:
2W W 2W
Protection area 2W
Pier
W
Direction of flow
3W
Figure 2.3 Location of Pier Protection
In addition to protection of pier, a protection at each abutment site may be required as well
and the size of stone can be worked from the following concept:
B
B1
F Fd
Fr
B2
W2
W1 Fh
W Direction of flow
Fv α
Figure 2.4 Force Components for Design of Stone Riprap
Where W – Weight of stone in kN

W1 and W2 are component of stone weight in kN
B – Buoyancy force in kN
B1 and B2 are component of buoyancy force in kN
F – Friction force in kN
Fd – Drag force by water flow in kN
To better understand the concept for bridge hydraulic design, detail calculations are illustrated
in Example 2.1
Page 2-6
Example 2.1: Bridge Hydraulic, Scour and Protection

Manning's roughness coefficient n= 0.03
River slope (gradient) S= 0.00035
Area of waterway before bridge construction A= 170 m2
Wet perimeter before bridge construction p= 82 m
Pier geometry width W= 0.8 m
length L= 5.3 m L/W = 6.6
Area of waterway after bridge construction Ab = 173.2 m2
River bed material: Fine sand with average grain size of 0.5 mm
1. Hydraulic design
Using Manning's formula:
Discharge through open channel Q = (A/n)[(A/p)(2/3)] S
Q = (170/0.03)x[(170/82)(2/3)]x 0.00035 = 172.4 m3/s
Flow velocity through open channel V = Q/A = 172.4/170 = 1.01 m/s
Minimum waterway width, B = 4.75 Q = 4.75 x 172.4 = 62.4 m
Take 3 spans, minimum bridge length between outer faces of abutment = 62.4 + 2x0.8 =
64 m (Two 800 mm wide bridge piers)
Average depth of flow, y = A/B = 170/62.4 = 2.72 m
From Figure 2.2, competence mean velocity, Vsc = 0.95 m/s
Ao = Q/Vc = 172.4/0.95 = 181.5 m2
2. Scour
Since V = 1.01 m/s > Vsc = 0.95 m/s General scour occurs
Average general scour depth Ys = (Ao – A)/p = (181.5 – 170)/82 = 0.14 m
Maximum depth of scour Ysmax = 1.5Ys = 0.21 m
Local scour at pier:
Shape factor, Φs = 1.5 Skew factor, Φa = 1.0
Local scour depth at pier Yls = WΦsΦa = 0.8x1.5x1.0 = 1.2 m
Maximum scour depth at pier: Ytot = Ysmax + Yls = 1.41 m
3. Protection
3.1 Abutment Thickness of loose riprap t = 0.3 m

Average size of stone d = 0.3 m
Angle of slope α = 40°
sin(α) = 0.6428
cos(α) = 0.7660
Coefficient of friction between slope protection and river bank, µ = 0.3
Unit weight of stone γs = 26 kN/m3
Unit weight of water γw = 9.81 kN/m3
Weight of stone, W = (d2) x t x γs = 0.32x0.3x26 = 0.70 kN
W1 = Wcos(α) = 0.7x0.766 = 0.54 kN
W2 = Wsin(α) = 0.7x0.6428 = 0.45 kN
Friction force, F = W1 x µ = 0.54x0.3 = 0.16 kN
Buoyancy force B = γw x t x (d2) = 9.81x0.3x0.32 = 0.26 kN
Page 2-7
B1 = Bcos(α) = 0.26x0.766 = 0.2 kN

B2 = Bsin(α) = 0.26x0.6428 = 0.17 kN
Force Fh = W2 - F - B2 = 0.45 – 0.16 – 0.17 = 0.12 kN
Force Fv = W1 - B1 = 0.54 – 0.2 = 0.34 kN
Drag coefficient of flow, Cd = 1.4
Drag force, Fd = Cd (V2) (t x d) = 1.4x1.012x0.3x0.3 = 0.13 kN
Resultant force, Fr = [(Fd2) + (Fh2)]0.5 = [0.132 + 0.122]0.5 = 0.18 kN
In case of water flow: Ratio, Fv / Fr = 0.34/0.18 = 1.9 > 1.5 Safe
In absence of water: Ratio, W1 / (W2 - F) = 0.54/(0.45 – 0.16) = 1.86
> 1.5 Safe
3.2 Pier Specific gravity of stone, s = γs/γw = 26/9.81 = 2.65

Gravity acceleration g = 9.8 m/s2
Coefficient K = 1.5
Medium stone diameter, D50 = 0.692(K*V)2 / [(s - 1) x 2g] =
0.692x(1.5x1.01)2/[(2.65 – 1)x2x9.8] = 0.05 m
Stone size > 2D50 = 0.10 m. Use stone having average size of 200 mm
Minimum thickness of riprap/gabion = 3D50 = 0.15 m
In practice, use 300 mm thick of protection
The cost of scour/erosion protective system depends on various factors such as availability of
materials, transporting protective materials and the type of access available for the
construction. In general, the cost of protective system using concrete is higher than the system
using bulk rock and grouted rip rap. The cost of construction under water is also higher than
the construction in dry.
Page 2-8
Chapter 3: Bridge Superstructure
3.1 Live Loads

3.1.1 Design Traffic Loads
There are 4 types of design traffic load specified in CAM PW 04.102.99:
• T44
Wheel print:
- Front wheels: 200 mm longitudinal x 200 mm transverse
- Rear wheels: 200 mm longitudinal x 400 mm transverse
3.7 m 1.2 m Varies from 3.0 m to 8.0 m 1.2 m
48 kN 96 kN 96 kN 96 kN 96 kN (Axle loads)
ELEVATION VIEW OF T44
3.0 m standard width
1.8 m
Axle
200 mm for front wheels

400 mm for rear wheels
END VIEW OF T44 AXLE
Figure 3.1 Standard Truck T44 (Source: AS5100.7)
• L44 (applicable for bridge/structure with span more than 10 m)
Knife load (moving load)

150 kN over 3 m width
12.5 kN/m per 3 m width
Figure 3.2 Standard Lane Load L44
Page 3-1
• HLP240
Figure 3.3 Standard Heavy Load Platform HLP240 (Source: CAM PW 04.102.99)
Note that HLP240 occupies 2 standard design lanes and its position shall be placed so
that centerline of HLP240 may be shifted 1.0 m from bridge centerline to the left or
right hand side to produce the worst effects on bridge structural elements.
• Localised Loading W7
For localised design, particularly bridge deck, a concentrated load of 70 kN with a

dimension of 200x500 mm shall be placed at any position to produce the worst effects
on bridge deck slab.
3.1.2 Design Railway Load
3.1.2.1 300-A-12 railway load
According to CAM PW 04.102.99 commentary, the design railway load is 300-A-12.

Its load configuration is shown in figure below.
Page 3-2
Coupler CL
300 kN 300 kN 300 kN 300 kN 360 kN
OR
Single axle
1.7 m 1.1 m 1.7 m
300-A-12 (30 T) AXLE LOADS
Repeat number of group

as necessary 12 m 12 m
300-A-12 GROUP SPACING
2500 mm # # To be confirmed by
Track the rail authority
1067 mm #
Sleeper spaced
at 650 mm #
Ballast
650 mm #
BALLAST, SLEEPER AND TRACK
Figure 3.4 Railway Load 300-A-12 Configuration (RailCorp, TMC 305, Structures
Assessment, Version 1.0, December 2009)
3.1.2.2 Railway derailment loads
The bridge designed for 300-A-12 load shall be designed for two separate train
derailment load cases as follows:
• Derailment case A:
a. 300-A-12 load is applied as wheel loads separated by the track, parallel to
the track in the most unfavourable position within a distance to track
centerline of 1.5 times the track gauge
b. A single point load of 200 kN is applied in the most unfavourable position
The ultimate load factor for derailment case A is 1.20.
• Derailment case B: A 100 kN/m line load over a length up to 20 m acting on the
edge of the superstructure. The ultimate load factor for derailment case B is 1.0
The derailment loads shall be considered for Ultimate Limit State design only without
dynamic load allowance.
Page 3-3
3.1.3 Dynamic Load Allowance
The dynamic load allowance (DLA) of traffic loads shall be:

• DLA = 0.35 for T44, L44 and W7
• DLA = 0.10 for HLP240
The dynamic load allowance of 300-A-12 for bending moment of a ballast deck bridge
shall be calculated as follows:
• DLA = 1.0 for span length, Lα ≤ 3.6 m
• DLA = {2.16/[Lα0.5 – 0.20]} – 0.17 for span length, Lα > 3.6 m
For more information about Lα refer AS5100.2. The dynamic load allowance for shear
and torsion shall be taken as 2/3 of the value for bending moment.
3.1.4 Load and Lane Factors
Live load factors for Ultimate Limit State design shall be in accordance with Table 3.1
Table 3.1 (Source: Australian Bridge Design Code 1992 and AS5100.2)
Design Load Load Factor
W7 2.0
T44 2.0
L44 2.0
HLP240 1.5
300-A-12 1.6
When design traffic loads are required to place more than one design lane, multiple lane
modification factors shall be applied as shown in Table 3.2
Table 3.2 (Source: Australian Bridge Design Code 1992)

Number of standard design lane Lane factor
loaded
1 1.0
2 0.9
3 0.8
4 0.7
5 0.6
6 or more 0.55
When 300-A-12 loading is applied to a number of tracks simultaneously, the multiple

track factor as shown in Table 3.3 shall be used.

Number of tracks loaded Multiple track factor
1 1.00
2 1.00
3 0.85
4 0.70
5 or more 0.60
Page 3-4
3.1.5 Number of Design Lanes
The number of design lanes shall be as follows: n = b/3.1 (3.1)

Where b – Clear carriageway between kerbs or traffic barriers in m
The number n shall be rounded to the nearest smaller number.
T44 and L44 loads shall be assumed to occupy one standard design lane of 3.0 m width.
The design lanes shall be positioned laterally on the bridge to produce the worst effects.
3.1.6 Collision Load on Parapet
Refer to AS5100.2, a horizontal collision load of 250 kN (for regular performance

barrier) over the horizontal contact length of 1100 mm shall be applied to rails/barriers
with a minimum height of 800 mm from the bridge wearing surface. This is an ultimate
load and no load factor or dynamic load allowance is required for ultimate limit state
design. The old bridge design code AustRoad’ 92 permitted to use 90 kN of collision
load.
3.1.7 Pedestrian Load
Refer to AS5100.2, pedestrian surcharge on bridge walkway may vary from 2 kPa for
area of 100 m2 and more to 5 kPa for areas of 10 m2 or less. A liner interpolation is
permitted when calculation for a surcharge is performed between area of 10 m2 and 100
m2. Live load factor of 1.80 shall be applied for ultimate limit state design.
3.2 Dead Loads

There are two types of dead load:
• Self-weight: it is a weight of permanent structure/element
• Superimposed dead load: it is weight of a removable structure/element
For ultimate limit state design load factors, refer to Chapter 1.
3.3 Superstructure
3.3.1 Types of Short-to-Medium Span Superstructure
For short and medium span bridges, popular types of superstructure built in Cambodia
can be classified as follows:
• Cast-in situ/pre-cast rectangular reinforced concrete (RC) girder
• Prestressed concrete (PSC) I-girder
• PSC T-Roff girder
• RC flat slab
• PSC deck unit
• Composite steel girder
The first three types are known as deck-girder bridge because the superstructure is
composed of RC deck slab and girders. A RC girder can span up to 25 m whereas PSC
I-girder may span up to 40 m. PSC T-Roff (super-T) girders are commonly built in
developed countries such as Australia. It may achieve a maximum span of 35 m. RC
Page 3-5
Flat slab is generally built with a maximum span of 15 m and it may be required where
shallow depth superstructure is in need. PSC deck units are generally constructed with a
maximum span of 25 m with or without top RC deck. Transverse stressing is required
for the units built without top RC deck in order to achieve good distribution of
concentrated live loads to adjacent units. Examples of those girders are illustrated in the
figures below.
Figure 3.5 Cross Section of Bridge with RC Girders
Figure 3.6 Cross Section of Bridge with PSC I-Girders
Page 3-6
Figure 3.7 Cross Section of Bridge with PSC T-roff Girders
Figure 3.8 Cross Section of Bridge with Flat Slab
Figure 3.9 Cross Section of Bridge with PSC Transversely Stressed Deck Units
Page 3-7
9.0 m carriageway
Railing RC deck
DWS Kerb
2% 2% slab
Steel girder
Figure 3.10 Cross Section of Bridge with Composite Steel Girders
3.3.2 Lateral Positions of Live Loads
It is very important to identify the lateral position of live loads for analysis of girders.
Live loads shall be moved laterally and longitudinally in a grillage model to produce the
worst effects on structures. Therefore, the designer may have several options of live
load position in his grillage model. The figures below show some examples how to
place live loads laterally to obtain maximum bending moment and shear force in
girders.
7.0 m
T44/2 T44/2 T44/2 T44/2
Railing 1.8 m 1.2 m 1.8 m
Kerb
Maximum RC girder
loaded
girder
2.3 m 2.3 m 2.3 m
Bridge centreline
Figure 3.11 Lateral Position of T44
Figure 3.11 presents cross section of a bridge with two T44 which may give maximum
forces for an internal girder. A few options shall be made until maximum forces are
obtained in any designated girder. To obtain the worst loading effects on the edge
girder, T44 or L44 loading shall be placed next to the kerb or the traffic barrier/railing.
As mentioned earlier, HLP240 requires two lanes and its centerline may be positioned
at a distance of 1.0 m from bridge centerline in either left or right.
Page 3-8
7.0 m
3.6 m width lane
HLP240/2 HLP240/2
1.0 m
Railing
2.2 m
Kerb
RC girder
HLP
centreline
Bridge centreline
Figure 3.12 Lateral Position of HLP240
3.3.3 Design Lanes
The number of design lanes for T44 and L44 has been discussed early as mentioned in
section 3.1.5. In the above example, the distance between kerbs b = 7.0 m and the
number of design lane is 7.0/3.1 = 2.25. Thus, rounding to the smallest number it shall
be two design lanes. Each design lane is 3.0 m wide and both of them have to be
positioned next to each other and such that they can produce the maximum effects. One
of them may be placed next to kerb to have maximum forces on an external girder. A
few positions of design lanes can be made by placing and moving them laterally until
maximum forces on a desired girder are obtained.
7.0 m
3.0 m 3.0 m
Design lane 1 Design lane 2
Bridge centreline
Figure 3.13 Design Lane Position
3.3.4 Grillage Models
In the past, when computer structural analysis programs were not available, engineers
carried out their manual structural calculations using simple 2 dimensional (2D) models
with many assumptions. For bridge deck analysis, load distribution factors were used to
Page 3-9
calculate loads distributed from wheel loads on beams and the influence line method
was used to determine bending moment and shear force from moving loads. Bridge
analysis using 2D models may provide inaccurate results as load distribution
considering structure stiffness and interaction is omitted. In the present, many advanced
computer programs for structural analysis and design are available and bridge designers
are encouraged to carry out bridge structural analysis using three dimensional (3D)
models. Popular computer programs for bridge analysis and design are Microstran,
SpaceGass, Strand7, Staad Pro, Lusas, SAP2000, etc.
Grillage modelling is the most widely accepted method for bridge modelling as it can
provide the following advantages over other methods of structural modelling:
• Beam elements can be positioned to correspond with actual physical
beams in the real structure
• Moving loads and other complex forms of load can be easily generated
and applied on the structure
• Analysis results provide bending moment, shear force, axial force,
torsion and displacement of beam elements at any location
• Grillage modelling can be performed fast and it is suitable for analysis of
short to medium span bridges
• Grillage modelling is suitable for any skew angle and any type of bridge
deck including box girder
Grillage modelling for bridge deck:

Bridge deck grillage modelling is a 3D structural modelling composing of deck slab
elements interconnected with girders, preferrably on the same plane. Here are some
guidelines to model a grillage for a bridge deck:
• In a bridge deck grillage model, longitudinal members represent
girders/beams and transverse members represent deck slab or cross
beams.
• Centre to centre spacing of transverse members shall not exceed the
smaller of 1/10 of girder span or twice girder spacing.
• Each grillage element shall locate at its centroid of physical section,
however, transverse members shall locate at the same plane with
longitudinal members. The model shall be planar.
• For a skew bridge, transverse members shall be aligned with direction of
deck reinforcement and where the skew angle exceeds 20°, transverse
members shall be orthogonal to longitudinal members.
• Material and section properties of grillage elements shall present the
properties of actual physical structural elements. Gross section
properties shall be used unless a second order analysis is required,
however, for concrete girders and deck units, their torsional properties
shall not be greater than 20% of gross torsional properties for ULS
design. For a composite section, its tansformed section for stress
calculation shall be used in grillage modelling.
• Lateral position of moving loads shall be made across bridge deck to
produce the worst effects.
• Ideadly, longitudinal incremental movement of moving loads shall not
exceed 1.0 m.
Page 3-10
Hints to check grillage modelling:

• Check movement and speed of moving loads applied on the grillage
• Check deformed shape of the grillage model
• Check displacement magnitude of girders
Figure 3.14, 3.15 & 3.16 present cross sections and Figure 3.17 presents a plan of a
grillage model for a typical girder bridge with its proposed grillage members.
For PSC deck units without top RC deck, transverse stressing is provided to obtain
shear friction between the units. The longitudinal members represent the units with full
section properties and 20% torsion. Section properties of transverse members shall be
calculated as shown in Example 3.5. Live load is distributed to the whole grillage by
shear friction between the units. Shear friction shall be designed to be accommodated
by cement grout in between the units.
For flat slab, an edge girder is required at each edge and refer a design code for specific
information on edge girder. Spacing of longitudinal members may range within 2.5 and
3.0 times slab thickness.
Offset Deck Grillage girder
Real
girder
Legend: Rigid offset

Girder with 20% torsion max. (Longitudinal
member)
Deck with zero torsion (Transverse member)
Dummy member
Figure 3.14 Section View of Grillage Model for Deck-Girder Bridge
Gap filled
with grout PSC deck units Void
Transverse
stressing
Legend: PSC units with 20% torsion

Effective transverse member (accounts for
cracked properties of mortar grout)
Figure 3.15 Cross Section View of Grillage Model for PSC Deck Units
Page 3-11
s s
Edge beam s S = 2.5 or 3.0 D
Legend: Longitudinal strip with 20% torsion max.

Transverse strip with zero torsion
Figure 3.16 Cross Section View of Grillage Model for Flat Slab
Bridge width
Diaphragm
Girder
Dummy member
SL
Repeat transverse members
ST shall not exceed

Span, L L/10 and 2SL
Transverse
member/deck
Rigid offset
Figure 3.17 Plan View of Grillage Model
Page 3-12
With box girders such as T-roff girders shown in Figure 3.7, the grillage model for deck
slab analysis shall be built with girder webs to support the deck slab. Full girder
(longitudinal member) shall be placed at centroid location of the girder.
Deck slab Girder member

placed at centroid
Girder web Rigid link
Figure 3.18 Section of Grillage Model for Deck Slab
Example 3.1: Grillage Model of Skewed Bridge
Let’s have a PSC girder superstructure having dimensions and a cross section as
illustrated in Figure 3.7. Take girder spacing of 2.10 m and span length of 30.0 m
(bearing to bearing). The skew angle of bridge deck is 45°. A plan view of grillage
model is shown in Figure 3.19 and bending moment in the girders due to two T44
trucks analysis is shown in Figure 3.20.
When the skew angle of bridge deck exceeds 20°, the transverse/deck slab members
shall be modeled orthogonal to longitudinal/girder members. A transverse member shall
be modeled at the obtuse angle and at each end of the girder as shown below. Please
note that rigid offset of deck slab is not included in this model. At the end of the bridge
deck (at abutment only), a dummy square end approach grillage structure shall be also
modeled as close as possible to the end of bridge deck grillage to avoid all moving
loads move to the main grillage.
30.0 m
Dummy grillage
2.1 m
Deck slab
Diaphragm at
each end
45°
PSC girder Dummy member
Figure 3.19 Plan View of Grillage Model
Page 3-13
Figure 3.20 Bending Moment Diagrams of Girder due to T44
3.3.5 Limit State Design
All girders shall be designed for Ultimate Limit State (ULS) and Serviceability Limit
State (SLS).
• Ultimate Limit State (ULS)
In this limit state, ultimate capacity of girder in bending moment and shear shall be
equal or larger than design forces. The criteria can be summarized as follows:
φMu ≥ M* where Mu – ultimate bending capacity of girder

M* - design bending moment
φ – reduction factor = 0.8
φVu ≥ V* where Vu – ultimate shear capacity of girder

V* - design shear force
φ – reduction factor = 0.7
• Serviceability Limit State (SLS)

In this limit state, deflection of girder is limited as below:
- no sagging deflection shall occur under permanent loads. Thus, most designers
choose to provide cambers for girders under dead load + superimposed dead
load.
- under live load plus dynamic load allowance, deflection shall not be greater than
1/600 of the span or 1/300 of the cantilever projection. HLP240 shall not be
used for the calculation of deflection.
- hogging (upward deflection) shall not exceed 1/300 of the span. This allowance
usually applies to design of prestressed girders.
Load factor shall be 1.0 for dead and live load except for superimposed dead load where
a load factor of 1.30 shall be applied. Moreover, crack control is also required to be
checked. Steel stress at serviceability shall not exceed maximum permissible steel
stress.
Page 3-14
3.4 Reinforced Concrete Girder

Reinforced concrete (RC) girder, either cast in-situ or precast shall be designed as a T-
beam. Considering shear lag, the effective width of top flange shall be taken the lesser
of:
• bef = bw + 0.2L (3.2)

• bef = S (3.3)
Where bef – Effective width of top flange in m

bw – Web thickness in m
L – Clear span in m
S – Girder spacing in m
If the beam is slender, lateral restraint may be provided so that the distance LL between
points of which lateral restraint is provided shall be such that LL/bef is not greater than
lesser of 240bef/D and 60.
For precast RC girder, cast in-situ RC deck shall be considered as top flange and
longitudinal shear shall be also checked to confirm beam-slab integrity. If concrete
strength of deck is lower than concrete strength of precast girder, modulus ratio shall be
taken into account and the effective with of top flange shall be modified accordingly.
3.4.1 Design for ULS
a – Bending capacity
An assumption is made that the neutral axis locates in top flange. The process involves
in trial and error by assuming neutral axis depth, dn and then calculate compressive and
tensile force until an equilibrium is achieved.
Strains of steel bars

εsy = fsy/Es (3.4)
εst = εu(d - dn)/dn (3.5)
εsc = εu(dn - dsc)/dn (3.6)
εu = 0.003 (3.7)
Stresses of steel bars:

σst = εstEs if σst > fsy use σst = fsy (3.8)
σsc = εscEs if σsc > fsy use σsc = fsy (3.9)
Forces:
Cc = 0.85f'cγbfdn (3.10)
Cs = Ascσsc (3.11)
Ts = Astσst (3.12)
Equilibrium:
Ts – (Cc + Cs) = 0 (3.13)
Ultimate moment capacity:

φMu= φ[Tsd - Csdsc - Cc(0.5γdn)] (3.14)
Moreover, check φMu ≥ 1.2Mcr (3.15)
Page 3-15
Mcr = 0.6 f' c [bwd2/6] (3.16)

γ = 0.85 - 0.007(f'c - 28) (3.17)
Check ductility, ku = dn/d ≤ 0.40 (3.18)
Minimum reinforcement, ρmin = 0.22(f'cf/fsy)(D/d)2 (3.19)
and f’cf = 0.6 f' c (3.20)
Where fsy – Yield strength of steel bar in MPa

Es – Modulus of elasticity of steel bar in MPa
f’c – Strength of concrete at 28 days in MPa
D – Overall depth of girder in mm
d – Effective depth to centroid of tensile bars in mm
dsc – Depth of compressive bars in mm
bf – Effective width of top flange in mm
bw – Web thickness in mm
Asc – Area of compressive steel bars in mm2
Ast – Area of tensile steel bars in mm2
b- Shear capacity for reinforced concrete only

A simplified approach can be used to calculate shear capacity of concrete without axial
tension as follows:
Assumptions: θv = 36° and f’c ≤ 65 MPa
Concrete capacity Vuc = kv f' c bvdv (3.21)
Where f’c – Strength of concrete at 28 days in MPa

dv – Effective shear depth taken as a distance from resultant
compressive and tensile force in bending capacity calculation but
shall not be less than 0.72 x girder depth in mm
bv – Effective width of web for shear calculation in mm
kv = 200/(1000 + 1.3dv) ≤ 0.10 when Asv < Asv.min
kv = 0.15 when Asv ≥ Asv.min
Shear capacity with reinforcement

Vus = (Asvfsy.fdocotθv)/s (3.22)
Where fsy.f – Yield strength of stirrup in MPa

do – Effective depth measured from the top of compressive fibre
of concrete to the last row of tensile steel bars, in mm
Asv – Area of stirrup in mm2
s – Spacing of stirrup in mm
θv = 36° and cotθv = 1.376
Minimum stirrup Asv.min = 0.06 f' c bvs/fsy.f ≥ 0.35bvs/fsy.f (3.23)
Ultimate shear capacity φVu = φ(Vuc + Vus) ≥ V*eq (φ = 0.7) (3.24)
In no cases Vu ≤ Vu.max (3.25)
Vu.max = kcf’cbvdv[cotθv/(1 + cot2θv)] (3.26)
Page 3-16
kc = 0.5 3 (30 / f ' c) ≤ 0.5 (3.27)
However, the minimum ultimate shear strength Vu.min for beam with at least minimum
shear reinforcement shall be taken as the greater of
1. Vuc + 0.10 f' c bvdo (3.28)

2. Vuc + 0.6 bvdo (3.29)
At an exterior support, the longitudinal reinforcement on the flexural tension side of a

beam shall be able to resist a tensile force of:
φfsyAs ≥ (V* - 0.5Vus)cotθv (φ = 0.7) (3.30)
The termination of longitudinal reinforcement (for flexure) shall satisfy the following
requirements:
1. Not more than a quarter of maximum tensile reinforcement (at midspan) is
terminated within 2D from face of support
2. At cut-off point φVu ≥ V*eq
c- Torsion capacity for reinforced concrete only

Tcr = 0.33 f' c (A2cp/pc) (3.31)
Where Acp – Total area enclosed by outside perimeter of concrete

section in mm2
pc – The length of the outside perimeter of concrete section in
mm
Equivalent shear force for solid section
V*eq = [V*2 + (0.9T*uh/2Ao)2]0.5 (3.32)
Where Ao – Total area enclosed by shear flow path, taken as 0.85Aoh in

mm2
Aoh – Area enclosed by centerline of exterior closed transverse
torsion reinforcement including any holes in mm2
uh – Perimeter of the centerline of the closed transverse torsion
reinforcement in mm
Torsion capacity with transverse reinforcement
Tus = (Asw/s)(2fsy.fAocotθv) ≥ Tcr (3.33)
Minimum reinforcement:
Tus ≥ Tcr or
(Asw.min/s) ≥ 0.2y1/fsy.f (3.34)
Where y1 – Larger overall dimension of a closed fitment in mm

Web crushing due to combined shear and torsion
{[V*/bvdv]2 + [T*uh/1.7A2oh]2}0.5 ≤ 0.2φf’c (3.35)
Longitudinal reinforcement for shear with torsion on flexural tensile side
∆Ftd = 0.5N* + {(V* - 0.5Vus)2 + (0.45T*uh/2Ao)2}0.5cotθv (3.36)
Page 3-17
Where N* - Axial force, positive for tension and negative for

compression, in kN
d- Longitudinal shear across shear plane (Applicable for both precast and monolithic
girder)
Design shear stress acting on the interface
τ∗ = βV*eq/(zbf) (3.37)
Where z – Internal moment lever arm in mm

bf – Effective top flange width of girder in mm
V*eq – Equivalent design shear force for coexisting applied shear
force and torsion in N
β– Ratio of forces, taken as follows:
• For shear plane that passes through a compression region:
β = ratio of the compressive force calculated between the
extreme compressive fibre and the shear plane to the total
compressive force in the section
• For shear plane that passes through a tension region:
β = ratio of the tensile force in longitudinal reinforcement
calculated between the extreme tensile fibre and the shear
plane to the total tensile force in the section
• In all cases β shall not exceed 1.0
Design shear stress shall not exceed shear stress capacity
τ∗ ≤ φτu (3.38)
τu = µ{[Asffsy/sbf] + gp/bf} + kcof’ct ≤ min(0.2f’c, 10 MPa) (3.39)
Where φ – Shear capacity reduction factor, φ = 0.7

Asf – Area of fully anchored reinforcement crossing the interface
in mm2
fsy – Yield strength of shear reinforcement in MPa
s – Spacing of stirrup in mm
gp – Permanent compressive unit load normal to the shear
interface plane in N/mm
µ – Friction coefficient, refer table below
kco – Cohesion coefficient, refer table below
f’ct – The uniaxial tensile strength of concrete, taken as 0.36 f' c

Surface condition of the shear plane Coefficients
µ kco
A smooth surface, as obtained by casting against a form or finished 0.6 0.1
or a similar standard
A surface troweled or tempered so that the fines have been brought 0.6 0.2
to the top
A surface deliberately roughened 0.9 0.4
Monolithic construction 0.9 0.5
Page 3-18
3.4.2 Design for SLS
Short-term elastic deflection shall be calculated by obtaining deflection at midspan from

an analysis (using gross property I) and multiply with the ratio I/Ief. This means that
since the girder cracks during its service, its section properties shall be modified to
effective moment of inertia, Ief.
Ief = Icr + (I – Icr)(Mcr/Ms)3 ≤ Ie.max (3.40)
Where Ief – Effective moment of inertia of girder section in mm4

Icr – Moment of inertia of cracked section in mm4
I – Moment of inertia of gross section in mm4
Mcr – Cracking moment in Nmm
Ms – Bending moment during service in Nmm
Refer to AS5100.5:
Ie.max = I when ρ ≥ 0.005 (3.41)
Ie.max = 0.6I when ρ < 0.005 (3.42)
Moment of inertia of cracked section, Icr shall be determined from transformed section
analysis by trial and error method to find dn.
For T–section
0.5b(dn2) + (n -1)Asc(dn - dsc) + (b f - b)hf(dn - hf/2) - nAst(d - dn) = 0 (3.43)
For rectangular section: 0.5b(dn2) + (n -1)Asc(dn-dsc) - nAst(d - dn) = 0 (3.44)
Moment of inertia of cracked section for T-section
Icr = (1/3)b(dn3) + (n -1)Asc(dn - dsc)2 + [(bf - b)(hf3)/12] + (bf - b)hf(dn - hf/2)2 + nAst(d -
dn)2 (3.45)
For rectangular section: Icr = (1/3)b(dn3) + (n - 1)Asc(dn - dsc)2 + nAst(d - dn)2 (3.46)
Where n – Modulus ratio, n = Es/Ec

hf – Thickness of top flange in mm
Ec = 0.043x(24001.5) f' c mi when f’cmi ≤ 40 MPa (3.47)

Ec = 0.043x(24001.5) f ' cmi + 0.12 when fcmi > 40 MPa
Where f’cm – Mean value of compressive strength of concrete in MPa
Modulus of elasticity of concrete Ec can be taken from Table 3.5 below

f’c (MPa) 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100
f’cmi (MPa) 22 28 35 43 53 68 82 99
Ec (MPa) 24000 26700 30100 32800 34800 37400 39600 42200
Short-term elastic deflection, ∆s = ∆o(I/Ief) (3.48)
Where ∆s – Short-term deflection of girder in mm
Page 3-19
∆o – Deflection of girder obtained from analysis in mm
Long-term deflection (dead load only), ∆long = ∆skcs (3.49)
Taking into account of creep and shrinkage, kcs = 2 – 1.2(Asc/Ast) ≥ 0.8 (3.50)
Deflection-span ratio for live load: ∆/Ln ≤ 1/600 (3.51)
In addition to deflection, crack control shall be satisfied in order to achieve durability of

bridge structures.
Maximum permissible steel stresses due to bar size and spacing at serviceability:
Due to bar size: fscr = 760 – 173loge(db) (3.52)

Due to bar spacing: fscr = 400 – 0.8S (3.53)
Where fscr - Maximum steel stress in MPa

db – Largest bar diameter in mm
S – Steel bar spacing centre to centre in mm
Maximum permissible steel stress shall be the greater of the two permissible
stresses.
Steel stress due service load:

fscr.1 = M/Ze (3.54)
Ze = Zcr/n (3.55)
Zcr = Icr/(d – dn) (3.56)
Where M – Bending moment taking as maximum of bending moment

due to service load and cracking moment due to f’cf = 3 MPa.
Criteria: fscr.1 ≤ fscr (3.57)
Example 3.2: Design of Internal RC Girder

Design the internal girder of bridge superstructure as shown in the Figure 3.11.
Girder dimensions:
Effective width of top flange, bf = 2300 mm Top flange thickness, tf = 200 mm
Total depth of girder, D = 1250 mm Web thickness, bv = 400 mm
Concrete cover = 60 mm (B2 class) Effective span, LL = 15000 mm
Material properties:
Concrete strength f’c = 40 MPa γ = 0.85 – 0.007(40 – 28) = 0.766
20 mm maximum aggregate size
Yield strength of steel fsy = 400 MPa Es = 200000 MPa
Check for the requirement of an intermediate diaphragm:

LL = 15000 mm, and LL/bf = 15000/2300 = 6.52
240bf/D = 240x2300/1250 = 441.6
LL/bf < MIN [441.6,60] = 60 Therefore, no intermediate diaphragm is required.
Page 3-20
a – Bending capacity (at midspan)

From an analysis we obtain:
Bending moment due to self-weight = 823 kNm
Bending moment due to superimposed dead load (AC wearing course) = 70 kNm
Bending moment due to PE = 1.2x823 + 2x70 = 1127.6 kNm
Bending moment due to T44 = 590x2x(1+0.35)x0.9 = 1433.7 kNm
Bending moment due to HLP240 = 1015x1.5x(1+0.1) = 1674.7 kNm Governing live
load
Design bending moment M* = 1127.6 + 1674.7 = 2802.3 kNm
Assumed the neutral axis locates in the top flange and dn = 54 mm and use DB16 for
stirrup.
Let’s have 8-DB36 on bottom and 3-DB20 on top. Top bars will not account for
compressive steel since they are out of compression zone. The 8-DB36 bars will be
arranged as 6 bars in bottom layer with 3 bars in each bundle and the rest 2 bars in the
second layer which is spaced 36 mm clear from the first layer.
As = 8x[3.14x(362)/4] = 8139 mm2
d = 1250 – 140 = 1130 mm (where 140 mm is a distance from steel centroid to
bottom fibre)
εsy = fsy/Es = 400/200000 = 0.002
εst = εu(d - dn)/dn = 0.003x(1130 – 54)/54 = 0.060
σst = εstEs = 0.06x200000 = 12000 MPa, So use σst = 400 MPa
ku = dn/d = 54/1130 = 0.047 < 0.4 OK
Cc = 0.85f'cγbfdn = 0.85x40x0.766x2300x54/1000 = 3234 kN
Ts = Astσst = 400x8139/1000 = 3255 kN
Since Ts is very close to Cc, accept dn = 54 mm
φMu = φ[Tsd - Cc(0.5γdn)] =
= 0.8[3255x1000x1130 – 3234x1000x0.5x0.766x54]/1000000 = 2889 kNm
Check φMu = 2889 kNm > M* = 2802 kNm OK
1.2Mcr = 1.2[0.6 f' c (bwd2/6)] =
= 1.2x0.6x 40 x[400x(11302)/6]/1000000 = 413 kNm
Check φMu = 2889 kNm > 1.2Mcr = 413 kNm OK
ρ = As/bd = 8139/(400x1130) = 0.018
ρmin = 0.22(f'cf/fsy)(D/d)2 = 0.22x[0.6x 40 /400]x(1250/1130)2 = 0.0024 < ρ OK
3-DB20
DB16 stirrup
3-DB12 EF
8-DB36
Figure 3.21 Reinforcement Detail at Midspan
Page 3-21
b- Shear capacity (at a distance d from support)

From the analysis we obtain:
Shear force due to self-weight = 227 kN
Shear force to superimposed dead load (AC course) = 18 kNm
Shear force due to PE = 1.2x227 + 2x18 = 308 kN
Shear force due to T44 = 135x2x(1+0.35)x0.9 = 328 kN
Shear force due to HLP240 = 228x1.5x(1+0.1) = 376 kN Governing live load
Design shear force V* = 308 + 376 = 684 kN
dn shall be calculated based on section near support, but in this example assume dn = 54
mm.
d = do = 1250 – 60 – 16 – 36/2 = 1156 mm (2-DB36 bottom bars only)
dv = d - 0.5γdn = 1156 – 0.5x0.766x54 = 1135 mm > 0.72x1250 = 900 mm
Use Asv > Asv.min, so kv = 0.15
Concrete capacity, Vuc = kv f' c bvdv = 0.15x 40 x400x1109/1000 = 431 kN
Use DB16, Area of stirrup, Asv = 2x200 = 400 mm2
Spacing, s = 200 mm
Asv = 400 > 0.35bvs/fsy.f = 0.35x400x200/400 = 70 mm2
θv = 36° and cotθv = 1.376
Vus = (Asvfsy.fdocotθv)/s = (400x400x1156x1.376/200)/1000 = 1272 kN
φVu = φ(Vuc + Vus) = 0.7x(431 + 1272) = 1192 kN > V*eq = 777 kN (refer
calculation below) OK
kc = 0.5 3 (30 / f ' c) = 0.5 3 (30 / 40) = 0.45
φVu.max = φkcf’cbvdv[cotθv/(1 + cot2θv)] = 0.7x0.45x40x400x1135x[1.376/(1 +
1.3762)]/1000 = 2719 kN > φVu OK
Longitudinal reinforcement at front face of support
As ≥ (V* - 0.5Vus)cotθv/φfsy = (684 – 0.5x1272)x103x1.376/(0.7x400) = 244
mm2 but we need a quarter of 8-DB36 bars to terminate at the support. So, we
need 2-DB36 bars.
2-DB36 bars
326 mm min.
θv = 36°
Bearing
Figure 3.22 Longitudinal Bars at Support
c- Design for torsion

Due to T44, T* = 30.2x0.9x2x(1+0.35) = 73.4 kNm
pc = 400 + 2x(1250 – 200) + 2x(2300 – 400) + 2x200 + 2300 = 7000 mm
Acp = 400x(1250 – 200) + 200x2300 = 880000 mm2
Tcr = 0.33 f' c (A2cp/pc) = 0.33x 40 x(8800002/7000) x10-6 = 231 kNm
uh = 2x(1250 – 2x60 – 20) + 2x(400 – 2x60 – 20) = 2740 mm
Aoh = (1250 – 2x60 – 20)x(400 – 2x60 – 20) =288600 mm2
Ao = 0.85x288600 = 245310 mm2
Page 3-22
V*eq = [V*2 + (0.9T*uh/2Ao)2]0.5 = {6842 + [(0.9x73.4x106x2740/2x245310)x10-

3 2 0.5
] } = 777 kN
Tus = (Asw/s)(2fsy.fAocotθv) = (200/200)x(2x400x245310x1.376)x10-6 = 270
kNm > Tcr OK
(Asw.min/s) = 200/200 = 1.0 ≥ 0.2y1/fsy.f = 0.2x(1250 – 2x60 – 20)/400 = 0.555
mm2/mm OK
{[V*/bvdv]2 + [T*uh/1.7A2oh]2}0.5 = {[684x103/400x1109]2 +
6 2 0.5
[(73.4x10 x2740/1.7x245310 )]} = 2.50 MPa < 0.2φf’c = 0.2x0.7x40 = 5.60
MPa OK
Longitudinal reinforcement for shear with torsion on flexural tensile side
∆Ftd = 0.5N* + {(V* - 0.5Vus)2 + (0.45T*uh/2Ao)2}0.5cotθv = 0 + {(684 –
0.5x1268)2 + (0.45x73.4x2.74/2x0.245)2}0.5x1.376 = 191 mm2
Total required longitudinal reinforcement = 244 + 191 = 435 mm2
Use 2-DB36 bars in the bottom As = 2x1000 = 2000 mm2 > 435 mm2 OK
If full development length of DB36, Lsy = 1500 mm, then the required anchored
length at girder end = 1500x435/2000 = 326 mm.
d – Deflection and crack control at midspan

Moment of inertia of gross section, I = 0.126x1012 mm4
Since ρ = 0.017 > 0.005, Ie.max = I = 0.126x1012 mm4
Ec = 32800 MPa
n = Es/Ec =200000/32800 = 6.1
Using equation (3.43) and (3.45) we obtain dn = 196.22 mm and Icr = 4.77x1010 mm4
Ms = 823 + 1.3x70 = 914 kNm (Dead load only)
Mcr = 413 /1.2 = 344 kNm, Ms > Mcr so the beam cracks
Ief = Icr + (I – Icr)(Mcr/Ms)3
= 4.77x1010 + (12.6 – 4.77)x1010x(344/914)3 = 5.19x1010 mm4
I/Ief = 12.6x1010/5.19x1010 = 2.42
Deflection at midspan from analysis due to dead load, ∆d = 5.50 mm (analysis
with I-section)
∆s = ∆d(I/Ief) = 5.50x2.42 = 13.3 mm
Provide 15 mm precamber at midspan of girder
Deflection at midspan due to T44, ∆s = 4.40 mm (dynamic load allowance
included)
Effective deflection, ∆e = 4.4x2.42 = 10.6 mm and ∆e/L=1//1415 <1/600 OK
Note: creep and shrinkage effect is not included in deflection calculation due to
traffic load because it is an immediate deflection unless traffic is stationary on
the bridge for a period of time.
[bd2/6] = 3x[400x(11302)/6]/1000000 = 255.4 kNm
M = max[Ms, Mcr] = 2030.5 kNm (HLP240 included)
Zcr = Icr/(d – dn) = 4.77x1010/(1130 – 196.22) = 51x106 mm3
Ze = Zcr/n = 51x106/6.1 = 8.36x106 mm3
fscr.1 = M/Ze = 2030.5x106/8.36x106 = 243 MPa
Permissible steel stresses:
For DB36: fscr = 760 – 173loge(db) = 760 – 173xloge(36) = 140 MPa
Bar spacing, S = 400 – 2x(60 + 16 + 36 + 36/2) = 140 mm (for last bottom bars)
For S = 160 mm: fscr = 400 – 0.8S = 400 – 0.8x140 = 288 MPa
Thus, fscr = max[140,288] = 288 MPa > fscr.1 = 243 MPa OK
Page 3-23
3.5 Reinforced Concrete Deck
The deck that is presented here is reinforced concrete deck slab supported by girders.
The minimum thickness of deck is 150 mm. The deck shall be designed for ULS with
localised loading W7 described in section 3.1.2 or other live loads in global effects
obtained from a grillage analysis, as continuous one-way slab having main
reinforcement perpendicular to traffic.
The effective design width of deck for design in bending due to localised loading W7
can be determined below:
bef = Load width + 2.4a[1 – a/Ln] (3.58)
Where bef – Effective width of deck under consideration in mm

Load width = 200 mm (see section 3.1.2)
a – Perpendicular distance from the nearer support to the section
under consideration in mm
Ln – Clear span of deck in mm
Clear span Ln shall be taken as:
• A clear distance between outside faces of girder webs for rectangular girder.
• A clear distance between outside faces of girder webs minus top flange
overhang for deck supported by girders having a thin top flange.
Ultimate moment capacity shall be calculated as
φMu = φρbd2fsy[1 – 0.6ρfsy/f’c)] ≥ M* (3.59)
And φMu ≥ 1.2Mcr = 1.2[0.6 f' c x (bd2/6)] (3.60)
Ultimate shear capacity: φVu = φ0.17bd f' c ≥ V* (3.61)
Where ρ – Steel ratio, ρ = As/bd and ρmin = 0.0025

As – Area of main reinforcement in mm2
b – Width of slab under consideration in mm
d – Effective depth of slab in mm
fsy – Yield strength of steel bar in MPa
f’c – Compressive strength of concrete at 28 days
φ – Strength reduction factor, for bending = 0.8 and
for shear = 0.7
M* - Design moment in kNm
V* - Design shear force in kN
It is also important to check ductility of slab: ku = ρfsy/(0.85γf'c) and ku ≤ 0.4
The distribution reinforcement shall range within 30% and 67% of main reinforcement,
yet its percentage can be determined as below:
Percentage = 3500/ L (3.62)

Where L – span length in mm
Page 3-24
Minimum reinforcement for restrained shrinkage and temperature effects in both

directions shall be taken as:
As.min = 0.008bDeff (3.63)
Where Deff – Effective depth of deck slab taken as:

a) Full depth of deck slab, D, when D ≤ 500 mm
b) Deff = 500 + 0.2(D – 500), when D > 500 mm
As.min is considered for full depth of deck slab (top and bottom face)
Example 3.3: Design of RC Deck
Let’s have superstructure as shown in Figure 3.5. In this example we will look at the
design of RC deck due to HLP240 loading and localised loading W7 using a grillage
model. The bending moment diagrams of deck due to HLP240 loading from the grillage
model is illustrated in Figure 3.23. Strip width is 1.25 m. Moreover, the analysis of deck
is also required to be checked with localised loading W7. The grillage model and
bending moment diagrams due to W7 loading is shown in Figure 3.24.
Deck slab clear span, Ln = 2.3 – 0.4 = 1.9 m
Effective width for W7 loading, bef = 0.20 + 2.4x(1.9/2)x[1 – (1.9/2)/1.9] = 1.34 m
0.385 2.96
2.4
0.69 3.7
0.212 17.1
0.0754 21.6
8.42 0.311 21.8
0.0928 0.398
0.225 0.296
3.093.57
0.112 18 0.243
27.4 15.8
0.106 0.832 27.4
21.2 0.236
13 10.973 0.236
0.474 0.075
0.072 0.0974 21.5 0.713
0.654
28.2
0.075
2.29 28.2 0.364
16 2.66 16.7
32.9 1.23 0.169
0.133 16.1 2.98 32.9
13.1
1.41 0.169
0.275
1.51 0.203
13.6 1.46
33.3
1.22 17.5 33.3
14.1
36.3 9.98
0.149 18.1 4.64 36.3 7.85 0.127
1.33 12.3 0.127
0.17 0.177
13.2 2.24
36.2
14.7 36.2
16.2
40.2 15.3
0.155 18.7 5.75 40.2 12.70.0991
2.08 3.76 0.0991
0.0994 0.203
1.99
5.1 39.6
16.1 0.0626 39.6
13.2
0.149 41.1 18.7 0.0982
0.0785
18 6.19 41.1 15.6
2.46 4.12 0.0785 0.177
2.75
6.07 40.
13.6 0.0598 15
40.3
40.5 19.8 0.08620.0622
0.133 16.1 5.78 40.5 16.7
3.39 0.0622 0.199
2.95
0.060 39.7
15.4 0.0732 39.7
12.3
0.106 39.3 18.6
13 4.93 39.3 1
3.42 1.27 3.89 0.173
3.61 38.5
14.1 38.5
14.3
0.0751 38.3 18
17.1
8.39 4.62 38.3 15.4
16.2
3.53 3.84 0.195
2.13 37.8
16.1 37.8
12.3
36.1 16.1
17.9
3.57 36.1 14.6
16.1
0.385 3.32 2.84 8.25 0.171
9.67 4.23
35.9
2.1 12.8 11.8 35.9
14.4
32.7 13.8
Z 1.3 32.7 12.6
11
11.7 0.198
2.75 12.3 3.82
32.8
23.9 6.19 32.8
Y 23.9 7.23 6.786.29
10.8
X
theta: 290 phi: 30 24.7 4.3
24.7 0.422
Figure 3.23 Bending Moment Diagrams in Transverse Deck

Due to HLP240 Loading (HPL axle loads running on slab)
strips)
At midspan of structure, sagging (positive) moments per 1m strip:
Bending moment due to self-weight = 0.5 kNm/m
Bending moment due to superimposed dead load (AC course) = 0 kNm/m
Bending moment due to PE = 1.2x0.5 + 2x0 = 0.6 kNm/m
Bending moment due to HLP240 = 41x1.5x(1+0.1)/1.25m = 54.1 kNm/m
Page 3-25
Bending moment due to W7 = 27.4x2.0x(1+0.35)/1.34m = 55.2 kNm/m Governing live

load
Design bending moment, M* = 0.6 + 55.2 = 55.8 kNm/m
Assuming to use DB20@200, As = 310x1000/200 = 1550 mm2/m
0.17
1.44
1.57
0.272
1.34
2.92 1.23
0.291 3.18
2.61
4.42
70 2.39 0.111
0.131 4.86
3.72
0.112 5.81 3.31 0.296
70 6.69
4.66 0.668
6.17 3.78
2.61 0.0512 9.01
1.94 5.82
0.145 6.18 2.92 1.19
0.254 2.96 4.65
4.87
8.35 27.4
4.07 8.51 0.904
1.33 5.09
0.188 70 1.15 0.0541
2.85
0.0903 3.23 27
6.66 1.26
7.89 5.11
0.373 5.96
2.75
0.0556 4.4 2.6 0.696
5.67 6.4
1.96 7.85 2.73
9.88 0.333 0.946
7.81
22.6
Z 1.47
X
Y
theta: 115 phi: 30
Figure 3.24 Bending Moment Diagrams in Transverse Deck

Due to W7 Loading
Effective depth, d = 200 – 45 – 20/2 = 145 mm (B1 class, 45 mm cover)

Steel ratio, ρ = As/bd = 1550/(145x1000) = 0.0107 > ρmin = 0.0025 OK
φMu = φρbd2fsy[1 – 0.6ρ(fsy/f’c)] =
= 0.8x0.0107x1000x(1452)x400x[1 – 0.6x0.0107x(400/40)] =
67367867 Nmm/m or 67.4 kNm/m > M* = 58.4 kNm/m OK
1.2Mcr = 1.2[0.6 f' c x(bd2/6)] =
1.2x[0.6x 40 x(1000x1452)/6]x106 = 16.0 kNm/m < φMu OK
γ = 0.85 - 0.007(f'c - 28) = 0.85 – 0.007x(40 – 28) = 0.766
ku = ρfsy/(0.85γf'c) = 0.0107x400/(0.85x0.766x40) = 0.164 < 0.40 OK
Distribution (longitudinal) reinforcement:
Clear span Ln = 1800 mm
Percentage = 3500/ L = 3500/ 1800 = 82.5% > 67% use 67%
As.dis = 67% of 1550 mm2/m = 1038 mm2/m > 500 mm2/m OK
Use DB16@150, As = 1333 mm2/m > 1038 mm2/m
Minimum reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature effects, As.min =
0.008x1000x200 = 1600 mm2/m for both faces of deck slab < 2x1550 mm2/m OK
Repeat the same procedure for hogging (negative) reinforcement.
b – Shear capacity
Shear force due to self-weight = 4.8 kN/m
Shear force due to superimposed dead load (AC course) = 1.4 kN/m
Shear force due to PE = 1.2x4.8 + 2x1.4 = 8.6 kN/m
Shear force due to HLP240 = 17.4x1.5x(1+0.1)/1.25 = 80 kN/m
Page 3-26
Design Shear force, V* = 8.6 + 80 = 88.6 kN/m

φVu = φ0.17bd f' c = 0.7x0.17x1000x145x 40 /1000 = 109.1 kN/m > V* = 88.6
kN/m OK
c – Punching shear
Due to localised effect of W7 loading, punching shear in deck slab shall be checked.
V* = 70x2x(1 + 0.35) = 189 kN
Punching area
dom = d = 135 mm
Girder web
u = 2x(500+145/2)+
2x(200+145) = 1835 mm
βh = 500/200 = 2.5
200
W7 loading fcv = 0.17[1 + 2/βh] f' c
200x500mm = 1.93 MPa
dom/2
φVuo= φudomfcv =
dom/2 = 0.7x1835x145x1.93/1000
500
= 359.5 kN > V* = 189 kN OK
Figure 3.25 Punching Shear of Deck Slab
DB16@150 DB20@200
DB20@200
Figure 3.26 Deck Reinforcement Detail
3.6 Reinforced Concrete Flat Slab

As mentioned early in section 3.3.1, RC flat slab may be required where the
construction of shallow superstructure is needed to be achieved. However, its
disadvantage is the superstructure cannot be constructed in a long span comparing to
deck-girder system. Edge beams are necessarily provided for all discontinuous edges.
The analysis of flat slab is similar to that of deck-girder system in a grillage analysis.
The design for strength is alike to design of approach slab.
Example 3.4: Design of RC Flat Slab

Superstructure span L = 12.00 m
Let’s have typical section of superstructure as shown in below.
Number of design lane n = b/3.1 = 9/3.1 = 2.90. Adopt 2.0 design lanes. The grillage
model is presented in Figure 3.29. Design lane load shall be positioned as close to kerb
Page 3-27
or railing to obtain maximum effects on edge beam. Take 2.5D = 1.50 m as a spacing of
longitudinal strip and 1.0 m as transverse strip spacing.
To simplify the live load envelop, we analyse the superstructure with T44 and HLP240
only. For an accurate design, L44 shall also be included in live load analysis.
Figure 3.27 Cross Section of Flat Slab
Edge beam 0.75x0.5 m

Edge beam 0.75x0.5 m
Traffic
direction Strip 0.6x1.0 m
Strip 0.6x1.5 m
Z
X Y
theta: 315 phi: 30
Figure 3.28 Grillage Model of Flat Slab
Concrete strength f’c = 40 MPa γ = 0.85 – 0.007x(40 – 28) = 0.766
Yield strength of steel fsy = 400 MPa
Concrete cover 45 mm (B1 class)
Page 3-28
Longitudinal reinforcement of flat slab:
Bending moment due to self-weight of slab = 422 kNm
Bending moment due to AC wearing course = 34 kNm
Bending moment due to PE = 1.2x422 + 2x34 = 574 kNm
Bending moment due to T44 = 249x2x(1+0.35)x0.9 = 605 kNm Governing live load
Bending moment due to HLP240 = 308x1.5x(1+0.1) = 508 kNm
Design bending moment M* = 574 + 605 = 1179 kNm
Effective width, b = 1500 mm
Assuming to use DB36@150, As = 1020x1500/150 = 10200 mm2
Effective depth, d = 600 – 45 – 36/2 = 537 mm (B1 class, 45 mm cover)
= 0.8x0.0126x1500x(5372)x400x[1 – 0.6x0.0126x(400/40)] x10-6 =
1612.2 kNm > M* = 1179 kNm OK
1.2Mcr = 1.2x[0.6 f' c (bd2/6)] =
1.2x[0.6x 40 x(1500x5372)/6] x10-6 = 328.3 kNm < φMu OK
γ = 0.85 - 0.007(f'c - 28) = 0.85 – 0.007x(40 – 28) = 0.766
ku = ρfsy/(0.85γf'c) = 0.0126x400/(0.85x0.766x40) = 0.193 < 0.40 OK
Adopt DB36@150 for bottom longitudinal bars

Please note that design of 600x1500 mm slab may be analysed as a rectangular beam
with double reinforcement.
Transverse reinforcement of flat slab

Transverse bending moment occurs due to concentrated/point loads (live loads) only.
For a middle strip 0.6x1.0 m
Bending moment due to T44 = 25x2x(1+0.35)x0.9 = 61 kNm
Bending moment due to HLP240 = 63x1.5x(1+0.1) = 104 kNm Governing live load
M* = 104 kNm
Effective width, b = 1000 mm
Assuming to use DB20@200, As = 310x1000/200 = 1550 mm2
Effective depth, d = 600 – 45 – 36 – 20/2 = 509 mm
= 0.8x0.003x1000x(5142)x400x[1 – 0.6x0.003x(400/40)] x10-6 =
249 kNm > M* = 104 kNm OK
1.2Mcr = 1.2 [0.6 f' c (bd2/6)] =
1.2x[0.6x 40 x(1000x5092)/6]x10-6 = 196.6 kNm < φMu OK
γ = 0.85 - 0.007(f'c - 28) = 0.85 – 0.007x(40 – 28) = 0.766
ku = ρfsy/(0.85γf'c) = 0.003x400/(0.85x0.766x40) = 0.046 < 0.40 OK
However, the requirement for distribution reinforcement is, Percentage = 1750/ L =
1750/ 12000 = 16% and it shall range within 30% and 50%. Try 30% of longitudinal
reinforcement, As = 0.3x10200x1000/1500 = 2040 mm2 > 1550 mm2. Try DB25@200,
As = 450x1000/200 = 2250 mm2 > 2040 mm2 OK
Adopt DB25@200 for bottom transverse bars
Page 3-29
Top bars for flat slab

To control cracking, minimum reinforcement shall be 500 mm2/m in each direction.
Adopt DB16@200 with As = 1000 mm2/m in each direction.
Longitudinal edge beam

Bending moment due to self-weight of slab = 274 kNm
Bending moment due to AC wearing course = 22 kNm
Bending moment due to PE = 1.2x274 + 2x22 = 373 kNm
Bending moment due to T44 = 164x2x(1+0.35)x0.9 = 398.5 kNm Governing live load
Bending moment due to HLP240 = 192x1.5x(1+0.1) = 317 kNm
Design bending moment M* = 373 + 398.5 = 771.5 kNm
Following the procedure of bending design for beam we can have 3-DB16 for top bars
and 4-DB36 for bottom bars with ultimate bending moment capacity of φMu = 803
kNm.
Transverse edge beam

Bending moments in the transverse edge beam due to dead and live load are
significantly small. The beam shall be designed as a diaphragm for bearing
replacement. This design procedure will be outlined in section 3.14 Diaphragm.
b – Shear capacity
Flat slab
Shear force due to self-weight of slab = 175 kN
Shear force due to AC wearing course = 13 kN
Shear force due PE = 1.2x175 + 2x13 = 236 kN
Shear force due to T44 = 117x2x(1+0.35)x0.9 = 284 kN Governing live load
Shear force due to HLP240 = 125x1.5x(1+0.1) = 206 kN
Design shear force, V* = 236 + 284 = 520 kN
φVu = φ0.17bd f' c =
0.7x0.17x1500x537x 40 = 606237 N
Or 606.2 kN > V* = 520 kN OK
Longitudinal edge beam

Shear force due to self-weight of slab = 75 kN
Shear force due to AC wearing course = 4.5 kN
Shear force due PE = 1.2x75 + 2x4.5 = 99 kN
Shear force due to T44 = 54x2x(1+0.35)x0.9 = 131 kN Governing live load
Shear force due to HLP240 = 51x1.5x(1+0.1) = 84 kN
Design shear force, V* = 99 + 131 = 230 kN
Following the design procedure of design of shear for RC beam, we may adopt
DB12@200 to provide φVu = 543 kN.
c – Deflection and crack control

Check deflection and crack control for the whole section of flat slab (600x10000 mm)
Moment of inertia of gross section, I = 1.8x1011 mm4
Since ρ = 0.0126 > 0.005, Ie.max = I = 1.8x1011 mm4
Ec = 32800 MPa
n = Es/Ec =200000/32800 = 6.1
Page 3-30
Mcr = [0.6x f' c x(bd2/6)] = 0.6x 40 x(10000x5372/6)/1000000 = 1823 kNm

From equation 3.44 and 3.46, we obtain dn = 174.24 mm and Icr = 7.5x1010 mm4
MPE = 2856 kNm
Ief = Icr + (I – Icr)x(Mcr/MPE)3
= 7.5x1010 + (18 – 7.5)x1010x(1858/2856)3 = 1.04x1011 mm4
I/Ief = 1.8x1011/1.04x1011 = 1.73
Deflection at midspan from analysis due to dead load, ∆d = 8.0 mm
∆s = 8.0x1.73 = 13.8 mm
Provide precamber of 15 mm at midspan
Deflection at midspan due to T44, ∆s = 4.0 mm (Dynamic load allowance included)
Effective deflection, ∆e = 4.0x1.73 = 6.9 mm and ∆e/L = 1/1739 < 1/600 OK
Note: creep and shrinkage effect is not included in deflection calculation due to traffic
load because it is an immediate deflection unless traffic is stationary on the bridge for a
period of time.
For f’cf = 3 MPa, Mcr = 3[bd2/6] = 3x(10000x5372/6) = 1442 kNm
M = max[Ms, Mcr] = 3328 kNm (Live load included)
Zcr = Icr/(d – dn) = 7.5x1010/(537 – 174.24) = 2.07x108 mm3
Ze = Zcr/n = 2.07x108/6.1 = 3.4x107 mm3
fscr.1 = M/Zcr = 3328x106/3.4x107 = 98 MPa
Permissible steel stress
Thus, fscr = max[140,280] = 280 MPa > fscr.1 = 98 OK
DB16@200 BOTH WAYS
3-DB16
DB12@200
DB25@200
3-DB12 EF
DB36@150 4-DB36
Figure 3.29 Reinforcement Detail of Flat Slab
3.7 Prestressed Concrete Girder

The process for design of prestressed concrete is more complicated than design of
reinforced concrete. There are two types of prestress: pre-tension and post-tension. In
this section, we will look at fully pre-tensioned girders/units only. The readers shall
refer to text books for more details of prestressed concrete design.
The design of prestressed structure usually involves in two stages: transfer and service.
Page 3-31
a- At transfer
Allowable stresses: for compression: -0.6f’ci

for tension: 0.5 f' ci (If reinforcement or bonded
strands are provided near tensile face)
Stress in top fibre: σt = (-Pi/A) + (Pie/Zt) + (-Msw/Zt) (3.64)

Stress in bottom fibre: σb = (-Pi/A) + (-Pie/Zb) + (Msw/Zb) (3.65)
Where Pi – Initial prestress force at transfer in N

A – Gross area of section in mm2
e – Eccentricity of group of strands in mm
Zt – Elastic section modulus of section for top fibre in mm3
Zb – Elastic section modulus of section for bottom fibre in mm3
Msw – Moment due to self-weight of girder in Nmm
f’ci – Compressive strength of concrete at transfer in MPa
The sign convention is that negative is compression and positive is tension.

At transfer, stress in bottom fibre is high in compression due to prestress and sometimes
tension may occur in top fibre. With this reason, some designers may provide prestress
in top as well to tackle the problem of tension in top fibre. In this context, top prestress
shall be also considered in the calculation of stresses. The initial prestress force Pi can
be taken as 90% to 85% of jacking force and assume 10% to 15% immediate loss. The
calculated stress in top and bottom fibre shall not exceed the allowable stresses.
Hogging at midspan:
Due to prestress: ∆p = Meq(L2)/(8EciI) - upward (3.66)
Due to self-weight: ∆sw = 5Ws(L4)/(384EciI) - downward (3.67)
Where Ws – Self-weight of girder in UDL, in N/mm
Meq – Equivalent moment = (1 – 4α2)Pie
Eci – Modulus of elasticity of concrete at transfer
Final deflection (hogging) ∆t = ∆p - ∆sw
Girder hog shall not exceed Span/300.
b- At service
Prestress force decreases because of loss which is known as immediate and time-
dependent loss. The total loss is huge and may vary from 25% to 40%. Effective
prestress force Pe shall be estimated accurately for the determination of effective stress
in the structure.
Allowable stresses: for compression: -0.4f’c
for tension: 0.5 f' c (If reinforcement or bonded
strands are provided near tensile face)
For prestressed concrete members in
exposure classification B2, C1, C2 and U,
the concrete at the level of each tendon
shall be in compression under the
serviceability limit state load combinations
that comprises PE + 50% transient effects
Page 3-32
Stress in top fibre: σt = (-Pe/A) + (Pee/Zt) + (-Ms/Zt) (3.68)

Stress in bottom fibre: σb = (-Pe/A) + (-Pee/Zb) + (Ms/Zb) (3.69)
Where Pe – Effective prestress force at service after all losses in N

Ms – Moment at service in Nmm
c- Immediate and time-dependent losses:
Stress in strand at jacking, σj = Pj/Ap (3.70)
Where Ap – Area of prestressing strands in mm2

Pj – Jacking force in N
Immediate losses:
• Loss due to steel relaxation: commonly used between 1% and 3% for normally
cured prestressed concrete and between 7% and 10% for steam curing.
• Loss due to elastic shortening
Prestressing force after loss, Pi = (100% - loss in %)xPj
Stress of concrete in strand level: ∆σci = (Pi/A) + (Pie2 / I) - (Mswe/ I) (3.71)
Stress in strands: ∆σp = (Ep / Eci)∆σci (3.72)
Percentage loss = ∆σp/σj (3.73)
Where I – Moment of inertia of section in mm4

Ep – Modulus of elasticity of strand in MPa
Eci – Modulus of elasticity of concrete at transfer
Immediate Loss = loss due to relaxation + loss due to elastic shortening
Note: Actually, concrete elastic shortening process starts after relaxation takes place
and the prestress force continues to decrease due to gradual elastic shortening.
Therefore, an accurate calculation of loss due to elastic shortening can be made by
adding a gradual loss due to shortening and it can be best made by a trial and error
procedure until a final value is obtained.
Time-dependent losses:
• Loss due to shrinkage ∆σsh = εcsEp/[1 + 15As/Ag] (3.74)
Where As – Area of prestressing strands/tendons and reinforcement

Ag – Area of girder
Percentage loss = ∆σsh/σj (3.75)
Where εsh – Design shrinkage strain of concrete
• Loss due to creep

Stress of concrete in strand level: ∆σci = (Pi/A) + (Pie2 / I) - (Msuse/ I) (3.76)
Design creep strain: εc = φcc(∆σci/Ec) (3.77)
Stress in strand: ∆σc = 0.8εcEp (3.78)
Percentage loss = ∆σc/σj (3.79)
Time-dependent Loss = loss due to shrinkage + loss due to creep + loss due to
relaxation
Page 3-33
Total loss = Sum of all losses
d – Incremental stresses
If tensile stress at SLS exceeds 0.5 f' c then incremental stress in strands/tendons shall
be checked. For crack control of prestressed concrete beams, the following incremental
stresses in tendons or/and reinforcing steel bars shall be limited to:
• 160 MPa with T44 and L44
• 200 MPa with HLP240 and 300-A-12
The incremental stress shall be calculated from decompression state where tensile stress
at bottom fibre is zero, to full service load excluding residual creep, differential
shrinkage and vertical temperature gradient through girder depth. The incremental stress
in the bottom strands shall be calculated in two stages:
1. From decompression moment Md to crack moment Mcr, the incremental
stress is calculated using uncracked section
2. From Mcr (refer equation below) to full service moment, the incremental
stress is calculated using cracked section if full service moment exceeds
crack moment
The total incremental stress is the sum of the incremental stress of both stages
e- Ultimate capacity
1. Flexural capacity
φMu = φApσpu(dp - 0.5γdn) (3.80)

dn = Apσpu/(0.85f'cγb) (3.81)
σpu = fpu(1 - k1k2/γ) 0.5fpy ≤ σpu ≤ fpu (3.82)
If fpy/fp < 0.9 k1 = 0.4 otherwise k1 = 0.28
k2 = [Apfp + (As – Asc)fsy]/(beffdpf'c) (3.83)
Mcr = Zbc[(P/A) + 0.6 f' c - σcs] + Pe (3.84)
σsc = [2.5ρ – 0.8ρc]Esεcs/(1 + 50ρ) (3.85)
Design criteria: φMu ≥ M* and φMu ≥ 1.2Mcr

ku = dn/dp ≤ 0.4
Where fpu – Tensile strength of strand in MPa

fpy – Yield strength of strand in MPa
Ap – Total area of strands in mm2
dp – Effective depth of group of strand in mm
bef – Effective width compression face in mm
ρ – Tensile reinforcement ratio in web
ρc – Compressive reinforcement ratio in web
εcs – Final design shrinkage strain of beam
2. Shear capacity
Concrete capacity Vuc = kv f' c bvdv (3.86)
Page 3-34
Where f’c – Strength of concrete at 28 days in MPa and f' c ≤ 8.0 MPa
dv – Effective shear depth taken as a distance from resultant
compressive and tensile force in bending capacity calculation but
shall not be less than 0.72 x girder depth in mm
bv – Effective width of web for shear calculation in mm. For
post-tensioned girders, internal tendon ducts shall exclude from
dv.
kv = [0.4/(1 + 1500εx)]x[1300/(1000 + kdgdv)] (3.87)
kdg = 32/(16 + dg) (3.88)
θv = 29 + 7000εx (3.89)
Longitudinal strain in concrete with shear only
εx = {│M*/dv + V*│ - Pv + 0.5N* - Apsfpo}/2(EsAs + EpAps) (3.90)
Within the limits 0 ≤ εx ≤ +0.003
εx = {│M*/dv + V*│ - Pv + 0.5N* - Apsfpo}/2(EsAs + EpAps + EcAct) (3.91)
Within the limits -0.002 ≤ εx ≤ +0.003
Where dg – Maximum size of aggregate in mm

M* and V* are absolute values and M* ≥ (V* - Pv)dv
N* - Axial force (not prestress force), taken as positive for
tension and negative for compression, in kN
Pv – Vertical component of prestress force (for post-tensioning)
in kN
As and Aps – Area of reinforcing steel and pretsressing tendons in
the half-depth of the section containing the flexural zone in mm2
fpo – Effective prestress in tendons, taken as 0.7fpu, in MPa
Act – Area of concrete on flexural tension side in mm2
Longitudinal strain in concrete with shear and torsion
εx = {M*/dv +[(V* – Pv)2 + (0.9T*uh/2Ao)2]0.5 + 0.5N* - Apsfpo}/2(EsAs + EpAps)

(3.92)
Within the limits 0 ≤ εx ≤ +0.003
εx = {M*/dv + [(V* – Pv)2 + (0.9T*uh/2Ao)2]0.5 + 0.5N* - Apsfpo}/2(EsAs + EpAps

+ EcAct) (3.93)
Within the limits -0.002 ≤ εx ≤ +0.003
M* ≥ dv[(V* – Pv)2 + (0.9T*ph/2Ao)2]0.5 (3.94)
Page 3-35
Vu.max = kcf’cbvdv[cotθv/(1 + cot2θv)] + Pv (3.95)
3. Design for Torsion
Tcr = 0.33 f' c (A2cp/pc)[1 + σcp/0.33 f' c ] (3.96)
Where σcp – Average intensity of effective prestress at the centroid or at

the junction of the web and the flange in MPa
Equivalent shear force for box section
V*eq = V* + T*ds/2Ao (3.97)
Web crushing due to combined shear and torsion:

• For box section:
(i) Where wall thickness tw > Aoh/uh
(V* - Pv)/bvdv + T*uh/1.7A2oh ≤ 0.2φf’c (3.98)
(ii) Where wall thickness tw ≤ Aoh/uh

(V* - Pv)/bvdv + T*/1.7twAoh ≤ 0.2φf’c (3.99)
• For other sections:

{[(V* - Pv)/bvdv]2 + [T*uh/1.7A2oh]2}0.5 ≤ 0.2φf’c (3.100)
Longitudinal reinforcement on the flexural tensile side

• Shear with torsion
∆Ftd = 0.5N* + {(V* - 0.5Vus – Pv)2 + (0.45T*uh/2Ao)2}0.5 cotθv (3.101)
• Shear without torsion

∆Ftd = 0.5N* + (V* - 0.5Vus – Pv)cotθv (3.102)
Additional longitudinal reinforcement and tendons required to resist ∆Ftd shall be fully
anchored.
Asfsy + Apfpy ≥ ∆Ftd/φ (where φ = 0.7) (3.103)
At an exterior support, the longitudinal reinforcement on the flexural tension side of a

beam shall be able to resist a tensile force of:
φfsyAs ≥ (V* - 0.5Vus – Pv)cotθv + 0.5N* (φ = 0.7) (3.104)
e- End block
Effective prestress at end of girder is very small for pre-tensioned members. The
prestress varies from zero at end face of girder to maximum effective prestress σe at the
transmission length Lt which is equal to 60 times of strand diameter. However,
minimum reinforcement which is generally in a form of grid or closed stirrup is
required to control cracking at end block. Minimum reinforcement shall be designed
from 4% of the total prestressing force at transfer and the stress of reinforcement shall
be taken as 150 MPa.
Page 3-36
f- Debonding
Maximum number of strands is required at midspan, but near a support the number of
active strands shall be reduced. This is explained that at transfer, moment due to self-
weight of girder is very small near a support as prestress in the girder is still high at that
section and as the result tensile stress may become high in top fibre. Therefore, some
strands shall be inactive by debonding the strands using dedonding tape around strands
to break the bond between the strands and concrete. As a rule of thumb, the maximum
debonding length shall not exceed a quarter of span length and the number of debonded
strands shall not be more than 50% of the total number of strands in the girder. As
required by AS5100, the bonded strands shall have capacity to resist a tensile force as
specified in Eq (3.104).
Example 3.5: Design of PSC Deck Unit
The typical section and details of 10 m spam PSC deck unit are shown in Figure 3.30.
The units are simply supported and transverse stressing is applied to achieve bonding
between them. They shall be designed for a highway bridge deck.
Note: in this example, PSC deck units are bond together by transverse prestress. The
transverse prestress is produced in prestressing bars spaced at 2050 mm. With this
intent, based on experience and a rule of thumb, the section properties of transverse
members shall be taken as follows:
Cross sectional area, A = normal area of the section
Torsional property, J = 0
Moment of inertia about transverse axis of bridge, Iy = very large
Moment inertia about longitudinal axis of bridge,
Ix = 0.03x(Strans/Slong)Ix,long (3.105)
Where Strans - Spacing of transverse members

Slong - Spacing of longitudinal members/deck units
Ix,long - Moment of inertia of longitudinal members/deck units
Location in the section of deck unit: Midspan
Strands:
Diameter of strand, ds = 12.7 mm
Area of single strand, Ap = 100 mm2
Yield strength of strand, fpy = 1564 MPa
Tensile strength of strand, fpu = 1840 MPa
Minimum breaking force, Fb = 184 kN
Jacking force per strand, Fj = 0.80x184 = 147.2 kN
Modulus of elasticity of strand, Ep = 195000 MPa
Page 3-37
Forces:
Moment due to dead load, MDL = 78.9 kNm
Moment due to live load, MLL = 110.1 kNm
Moment at service load, Ms = 222 kNm
Design moment, M* = 342 kNm
Superimposed dead load (AC wearing), Wsup = 1.41 kN/m
Uniform self-weight, Ws = 4.91 kN/m
Moment due to self-weight of deck unit, Mo = WsL2/8 = 61.3 kNm
a- Allowable stresses
At transfer: in compression: -0.6f'ci = -0.6x40 = -24 MPa
in tension: 0.5 f' ci = 0.5x 40 = 3.16 MPa
Eci = 32800 MPa
At service: in compression: -0.4f'c = -0.4x40 = -20 MPa
in tension: 0.5 f' c = 0.5x 50 = 3.53 MPa
Ec = 34800 MPa
b- Centroid of strand group

The distance from bottom fibre of girder to the centroid of strand group is calculated as
y = Σ(No. of strands x yi)/Σ(No. of strands)
y = (10x55 + 2x325)/12 = 100 mm
Eccentricity, e = (380/2) – 100 = 90 mm
Effective depth, dp = 380 – 55 = 325 mm
c- Jacking force and stress

Jacking force, Pj = FjxNo of strands = 147.2x12 = 1766.4 kN
Jacking stress, σj = Fj/Ap = 147.2x103/100 = 1472 MPa
d- Losses of prestress:
• Immediate losses:
Assume loss due to relaxation = 7% (steam curing)
Pi = (100% - 7%)Pj = (100% - 7%)x1766.4 = 1643 kN
Loss due to elastic shortening:
∆σci = (Pi/A) + (Pie2/I) – (Moe/I) = [1643x103/189800] + [1643x103x902/2700x106] -
[61.3x106x90/2700x106] = 8.65 + 4.93 – 2.04 = 11.54 MPa
∆σp = (Ep/Eci)∆σci = 11.54x(195000/32800) = 68.6 MPa
Percentage of loss, ∆σp/σj = 68.6/1472 = 4.6%

Immediate loss: 7% + 4.6% = 11.6% say 12%
Pi = (100% - 12%)Pj = (100% - 12%)x1766.4 = 1554.4 kN
Page 3-38
Figure 3.30 Typical Details of 10 m Span Deck Unit
Page 3-39
• Time-dependent losses:
Loss due to shrinkage: refer section 3.11 for shrinkage calculations
ue = 2430 mm and th = 2A/ue = 2x189800/2430 = 156 mm
k4 = 0.5 for tropical climate
ε*csd.b = 1000x10-6
For 1 day after casting concrete, t = 1 day
α1 = 0.8 + 1.2e-0.005x156 = 1.35
k1 = 1.35x10.8/(10.8 + 0.15x156) = 0.054
For 30 years = 10950 days
k1 = 1.35x109500.8/(109500.8 + 0.15x156) = 1.33
From 1 day to 30 years, k1 = 1.33 – 0.054 = 1.276
εcsd = 1.276x0.5x(1.0 – 0.008x50)x1000x10-6 = 383x10-6
εcse = (0.06x50 – 1.0) x50x10-6x(1.0 – e-0.1x10950) = 100x10-6
Design shrinkage strain for 30 years, εcs = (100 + 383)x10-6 = 483x10-6
Ap = 12x100 = 1200 mm2
Ag = 189800 mm2
∆σsh = 0.000483x195000/[1 + 15x1200/189800] = 86.4 MPa
Percentage of loss, ∆σsh/σj = 86.4/1472 = 5.8%
Loss due to creep: refer section 3.12 for creep calculations
∆σci = (Pi/A) + (Pie2 / I) - (Mo/ I) =
[1554.4x103/189800] + [1554.4x103x902/2700x106] - [61.3 x106x90/2700x106] =
8.2 + 4.66 – 2.04 = 10.82 MPa
From Table 3.12 take φcc.b = 2.4
For th = 156 mm
α2 = 1.0 + 1.12e-0.008x156 = 1.32
For 1 day
k2 = 1.32x10.8/(10.8 + 0.15x156) = 0.054
k2 = 1.32x109500.8/(109500.8 + 0.15x156) = 1.30
k3 = 1.26
k4 = 0.5
k5 = 1.0
φcc = 1.246x1.26x0.5x1.0x2.4 = 1.88
∆σc = 0.8x1.88x10.82x195000/34800 = 91.2 MPa

Percentage of loss, ∆σc/σj = 91.2/1472 = 6.2 %
Loss due to relaxation:

For long-term, loss due to relaxation may increase from 7% at transfer to 10% at
service. Therefore, loss due to relaxation is 3%.
Time dependent loss = 5.8 + 6.2 + 3% = 15%
Total loss = Immediate losses + Time-dependent losses = 12% + 15% = 27%
Page 3-40
e- Prestress forces
Prestress force at transfer Pi = (100% - 12%)x1766.4 = 1554.4 kN
Prestress force at service Pe = (100% - 27%)x1766.4 = 1289.5 kN
f- Stresses
• At transfer (Prestress force + self-weight of unit)
Top fibre:
σt = (-Pi/A) + (Pie/Zt) + (-Mo/Zt) = - (1554.4x103/189800) + (1554.4x103x90)/14210526
- (61.3x106/14210526) = -8.2 + 9.85 – 4.3 = - 2.66 MPa (Compression) < 3.16 MPa OK
Bottom fibre:
σb = (-Pi/A) + (-Pie/Zb) + (Mo/Zb) = - (1554.4x103/189800) -
(1554.4x103x90)/14210526 + (61.3x106/14210526) = - 8.2 – 9.85 + 4.3 = - 13.75 MPa
< - 24 MPa OK
• At full service loads (Prestress force + all dead loads + all live loads)
Top fibre:
σt = (-Pe/A) + (Pee/Zt) + (-Ms/Zt) = - (1289.5x103/189800) + (1289.5x103x90)/14210526
- (222x106/14210526) = - 6.8 + 8.16 – 15.61 = - 14.25 MPa < - 20 MPa OK
Bottom fibre:
σb = (-Pe/A) + (-Pee/Zb) + (Ms/Zb) = - (1289.5x103/189800) -
(1289.5x103x90)/14210526 + (222x106/14210526) = - 6.8 - 8.16 + 15.61 = 0.65 MPa
(Tension) < 3.53 OK
g- Flexural Strength
γ = 0.85 - 0.007(f'c - 28) = 0.85 – 0.007x(45 – 28) = 0.731
fpy/fpu = 0.85 < 0.9 k1 = 0.4
k2 = (Apfp)/(bdpf'c) = (10x100x1840)/(596x325x45) = 0.211
σpu = fpu(1 - k1k2/γ) = 1840x(1 – 0.4x0.211/0.731) = 1627 MPa < fp OK
dn = Apσpu/(0.85f'cγb) = (10x100x1627)/(0.85x45x0.731x596) = 97.6 mm
ku = dn/dp = 97.6/325 = 0.3 < 0.4 Ductile section
Strength reduction factor for flexure, φ = 0.8
φMu = φApσpu(dp - 0.5γdn) = 0.8x10x100x1627x(325 – 0.5x0.731x97.6)x10-6 = 376 kNm
φMu = 376 kNm > M* = 342 kNm OK
h- End block
Prestress force at transfer at end of girder, Pi = 8x(100% - 12%)x147.2 = 1036 kN
Area of steel required for crack control, As = 4%Pi/fs = 0.04x1036x103/150 = 276 mm2
Area of single bar RB10, As = 78 mm2, required 4-RB10 bars for both vertical and
horizontal bars. The end grid has 5-RB10 horizontally and 7-RB10 vertically.
i- Design for transverse stressing

Stress of cement grout is required to be checked for transverse bending with transverse
prestress. Shear friction between the deck units is checked to confirm that the applied
transverse stressing provides adequate bond between the adjacent deck units. Cement
grout is inserted into the gap between the units to provide smooth bearing area to
transfer stressing from a deck unit to another one. Adequate bond between the units
provides good distribution for wheel loads. The number of transverse stressing bars is 5
per deck unit. From the analysis with T44, design shear force is V* = 2.0x1.35x23.6 =
63.7 kN/m. According to AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, SI units,
Third Edition, 2005, ultimate shear capacity in friction can be estimated as, φVn =
Page 3-41
φ[cAef + µP], where φ = 0.9, µ = 0.51, c = 0.52 MPa and Aef = 380x1000 = 380x103
mm2/m and P is compression force.
Providing transverse stressing at jacking, Pj = 350 kN with assumed total loss of 35%, P
= 350x0.65 = 227.5 kN. Per 1 m run, P = 227.5x5/10 = 113.75 kN/m. Ultimate shear
capacity in friction, φVn = 0.9x[0.52x380x103 + 0.51x113.75x103]/1000 = 230 kN/m >
V* OK. Shear friction due to HLP240 loading shall also be checked.
Figure 3.31 Details of Transverse Stressing for 10 m PSC Deck Unit
Example 3.6: Design of PSC T-roff Girder
Let’s have a PSC T-roff girder bridge as shown in Figure 3.7. The girder span is 30 m
long and they are spaced at 2.10 m. 200 mm thick RC deck is cast on top of the girders.
To have an accurate detail design of PSC girder, the designer shall understand the
construction sequence very well. The following assumptions are made for the
construction of superstructure:
• At 0 – 1 day: girder is stressed (at transfer)
• At 30 days: girder is delivered to construction site
• At 90 days: girder is erected
• At 100 days: deck and diaphragm are cast
In accordance with this construction sequence, from 0 to 100 days the girder is non-
composite, but from 101 days to 100 years (full life) the girder is composite with RC
deck. Creep and shrinkage effects shall be taken into account regarding to this
construction sequence.
Page 3-42
Figure 3.32 Details of Dimension and Strand Patterns
a- Material properties
• Concrete
Concrete strength of RC deck at 28 days, f’cd = 40 MPa, Ec = 32800 MPa
Concrete strength of girder at 28 days, f’cg = 50 MPa, Ec = 34800 MPa
Allowable concrete stresses, compression: -0.4f’c = 0.4x50 = -20 MPa
tension: = 0.5 f' c = 0.5x 50 = 3.53 MPa
Concrete strength of girder at transfer, f’ci = 40 MPa, Eci = 32800 MPa
Allowable concrete stresses, compression: -0.6f’ci = 0.6x40 = -24 MPa
tension: = 0.5 f' ci = 0.5x 40 = 3.16 MPa
• Strand and steel bar
Type of strand, φ15.2/7-wire super strand, low relaxation
Yield strength of strand, fpy = 1487.5 MPa
Tensile strength of strand, fpu = 1750 MPa
Jacking force, use 80% of braking force, Fj = 0.8x250 = 200 kN per strand
Yield strength of steel bar, fsy = 400 MPa
b- Section properties
• Girder section properties
A = 547.6x103 mm2, I = 157051x106 mm4, ue = 8545 mm
Zt = 189897x103 mm3, Zb = 233369x103 mm3, yt = 827 mm, yb = 673 mm
• Section properties of composite
Effective width of RC deck for composite section, B = 2100x[ f' cd / f' cg ] =
2100x[ 40 / 50 ] = 1878 mm
Ac = 920.7x103 mm2, Ic = 349561x106 mm4, uec = 8760 mm
Ztc = 537911x103 mm3, Zbc = 332867x103 mm3, ytc = 650 mm, ybc = 1050 mm
J = 1.715x1011 mm4
Page 3-43
Note: Though the RC barrier is monolithically cast with RC deck, the barrier is
discontinued over its length. A gap is provided every 6.0 m, i.e. there are 5 panels of
barrier per span. Taking into account of discontinuity, the barrier is not considered as a
part of composite section in this example.
Figure 3.33 Non-composite and Composite Section
• Strand group and eccentricities (at midspan)

The distance from bottom fibre of girder to the centroid of strand group is calculated as
y = Σ(No. of strands x yi)/Σ(No. of strands)
From Figure 3.33, at midspan, y = (12x65 + 14x115 + 14x165 + 4x215 + 2x1435)/46 =
183.3 mm
Eccentricity of strand group for non-composite, e = yb – y = 673 – 183.3 = 489.7 mm
Eccentricity of strand group for composite, ec = ybc – y = 1050 – 183.3 = 866.7 mm
c- Losses
• Immediate losses
Assume that the girder is steam cured and initial relaxation is 7%
The number of strands at midspan, N = 46 strands
Jacking force, Pj = NxFj = 46x200 = 9200 kN. Jacking stress, σj = 200x103/143 =
1398 MPa
Pi = (100% - 7%)x9200 = 8556 kN
Self-weight of girder, W = Ax25 = 0.547x25x1.05 = 14.35 kN/m (Add 5% due to
weight of solid sections)
Bending moment due to self-weight, Mo = 14.35x302/8 = 1615 kNm
Stress of concrete at centroid of strand, ∆σci = (Pi/A) + (Pie2 / I) - (Moe/ I)
∆σci = (8556x103/547.6x103) + (8556x103x489.72/157051x106) -
(1615x106x489.7/157051x106) = 15.6 + 13.06 – 5.03 = 23.63 MPa
Stress in strands, ∆σe = ∆σci(Ep/Eci) = 23.63x(195000/31950) = 144 MPa
Page 3-44
Loss due to elastic shortening, ∆σe/σj = 144/1389 = 10%

However, let’s try to include loss due to elastic shortening in the recalculation of Pi.
Pi = (100% - 7% - 10%)x9200 = 7636 kN
∆σci = (7636x103/547.6x103) + (7636x103x489.72/157051x106) -
(1615x106x489.7/157051x106) = 13.95 + 11.65 – 5.03 = 20.57 MPa
Stress in strands, ∆σe = ∆σci(Ep/Eci) = 20.57x(195000/31950) = 125.5 MPa
Loss due elastic shortening, ∆σe/σj = 125.5/1398 = 9%
The exact value of loss due to elastic shortening can be repeated using trial and error. In
this calculation, we adopt 9% for loss due to elastic shortening.
Total immediate loss = 7% + 9% = 16%
• Time-dependent losses
Pi = (100% - 16%)x9200 = 7728 kN
Shrinkage loss: refer section 3.11 for shrinkage calculations
From 1 day to 100 days (Non-composite)
th = 2A/ue = 2x547.6x103/8545 = 128 mm
ε*csd.b = 1000x10-6
α1 = 0.8 + 1.2e-0.005x128 = 1.33
k1.1d = 1.33x10.8/(10.8 + 0.15x128) = 0.053
From 100 days to 30 years (Composite)
th = 2Ac/uec = 2x920.7x103/8760 = 210 mm
It’s conservative to use th = 210 mm at 30 years. However, since from 100 days to 30
years, the girder section gradually changes from th = 128 mm to 210 mm, an average
value of th shall be used and th = (128 + 210)/2 = 170 mm.
For 30 years, t = 10950 days
α1 = 0.8 + 1.2e-0.005x170 = 1.31
k1.30y = 1.31x109500.8/(109500.8 + 0.15x170) = 1.295
From 1 day to 30 years, Design coefficient k1 = (k1.30y – k1.100d) + (k1.100d – k1.1d) = k1.30y
– k1.1d = 1.295 – 0.053 = 1.242 (From this calculation we can ignore k1.100d)
εcsd = 1.276x0.5x(1.0 – 0.008x50)x1000x10-6 = 383x10-6
εcse = (0.06x50 – 1.0) x50x10-6x(1.0 – e-0.1x10950) = 100x10-6
Ap = 42x143 = 6006 mm2
Ag = 189800 mm2
∆σsh = 0.000483x195000/[1 + 15x6006/189800] = 64.0 MPa
Percentage of loss, ∆σsh/σj = 64/1398 = 4.6%
Creep loss: refer section 3.12 for creep calculations

Stress of concrete at strand centroid:
∆σci = (Pi/A) + (Pie2 / I) – (Moe/ I) =
= (7728x103/547.6x103) + (7728x103x489.72/157051x106) –
(1615x106x489.7/157051x106) =
14.1 + 11.8 – 5.03 = 20.8 MPa
Non-composite structure: th = 128 mm
α2 = 1.0 + 1.12e-0.008x128 = 1.40
Page 3-45
k2.1d = 1.40x10.8/(10.8 + 0.15x128) = 0.07

For 30 years, t = 10950 days
Composite structure: th = 170 mm
α2 = 1.0 + 1.12e-0.008x170 = 1.22
k2.30y = 1.22x109500.8/(109500.8 + 0.15x170) = 1.20
Design coefficient k2 = (k2.30y – k2.100d) + (k2.100d – k2.1d) = k2.30y – k2.1d = 1.20 – 0.07 =
1.13 (From this calculation we can ignore k2.100d)
k3 = 1.26
k4 = 0.5
k5 = 1.0
Design basic creep strain, φcc.b = 2.4
φcc = 1.13x1.26x0.5x1.0x2.4 = 1.70
Design creep strain, εc = 1.70x20.8/34800 = 0.00101
Stress in strand, ∆σc = 0.8x0.00101x195000 = 158.5 MPa
Percentage of loss, ∆σc/σj = 158.5/1398 = 11.3%
Relaxation loss: 3%
Time-dependent loss = 4.6% + 11.3% + 3% = 18.9% say 19%
Total loss = 16% + 19% = 35%
d- Prestress forces
Prestress force at transfer, Pi = (100% - 16%)Pj = (100% - 16%)x9200 = 7728 kN
Prestress force at service, Pe = (100% - 35%)Pj = (100% - 35%)x9200 = 5980 kN
e- Stresses
• At transfer
At top fibre, σt = (-Pi/A) + (Pie/Zt) + (-Msw/Zt) = - (7728x103/547.6x103) + (7728x103x
489.7/189897x103) – (1615x106/189897x103) = - 14.1 + 20 – 8.5 =
= - 2.6 MPa < 3.16 MPa OK
At bottom fibre, σb = (-Pi/A) + (-Pie/Zb) + (Msw/Zb) = - (7728x103/547.6x103) -
(7728x103x489.7/233369x103) + (1615x106/233369x103) = - 14.1 – 16.2 + 6.9 =
= - 23.4 MPa < - 24 MPa OK
• At service
Non-composite action: prestress, self-weight of girder and deck
Composite action: self-weight of barrier, DBST and live load
Bending moments at midspan:
Due to self-weight of girder, Mg = 14.35x29.22/8 = 1530 kNm
Non-composite
Due to self-weight of RC deck, Md = 11.5x29.22/8 = 1125 kNm
Due to self-weight of barrier, Mb = 1023 kNm
Composite
Due to self-weight of DBST, Mdbst = 128 kNm
Note: The effective span (from centreline of bearing to centreline of bearing) is 29.2 m.
Stresses due to permanent effects (PE)

At top of RC deck, σtd = - (Mb + Mdbst)/Ztc = - [(1023 + 1.3x128)x106/537911x103] =
= - 2.21 MPa
Distance from top fibre of girder to centroid of girder, yg = D - ybc = 1500– 1050 = 450
mm
At bottom of RC deck, σbd = - (Mb + Mdbst)yg/Ic = -[(1023
+1.3x128)x106x450/349561x106]
= - 1.53 MPa
Page 3-46
At top of girder, σtg = - (Pe/A) + (Pee/Zt) – [(Mg + Md)/Zt] – [(Mb + Mdbst)yg/Ic] =

= - (5980x103/547.6x103) + (5980x103x489.7/189897x103) – [(1530 + 1125)x106/
189897x103] – 1.53 = - 10.87 + 15.36 – 13.95 – 1.53 = -11.0 MPa
At bottom of girder, σbg = - (Pe/A) – (Pee/Zb) + [(Mg + Md)/Zb] + [(Mb + Mdbst)/Zbc] =
- 10.87 - (5980x103x489.7/233369x103) + [(1530 + 1125)x106/233369x103] +
[(1023 + 1.3x128)x106/332867x103] = -10.87 – 12.5 + 11.35 + 3.57 = - 8.45 MPa
Stress due to live load

Bending moment due to T44, MT44 = 2890 kNm
Bending moment due to HLP200, MHLP = 3560 kNm
Envelop bending moment due to live load at midspan, MLL =
MAX[1.35x2890,1.1x3560] = 3916 kNm
At top of RC deck, σtd = - MLL /Ztc = - 3916x106/537911x103 = - 7.3 MPa
At bottom of RC deck, σbd = - MLL yg/Ic = - 3916x106x450/349561x106 = - 5.04 MPa
At top of girder, σtg = - 5.04 MPa
At bottom of girder, σbg = MLL /Zbc = 3916x106/332867x103 = 11.76 MPa
Total stresses
At top of RC deck, σtd = - 2.21 – 7.3 = - 9.51 MPa < - 20 MPa OK
At bottom of RC deck, σbd = - 1.53 – 5.04 = - 6.57 MPa < - 20 MPa OK
At top of girder, σtg = - 11.0 – 5.04 = -16.04 MPa < - 20 MPa OK
At bottom of girder, σbg = - 8.45 + 11.76 = 3.31 MPa < 3.53 MPa OK
The stresses at top and bottom of RC deck shall be converted using deck concrete
strength.
Top of deck
-7.3
-2.21 -9.51
-11.0 -16.04
-1.53 -5.04 -6.57
Bottom of deck/
top of girder
+ =
Bottom of girder
-8.45 11.76 3.31

Stresses Stresses due Stresses
due to PE live load at service
Figure 3.34 Stress Diagrams
In case where σbg > 3.53 MPa, the incremental stress in strands shall be checked.
For example, for MT44 = 1.35x3500 = 4725 kNm
Stress at bottom of girder due to T44, σbg = MT44/Zbc = 4725x106/332867x103 = 14.20
MPa
Total service stress at bottom of girder, -8.45 + 14.2 = 5.75 MPa > 3.53 MPa, So it is
required to check incremental stress in strands.
Page 3-47
Stress due to prestress, weight of girder and deck slab, σ = - (Pe/A) – (Pee/Zb) + [(Mg +
Md)/Zb] = -10.87 – 12.5 + 11.35 = -12.02 MPa
Decompression moment (which produces zero tensile stress in the bottom of girder)
Mdec = Zbcσ + Mg + Md = 332867x103x12.02/106 + 1530 + 1125 = 6656 kNm
Stress at top of the girder due to Mdec
σtg = - (Pe/A) + (Pee/Zt) – [(Mg + Md)/Zt] + Zbcσ(ytc – Ds)/Ic = - 10.87 + 15.36 – 13.95 +
332867x103x12.02x(650 – 200)/349561x106 = - 4.31 MPa
Compressive stress in the first bottom strands, σinc1 = -4.31x(195000/34800)x(65/1500)
= -1.04 MPa
Ratio of compressive steel, ρc = Asc/(2bdp) = 1377/(2x100x1573.7) = 0.00437
Ratio of tensile steel, ρ = Ap/(2bdp) = 44x143/(2x100x1573.7) = 0.0200
Shrinkage stress, σsc = [2.5ρ – 0.8ρc]Esεcs/(1 + 50ρ) = [(2.5x0.02 –
0.8x0.00437)x195000x483x10-6/(1 + 50x0.02) = 2.19 MPa
Cracking moment, Mcr = Zbc[(P/A) + 0.6 f' c - σcs] + Pe = {332867x103x[10.87 +
0.6 50 - 2.19] + 5980x103x489.7}x10-6 = 7230 kNm
From decompression moment to cracking moment, Minc2 = 7230 – 6656 = 574 kNm
Stress at in the first bottom strands, σinc2 = (Ep/Ec) Minc2(ybc – 65)/Ic =
(195000/34800)x574x106(1050 - 65)/ 349561x106 = 9.05 MPa
Total service moment, Ms = 1530 + 1125 + 1023 + 128 + 4725 = 8531 kNm
From cracking moment to service moment, Minc3 = 8531 – 7230 = 1301 kNm
From this stage (because Ms > Mcr), bottom girder cracks and we need to use crack
section (or transformed section) analysis to calculate stress in the strands. From a crack
section analysis, we get incremental stress in the first bottom strands, σinc3 = 102 MPa
Total incremental stress, sinc = (-σinc1) + σinc2 + σinc3 = -(-1.04) + 9.05 + 102 = 112.09
MPa < 160 MPa OK
f- Ultimate capacity
• Ultimate capacity in flexture
Ultimate bending moment due to live loads, MLL = MAX[1.35x2890x2,1.1x3560x1.5]
= 7803 kNm
Design bending moment at midspan, M* = 7803 + 1.2x(1530 + 1125 + 1023) + 2x128
= 12473 kNm
γ = 0.85 – 0.007(f’c – 28) = 0.85 – 0.007x(50 – 28) = 0.696
Centroid of bottom strands at midspan, ybs = (12x65 + 14x115 + 14x165 + 4x215)/44 =
126.3 mm
Effective depth, dp = 1500 + 200 – ybs = 1700 – 126.3 = 1573.7 mm
k1 = 0.4
k2 = (Apfp)/(Bdpf'c) = (44x143x1750)/(1878x1573.7x50) = 0.075
σpu = fpu(1 - k1k2/γ) = 1750x(1 – 0.4x0.075/0.696) = 1675 MPa
dn = Apσpu/(0.85f'cγB) = 44x143x1675/(0.85x50x0.696x1878) = 189.7 mm
Cc = 0.85f'cγBdn = 0.85x50x0.696x1878x189.7x10-3 = 10538 kN
Tp = Apσpu = 44x143x1675 x10-3 = 10539 kN which is very close to 10538 kN OK
Ultimate capacity in flexture, φMu = φ[Tpdp – Cc0.5γdn] = 0.8x[10539x103x1573.7 –
10538x103x0.5x0.696x189.7]x10-6 = 12711 kNm > M* = 12473 kNm OK
ku = dn/dp = 189.7/1573.7 = 0.12 < 0.4 OK
But this method is conservative because steel bars in RC deck are completely ignored.
Now try to include compressive steel bars in RC deck in the calculation of dn assuming
the steel bars are at yield.
Page 3-48
Figure 3.35 Force Diagram for Equilibrium
There are two layers of DB12@150 in RC deck. For the width B, steel area of each
layer is Asc = (1878/150)x110 = 1377 mm2. Take 35 mm cover and DB16 for transverse
reinforcement in RC deck, dsc1 = 35 + 16 + 12/2 = 57 mm and dsc2 = 200 – 35 – 16 –
12/2 = 143 mm. Using trial and error, we can obtain dn = 169.9 mm. Now we have to
check for the force equilibrium.
Cc = 0.85f'cγBdn = 0.85x50x0.696x1878x169.9x10-3 = 9438 kN
Cs1 = Cs2 = Ascfsy = 1377x400x10-3 = 551 kN
C = Cc + Cs1 + Cs2 = 9438 + 551 + 551 = 10540 kN
Tp = Apσpu = 44x143x1675x10-3 = 10539 kN is very close to C = 10540 kN, therefore
accept dn = 169.9 mm.
Ultimate capacity in flexture, φMu = φ[Tpdp – Cc0.5γdn – Cs1dsc1 – Cs2dsc2] =
0.8x[10540x103x1573.7 – 9438x103x0.5x0.696x169.9 – 551x103x57 –
551x103x143]x10-6 = 12734 kNm which is very close to 12711 kNm.
Therefore, we can calculate the ultimate capacity in flexture by ignoring compressive
steel bars in RC deck.
• Shear and torsion design

Shear forces at a distance 1600 mm from support
Due to self-weight of girder, Vg = 186 kN
Due to self-weight of RC deck, Vd = 150 kN
Due to self-weight of barrier, Vb = 125 kN
Due to self-weight of DBST, Vdbst = 15 kN
Due to T44, VT44 = 285 kN
Due to HLP200, VHLP = 475 kN
Maximum shear force due to live load, VLL = MAX[1.35x285x2,1.1x475x1.5] = 769
kN
Design shear force, V* = 1.2x(186 + 150 + 125) + 2x15 + 769 = 1352 kN
The corresponding bending moments at the distance of 1600 mm from support

Due to self-weight of girder, Mg = 290 kNm
Page 3-49
Due to self-weight of RC deck, Md = 224 kNm

Due to self-weight of barrier, Mb = 210 kNm
Due to self-weight of DBST, Mdbst = 45 kNm
Due to T44, MT44 = 375 kNm
Due to HLP200, MHLP = 635 kNm
Maximum moment due to live load, MLL = MAX[1.35x375x2,1.1x635x1.5] = 1048
kNm
Design moment, M* = 1.2x(290 + 224 + 210) + 2x45 + 1048 = 2007 kNm
The corresponding torsions at the distance of 1600 mm from support

Due to self-weight of barrier, Tb = 12 kNm
Due to T44, TT44 = 68 kNm
Due to HLP200, THLP = 95 kNm
Maximum torsion due to live load, TLL = MAX[1.35x68x2,1.1x95x1.5] = 183.6 kNm
Design torsion, T* = 1.2x12 + 183.6 = 198 kNm
At a distance of 1600 mm from support:

Eccentricity of strand group, e = 445 mm and ec = 822 mm
Effective prestress force, Pe = 3692 kN (29% total loss)
bv = 2x100 = 200 mm
Distance from bottom fibre to centroid of strands
y = (6x65 + 8x115 + 8x165 + 2x215)/24 = 127.5 mm
dp = 1700 – 127.5 = 1572.5 mm
Assume dn = 165 mm
dv = dp - 0.5γdn = 1572.5 – 0.5x0.696x165 = 1515 mm > 0.72x1700 = 1224 mm
do = 1700 – 65 = 1635 mm
Take aggregate size = 20 mm, kdg = 32/(16 + dg) = 32/(16 + 20) = 0.89
Pv = 0 kN, N* = 0 kN
Aps = 24x143 = 3432 mm2 and As = 0
fpo = 0.7fpu = 0.7x1750 = 1225 MPa
Average compressive stress, σcp = Pe/A = 3692x103/547.6x103 = 6.74 MPa
pc = 7345 mm
Acp = 1848600 mm2
uh = 4882 mm
Aoh = 1304710 mm2
Ao = 0.85x1304710 = 1109003 mm2
εx = {M*/dv +[(V* – Pv)2 + (0.9T*uh/2Ao)2]0.5 + 0.5N* - Apsfpo}/2(EsAs + EpAps)
= {2007x106/1515 + [(1352 x103)2 + (0.9x198x106x4882/2x1109003)2}0.5 –
3432x1225}/2x(195000x343) = -0.0011 > 0.0 shall include EcAct
Assume bottom flange in tension, Act = 757x260 = 196820 mm2
εx = {2007x106/1515 + [(1352 x103)2 + (0.9x198x106x4882/2x1109003)2}0.5 –
3432x1225}/2x(195000x3432 + 34800x196820) = -0.000098
θv = 29 + 7000εx = 29 + 7000x(-0.000098) = 28.3°
kv = [0.4/(1 + 1500εx)]x[1300/(1000 + kdgdv)] = [0.4/(1 + 1500x(-
0.000098))]x[1300/(1000 + 0.89x1515)] = 0.26
Vuc = kv f' c bvdv = 0.26x 50 x200x1515x10-3 = 557 kN
Cotθv = 1.875
Take DB20@200 as stirrup, Asv = 2x310 = 620 mm2
Vus = Asvfsydocotθv/s = (620x400x1635x1.875/200)x10-3 = 3801 kN
Page 3-50
φ(Vuc + Vus) = 0.7x(557 + 3801) = 3050 kN

kc = 0.5 3 (30 / f ' c) = 0.5x 3 (30 / 50) = 0.42 ≤ 0.5
φVu.max = φkcf’cbvdv[cotθv/(1 + cot2θv)] + Pv = 0.7x0.42x50x200x1515x[1.875/(1 +
1.8752)]x10-3 + 0 = 1849 kN so take φ(Vuc + Vus) = 1849 kN
Take ds = do = 1635 mm
V*eq = V* + T*ds/2Ao = 1352 + (198x106x1635/2x1109003)/1000 = 1498 kN < 1849
kN OK
Tcr = 0.33 f' c (A2cp/pc)[1 + σcp/0.33 f' c ] = 0.33x 50 x(18486002/7345)x[1 +
6.74/(0.33x 50 )]x10-6 = 4221 kNm
Tus = (Asw/s)(2fsy.fAocotθv) = (310/200)x(2x400x1109003x1.875)x10-6 = 2578 kNm
(Asw.min/s) = 310/200 = 1.55 mm2/mm ≥ 0.2y1/fsy.f = 0.2x(1700 – 2x65)/400 = 0.79
mm2/mm OK tw = 100 mm < Aoh/uh = 1304710/4882 = 267 mm
(V* - Pv)/bvdv + T*/1.7twAoh = (1352x103/200x1515) + (198x106/1.7x100x1304710) =
5.35 MPa ≤ 0.2φf’c = 0.2x0.7x50 = 7.0 MPa OK
Longitudinal reinforcement at do from face of support
∆Ftd = 0.5N* + {(V* - 0.5Vus – Pv)2 + (0.45T*uh/2Ao)2}0.5cotθv
={(1352 – 0.5x3801)2 + (0.45x198x4.882/2x1.1)2}0.5x1.875 = 1093 kN
Effective prestress force = Pe = (100% - 16%)x200 = 168 kN per strands
If the strands are fully anchored, we need = 1093/(168) = 6.5 strands say 7 strands
Check bending capacity
Aps = (24 – 7)x143 = 2431 mm2
Tp = Apσpu = 2431x1675x10-3 = 4072 kN
Assume lever arm z = dv = 1515 mm
φMu = 0.8x1.515x4072 = 4935 kNm > M* = 2007 kNm OK
Reinforcement required at face of bearing
Since 0.5Vus > V* conservatively assume no tension contribution from Vus.
φfsyAs ≥ (V* - 0.5Vus – Pv)cotθv + 0.5N* = 1352x1.875 = 2535 kN
Transmission length, Lt = 60ds = 60x15.2 = 912 mm
Distance from girder end to the intersection of shear crack line and the first bottom
strands is 600 mm, so effective prestress force = 168x600/912 = 110.5 kN
Required number of strands to resist 2535 kN, 2535/110.5 = 22.9 < 24 strands OK
24 strands
600 mm
θv = 28.3°
Bearing
Figure 3.36 Longitudinal Bars at Support
Page 3-51
g- Elastic deformation of girder

• Hogging
3784 kNm
3457 kNm 327 kNm
2933 kNm 524 kNm
1944 kNm 989 kNm

α1L = 912 1944 kNm
α2L = 3000 + 912 = 3912

α3L = 5500 + 912 = 6412
α4L = 7500 + 912 = 8412
15000
Figure 3.37 Bending Moment Diagram for Calculation of Hog
Transmission length, Lt = 60ds = 60x15.2 = 912 mm

From 912 to 3912 mm
Number of bonded strands = 26
Pi1 = 26x(100% - 16%)x200 = 4368 kN, e1 = 445 mm
M1 = Pi1e1 = 4368x0.445 = 1944 kNm
α1 = 912/30000 = 0.0304 and Meq1 = M1(1 – 4α12) = 1944x(1 – 4x0.03042) = 1939 kNm
From 3912 to 6412 mm
Pi2 = 36x(100% - 16%)x200 = 6048 kN, e2 = 485 mm
M2 = Pi2e2 = 6048x0.485 = 2933 kNm
α2 = 3912/30000 = 0.1304 and Meq2 = (M2 – M1)(1 – 4α22) = 989x(1 – 4x0.13042) = 922
kNm
From 6412 to 8412 mm
Pi3 = 42x(100% - 16%)x200 = 7056 kN, e3 = 490 mm
M3 = Pi3e3 = 7056x0.49 = 3457 kNm
α3 = 6412/30000 = 0.214 and Meq3 = (M3 – M2)(1 – 4α32) = 524x(1 – 4x0.2142) = 428
kNm
From 8412 to 15000 mm
Pi4 = 46x(100% - 16%)x200 = 7728 kN, e4 = 489.7 mm
M4 = Pi4e4 = 7728x0.4897 = 3784 kNm
α4 = 8412/30000 = 0.2804 and Meq4 = (M4 – M3)(1 – 4α42) = 327x(1 – 4x0.28042) = 224
kNm
Meq = 1939 + 922 + 428 + 224 = 3513 kNm
Due to prestress, ∆pb = Meq(L2)/(8EciI) = 3513x106x(300002)/(8x32800x157051x106)
= 77 mm (upward)
Due to self-weight, ∆sw = 5Ws(L4)/(384EciI) =
5x14.35x(300004)/(384x32800x157051x106) = - 29 mm (downward)
Total hogging at transfer, ∆t = 77 - 29 = 48 mm
We also need to check the hog at 100 days (at installation). Hog at 100 days is greater
than hog at transfer due to creep effects.
Page 3-52

k2 = 0.07
For 100 days, t = 100 days
α2 = 1.0 + 1.12e-0.008x128 = 1.40
k2 = 1.40x1000.8/(1000.8 + 0.15x128) = 0.944
Net k2 = 0.944 – 0.07 = 0.874 (from 1 to 100 days)
k3 = 1.26
k4 = 0.5
k5 = 1.0
φcc = 0.874x1.26x0.5x1.0x2.4 = 1.32
Assume reduction of prestress from transfer to 100 days is 5% and modulus of elasticity
of concrete increases from Eci to Ec.
Hog at 100 days, ∆100d = ∆t[1 + φcc]x0.95x(Eci/Ec) = 48[1 + 1.32]x0.95x(32800/34800)
= 99.7 say 100 mm = L/300 OK
• Elastic shortening
Elastic shortening over a distance, ∆i = σiLi/Eci
From 912 to 3912 mm, L1 = 3000 mm, σ1 = P1/A = 4368x103/547.6x103 = 8 MPa
∆1 = 8x3000/32800 = 0.73 mm
From 3912 to 6412 mm, L2 = 2500 mm, σ2 = P2/A = 6048x103/547.6x103 = 11 MPa
∆2 = 11x2500/32800 = 0.84 mm
From 6412 to 8412 mm, L3 = 2000 mm, σ3 = P3/A = 7056x103/547.6x103 = 12.9 MPa
∆3 = 12.9x2000/32800 = 0.78 mm
From 8412 to 15000 mm, L4 = 6588 mm, σ4 = P4/A = 7728x103/547.6x103 = 14.11
MPa
∆4 = 14.11x6588/32800 = 2.83 mm
Total shortening due to prestress at one end, ∆p = 0.73 + 0.84 + 0.78 + 2.83 = 5.18 mm
At 100 days, ∆100d = 5.18[1 + 1.32]x0.95x(32800/34800) = 10.76 mm
Now let’s have a look at shortening due to shrinkage.
For 1 days, k1 = 0.053
α1 = 1.33
For 100 days
k1 = 1.33x1000.8/(1000.8 + 0.15x128) = 0.897
From 1 to 100 days, k1 = 0.897 – 0.053 = 0.844
εcsd = 0.844x0.5x(1.0 – 0.008x50)x1000x10-6 = 253x10-6
εcse = (0.06x50 – 1.0) x50x10-6 x(1.0 – e-0.1x10950) = 100x10-6
For one end, ∆sh = (L/2)εcs = (30000/2)x253x10-6 = 3.8 mm
Total elastic shortening at 100 days at one end, ∆ = 10.76 + 3.8 = 14.56 mm say 15 mm
• Rotation and casting dimension

Due to a hog, the girder is bent upward, angle of rotation of girder at 100 days, tanθ =
hog/(L/2) = 100/(30000/2) = 0.0067 say 0.007
Page 3-53
Figure 3.38 Rotation due to Hog
Top offset, ∆t = 827xtanθ = 827x0.007 = 5.8 mm

Bottom offset, ∆b = 673xtanθ = 673x0.007 = 4.7 mm
Shortening due to elastic deformation of girder at 100 days:
Top: 15 – 5.8 = 9.2 mm say 9 mm
Bottom: 15 + 4.7 = 19.7 mm say 20 mm
To cast the girder, the shortening shall be taken into account to achieve 30 m long
girder at 100 days. Casting dimensions are:
Top length: 30000 + 2x9 = 30018 mm
Bottom length: 30000 + 2x20 = 30040 mm
In figure below, the dashed lines represent casting shape whereas the solid lines
represent final shape of girder at 100 days.
Figure 3.39 Casting Dimensions
3.8 Precamber and Hog
It is practicable to design a bridge having smooth deck surface. As we are aware,

superstructure deflects downward under its own self-weight. The deflection causes
sagging in deck. To minimise the problem, precamber in RC girders and deck slabs
shall be made with the same amount of deflection under self-weight. The example of
calculation of deflection under self-weight of RC girder is discussed in Example 3.2.
Page 3-54
Cautions shall be also made with PSC girder. PSC girder produces hog (upward
deflection) due to prestress. The amount of hog depends on the age of concrete and
prestress. Hog at the age of installation shall be carefully estimated and if RC deck slab
is present on top of PSC girder, precamber of deck due to its self-weight shall be taken
into account as well.
To understand precamber and hog, schematic diagrams are shown in Figure 3.40 and
3.41.
Figure 3.40 Precamber of RC Girder
Page 3-55
Figure 3.41 Hog and Precamber for PSC Girder
3.9 Fatigue Design of Concrete Beam
3.9.1 Design fatigue loads for road bridges
Fatigue stress cycles are shown in Table 2.3.8, section 2.3.8 “Fatigue Loading” of CAM
PW 04.102.99 for each type of traffic loading. Load factor used for fatigue design shall
be 1.0 with dynamic load allowance. Unless specified otherwise by the road authority,
the route factor may be applied here:
a- For principal highway and freeway 1.0
b- For urban freeway 0.7
c- For rural roads 0.5
d- For urban roads 0.3
3.9.2 Design fatigue loads for rail bridges
The fatigue design railway load shall be 300-A-12 and half of DLA with a load factor
of 1.0. Number of stress cycles shall be obtained from the railway authority. In absence
of detailed information, the number of stress cycles of 300-A-12 can be estimated from
this equation.
N = C t x nT (3.106)
Where Ct – The base number of load cycles taken from Table 3.6
nT – Number of equivalent stress cycles taken from Table 3.7
Page 3-56

Track category Ct Actual axle load
Heavy haul 6x105 >25 t
Passenger line 1x105 Up to 20 t
Main line freight 1x105 Up to 25 t
Branch line 1x104 Up to 25 t

Lf (m) nT
< 2.5 240
2.5 < Lf < 9.0 60
9.0 < Lf < 25.0 60[(2Lv – Lf)/Lf]3 + 2
> 25.0 2
Where Lf – Span of main girder or cross girder in m

Lv – Distance between the centres of axle group (12m)
3.9.3 Allowable fatigue stress
When assessing stress for fatigue design in flexural members with shear reinforcement,
stress in reinforcement (including prestressing strands) shall be calculated using truss
analogy method by limiting angle of compressive strut to member axis between 35° and
55°.
Permissible stress range/variation in steel: fp = 150αf (MPa) (3.107)
Stress range factor: αf = (2 x 106/n)(1/3) ≥ 0.74 (3.108)
Where n – Number of stress cycles
Criteria: Variation in stress (difference between maximum and minimum) f* ≤ fp

However, AS5100.5, clause 2.5 Fatigue mentions that for concrete road bridges, fatigue
is not required to be checked if stress cycles are less than 500,000.
Example 3.7: Fatigue Design of 15 m Span Internal RC Girder
Let’s have the internal RC girder as discussed in Example 3.2.
1. Live load proportion: Need to find out maximum shear force in the girder from
the grillage analysis and to compare maximum shear force of 2 x T44 loads
from a stick model analysis.
From a grillage analysis, maximum shear force due to 2 x T44 loads, Vg = 135
kN
From a stick model analysis, maximum shear force due to 2 x T44 loads, VT44 =
644 kN. The distribution factor is 135/644 = 0.21.
2. Truss analogy model: The girder is modeled as a truss with an inclined angle
of inclined member to girder axis between 35° and 55°. The truss will be
analysed with a moving load of 0.21 of 2 x T44 loads. Minimum and maximum
stress in bottom chord at midspan and vertical member near a support shall be
defined from the analysis with this moving load (design fatigue load).
Page 3-57
3. Design fatigue loads: 2x0.9x96 kNx0.21x(1 + 0.35) = 49 kN

2x0.9x48 kNx0.21x(1 + 0.35) = 24.5 kN
96 96 96 96 110
48
322
Y Figure 3.42 Single T44 and Shear Force Diagram

Z X
theta: 270 phi: 0
Truss geometry: Panel width = 1.0 m, panel height = 1.05 m

Number of panel = 15 (15m span)
49 49 49 49 24.5
Figure 3.43 Truss Analogy Model and Moving Loads

Y
Z X
theta: 270 phi: 0
565565 581581 597597 597597 566566
544544
476476 493493
361 361 405405
317317
240240 229229
120120 114114
Figure 3.44 Tensile Force Diagram for Bottom Chord
Z X
theta: 270 phi: 0
4. Fatigue stresses:
Number of stress cycles, n = 500,000 (see clause 2.38, CAM PW 04.102.99)
Stress range factor, αf = (2 x 106/n)(1/3) = (2 x 106/500 000)(1/3) = 1.60 > 0.74, Use
1.60
Permissible stress range/variation in steel, fp = 150x1.60 = 240 MPa
For principal highway, route factor is 1.0.
Bottom reinforcement:
From the result of truss analysis with moving loads, we obtain:
Maximum tension force, Tmax = 597 kN
Minimum tension force, Tmin = 0 kN
Variation in force, T = Tmax – Tmin = 597 kN
Steel area of bottom reinforcement, As = 8139 mm2
Page 3-58
Variation in stress, f* = T/As = 597x103/8139 = 73.35 MPa < fp = 240 MPa OK

Vertical reinforcement/stirrup:
From the result of truss analysis with moving loads, we obtain:
Maximum tension force, Tmax = 154 kN
Minimum tension force, Tmin = -2 kN
Variation in force, T = Tmax – Tmin = 154 – (-2) = 156 kN
Steel area of vertical reinforcement per 1m with (1m panel width)
For 2-DB16 @ 200 c/c, Asv = 2x200x1000/200 = 2000 mm2/m
Variation in stress, f* = T/Asv = 156x103/2000 = 78 MPa < fp = 240 MPa OK
3.10 Temperature
Daily and seasonal fluctuations in air temperature and solar radiation cause both
variations in average bridge temperature and differential temperature gradients across
bridge structures.
3.10.1 Variation in average bridge temperature
Shade air temperature fluctuates and varies upon the climatic regions. Maximum and
minimum shade air temperatures are illustrated in Table 2.9.2 (a) in CAM PW
04.102.99 and are shown in Table 3.8 here.
Air temperature fluctuations cause temperature variations (increase and decrease) in

bridge structure. According to AS5100.2 Clause 17 Thermal Effects, average bridge
temperatures shall be determined from Table 3.9 below.

Min. Max.
Shade air Average bridge Shade air Average bridge
temperature °C temperature °C temperature °C temperature °C
-8 2 50 54
-2 4 46 50
4 8 42 46
10 12 38 43
34 40
30 37
Page 3-59
Coefficient of thermal expansion for concrete is α = 11x10-6 per degree Celsius.
Figure 3.45 Climatic Region of Cambodia (Source: CAM PW 04.120.99)
Example 3.8: Determination of Temperature Variation

Climatic region – Flat land, thus maximum shade air temperature is 42°C and minimum
is 8°C (see Table 3.8)
From Table 3.9, average bridge temperature maximum is 46°C and minimum is 11°C.
Let’s have the concrete sets at the temperature of 30°C. The difference in bridge
temperature is ∆T = 46°C – 30°C = 16°C for temperature rise and 30°C – 11°C = 19°C
for temperature drop.
Expansion strain, εt = α∆T = 11x10-6 x 16 = 176x10-6
Contraction strain, εt = α∆T = 11x10-6 x 19 = 209x10-6
3.10.2 Differential temperature
Vertical differential temperature gradient through superstructure depth may cause

significant changes in stress of bridge superstructure. The design differential
temperatures are indicated in clause 2.9.3, CAM PW 04.102.99 and are shown in Table
3.10.
Page 3-60
Design effective vertical temperature gradients of bridge superstructure types shall be

defined in Clause 17 of AS5100.2 as illustrated in Figure 3.46 here.
Bridge type 1 – Concrete beam and slab

Negative differential
temperature gradient
0.4T T
T(°C)
300
5
T(y) = T(1 – y/1200)
200
5°C – soffit within 8 m of ground
0°C – over water
y
Bridge type 2 – Concrete box girders
0.4T T T+3 T(°C)
d = 300 max. 300 d
T(y) = T+3 – 0.05y

in shaded area
5
T(y) = T(1 – y/1200)
In overhang flange
200
5°C – soffit within 8 m of ground
0°C – over water
Figure 3.46 Differential Temperature Through Girder Depth
Page 3-61
Bridge type 3 – Concrete slab on steel I-girder

0.4T - 3 T+5
T(°C)
t
300
5
T(y) = (T+5)(1 – y/1200)
Figure 3.46 Differential Temperature Through Girder Depth (Cont.)
Example 3.9: Determination of Stress due to Differential Temperature
Let’s have a prestressed I-girder shown in figure 3.47.

Section properties of girder: Section properties of composite:
A = 218x103 mm2 ds = 200 mm bs = 1800 mm

Zt = 41.1x106 mm3 Ac = 578x103 mm2 Zbc = 86.6x106 mm3
Zb = 48.1x106 mm3 Ztc = 210x106 mm3 ybc = 780 mm
I = 19950x106 mm4 Ic = 6.75x1010 mm4 ytc = 320 mm
yb = 415 mm Material: f’c = 45 MPa Ec = 33915 MPa
200 350
900
Figure 3.47 PSC I-Girder
RC deck is cast on the top of girder and it becomes a composite structure.

Assumed the girder locates just above 2.0 m from water surface. Temperature gradient,
Page 3-62
T = +13ºC (hot top). This temperature gradient varies from value T at top of RC deck to
0.4T at top of girder and zero at a distance of 850 mm from top as shown in a figure
below.
Strain due to T, εt = Tα = 13x11x10-6 = 143x10-6
Forces caused by strains, F1 = (1 + 0.4)(εtEcAf)/2 and F2 = 0.4(εtEcAg)/2
T
ds F1
e1 0.4T
ytc
e2
850
F2
M
ybc
0
Figure 3.48 Internal Forces due to Differential Temperature
Area of RC deck (flange), Af = dsbs = 200x1800 = 360x103 mm2

F1 = (1 + 0.4)x143x10-6x33915x360x103 /2 = 1222160 N or 1222 kN
Eccentricity, e1 = ytc – 80 = 320 – 80 = 240 mm
Area of girder subject to temperature gradient (from 0.4T to 0), Ag = 350x100 +
250x100 + 450x150 = 127.5x103 mm2
F2 = 0.4x143x10-6x33915x127.5x103 /2 =123671 N or 124 kN
Eccentricity, e2 = (200 + 650/3) - ytc = (200 + 650/3) – 320 = 97 mm
Total force, F = 1222 + 124 = 1346 kN
Due to eccentricity, bending moment M = (F1e1 – F2e2) =

M = 1222x0.240 – 124x0.097 = 281 kNm
Since RC deck tends to resist expansion, compressive stress occurs in RC deck:

Deck top, σdt = -Ecεt = 33915x143x10-6 = - 4.85 MPa
Deck bottom, σbt = -0.4σdt = -0.4x4.85= - 1.94 MPa
Due to tensile force F and bending moment M, the stresses are:
Stress at top of RC deck, σdt = F/Ac + M/Ztc = 1346x103/578x103 + 281x106/210x106 =
3.67 MPa
Stress at bottom of PSC girder, σb = F/Ac – M/Zbc = 1346x103/578x103 –
281x106/86.6x106 = -0.91 MPa
From a linear interpolation, stress at bottom of RC deck, σdb = 2.84 MPa
Total stresses due to differential temperature gradient can be illustrated in the diagram
below:
Page 3-63
Top of RC deck
-4.85 3.67 -1.18
-1.94 2.84 0.90

850 -1.5 2.34 883 0.84 Bottom of RC deck/
NA top of girder
0.14
+ =
PSC girder
-0.91 -0.91
Compressive Total stresses

stresses Stresses due to
in RC deck tensile force
All stresses in MPa and –ve is compression
Figure 3.49 Stresses due to Differential Temperature
Note that due to an increase of temperature the structure expands, i.e. the top deck tends
to expand whereas girder vertical reinforcement (stirrups) which is extended to the deck
prevents the expansion. As the result compression occurs in the deck. Total stresses will
be taken into account with stresses caused by permanent effects with a load
combination PE + Thermal Effects + 0.7 x live load or PE + Traffic + 0.7 x Thermal
Effects. Bending moment caused by differential temperature shall include in ULS
design too. Stress shall also be checked for negative differential temperature gradient
(cold top) as well.
3.11 Shrinkage
Shrinkage (drying process) in concrete occurs from the first day of casting concrete to
its whole life of service. There are two types of shrinkage:
• uniform shrinkage: shrinkage takes place uniformly throughout structure depth
and it is commonly used for determination of superstructure movement. It
happens to all concrete superstructure.
• differential shrinkage: differential shrinkage takes place in superstructure where
new concrete is cast over precast structural elements or it is cast over an old-age
concrete structural element. This phenomenon occurs because of two factors:
different concrete age and different concrete strength. In addition, this also
happens when concrete deck is cast on top of steel beams to have a composite
structure.
Shrinkage effect is a permanent phenomenon throughout structure life and it shall be
considered as a permanent effect (PE).
3.11.1 Uniform shrinkage
The design shrinkage strain, εcs = εcse + εcsd (3.109)
Page 3-64
The autogenous shrinkage strain, εcse = ε∗cse(1.0 – e-0.1t) (3.110)

The final autogenous shrinkage strain, ε∗cse = (0.06f’c – 1.0)x50x10-6 (3.111)
The basic drying shrinkage strain, εcsd = k1k4(1.0 – 0.008f’c)ε∗csd.b (3.112)
The shrinkage strain coefficient, k1 = α1t0.8/(t0.8 + 0.15th) (3.113)
The coefficient, α1 = 0.8 + 1.2e-0.005th (3.114)
The hypothetical thickness of member, th = 2Ag/ue (3.115)
Where t – Time since commencement of drying in days

k4 – Coefficient taken as 0.5 for tropical and near-coast
environment
ε∗csd.b – The final basic drying shrinkage strain, may be taken as
1000x10-6
Ag – Area of gross section of member in mm2
ue – Exposed perimeter of a member cross section and plus half
perimeter of any voids contained therein in mm
Example 3.10: Determination of Shrinkage Strain

Superstructure: Concrete beam
Environment: Cambodia – tropical category with relative humidity (RH) > 70%
Concrete strength, f’c = 50 MPa
Area of composite section, Ag = 578x103 mm2
Exposed perimeter of composite structure, ue = 5806 mm
Hypothetical thickness of member, th = 2Ag/ue = 2x578x103/5806 = 199 mm say 200
mm
For 1 year after casting concrete, t = 365 days
α1 = 0.8 + 1.2e-0.005x200 = 1.24
k1 = 1.24x3650.8/(3650.8 + 0.15x200) = 0.98
εcsd = 0.98x0.5x(1.0 – 0.008x50)x1000x10-6 = 294x10-6
εcse = (0.06x50 – 1.0) x50x10-6 x(1.0 – e-0.1x365) = 100x10-6
Design shrinkage strain for 1 year, εcs = (100 + 294)x10-6 = 394x10-6
3.11.2 Differential shrinkage
As mentioned above, differential shrinkage occurs in a composite structure where there

is a different concrete age between those structural elements.
Differential shrinkage force, DSF = EcAcsεcs.j[(1 – e -φcc.j)/φcc.j] (3.116)

Where Ec – Modulus of elasticity of concrete slab after 28 days in MPa
Acs – Area of cast-in-place concrete slab in mm2
εcs.j – Differential shrinkage strain of the two structural elements
[(1 – e -φcc.j)/φcc.j] is a term accounting for residual creep in the
beam and is determined in AS5100.5 and is shown in Table 3.11

φcc.j 0 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
(1 – e -φcc.j) 0 0.393 0.632 0.865 0.950 0.982 0.993
(1 – e -φcc.j)/φcc.j 1.0 0.787 0.632 0.432 0.317 0.245 0.199
Page 3-65
For the determination of term [(1 – e -φcc.j)/φcc.j] we will discuss in details later in section
3.12 Creep Effects.
Example 3.11: Determination of Stresses due to Differential Shrinkage
Superstructure: PSC girder and concrete deck slab as shown in Example 3.9
Environment: Cambodia – tropical climate
Concrete strength, f’c = 50 MPa for girder and f’c = 40 MPa for deck slab (Ec = 32800
MPa)
Determine stresses at 30 years after deck is cast
I-girder, A = 218x103 mm2, ue = 2352 mm, th = 185 mm
Cast-in-place concrete slab, Acs = Af = 200x1800 = 360x103 mm2, ue = 1800 + 1800 –
350 = 3250 mm
th = 2x360x103 / 3250 = 221 mm say 220 mm
Assumed that RC deck is cast at 60 days after girder cast
• Girder:
At 60 days, for th = 185 mm,
α1 = 0.8 + 1.2e-0.005x185 = 1.27
k1 = 1.27x600.8/(600.8 + 0.15x185) = 0.62
At 30 years = 10950 days, for th = (185 + 220)/2 = 202 mm,
α1 = 0.8 + 1.2e-0.005x202 = 1.24
k1 = 1.24x109500.8/(109500.8 + 0.15x202) = 1.22
Net k1 = 1.22 – 0.62 = 0.6
εcsd = 0.6x0.5x(1.0 – 0.008x50)x1000x10-6 = 180x10-6
εcse = (0.06x50 – 1.0) x50x10-6 x(1.0 – e-0.1x10950) = 100x10-6
• Deck slab:
At 30 years = 10950 days, for th = 220 mm,
α1 = 0.8 + 1.2e-0.005x220 = 1.20
k1 = 1.20x109500.8/(109500.8 + 0.15x220) = 1.18
εcsd = 1.18x0.5x(1.0 – 0.008x40)x1000x10-6 = 401x10-6
εcse = (0.06x40 – 1.0) x50x10-6 x(1.0 – e-0.1x10950) = 70x10-6
For f’c = 40 MPa, Ec = 32800 MPa
Differential shrinkage strain between girder and deck slab, εcs = (471 – 280)x10-6 =
191x10-6
An assumption is made that φcc.j = 0.6 then [(1 – e -φcc.j)/φcc.j] = 0.752
Differential shrinkage force, DSF = EcAcsεcs.j[(1 – e -φcc.j)/φcc.j] =
= 32800x360x103x191x10-6x0.752x10-3 = 1695 kN
This force, DSF shall be applied at centroid of RC deck.
Page 3-66
ds DSF
ytc e M
ybc
Figure 3.50 Internal Forces Due to Differential Shrinkage
Since drying process/contraction in deck slab is resisted by the girder, tensile stress
occurs in the deck. Tensile stress in RC deck, σt = DSF/Acs = 1695x103/360x103 = 4.7
MPa
Eccentricity, e = ytc – ds/2 = 320 – 200/2 = 220 mm
Bending moment due to eccentricity, M = Pe = 1695x0.220 = 373 kNm
DSF acts as a compressive force in centroid of RC deck.
Stress at top of RC deck, σdt = -DSF/Ac – M/Ztc =
= - 1695x103/578x103 – 373x106/210x106 = - 4.7 MPa
Stress at bottom of PSC girder, σb = -DSF/Ac + M/Zbc =
= - 1695x103/578x103 + 373x106/86.6x106 = 1.37 MPa
From linear interpolation stress at bottom of RC deck, σdb = -3.6 MPa
Total stress due to differential shrinkage can be illustrated in the diagram below.
Top of RC deck
4.7 -4.7 0
-3.6 -3.6
4.7 1.1
NA
+ =
PSC girder
1.37 1.37
Stresses due to
Tensile stresses compressive Total stresses
in RC deck force
All stresses in MPa and –ve is compression
Figure 3.51 Stresses due to Differential Shrinkage
Page 3-67
3.12 Creep
Creep in concrete is a process that strain in concrete increases under a constant

sustained load/stress over a period of time. Similarly, there are two types of creep:
• uniform creep: creep strain takes place uniformly throughout structure depth and
it is commonly used for determination of superstructure movement. It happens
to all kinds of superstructure.
• Residual creep: residual creep takes place in precast element after it becomes
composite.
Creep effect is a permanent phenomenon throughout structure life and it shall be
considered as permanent effects (PE).
3.12.1 Uniform creep
Creep factor φcc is the ratio of the ultimate creep strain to elastic strain for specimen
loaded at 28 days under a constant stress of 0.4f’c.
φcc = k2k3 k4 k5φcc.b (3.117)

k2 = α2t0.8/(t0.8 + 0.15th) (3.118)
α2 = 1.0 + 1.12e-0.008th (3.119)
k3 = 2.7/[1 + log10(τ)] (3.120)
k4 = 0.5 for tropical and near-coast climate
k5 = 1.0 when f'c ≤ 50 MPa
(2.0 - α3) - 0.02(1.0 - α3)f'c when 50 < f'c ≤ 100 MPa
α3 = 0.7/(k4α2) (3.121)
Where t - Time at interest in days

τ - The age of concrete at the time of loading. For prestressed
concrete members, the time of loading (prestress) is the transfer
stage at which concrete strength of 40 MPa is required to be
achieved. This strength is equivalent to approximate 14-day
concrete strength for 28-day concrete strength of 50 MPa for
reinforced concrete, so take τ = 14 days which gives k3 = 1.26.
th - Hypothetical thickness of concrete member
φcc.b - Basic creep coefficient

f’c (MPa) 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100
φcc.b 5.2 4.2 3.4 2.8 2.4 2.0 1.7 1.5
Creep strain, εc = φccσ/Ec.28 (3.122)
Where σ – Stress due to sustained loads and σ ≤ 0.5f’c in MPa

Ec.28 – Modulus of elasticity of concrete at 28 days in MPa
Sustained loads can be PE (dead loads and superimposed dead load) and prestressing
force.
Page 3-68
Example 3.12: Determination of Creep Strain
Superstructure: Composite PSC girder as shown in Example 3.9

Strength at transfer f’ci = 40 MPa
28-day strength f’c = 50 MPa, Ec = 34800 MPa
Given sustained stress, σ = 13.5 MPa
Determine creep strain at 1 year = 365 days
From Table 3.12 take φcc.b = 2.4
For th = 202 mm (from Example 3.11)
α2 = 1.0 + 1.12e-0.008x202 = 1.22
k2 = 1.22x3650.8/(3650.8 + 0.15x202) = 0.96
k3 = 1.26
k4 = 0.5
k5 = 1.0
φcc = 0.96x1.26x0.5x1.0x2.4 = 1.45
Creep strain at 1 year, εc = φccσ/Ec.28 = 1.45x13.5/34800 = 562x10-6
3.12.2 Residual creep
Residual creep in precast element involves in stress due to sustained loads. The process
in calculating stress due to sustained loads can be characterised as below:
(i) Stress due to dead load (self-weight of precast girder and cast in place deck)
and prestress after all losses acting on non-composite precast girder
(ii) Stress due to dead load (self-weight of precast girder and cast in place deck)
and prestress after all losses acting on composite girder
Stress due to residual creep =[1 – e(-φcc.j)]x[Stress in item (ii) – Stress in item (1)] (3.123)
Final stress due to dead load, prestress and creep:
Stress in Eq. (3.123) + stress in item (i) (3.124)
Example 3.13: Determination of Stresses due to Residual Creep
Superstructure: PSC girder and concrete deck slab in Example 3.9

Span, L = 15 m
Take time j = 30 days (time required to make composite structure)
Stresses are required to be checked at 30 years
At midspan:
For non-composite section, prestressing force after all losses, P = 2100 kN and
eccentricity, e = 290 mm.
For composite section, prestressing force after all losses, P = 2100 kN and eccentricity,
e = 455 mm.
Dead load: W = 0.578 m2 x 25 kN/m3 = 14.45 kN/m (girder + deck slab)
Bending moment due to dead load MDL = W(L2)/8 = 14.45x(152)/8 = 406.4 kNm
Bending moment due to prestressing force, Mp = Pe = 2100x0.29 = 609 kNm
1. Stress in item (i)
At top of PSC girder, σt = (-P/A) + (- MDL/Zt) + (Mp/Zt) =
Page 3-69
-(2100x103/218x103) - (406.4x106/41.1x106) + (609x106/41.1x106) = - 4.7 MPa

At bottom of PSC girder, σb = (-P/A) + (MDL/Zb) + (- Mp/Zb) =
-(2100x103/218x103) + (406.4x106/48.1x106) - (609x106/48.1x106) = -13.84 MPa
2. Stress in item (ii) (for composite section)

Bending moment due to prestressing force, Mp = Pe = 2100x0.455 = 955.5 kNm
At top of RC deck, σt = (-P/Ac) + (- MDL/Ztc) + (Mp/Ztc) =
-(2100x103/577.5x103) - (406.4x106/210x106) + (955.5x106/210x106) = -1.02 MPa
At bottom of PSC girder, σb = (-P/Ac) + (MDL/Zbc) - (Mp/Zbc) =
-(2100x103/577.5x103) + (406.4x106/86.6x106) - (1375.5x106/86.6x106) = -14.82 MPa
From linear interpolation stress at bottom of RC deck, σdb = -1.90 MPa
3. Residual creep factor

At 30 days after casting concrete (girder only)
Non-composite structure: th = 185 mm
α2 = 1.0 + 1.12e-0.008x185 = 1.25
k2 = 1.25x300.8/(300.8 + 0.15x185) = 0.44
At 30 years = 10950 days
Composite structure: th = 202 mm
α2 = 1.0 + 1.12e-0.008x202 = 1.22
k2 = 1.22x109500.8/(109500.8 + 0.15x202) = 1.20
Net k2 = 1.20 – 0.44 = 0.76 (from 30 days to 30 years)
k3 = 1.26
k4 = 0.5
k5 = 1.0
φcc.j = 0.76x1.26x0.5x1.0x2.4 = 1.15
1 – e(-φcc.j) = 1 – e(-1.15) = 0.683
4. Stresses due to residual creep

Top of RC deck
-1.02 -0.70
Deck
-4.70 -1.90 1.91 -1.30
NA
x 0.683
PSC - + =
girder
-13.84 -14.82 -0.67

Stresses in item (i) Stresses in item (ii) Stresses due to
residual creep
All stresses in MPa and -ve is compression
Figure 3.52 Stresses Due to Residual Creep
Page 3-70
5. Stresses due to prestress, dead load and creep
Top of RC deck
-0.70 -0.70
1.91 -1.30 -4.70 -1.30

-2.79
NA
PSC girder + =
-0.67 -13.84 -14.51
Figure 3.53 Stresses Due to Prestress, Dead Load and Creep
Stresses due to differential shrinkage and final stress due to residual creep shall be
considered in stress due to PE. Bending moment caused by shrinkage and creep shall
also include in ULS design.
3.12.3 Effect of residual creep on continuity
Due to creep effect, PSC girders tend to hog up over time, however, weight of girder,
deck slab and deck wearing surface (asphalt) push the girders down. Where the girders
are continuous over a support, the continuity also restrains hogging and as the result it
causes tension in the bottom face of the girder.
Example 3.14: Determination of Bending Moments and Stresses due to

Residual Creep on Continuity
Refer to the girder in Example 3.9. Superstructure: PSC girder and concrete deck slab
and span, L = 15 m. The girders will be constructed as a two-span continuous beam.
Due to weight of girder and deck slab (PE) = 14.45 kN/m
Effective prestress force (P) after long-term loss and corresponding eccentricity (e)
along the girder are given as follows:
Distance from girder end 0 - 1.5m 1.5 - 3.5m 3.5 - 7.5m

P (kN) 1400 1800 2100
e (mm) 315 300 290
M = Pxe (kNm) 441 540 609
Page 3-71
1.5m
3.5m
No continuity
Figure 3.54 Bending Moments Due To Prestress on Simply Supported Case
0.5x406
Figure 3.55 Bending Moments Due To Prestress and Dead Load on Continuity
0.5MR
MR
Figure 3.56 Restraint Moment Due To Continuity (Residual Creep)
The process to determine bending moments and stresses of residual creep on continuity
can be outlined in the following steps:
Step 1: Determine eccentricities and moments due to prestress along the girder (refer
table above)
Step 2: Plot those bending moments in the girder on simply supported case (refer
Figure 3.54)
Step 3: Join the two simply supported beams into a continuous beam and plot bending
moments due to prestress and dead load on continuity (refer Figure 3.55)
Page 3-72
Step 4: Calculate the restraint moment due to prestress on continuity and plot it as
shown in Figure 3.56
MR = 394 - (-441) = 835 kNm
Midspan moment, Mo = 0.5x835 - 0.5x406 = 214.5 kNm
Step 5: Calculate stresses due to midspan moment
Stress at top of deck, σt1 = -Mo/Ztc = -214.5x106/210x106 = -1.02 MPa (compression)
Stress at top of girder, σt2 = -Mox(ytc - 200)/Ic = -214.5x106x(320 - 200)/6.75x1010 = -
0.38 MPa
Stress at bottom of girder, σb = Mo/Zbc = 214.5x106/86.6x106 = 2.47 MPa
Step 6: Calculate stresses due to residual creep
Top of RC deck
-0.70 -0.70 -1.40
-1.30 -0.26 -1.56

-2.79 -2.79
NA
PSC girder + =
-14.51 1.68 -12.83

Total permanent stresses as Stresses calculated in Total permanent stresses
calculated in Example 3.13 Step 5 above and including residual creep
multiply with creep on continuity
factor 1 – e(-φcc.j) = 0.683
Figure 3.57 Total Stresses due To Continuity (Residual Creep)
3.13 Fixed and Expansion Articulation

For a simply supported span, a girder/unit may have one fixed articulation and one free
(expansion) articulation or both fixed articulation ends. A fixed articulation resists
horizontal forces in longitudinal and transverse direction whereas a free articulation
slides in longitudinal direction and resists horizontal force in transverse direction only.
Therefore, restraints of a fixed articulation shall be designed for forces in both
directions whilst restraints of an expansion articulation shall be designed for forces
acting in transverse direction only. A beam which has one fixed articulation and one
expansion articulation does not suffer from uniform temperature, shrinkage and creep
effect since the free articulation moves/slides during contraction and expansion. In
contrast, a beam which has fixed articulation at both ends undergoes forces and stresses
caused by those effects. The resistance also causes forces on substructures.
Page 3-73
3.13.1 Temperature, shrinkage and creep effects
As we mentioned early for superstructure which has both ends fixed to substructure, it
shall be designed for these effects. The effects have been early discussed in details in
section 3.10 to 3.12 of this chapter. Strains calculated from those effects can be used as
an input data for analysis of superstructure movement.
3.13.2 Design of Bridge Articulation
3.13.2.1 Fixed-expansion articulation girder
The schematic body diagram of fixed-expansion articulation girder can be presented in

Figure as shown below.
Fixed Expansion
Figure 3.58 Fixed-expansion Articulation Girder
In the design of this girder, assumptions are made that fixed articulation is unable to
move (zero displacement) and expansion articulation slides freely in longitudinal
direction. In reality, fixed articulation may relatively move due to displacement of
substructure and expansion articulation may be restrained somewhat by friction
between bearing pad and pedestal.
Design of fixed articulation

• In longitudinal direction: in this direction, only braking force may be applied.
• In transverse direction: in this direction, restraint load or forces resulting from
centrifugal force, water flow, debris and wind on superstructure may be applied.
Design of expansion articulation

Expansion articulation shall be designed to accommodate the movement caused by
temperature, shrinkage and creep effects.
Example 3.15: Design of Fixed and Expansion Articulation
Let’s have RC superstructure as shown in Figure 3.5

Single span and span length, L = 15m
Ec.28 = 32800 MPa
Refer Chapter 4 for horizontal loads
1. Braking force, BF = 300 kN + (L – 10)m x 6 kN/m = 300 + (15 – 10)x6 = 330 kN
2. Minimum lateral restraint load
Total gross area of superstructure, Ag = 3.56 m2
Total dead load of superstructure, DL = 3.56x15x25 = 1335 kN
5% of dead load = 1335x0.05 = 66.75 kN < 500 kN, thus 500 kN governs the
lateral loading.
The 500 kN loading is applied in one end alone for the worst case.
3. Temperature, and shrinkage effects
Page 3-74
From Example 3.8 contraction strain, εt = 209x10-6

Exposed perimeter, ue = 27.6 m
Hypothetical thickness, th = 2Ag/ue = 2x3.56/27.6 = 0.258 m or 258 mm
Assumed shrinkage strain at 30 years, εcs = 425x10-6
Total strain, εtot = εt + εcs = 209x10-6 + 425x10-6 = 634x10-6
Displacement due to total strain, ∆ = εtotL = 634x10-6 x 15000 = 9.5 mm
Design of fixed articulation
Case 1: braking force, BF = 2x330 = 660 kN in longitudinal direction (2.0 is a load
factor)
Case 2: Minimum lateral load = 500 kN in transverse direction
Both cases cannot be applied simultaneously.
Let’s adopt dowel bars for the restraint. Try DB36 with As = 1020 mm2 and fsy = 400
MPa.
Ultimate shear capacity of a single bar φVf = φ0.62Asfsy = 0.8x0.62x1020x400 = 202.3
kN
No. of dowel bars required to resist braking force, N = BF/φVf = 660/202.3 = 3.26 bars
Adopt 4-DB36. The bars are generally embedded in a shear/restraint block and another
half length is installed in a diaphragm as shown in Figures on the next page. Shear
capacity of concrete shear block is also needed to be checked to confirm that spalling
does not occur under the design shear force.
Since minimum lateral restraint load 500 kN is less than ultimate braking force 660 kN,
the design for this load is not necessary.
Shear capacity of diaphragm
Diaphragm
Longitudinal rebars
4-DB36
Effective stirrups
Dowel bars
0.5Ca1
Main girder web
Shear failure plane
Ca1
Figure 3.59 Section of Diaphragm
For concrete shear capacity of 4-DB36 bars in the diaphragm refer ACI-318-11
Appendix D. In Additional, effective stirrups can also contribute to the shear capacity.
The effective stirrups shall locate not greater than 0.5Ca1 from the first and last dowel
bars, where Ca1 is the half thickness of diaphragm in this case.
Page 3-75
Figure 3.60 Typical Detail of Fixed Sleeve and Girder End
Design of expansion articulation

∆t = εtL = 209x10-6 x 15000 = 3.1 mm
∆cs = εcsL = 425x10-6 x 15000 = 6.4 mm
Design longitudinal movement, ∆* = 1.25∆t + 1.2∆cs = 1.25x3.1 + 1.2x6.4 = 11.5 mm
Ultimate gap width 2x11.5 = 23 mm.
The total required space width in the expansion sleeve is 23 + 36 = 59 mm say 60 mm.
Let’s have a steel sleeve of 20 mm larger than the calculation number (for construction
tolerance), so the total width of steel sleeve is 60 + 20 = 80 mm.
Figure 3.61 Typical Detail of Expansion Sleeve and Girder End
Page 3-76
3.13.2.2 Fixed-fixed articulation girder
Unlikely, the design of restraints for fixed-fixed articulation girders cannot be

performed in a simple schematic diagram. The movement of superstructure due to
applied horizontal loads and thermal, shrinkage and creep effects depends upon
stiffness of substructure. Therefore, the stiffness of substructure in longitudinal
direction of this system is not as huge as stiffness of substructure for fixed-expansion
articulation girder system.
In Cambodia, the fixed-fixed articulation girder system may be found in PSC deck unit
bridges. Substructures are designed as pile bent headstock with single row of pile. This
structure is flexible in longitudinal direction and its stiffness depends upon the soil-
structure interaction model. It is essential to have horizontal soil spring stiffness for an
analysis. Typical arrangement and model for analysis are illustrated in the figures
below.
PSC deck units
Fixed Fixed
Abutment Restraint
headstock
Single row piles
Figure 3.62 Typical Bridge Arrangement for Fixed-fixed Articulation Girder
Dowel bars/restraints
Abutment headstock
PSC deck units

Springs
Figure 3.63 Model for Analysis
Forces in dowel bars (restraints) will be used for the design of dowel bar as discussed
early. Neither gap nor expansion joint is permitted. The gap between end of PSC units
and abutment back wall shall be filled with mortar grout.
3.14 Elastomeric Bearing

Bearing pads are designed to accommodate vertical and horizontal displacement and
rotation of girder due to permanent and live load. Design of bearing shall be performed
in Serviceability Limit State. Typical properties of elastomer are shown in Table 3.13
below.
Page 3-77

Durometer hardness Shear modulus Bulk modulus
IRHD ±5 G (MPa) B (MPa)
53 0.69 2000
60 0.90 2000
The procedure of design of elastomeric bearing pad is outlined in AS5100.4 and can be
summarised as follows:
Figure 3.64 Typical Detail of Elastomeric Bearing
The overall requirement for elastomeric bearing is:
εsc + εst + εsh ≤ 2.6/ G (3.125)

Where εsc – Compressive strain normal to bearing plane
εst – Rotation strain about horizontal plane
εsh – Shear strain in horizontal plane
Compressive strain, εsc = 6Sεc (3.126)
Shape factor, S = Ab/(Pte) (3.127)

2
Where Ab – Bonded surface area in mm
te – Effective thickness, taken as minimum of ti or 1.4tc
in mm
P – Surface perimeter in mm
The requirement of shape factor shall be 4 ≤ S ≤ 12
Compressive strain, εc = N/[3AeffG(1 + 2S2)] (3.128)

Where N – Compressive load on bearing at SLS in N
Aeff – Effective area in mm2
Effective area, Aeff = Ab[1 - δa/a – δb/b] (3.129)

Where a and b – Dimension of bonded surface in mm
Page 3-78
δa and δb – Maximum shear displacement along a and b

respectively, in mm
Rotation strain, εsr = [αaa2 + αbb2]/(2tit) (3.130)

Where αa – Angle of rotation about edge a, in mm
αb – Angle of rotation about edge b, in mm
t – Total thickness of elastomer, in mm
Shear strain, εsh = δs/t (3.131)

Where δs – Maximum shear displacement (resultant displacement
of δa and δb) in mm
In design of elastomeric bearing, some limitations apply here:

• Limit on shear displacement: εsh ≤ 0.5 (3.132)
Aeff ≥ 0.8Ab (3.133)
• Limit on compressive stress: N/Ab ≤ 15.0 MPa (3.134)
• Limit on combination of vertical displacement and rotation
dc ≥ (αaa + αbb)/3 (3.135)
dc = Σ(tnεc) (3.136)
Where tn – Total thickness of inner layer of elastomer in mm

εc = N/(EAb) (3.137)
E = Eh + {(C1GS2)/[1 + (C1GS2/0.75B)]} (3.138)
Eh = 4G[1 – (q/1 + q2)2] (3.139)
C1 = 4 + q(6 – 3.3q) (3.140)
q = MIN[a/b,b/a]
In addition, stability of elastomeric bearing shall be checked as follows:
N ≤ 2beGSAeff/3t (3.141)
Where be – Minimum of a or b, in mm
Nmin.PE ≥ 3foAeff (3.142)

Where Nmin.PE – Minimum permanent compressive load normal
to bearing plane, in N
fo – Stress taken as 1.0 MPa
Nmin. ≥ 10H - 2foAeff (3.143)

Where Nmin – Minimum compressive load at SLS
H – Horizontal load corresponding to Nmin
Note: For a PSC girder, due to hogging, a rotation occurs as we discussed in Example
3.6 and a tapped steel plate is required to install between girder soffit and bearing and
therefore, the rotation due to self-weight of girder for the calculation of bearing shall
be considered as nil.
Page 3-79
Example 3.16: Design of Laminated Elastomeric Bearing Pad
a Steel
plate Interior layer
ts
Parallel tb ti
b to traffic
tc
Transverse to traffic Exterior

Top View layer Detail of Thickness
Figure 3.65 Plan View and Section of Elastomeric Bearing
Total vertical load @ SLS (DL + LL): N= 1026 kN

Horizontal load @ SLS H= 35.0 kN
Minimum vertical load with H Nmin = 650 kN
Minimum vertical load due to PE Nmin.PE = 435 kN
Rotation at service: θL = 0.0036 rad
θT = 0.0003 rad
Elastomeric bearing pad properties:
Durometer Hardness: 60
Shear modulus, G = 0.9 MPa
Bulk modulus, B = 2000 MPa
Pad dimensions: A= 380 mm (Parallel to traffic)
B= 480 mm (Transverse to traffic)
Maximum shear displacement in "A" direction δa = 47 mm
Maximum shear displacement in "B" direction δb = 19 mm
Maximum shear displacement δs = 51 mm
No. of interior elastomer n= 10

Thickness of interior layer ti = 9 mm
Thickness of exterior layer tc = 6 mm
Steel plate thickness ts = 5 mm
Yield strength of steel plate Fy = 250 MPa
Side cover thickness to = 10 mm
a = A - 2to = 380 – 2x10 = 360 mm, b = B - 2to = 480 – 2x10 = 460 mm
Ab = a x b = 360x460 = 165600 mm2, m = a/b = 360/460 = 0.783
P = 2(a+b) = 2x(360+460) = 1640 mm
te = ti = 9 mm
Shape factor, S = Ab/(Pte) = 165600/(1640x9) = 11.22 (S shall be between 4 and 12)
Effective pad area, Aeff = Ab[1 - δa/a - δb/b] = 165600x[1 – 47/360 – 19/460] = 137140 mm2
Strain due to vertical force
Page 3-80
εsc = 6S[N/(3AeffG(1 + 2*S2)] = 6x11.22x{1026x103/[3x137140x0.9x(1 + 2x11.222)]} =

0.738
αa = θL = 0.0036 rad
αb = θT = 0.0003 rad
Total thickness of bearing, tb = 2tc + nti + (n + 1)ts = 2x6 + 10x9 + (10 + 1)x5 = 157 mm
Thickness of elastomer, t = 2tc + nti = 2x6 + 10x9 = 102 mm
Strain due to rotation
εsr = [(αaa2) + (αbb2)]/(2tit) = [(0.0036x3602) + (0.0003x4602)]/(2x9x102) = 0.29

Strain due to shear movement, εsh = δs/t = 0.497
εsc + εsr + εsh = 0.738 + 0.29 + 0.479 = 1.52 < 2.6/ G = 2.6/ 0.9 = 2.74
Limit on compressive stress, N/Ab = 1026x103/165600 = 6.19 MPa < 15.0 MPa OK
Limit on tangential (shear) movement
εsh = 0.497 < 0.5 OK
Aeff/Ab = 137140/165600 = 0.828 > 0.8 OK
q = MIN[a/b,b/a] = MIN(360/460, 460/360) = 0.783
Eh = 4G[1 - (q/(1 + q2))2] = 4x0.9x[1 – (0.783/(1 + 0.7832))2] = 2.75 MPa
C1 = 4 + q(6 - 3.3q) = 4 + 0.783x(6 – 3.3x0.783) = 6.67
E = Eh + [C1G(S2)/(1 + C1G(S2)/(0.75B))] =
= 2.75 + [6.67x0.9x11.222/(1 + 6.67x0.9x11.222/0.75x2000)] = 505.5 MPa
εc = N/(EAb) = 1026x103/(505.5x165600) = 0.0123
tn = nti = 10x9 = 90 mm
dc = tnεc = 90x0.0123 = 1.10 mm
(αaa + αbb)/3 = [(0.0036x360) + (0.0003x460)]/3 = 0.478 mm
Limit on rotation, dc > (αaa + αbb)/3 OK
Check stability
be = min(a,b) = min(360,460) = 360 mm
2beGSAeff/(3t) = [2x360x0.9x11.22x137140/(3x102)]/1000 = 3258 kN > N OK
Check friction against sliding:

fo = 1.0 MPa
3foAeff = 3x1.0x137140/1000 = 411 kN < Nmin.PE OK
10H - 2foAeff = [10x35x103 – 2x1.0x137140]/1000 = 75.7 kN < Nmin OK
3.15 Diaphragm
Diaphragm (also known as cross girder) can be intermediate and end diaphragm. The
first function of diaphragm is to provide lateral bracing to girders which are relatively
slender to their depths. The distance LL between the two adjacent diaphragms is
discussed in section 3.4 early. At girder end, diaphragms also prevent twisting of
girders and they provide a support to edge of deck slab. The second function is that end
diaphragm can be performed as a deep beam during lifting for bearing replacement.
As shown in Figure 3.66, two hydraulic jacks are positioned underneath diaphragms.
Other two hydraulic jacks must be also placed in the same position at other end of
superstructure. When the whole superstructure is raised, the total weight of
Page 3-81
superstructure is imposed equally on those hydraulic jacks. The analysis of diaphragm

shall be carried out with deep the beam theory or strut-tie model.
Diaphragm
Bearing pad Pedestal

Hydraulic jack Dowel bars
Figure 3.66 Typical Detail of Superstructure at Abutment Location
Example 3.17: Design of Diaphragm

Let’s have superstructure as we discussed in the previous examples.
Total area of deck and girders, Ag = 3.56 m2
Weight of deck and girders = 3.56x15x25 = 1335 kN
Assuming weight of parapet/railing = 12 kN/m x2x15 = 360 kN
Diaphragm size 0.40x1.05 m, Ln = 2.2 – 0.4 = 1.8 m
Weight of diaphragm = 0.4x1.05x1.8x3x2x25 = 113 kN
Weight of AC wearing course = 0.07x7x15x22 = 162 kN
Total ultimate vertical load = 1.2x(1335+360+113) + 2x162 = 2494 kN
Assuming to have four hydraulic jacks. The lifting shall be done simultaneously.
Thus, each hydraulic jack is required to lift the ultimate load of N* = 2494/4 = 623.5
kN
Below is the requirement for design of a deep beam according to section 7.2, AS5100.5:
Non-flexural members including deep beams, footings, pile caps and corbels/brackets
shall be designed using the deep beam theory where the ratio of clear span to the overall
depth is less than the following:
(1) for cantilevers: 1.50
(2) for simply supported members: 3.0
(3) for continuous members: 4.0
Ratio of clear span to overall depth for diaphragm = 1.8/1.05 = 1.71 < 4.0. The
diaphragm shall be designed as a deep beam.
Assuming that the distance from concrete edge to centroid of strut and tie is 50 mm, we
can have d = 1050 – 100 = 950 mm and L = 1800 + 400 = 2200 mm. Take a distance
between N*/2 loads as 200 mm.
Angle α between diagonal strut C and horizontal tension T
α = arctan[950/(0.5x2200 – 100)] ≈ 44°
sin(α) = 0.694 cos(α) = 0.719
Page 3-82
Csin(α) = 0.5N*, so compression/strut force C = 0.5N*/sin(α) = 0.5x623.5/0.694 = 449

kN
α T
Girder
C C d
Diaphragm N*/2 N*/2
Figure 3.67 Strut-tie Model for Design of Diaphragm
Tensile reinforcement
Tie/tension force, T = Ccos(α) = 449x0.719 = 323 kN
Area of steel bars, As = T/(φfsy)
Where φ – Reduction factor and taken as 0.8 for strut-tie model
Taking fsy = 400 MPa, As = 323x103/(0.8x400) = 1009 mm2
Try DB25, Ab = 490 mm2, No of bars = As/Ab = 1009/490 = 2.06 bars
Therefore, adopt 4-DB25 for top and bottom bars.
Check concrete compressive strut

Let’s assume hydraulic jack bearing plate width is 300 mm.
Width of compressive strut dc = 300xsin(α) = 300x0.694 = 208 mm
Diaphragm width, b = 400 mm
Strut efficiency factor, βs = 1/(1 + 0.66cot2α) = 1/(1 + 0.66cot244°) = 0.59
Ultimate capacity of concrete strut, φNc = φstβs0.9bdcf’c
Take f’c = 40 MPa, φNc = 0.6x0.59x208x400x0.9x40/1000 = 1060 kN > C OK
dc
Node Compressive strut

α
N*/2 N*/2
Hydraulic jack bearing plate width
Figure 3.68 Compressive Strut Width
Page 3-83
Vertical and web reinforcement

C
θ
C/2
Tb/2
Tb/2
C/2
Figure 3.69 Strut Force Components
tanθ = 0.2 (for strength)

Bursting force Tb = (C) x tanθ= (449)x0.2 = 89.8 kN say 90 kN
Vertical component of force, Tv = Tbcos(α) = 90x0.719 = 64.7 kN
Vertical reinforcement, Asv = Tv/(φfsy) = 64.7x103/(0.8x400) = 202 mm2
Try 2 legged DB12@200 within L/2, As = 2x110x(1700/2)/200 = 935 mm2 > Asv OK
Horizontal component of force, Th = Tbsin(α) = 90x0.694 = 62.5 kN
Horizontal reinforcement, Ash = Th/(φfsy) = 62.5x103/(0.8x400) = 195 mm2
Try 4-DB12 at each face As = 2x4x110 = 880 mm2 > Ash OK
400
4-DB25
DB12@200
1050
4-DB12 EF
4-DB25
Figure 3.70 Reinforcement Detail of Diaphragm
3.16 Expansion Joints

Expansion joints (also known as deck joints) are designed to accommodate movement
of bridge superstructure due to horizontal force and other effects such as temperature,
creep, shrinkage and braking force. The joints shall be designed for Ultimate Limit
State. At ULS, load factors shall be taken as 1.25 for temperature variations, 1.20 for
creep and shrinkage effects and 2.0 for braking force. The joint anchorage to deck slab
shall be capable to resist at least 35% of vertical live load with a dynamic load
allowance of 0.6 and a load factor of 2.0.
Page 3-84
Example 3.18: Design of Expansion Joint

Let’s have
Due to temperature rise, movement is 5 mm (closing)
Due to temperature drop, movement is 4 mm (opening)
Due to creep and shrinkage, movement is 12 mm (opening)
Due to braking force, movement is 3 mm (closing or opening)
Total movements at ULS:
For expansion on bridge deck (closing joint)
∆ = 1.25x5 + 2x3 = 12.25 mm say 12 mm
For contraction on bridge deck (opening joint)
∆ = 1.2x12 + 1.25x4 + 3 = 22.4 mm or 1.2x12 + 2x3 + 4 = 24.4 mm say 25 mm
If the joint width is limited 30 mm minimum then the required joint width at installation
shall be 30 + 12 = 42 mm (allow 12 mm to close the joint) and the maximum joint
width due to contraction (opening) shall be 42 + 25 = 67 mm. The bridge joint product
shall be selected to be able to move from 30 mm to 67 mm.
3.17 Link Slab

A link slab has its function to transfer horizontal forces and movement from one span to
another over a pier where fixed-fixed articulation is referred or where a deck joint is not
provided. For a bridge superstructure where PSC deck units are transversely stressed
without top RC deck, link slab is not necessary.
Link slab is
rigidly
connected to
girders here
Figure 3.71 Link Slab at Pier
Generally, link slab is about 2.0 m long and is cast adjacent to RC deck over a
debonding material which breaks the bond between girders and the slab. Therefore, the
girders are non-composite in this area and girder stirrups must not protrude into the
slab. The girders are still treated as simply supported. By looking at the construction
Page 3-85
sequence, the link slab shall be designed to accommodate the rotation of girders due to
barrier (if applicable), deck wearing surface and live loads. When the bridge
superstructure is jacked up for bearing replacement, differential movement of the
girders shall be also considered for link slab design.
Example 3.19: Design of Link Slab

Let’s have girder rotation due to:
T44 loading: 2.0x1.35x0.9x0.0012 = 0.0029 rad
Barrier: 1.2x0.0001 = 0.00012 rad
Deck wearing surface: 2.0x0.0003 = 0.00060 rad
Design girder rotation, θ* = 0.0029 + 0.00012 + 0.0006 = 0.00362 rad
This rotation applies to one girder and girders are spaced at 2000 mm.
Link slab:
200 mm thick and 2000 mm long, f’c = 32 MPa, Ec = 30000 MPa
Per 2.0 m width (girder spacing), I = 2000x2003/12 = 1333x106 mm4
Bending moment in link slab caused by girder rotation θ*
M* = 2EIxθ*/L = (2x30000x1333x106x0.00362/2000)x10-6 = 144.8 kNm/2m or 72.4
kNm/m
Assume exposure class A, concrete cover is 35mm and use steel bar DB25
Effective depth, d = D – 35 – 16/2 = 200 - 35 - 25/2 = 152.5 mm
Assume reinforcement DB25@150, As = 490x1000/150 = 3267 mm2/m
Steel ratio, ρ = As/bd = 3267/(152.5x1000) = 0.0214 > ρmin = 0.0025 OK
= 0.8x0.0214x1000x(152.52)x400x[1 – 0.6x0.0214x(400/32)] = 133.6 kNm/m > M*
OK
3.18 Approach Slab
An approach slab (also known as relieving slab) has its practical functions to
• Reduce dynamic buoyancy at bridge approach, and
• Avoid road localised damage due to poor compaction behind abutment wall
Typical approach slab is shown in figure below. Assume that the soil underneath the
slab is poorly compacted. The analysis and design of an approach slab is simplified to a
simply supported one-way slab having main reinforcement parallel to traffic.
Road surface
Road Pavement
Abutment
back wall
Rigid support
Soil supported
Poorly compacted area
Figure 3.72 Typical Approach Slab Built in Cambodia
Page 3-86
The design procedure can be summarised as below:
a- Calculate loading: Use load combination of permanent effects (PE) and traffic
load. PE = Self-weight + Superimposed dead load
b- Analysis: Model the slab with the entire width as a simply supported slab with
clear span L.
c- Design for main reinforcement and check shear
d- Distribution reinforcement: Can be calculated as percentage of main

reinforcement. Percentage = 1750/ L
Where L – Span length of slab in mm
The percentage shall range within 30% and 50%. To control cracking, a minimum
reinforcement of 500 mm2/m shall be used.
Example 3.20: Approach slab

Given span length L = 4.0 m
Slab width B = 7.0 m (To accommodate 2 design lanes)
Slab thickness D = 0.3 m
Pavement depth h = 0.4 m
Concrete strength f’c = 40 MPa
Yield strength fsy = 400 MPa
Concrete exposure classification B1
The slab is cast against the ground, so concrete cover = 45 + 30 = 75 mm
a – Calculate loading:
Unit weight of concrete = 25 kN/m3
Self-weight of slab, SW = B x D x 25 = 7 x 0.3 x 25 = 52.5 kN/m
Unit weight of pavement = 22 kN/m3
Weight of pavement SDL = B x h x 22 = 7 x 0.4 x 22 = 61.6 kN/m
At Ultimate Limit State (ULS), PE = 1.2SW + 2.0SDL = 186.2 kN/m
Live load: for 7m width, the number of design lane is 2.0. The design traffic load that
will cause the worse effects on the slab is 2 xT44 for this case. Concentrated loads at
ULS, P* = 96x2x0.9x2x(1 + 0.35) = 466 kN (where 0.9 is lane factor, 2.0 is load factor
and 0.35 is dynamic load allowance).
P* = 466 kN P* = 466 kN
UDL = 186.2 kN/m

186.2 kN/m
L = 4.0 m
1.4 m 1.2 m 1.4 m
Figure 3.73 Model for Analysis of Approach Slab
Page 3-87
b – Analysis of slab with ultimate loads:

Bending moments:
Due to UDL, M*1 = 186.2x(42)/8 = 372.4 kNm
Due to P*, M*2 = 466x1.40 = 652.4 kNm.
Total design moment, M* = 372.4 + 652.4 = 1025 kNm
Per 1m strip, M* = 1025/7.0 = 146 kNm/m
Shear forces:
Due to UDL, V*1 = 186.2x4/2 = 372.4 kN
Due to P*, V*2 = 466 kN
Total shear force, V* = 372.4 + 466 = 838 kNm
Per 1m strip, V* = 838/7.0 = 120 kNm/m
c - Design for flexure and shear:

Flexure: Take concrete cover 70mm and use steel bar DB25
Effective depth, d = D – 75 – 25/2 = 300 -70 - 25/2 = 212.5 mm
Assume reinforcement DB25@150, As = 490x1000/150 = 3267mm2/m
= 0.8x0.0153x1000x(212.52)x400x[1 – 0.6x0.0153x(400/40)]
= 200691 Nmm/m or 200.6 kNm/m > M* = 146 kNm/m OK
1.2Mcr = 1.2[0.6 f' c x(bd2/6)] =
1.2[0.6x 40 x(1000x212.52)/6]/106 = 34.3 kNm/m < φMu OK
γ = 0.85 - 0.007(f'c - 28) = 0.85 – 0.007x(40 – 28) = 0.766
ku = ρfsy/(0.85γf'c) = 0.0153x400/(0.85x0.766x40) = 0.23 < 0.4 OK
Top reinforcement (for crack control only): Try DB12@200, As = 565 mm2/m
> 500 mm2/m OK
Shear: φVu = φ0.17bd f' c =

0.7x0.17x1000x212.5x 40 = 160000 N/m
Or 160 kN/m > V* = 120 kN/m OK
d- Distribution reinforcement (perpendicular to traffic)

Percentage = 1750/ L = 1750/ 4000 = 27.7% , shall use 30%
Distribution reinforcement, Asd = 30% of As = 0.3x3267 = 980 mm2/m > 500 mm2/m
Try DB16 @ 200, As = 200x1000/200 = 1000 mm2/m > 980 mm2/m OK
DB12@200 BOTH WAYS
DB16@200 DB25@150
DB16@150
Figure 3.74 Reinforcement of Approach Slab
Page 3-88
3.19 Railing/Barrier
Railing (it’s also termed as barrier) has its practical function to prevent pedestrians and
operated traffic vehicles from falling off the bridge. Railing shall be designed to
withstand an impact/collision load as mentioned in section 3.1.6 for ULS. The
procedure of design has been adopted from AS 3845 - 1999.
For analysis of solid concrete railing, yield line method is adopted. The procedure
described here is applicable for solid/wall parapet only.
Lc
Lt
Mb
Mw
Solid barrier hi
Distributed impact
(kN/m)
Mc
Figure 3.75 Yield Lines for Analysis of Solid Concrete Railing (Source: AS3845 -
1999)
a- For impacts within a wall segment

Total resistance of barrier, Rw = [2/(2Lc - Lt)]x[8Mb + 8Mwhi + Mc(Lc2)/hi] (3.144)
Critical length, Lc = (Lt/2) + [(Lt/2)2 + 8hi(Mb + Mwhi)/Mc] 0.5 (3.145)
b- For impacts at end of wall or at joint

Total resistance of barrier, Rw = [2/(2Lc - Lt)]x[Mb + Mwhi + Mc (Lc2)/hi] (3.146)
Critical length, Lc = (Lt/2) + [(Lt/2)2 + hi(Mb + Mw)/Mc] 0.5 (3.147)
Design criteria: Rw ≥ 250 kN
Where hi – Height of collision load in mm

Lt – Contact length in mm (1100 mm, see section 3.1.6)
Mb – Flexural resistance of beam along railing in Nmm
Mw – Flexural resistance of wall about vertical axis in Nmm/mm
Mc – Flexural resistance of cantilever wall about horizontal axis in
Nmm/mm
Page 3-89
Example 3.21: Design of RC Solid Railing
Materials:
28 days compressive strength of concrete f'c = 50 MPa
Concrete cover Co = 50 mm
Yield strength of steel bar fsy = 400 MPa
Loading:
Impact load at ultimate, Ft = 250 kN
Vehicle contact length, Lt = 1100 mm
Minimum effective height, hi = 800 mm
Figure 3.76 Solid Concrete Railing
Wall: Beam:
w = 300 mm (Average) a = 350 mm
d = 250 mm b = 350 mm
H = 1100 mm Stirrup ds = 12 mm
dv = 16 mm Asb = 400 mm2 (2-DB16)
Asc = 1000 mm2/m (DB16@200)
Asw = 800 mm2/m (DB16@250)
Wall capacity:
Cantilever wall capacity per 1 m strip (b = 1000 mm)
ρ = Asc/(bd) = 1000/(1000x250) = 0.004
Mc = φMu = φρbd2fsy[1 - 0.6ρ(fsy/f'c)] = 0.8x0.004x1000x2502x400x[1 – 0.6x0.004x400/50]
= 78464000 Nmm/m = 78464 Nmm/mm
Longitudinal wall capacity per 1m strip (b = 1000 mm)
Bar diameter, db = 16 mm
Page 3-90
d = w - Co - dv - db/2 = 300 – 50 – 16 – 16/2 = 226 mm

ρ = Asw/(bd) = 800/(1000x226) = 0.0035
Mw = φMu = φρbd2fsy[1 - 0.6ρ(fsy/f'c)] = 0.8x0.0035x1000x2262x400x
[1 – 0.6x0.0035x400/50] = 56244075 Nmm/m = 56244 Nmm/mm
Beam capacity
Bar diameter, db = 16 mm
d = a - Co - ds - db/2 = 350 – 50 – 12 – 16/2 = 280 mm
ρ = Asb/(bd) = 400/(350x280) = 0.004
Mb = φMu = φρbd2fsy[1 - 0.6ρ(fsy/f'c)] = 0.8x0.004x350x2802x400x[1- 0.6x0.004x400/50] =
34435000 Nmm
For impact within a wall segment

Critical length of yield line
Lc = (Lt/2) + [(Lt/2)2 + 8hi(Mb + Mwhi)/Mc] 0.5 =
= (1100/2) + [(1100/2)2 + 8x800x(34435000 + 56244x800)/78464]0.5 = 3155 mm
Rw = [2/(2Lc - Lt)]x[8Mb + 8Mwhi + Mc(Lc2)/hi] =
= [2/(2x3155 – 1100)]x[8x34435000 + 8x56244x800 + 78464x31552/800]/1000 = 618kN
Rw = 618 kN > Ft = 250 kN OK
For impact at end of wall or at joints

Critical length of yield line
Lc = (Lt/2) + [(Lt/2)2 + hi(Mb + Mw)/Mc] 0.5 =
= (1100/2) + [(1100/2)2 + 800x(34435000 + 56244)/78464]0.5 = 1360 mm
Rw = [2/(2Lc - Lt)]x[Mb + Mwhi + Mc (Lc2)/hi] =
= [2/(2x1360 – 1100)]x[34435000 + 56244x800 + 78464x13602/800]/1000 = 322 kN
Rw = 322 kN > Ft = 250 kN OK
3.20 Composite Steel Girder
This section covers only design of compact steel girder compositing with concrete deck
slab. Shear connectors shall be provided to resist compressive and tensile force occurred
in deck slab to achieve compositeness. For non-compact steel girder, refer AS5100.6. A
compact steel girder shall satisfy the following slenderness requirements:
• Flanges: (b’f/tf)[fyf/250]0.5 ≤ 8.0 (3.148)

• Web: (dw/tw)[fyw/250]0.5 ≤ 82.0 (3.149)
Where b’f – Outstanding width of flange in mm

tf – Thickness of flange in mm
dw – Clear height of web in mm
tw– Web thickness in mm
fyf – Yield strength of flange in MPa
fyw – Yield strength of web in MPa
Because the steel girders are constructed without any props, the girders shall be
designed to take the weight of deck slab prior to being composite. Due to bending
caused by weight of steel girder and deck slab, girder flanges take compression and as
the results they may buckle. Thus, the buckled flanges shall be propped/braced. The
bracing elements (steel members and connection) shall be designed to resist a minimum
Page 3-91
ultimate lateral load of 2.5% flange capacity. After concrete strength of deck slab has
reached 0.75f’c, the steel girder and deck slab can be considered a composite structure
and top flange of steel girder is continuously and fully braced by the deck slab.
3.20.1 Effective Width of Top Flange
The effective width of concrete flange shall be calculated as
beff = bo + Σbei (3.150)

Where bo – Distance between the centres of outstand shear connectors in
mm (Refer figure below)
bei – The value of effective width of the concrete flange on each
side of the web and taken as Le/8, in mm. For a simply supported
girder, Le is bearing to bearing span. For a continuous girder,
refer figure below.
The effective width of concrete flange at end support shall be calculated as
beff = bo + Σβibei (3.151)
βi = (0.55 + 0.025Le/bei) ≤ 1.0 (3.152)
Where bei – Effective width of the end span at midspan in mm
Segment 2 Segment 4
Segment 1 Segment 3
L1 L2 L3
Enveloped BM diagram
L1/4 L1/2 L1/4 L2/4 L2/2 L2/4
beff CL Girder
be1 bo be2
Theoretical effective width
of flange
beff
Figure 3.77 Equivalent Spans and Effective Width of Concrete Flange (Source:
AS5100.6)
Page 3-92
Effective lengths of the segments can be estimated as follows:

• Segment 1: Le = 0.85L1
• Segment 2: Le = 0.25(L1 + L2)
• Segment 3: Le = 0.70L2
• Segment 4: Le = 2L3
3.20.2 Elastic Modulus of Concrete
For calculation of transformed section properties, elastic modulus of concrete shall be

determined as per section 3.4.2 of this book for short-term loading. For long-term
loading such as shrinkage, elastic modulus of concrete shall be divided by 3.0.
3.20.3 Continuous Composite Girder
The analysis of a continuous composite girder shall be carried out using a transformed
sections calculated with effective widths as determined in section 3.20.1. The analysis
shall be carried out assuming that concrete is uncracked in all regions. Where under
SLS including the effects of shrinkage and differential temperature, the analysis results
in a tensile stress (ftc) at the top surface of concrete slab at an internal support exceeds
0.1f’c, the positive moment from this analysis in each adjacent span shall be increased
by 0.4ftc/f’c to allow for the redistribution of moment. However, a reduction of the
negative moment near the internal support shall not be made.
3.20.4 Design for ULS
3.20.4.1 Bending capacity
a – Non-composite section
After casting deck slab but prior to concrete setting to 0.75f’c, the steel girder shall be
treated as non-composite. Bending capacity of steel girder shall be checked with
effective lengths of the girder measured between two adjacent bracing elements along
the bridge centerline.
Ultimate bending capacity, φMb = φαmαsMs (3.153)
αs = 0.6{[(Ms/Mo)2 + 3]0.5 – (Ms/Mo)} (3.154)
Mo = {(π2EIy/L2e)(GJ + π2EIw/L2e)}0.5 (3.155)
Where αm – Moment modification factor, may be taken = 1.0

E – Modulus of elasticity of steel, taken as 200000 MPa
G – Shear modulus of elasticity of steel, taken as 80000 MPa
Iy – Moment of inertia about minor y-axis of steel girder in mm4
Iw – Warping constant of steel girder in mm4
J – Torsional constant of steel girder in mm4
Le – Effective length of steel girder, measure between two
adjacent bracing elements in mm
Ms – Nominal section moment capacity of steel girder
φ – Capacity reduction factor, taken as 0.9
Page 3-93
b – Composite section
1. Sagging moment capacity

When sufficient shear connectors are provided on top of the top flange, compressive
capacity of deck slab shall include in calculation of bending capacity. Similar to design
of RC beam, the neutral axis shall be located so that the force equilibrium is maintained
(C = T). A plastic moment capacity is calculated based on the product of force times the
lever arm. Maximum concrete stress in deck slab shall not exceed 0.85f’c at ULS.
2. Hogging moment capacity

At ULS, concrete in the negative moment region is assumed to be cracked and provides
no tensile capacity. Fully anchored steel reinforcement of deck slab in the negative
moment region can be taken in consideration for calculation of bending capacity. Near
an internal support, where only deck slab is connected to the top flange the beam
capacity shall be calculated as follows:
φMb = φMds(Zec/Zes) ≤ φMs (3.156)
Mds = αdMss (3.157)
λd = 0.018{(Lb/ry)1/2(dw/tw)1/3} (3.158)
αd = 0.8[(λ4d + 3)0.5 – λ2d] (3.159)
Where Ms – Nominal section moment capacity, Ms = fyS

S – Plastic section modulus of steel section including steel
reinforcement in deck slab in mm3
Mss – Nominal section moment capacity of steel section only
Zec – Section modulus of transformed section in mm3
Zes – Section modulus of steel section alone in mm3
Lb – Span length of the girder between vertical supports where
the bottom flange is restrained laterally in mm
ry – Radius of gyration of compression flange about the minor
principal y-axis (web) of the steel section in mm
3.20.4.2 Shear capacity
Shear capacity of a composite steel girder is based on the shear capacity of web or plus
stiffeners.
Design requirement, V* ≤ φVv (3.160)
Yield capacity of web, Vw = 0.6twdwfyw (3.161)
If (dp/tw)[fyw/250]0.5 ≤ 82.0, Vv = Vw, otherwise Vv = Vb
Where φ – Capacity reduction factor, taken as 0.9

dp - Depth of the deepest web panel
Vb - Shear buckling capacity of web or plus stiffeners
Page 3-94
Shear buckling capacity of unstiffened web

Vb = αvVw (3.162)
αv = {82/[(dp/tw)(fyw/250)]}2 ≤ 1.0 (3.163)
Shear buckling capacity of stiffened web

Vb = αvαdαfVw (3.164)
For 1.0 ≤ s/dp ≤ 3.0, αv = {82/[(dp/tw)(fyw/250)]}2{[0.75/(s/dp)2] + 1.0} (3.165)
For s/dp < 1.0, αv = {82/[(dp/tw)(fyw/250)]}2{[0.75/(s/dp)2] + 0.75} (3.166)
Where s – Spacing of stiffeners
αd = 1 + {(1 - αv)/(1.15αv)[1 + (s/dp)2]0.5} (3.167)
Take αf = 1.0 if horizontal stiffeners are not present
And for all cases, αvαdαf ≤ 1.0
For stiffened web, V* ≤ φ(Vb + Rsb) (3.168)
Where Rsb – Nominal buckling capacity of the web with intermediate

stiffeners as determined in section 3.20.4.3
Area of a stiffener (or in pairs) shall satisfy as follows:
As ≥ 0.5γAw(1 - αv)(V*/φVu){(s/dp) - (s/dp)2/[1 + (s/dp)2]0.5} (3.169)
Moreover, stiffness of the intermediate stiffeners shall satisfy the following

requirements:
For s/d1 ≤ 2 , Is ≥ 0.75d1t3w (3.170)
For s/d1 > 2 , Is ≥ 1.5d31t3w/s2 (3.171)
Where d1 – Distance between centroids of the two flanges

Is - Moment of inertia of the stiffener (or in pairs) about the
vertical axis (web)
Shear capacity combined with bending

V* ≤ φVvm
For M* ≤ 0.75φMp, φVvm = φVv (3.172)
For 0.75φMp ≤ M* ≤ φMp, φVvm = φVv[2.2 – (1.6M*/φMp)] (3.173)
If Equation (3.173) is not satisfied, steel section shall be increased to raise up shear and
bending capacity.
Page 3-95
3.20.4.3 Bearing capacity
Bearing capacity of girder web under a high concentrated load is assessed against yield
and buckling capacity of the web.
Stiffeners
End post
e
bb
A A
bbf
bs dw/2
1.0V:1.0H slope in web

Bearing
R*
1.0V:2.5H slope in flange
Figure 3.78 Bearing Load Dispersion Through Flange and Web (Source: AS5100.6)
a – Yield Capacity
Yield capacity of web, φRby = φ1.25bbftwfyw (3.174)

bbf – Effective width of flange as defined in Fig. 3.78
b – Buckling Capacity
Le/r = 2.5(dw/tw) (3.175)
λn = (Le/r)(kf0.5)(fyw/250)0.5 (3.176)
2
αa = 2100(λn - 13.5)/(λn - 15.3λn + 2050) (3.177)
λ = λnx + αaαb (3.178)
η = 0.0036*(λ - 13.5) (3.179)
2 2
ξ = [(λ/90) + 1 + η]/[2(λ/90) ] (3.180)
2 0.5
αc = ξ*{1 - [(1 - (90/ξ*λ) ] } (3.181)
Buckling capacity of web, φRbb = φαctwbbfyw (3.182)

bb – Effective width of web as defined in Fig. 3.78
Take αb = 0.5 and kf = 1.0 for I-girder
If R* > MIN[φRby, φRbb], stiffeners are required.
Page 3-96
c – Stiffener Capacity
1. Yield capacity
φRsy = φ(Rby + 2bestsfys) (3.183)

fys – Yield strength of stiffeners in MPa (fys = fyw)
ts
Stiffeners Web
bes
2bew
Figure 3.79 Section A-A
2. Buckling capacity
Effective width of web, bew = 17.5tw/[fyw/250]0.5 (3.184)

Area of combined web and stiffeners, As = 2bewtw + 2bests (3.185)
Moment of inertia of combined web and stiffeners
Is = 2bewtw3/12 + 2[tsbes3/12 + tsbes(tw/2 + bes/2)2] (3.186)
Radius of gyration of the section, r = (Is/As)0.5 (3.187)
Slenderness ratio, Le/r = (dw/r) (3.188)
Repeat the calculation of buckling coefficients as per Eq. (3.176) to (3.181)
Buckling capacity of web, φRsb = φαcAsfys (3.189)
Design requirement: R* ≤ MIN[φRsy, φRsb]
d – End post
The minimum area of end post which locates at the end of steel girder shall satisfy the
following requirement:
Aep ≥ d1[(V*/φ) - αvVw]/(8efy) (3.190)
Where e - Distance between end post and loadbearing plate (stiffener)
3.20.4.4 Longitudinal shear
For a composite steel girder, whether it is simply supported or continuous, the design
longitudinal shear force per unit length of girder on a horizontal shear plane shall be
calculated as follows:
v*L = V*Atyc/It (3.191)
Where V* - Design vertical shear force at the section under

consideration in kN
Page 3-97
At – Area of the section to one side of the shear plane in mm2

For compression in deck slab, At = area of the transformed
concrete deck slab. For tension in deck slab, At = area of the
transformed concrete deck slab plus area of fully anchored
reinforcement in the deck slab.
yc – Distance from the neutral axis of the composite section to the
centroid of area At in mm
It – Moment of inertia of the transformed composite section in
mm4
In addition, the longitudinal shear force due to the primary effects of shrinkage in
concrete deck slab or differential temperature through girder depth shall be taken into
account for design of shear connectors. It is assumed that the rate of transfer of the
longitudinal force linearly varies from the maximum at the end of the girder to zero at a
distance from the end equal to the total effective width of the slab.
3.20.4.5 Shear connector
Two forms of shear connector are used in the construction of composite steel girders:
• Head studs
• High strength structural bolts
The nominal shear capacity of shear connectors shall be determined as the lesser of item
(a) and (b)
(a) fks = αsd2bsfuc (3.192)

2
(b) fks = 0.29d bs f ' cyEc (3.193)
Where dbs – Nominal shank diameter of shear connector,
fuc – Ultimate tensile strength of shear connector, but ≤ 500 MPa
f’cy – Characteristic strength of concrete deck slab but not exceed
f’c or 100 MPa
Ec – Elastic modulus of concrete deck slab as defined in section
3.4.2
αs = 0.7 for head stud connector
= 0.5 for high strength structural bolt connector
Ultimate capacity of shear connector, φvLS = φ0.55nfks (3.194)

n – Number of shear connectors per unit length
In a negative (hogging) moment area, shear connectors between the point of maximum
negative moment and the adjacent point of zero moment shall be designed to resist the
larger of the following forces:
(a) F*h = 0.55Arsfsy (3.195)
Where Ars – Area of reinforcement in deck slab within the effective

width in mm2
Page 3-98
fsy – Yield strength of steel reinforcement in MPa
(b) The horizontal shear force determined on the assumption that the concrete deck
slab is uncracked in the negative moment area
3.20.4.5 Transverse reinforcement in deck slab
Fully anchored transverse reinforcement in deck slab shall be checked against the
design longitudinal shear force v*LP which is considered on the particular shear plane as
shown in the figure below.
Att Att Abs 1
1
2 2 40 min.
3 3
50 min. 40 min. 1
1
Abt 50 min.
Abt
Figure 3.80 Shear Planes and Deck Transverse Reinforcement (Source: AS5100.6)
• Shear plane 1-1: (Att + Abt) or (Att + Abs)

• Shear plane 2-2: 2Abt
• Shear plane 3-3: 2Abt
Design shear capacity, τu = (µAtsfsy/S + kcof’ctAtc) ≤ min(0.2f’cAtc, 10Atc) (3.196)
Where Ats – Area of transverse reinforcement in deck slab across the

shear plane as defined in the figure above in mm2
fsy – Yield strength of steel reinforcement in MPa
S – Centre-to-centre spacing of transverse reinforcement in mm
Atc – Cross sectional area per unit length of girder of concrete
shear surface under consideration in mm2
For kco, µ and f’ct refer section 3.4
Design requirement, v*LP ≤ φτu (3.197)
3.20.4.6 Connections
Only high strength bolts (8.8 grade) shall be used in the construction of composite steel
girder bridges. Minimum yield strength, fy = 660 MPa and minimum tensile strength, fuf
= 880 MPa. Tensile and shear capacity of high strength bolts is shown in the table
below.
Page 3-99

Bolt size (mm) Bolt grade (8.8/S, 8.8/TB and 8.8/TF)
Axial tension, φNtf (kN) Single* shear, φVf (kN)
M16 104 59.3 (82.7)
M20 163 92.6 (129)
M24 234 133 (186)
M30 373 214 (291)
M36 541 313 (419)
*Single plane shear values with threads included. The numbers in ( ) are single plane shear values with
threads excluded.
To overcome fatigue problems, only tension-friction bolts (8.8/TF) are recommended to

use in the construction of composite steel girders.
For design of bolts subjected to combined shear and tension, the requirement below
shall be satisfied.
(V*/φVf)2 + (N*/φNtf)2 ≤ 1.0 (3.198)
For fillet welds, the ultimate shear capacity shall be determined in the following
equation.
φvw = φ0.6fuwttkr ≥ v*w (3.199)

fuw – Nominal tensile strength of weld electrode in MPa
tt – Effective throat thickness of fillet weld in mm
v*w – Design resultant force on fillet weld in kN/mm
kr – Reduction factor to account for the length of a welded lap
connection (Lw) and shall be taken from the table below

Length of welded Lw ≤ 1.7 1.7 < Lw ≤ 8.0 Lw > 8.0
lap Lw (mm)
kr 1.00 1.10 – 0.06Lw 0.62
3.20.5 Design for SLS
At SLS, stress at each flange shall be checked to satisfy the stress limits as specified
below.
• 0.6f'c for concrete deck slab
• 0.9fy for steel girder
• For reinforcement refer section 3.4.2
3.20.6 Design for fatigue
For fatigue design of composite steel girders refer AS5100.6.
Page 3-100
Example 3.22: Design of Composite Steel Girder

Let’s have a continuous composite steel girder railway bridge with the cross section as
shown in Fig. 3.81. The steel girders will be fabricated from welded plates. The girders
are two-span continuous. Each span is 20 m. The railway loading is 300-A-12 as
mentioned in section 3.1.2.1. The weight of ballast, sleepers and tracks is 12 kPa. Use
40 MPa concrete strength for deck slab and concrete exposure classification B1, and
300 MPa yield strength of steel plates. To minimise cracking in concrete kerbs,
intermediate joints are provided along the kerbs, so they are not included in composite
properties.
250 4300
Kerb
600
150x10EA
250 thk slab
Bracing
6 mm fillet
M24 bolt weld all
2800 round both
sides
Figure 3.81 Bridge Cross Section
a- Material properties
1. Concrete: f’c = 40 MPa, Ec = 32800 MPa, Cover = 45 mm

2. Steel:
- Plates: fy = 300 MPa, fu = 430 MPa, Es = 200,000 MPa, G = 80,000 MPa
- Weld: Electrode E41XX, fuw = 410 MPa
- Shear stud: dbs = 32 mm, fuc = 480 MPa
- Reinforcement: fsy = 400 MPa, Es = 200,000 MPa
b- Section properties of steel girder
• Flanges:
b’f = 500/2 – 25/2 – 12 = 225.5 mm (12 mm fillet weld included)
(b’f/tf)[fyf/250]0.5 = (225.5/36)x(300/250)0.5 = 6.86 < 8.0 Compact flange
• Web: (dw/tw)[fyw/250]0.5 = (1228/25)x(300/250)0.5 = 53.8 < 82 Compact web
• Section properties
A = 66700 mm2
Ix = 1.828x1010 mm4
Iy = 7.52x108 mm4
J = 2.19x107 mm4
Iw = 3.00x1014 mm4
Zb = Zt = 2.81x107 mm3 (Elastic section modulus)
Sb = St = 3.22x107 mm3 (Plastic section modulus)
Page 3-101
DB16 at 150 T DB32 at 150 T & B near support and DB20 where else
1
2 2 77 169
250
yct 150
1 2DB20 at 150 B
N.A. for hog moment N.A. for sag moment
N.A. of composite
1300 1228 section
25
ycb
12 mm fillet weld
36
500
Figure 3.82 Details of Steel Girder and Deck Slab
c- Effective widths and composite steel girder

Take bo = 350 mm
At external support and midspan:
Le = 0.85L = 0.85x20000 = 17000 mm
bei = Le/8 = 17000/8 = 2125 mm > Half girder spacing (2800/2 = 1400 mm)
Take full width of deck slab, bef = 2400 mm
At internal support:
Le = 0.25(L1 + L2) = 0.25x2x20000 = 10000 mm
bei = Le/8 = 10000/8 = 1250 mm
bef = bo + Σbei = 350 + 2x1250 = 2850 mm > 4800/2 = 2400 mm
Take full width of deck slab, bef = 2400 mm
For all sections along the girder, use bef = 2400 mm
n = Es/Ec = 200,000/32800 = 6.1
For composite section properties calculation, the equivalent effective width of slab, be =
bef/n = 2400/6.1 = 393.4 mm
Ac = 165100 mm2
Icx = 4.22x1010 mm4
Icy = 2.02x109 mm4
Jc = 2.072x109 mm4
Zcb = 3.79x107 mm3 (Elastic section modulus)
Zct = 9.62x107 mm3 (Elastic section modulus)
ycb = 1112 mm
yct = 438 mm
Page 3-102
These section properties apply to all sections along the girder.

For long-term loading (shrinkage), Ec = 32800/3 = 10933 MPa and n = 200,000/10933
= 18.3. The section properties are:
Acl = 99487 mm2
Icxl = 3.15x1010 mm4
Zcbl = 3.48x107 mm3
Zctl = 4.88x107 mm3
ycbl = 905 mm
yctl = 645 mm
d- Loading
• Dead load
Deck slab and kerb: 25x(2.4x0.25 + 0.25x0.35) = 17.2 kN/m
Girder: 78x0.0667 = 5.2 kN/m use 5.5 kN/m to include weight of shear studs
• Superimposed dead load
Ballast, sleepers and tracks: 12x4.3/2 = 25.8 kN/m
• Live load
Railway load: 300-A-12:
According to AS5100.2 Table 8.4.2, for two-span continuous
girder, Lm = (L1 + L2)/2 = (20 + 20)/2 = 20 m and Lα = 1.2Lm =
1.2x20 = 24 m
Dynamic load allowance, DLA = {2.16/[Lα0.5 – 0.20]} – 0.17 =
{2.16/[240.5 – 0.20]} – 0.17 = 0.29
For shear design, DLA = 0.29x2/3 = 0.19
Construction live load: 2.5 kPa x 2.4 = 6 kN/m
• Shrinkage
For 30 years
Take th = 250 mm (Slab thickness)
α1 = 0.8 + 1.2e-0.005x250 = 1.14
k1 = 1.14x109500.8/(109500.8 + 0.15x250) = 1.11
εcsd = 1.11x0.5x(1.0 – 0.008x40)x1000x10-6 = 377x10-6
εcse = (0.06x40 – 1.0) x50x10-6 x(1.0 – e-0.1x10950) = 70x10-6
An assumption is made that φcc.j = 1.6 then [(1 – e -φcc.j)/φcc.j] = 0.5
Area of slab subject to shrinkage, Acs = 250x2400 = 600x103 mm2
Differential shrinkage force, DSF = EcAcsεcs[(1 – e -φcc.j)/φcc.j] =
= 32800x600x103x447x10-6x0.5x10-3 = 4398 kN
Lever arm, z = yct – Ds/2 = 438 - 250/2 = 313 mm
Moment, M = 4398 x 0.313 = 1376 kNm
• Temperature
Refer Table 3.10, T = 13°C
From Figure 3.46, the negative temperature, ∆T = 0.4T – 3 = 0.4x13 – 3 = 2.2°C
The temperature gradient shall be extended down to 300 mm below top surface
of deck slab. However, take 250 mm effective depth for concrete deck slab and
ignore another 50 mm depth in steel girder as the area subject to the temperature
gradient in steel girder is very small comparing to the area of concrete deck slab.
Compressive force in deck slab, FT = 0.5EcAcs∆Tα =
0.5x32800x600x103x2.2x11x10-6 x10-3 = 238 kN
Lever arm, z = yct – 2Ds/3 = 438 – 2x250/3 = 271 mm
Page 3-103
M = 238x0.271 = 65 kNm
e- Design of steel girder (non-composite)

• Bracing
Capacity of top flange, φNf = φAffy = 0.9x500x36x300x10-3 = 4860 kN
Force required for bracing design, F* = 2.5%x4860 = 121.5 kN say 122 kN
122 kN
150x150x10EA
90x90x10EA
Figure 3.83 Bracing Model
Use 150x150x10 EA (equal angle) for top and bottom member, section capacity,
φNs = 753 kN > 122 kN
Use 90x90x10 EA for diagonal members, φNs = 437 kN > 86 kN (tension)
For compression members, the compression capacity may be slightly reduced due to
buckling of the members. Compression capacity shall be checked.
Use M24 8.8/TF, φVf = 133 kN > 122 kN
Try 6 mm fillet weld, φvw = φ0.6fuwttkr = 0.8x0.6x410x(6/ 2 )x1.0x10-3 = 0.834
kN/mm. Need 122/0.834 = 146 mm of 6 mm filled weld in the gusset plate.
Use 4 bracings per span (two at supports and other two intermediate bracings)
Design moments:
• Sag moment (7m from external support) – top flange in compression
Self-weight = 168 kNm
Deck slab = 482 kNm
Construction live load = 168 kNm
M* = 1.1x168 + 1.2x482 + 1.5x168 = 1015.2 kNm
Le = 20/3 = 6.67 m
Ms = Sb (or St) x fy = 3.22x107x300x10-6 = 9660 kNm
Mo = {(π2EIy/L2e)(GJ + π2EIw/L2e)}0.5
={(π2x200000x7.52x108/66702)x(80000x2.19x107 +
π2x200000x3.00x1014/66702)}0.5x10-6 = 22396 kNm
Ms/Mo = 9660/22396 = 0.43
αs = 0.6{[(Ms/Mo)2 + 3]0.5 – (Ms/Mo)} = 0.6x{[(0.43)2 + 3]0.5 – (0.43)} = 0.81
φMb = φαmαsMs = 0.9x1.0x0.81x9660 = 7042 kNm > M* OK
• Hog moment (at internal support) – bottom flange in compression
Page 3-104
Deck slab = 860 kNm

Construction live load = 300 kNm
M* = 1.1x300 + 1.2x860 + 1.5x300 = 1812 kNm < φMb OK
• Pre-camber
Deflections at midspan:
Self-weight of girder = 2 mm
Deck slab = 6 mm
Ballast, sleepers and tracks = 4 mm
Total deflection = 2 + 6 + 4 = 12 mm, so provide 20 mm pre-camber at midspan
f- Design of composite steel girder
Figure 3.84 Grillage Model with 300-A-12 Loading
Figure 3.85 Restraint Moment Caused by Shrinkage
Figure 3.86 Restraint Moment Caused by Temperature Gradient
Page 3-105
Figure 3.87 Derail Load Case A
Figure 3.88 Derail Load Case B for Max. Negative Moment
Figure 3.89 Derail Load Case B for Max. Positive Moment
1. Hog moments (internal support):

Deck slab = 860 kNm
Ballast = 1290 kNm
300-A-12 loading = 2650 kNm
Derail load case A = 5136 kNm
Derail load case B = 6177 kNm
Shrinkage = 688 kNm
Temperature = 32 kNm
At SLS:
Prior to compositing (Steel girder and deck slab only)
M = 300 + 860 = 1160 kNm
Page 3-106
Compressive stress in bottom flange, fb1 = M/(Zb) = 1160x106/(2.81x107) = 41.3

MPa
For composite member, Mc = 1.3x1290 + 1.29x2650 + 0.7x32 = 5118 kNm
Compressive stress in bottom, fb2 = Mc/(Zcb) = 5118x106/(3.79x107) = 135 MPa
Stress due to shrinkage

Compressive stress in bottom of girder, fb3 = DSF/Acl + M/Zcbl = 4398x103/99487 +
688x106/3.48x107 = 63.4 MPa
Tensile stress in deck slab, fd1 = DSF/Aslab = 4398x103/2400x250 = 7.33 MPa
Stress due to axial force and bending moment on the top of deck
fd2 = [- DSF/Acl + M/Zctl]/n = [- 4398x103/99487 + 688x106/4.88x107]/18.3 = -1.65
MPa (Compressive)
Total tensile stress on the top of deck slab due to shrinkage, fd = 7.33 – 1.65 = 5.68
MPa
Total stresses
Total compressive stress in bottom of girder, fb = 41.3 + 135 + 63.4 = 239.7 MPa <
0.9fy = 270 MPa OK
Tensile stress in concrete deck slab, ftc = Mc/(nZct) + fd = 5118x106/(6.1x9.62x107)
+ 5.68 = 8.72 MPa > 0.1f’c = 0.1x40 = 4 MPa
Moment redistribution to positive moment = 0.4ftc/f’c = 0.4x8.72/40 = 0.0872 say
9%
At ULS:
M* = 1.1x300 + 1.2x860 + 1.7x1290 + MAX[1.6x1.29x2650,1.2x5136,6177] +
1.2x688 = 10558 kNm
Note that because derail load case B governs design live load, temperature load
shall not include.
Use trial and error to determine the location of neutral axis. The neutral axis (N.A.)
locates at 1.3 mm above the soffit of top flange.
Compressive forces:
Bottom flange: 300x500x36x10-3 = 5400 kN
Web: 300x1228x25x10-3 = 9210 kN
Top flange: 300x500x1.3x10-3 = 195 kN
Total compressive force, C = 5400 + 9210 + 195 = 14805 kN
Tensile forces:
Top flange: 300x500x(36 – 1.3)x10-3 = 5205 kN
Assume top steel bars are at yield
As = 2x12000 = 24000 mm2
Reinforcement: 400x24000x10-3 = 9600 kN
Total tensile force, T = 5205 + 9600 = 14805 kN
C = T, force equilibrium is satisfied
Lever arms from bottom of girder:
For compressive forces
Bottom flange, d1 = 36/2 = 18 mm
Web, d2 = 36 + 1228/2 = 650 mm
Top flange, d3 = 36 + 1228 + 1.3/2 = 1264.65 mm
For tensile force
First layer of reinforcement, d4 = 1550 – 77 = 1473 mm
Second layer of reinforcement, d5 = 1550 – 169 = 1381 mm
Page 3-107
Top flange, d6 = 1300 - (36 – 1.3)/2 = 1282.65 mm

Plastic moment, φMp = 0.9x(4800x1.473 + 4800x1.381 + 5205x1.28265 –
5400x0.018 – 9210x0.65 – 195x1.26465) = 12640 kNm
Distance between two vertical supports, Lb = 20000 mm
Moment of inertia of bottom flange about vertical axis (web),
Iy = 36x5003/12 = 375x106 mm4
Area of bottom flange, A = 500x36
ry = (375x106/500x36)0.5 = 144.3 mm
λd = 0.018{(Lb/ry)1/2(dw/tw)1/3} = 0.018{(20000/144.3)1/2x(1228/25)1/3} = 0.776
αd = 0.8[(λ4d + 3)0.5 – λ2d] = 0.8x[(0.7764 + 3)0.5 – 0.7762] = 0.985
Zec = Mp/fy = (12640x106/0.9)/300 = 4.68x107 mm3
Zes = 3.22x107 mm3
Mss = 9660 kNm
Mds = 0.985x9660 = 9515 kNm
φMb = φMds(Zec/Zes) = 0.9x9515x(4.68x107/3.22x107) = 12446 kNm ≤ φMp = 12640
kNm
φMb = 12446 kNm > M* = 10558 kNm OK
2. Sag moments (7 m from external support):

Deck slab = 482 kNm
Ballast = 364 kNm
300-A-12 loading = 1774 kNm
Derail load case A = 3225 kNm
Derail load case B = 7465 kNm
Shrinkage = 654 kNm
Temperature = 31 kNm
At SLS:
Prior to compositing
M = 154 + 482 = 636 kNm
Tensile stress in bottom flange, fb1 = M/(Zb) = 636x106/(2.81x107) = 22.6 MPa
For composite member, Mc = 1.3x364 + 1.29x1774 + 0.7x31 + 0.09x5118 = 3244
kNm
Stress due to shrinkage

Tensile stress in bottom of girder, fb3 = - DSF/Acl + M/Zcbl = -4398x103/99487 +
654x106/3.48x107 = - 25.4 MPa (Compressive)
Tensile stress in deck slab, fd1 = DSF/Aslab = 4398x103/2400x250 = 7.33 MPa
Stress due to axial force and bending moment in top of deck
fd2 = [- DSF/Acl - M/Zctl]/n = [- 4398x103/99487 - 654x106/4.88x107]/18.3 = -3.14
MPa (Compressive)
Total tensile stress on the top of deck slab due to shrinkage, fd = 7.33 – 3.14 = 4.19
MPa
Total stresses
Tensile stress in bottom flange, fb = Mc/(Zcb) + fb1 + fb2 = 3244x106/(3.79x107) +
22.6 – 25.4 = 82.2 MPa < 0.9fy = 270 MPa OK
Compressive stress in concrete deck slab, ftc = M/(nZct) + fd =
3244x106/(6.1x9.62x107) – 4.19 = 1.34 MPa (Compressive) < 0.6f'c = 24 MPa OK
Page 3-108
At ULS:
M* = 1.1x154 + 1.2x482 + 1.7x364+ MAX[1.6x1.29x1774,1.2x3225,7465] +
1.2x654 + 0.09x10558 = 10567 kNm (Redistribution from hog moment included)
Derail load governs design live load.
Use trial and error to determine the location of neutral axis. The neutral axis (N.A.)
locates at 245.22 mm below top of deck slab.
Compressive force, C = 0.85f’cbDs = 0.85x40x2400x245.22x10-3 = 20010 kN
Tensile forces:
Bottom flange: 300x500x36x10-3 = 5400 kN
Web: 300x1228x25x10-3 = 9210 kN
Top flange: 300x500x36x10-3 = 5400 kN
Total compressive force, C = 5400 + 9210 + 5400 = 20010 kN
C = T, force equilibrium is satisfied
Lever arms from top of deck slab:
For tensile forces
Bottom flange, d1 = 1550 – 36/2 = 1532 mm
Web, d2 = 1550 – 36 – 1228/2 = 900 mm
Top flange, d3 = 250 + 36/2 = 268 mm
For compressive force
d4 = 245.22/2 = 122.61 mm
Plastic moment, φMp = 0.9x(5400x1.532 + 9210x0.9 + 5400x0.268 –
20010x0.12261) = 14000 kNm > M* = 10567 kNm OK
g- Shear capacity of steel girder

At internal support
Self-weight = 69 kN
Deck slab = 215 kN
Ballast = 162 kN
300-A-12 loading = 771 kN
Derail load case A = 1588 kN
Derail load case B = 2526 kN
Shrinkage = 103 kN
Temperature = 5 kN
V* = 1.1x69 + 1.2x215 + 1.7x162+ MAX[1.6x1.19x771,1.2x1588,2526] + 1.2x103 =
3369 kN
Derail load governs design live load
M* = 10558 kNm > 0.75φMs
Nominal shear capacity of an unstiffened web, Vv = Vw = 0.6twdwfyw =
0.6x25x1228x300x10-3 = 5526 kN
Shear capacity combined with bending
For 0.75φMs ≤ M* ≤ φMp, φVvm = φVv[2.2 – (1.6M*/φMp)] = 0.9x5526x[2.2 –
(1.6x10558/12623)] = 4277 kN > V* = 3369 kN OK, Stiffeners are not required for
shear design.
h – Load bearing capacity of steel girder

Girder reactions at internal support
Self-weight = 138 kN
Deck slab = 430 kN
Ballast = 324 kN
Page 3-109
300-A-12 loading = 1270 kN

Shrinkage = 103 kN
Temperature = 5 kN
R* = 1.1x138 + 1.2x430 + 1.7x324+ MAX[1.6x1.19x1270,1.2x2666,4356] + 1.2x103 =
5698 kN
Try a pair of stiffener 2x25x230 mm and bearing width 500 mm.
bbf = 500 + 2x2.5x36 = 680 mm
bb = 500 + 2x2.5x36 + 2x1228/2 = 1908 mm
Yield capacity of web, φRby = φ1.25bbftwfyw = 0.9x1.25x680x25x300x10-3 = 5737 kN
Yield capacity of web and stiffeners, φRsy = φ(Rby + 2bestsfys) = 5737 +
0.9x2x230x25x300x10-3 = 8842 kN
Effective width of web, bew = 17.5tw/[fyw/250]0.5 = 17.5x25/[300/250]0.5 = 399 mm
Area of combined web and stiffeners, As = 2bewtw + 2bests = 2x399x25 + 2x230x25 =
31450 mm2
Moment of inertia of combined web and stiffeners
Is = 2bewtw3/12 + 2[tsbes3/12 + tsbes(tw/2 + bes/2)2] = 2x399x253/12 + 2x[25x2303/12 +
25x230x(25/2 + 230/2)2] = 238681770 mm4
Radius of gyration of the section, r = (Is/As)0.5 = (238681770/31450)0.5 = 87.1 mm
Slenderness ratio, Le/r = (dw/r) = 1228/87.1 = 14.1
λn = (Le/r)(kf0.5)(fyw/250)0.5 = 14.1x(10.5)x(300/250)0.5 = 15.4

2
αa = 2100(λn - 13.5)/(λn - 15.3λn + 2050) = 2100x(15.4 – 13.5)/(15.42 – 15.3x15.4 + 2050)
= 1.95
λ = λn + αaαb = 15.4 + 1.95x0.5 = 16.4
η = 0.00326(λ - 13.5) = 0.00326x(16.4 – 13.5) = 0.0095
2
ξ = [(λ/90) + 1 + η]/[2(λ/90)
2
] = [(16.4/90)2 + 1 + 0.0095]/[2(16.4/90)2] = 15.8
2 0.5
αc = ξ{1 - [(1 - (90/ξ*λ) ] } = 15.8x{1 - [1 – (90/15.8x16.4)2]0.5} = 0.983
Buckling capacity of web, φRsb = φαcAsfys = 0.9x0.983x31450x300x10-3 = 8347 kN

MIN[φRsy, φRsb] = MIN[8842,8347] = 8347 kN > R* = 5698 kN OK
Load bearing capacity at external support shall be checked separately.
i– Shear connector
Shear forces near external support
Self-weight = 41 kN
Deck slab = 129 kN
Ballast = 193 kN
300-A-12 loading = 513 kN
Shrinkage = 103 kN
Temperature = 5 kN
V* = 1.1x41 + 1.2x129 + 1.7x193+ MAX[1.6x1.19x513,1.2x1060,1987] + 1.2x103 =
2639 kN
Page 3-110
Area of transformed deck slab, At = 393.4x250 = 98350 mm2

Distance from neutral axis of composite girder to centroid of area At
yc = ytc – 250/2 = 438 – 250/2 = 313 mm
v*L = V*Atyc/Ic = 2639x98350x313/4.22x1010 = 1.93 kN/mm
Shrinkage force, DSF = 1.2x4398 = 5278 kN
This force linearly varies from girder end (maximum) to zero at a distance of the
effective width of slab bef = 2.4 m from girder end.
Average shrinkage force in deck slab, DSF = 0.5x5278/(2.4x1000) = 1.10 kN/mm
Total longitudinal force, v* = 1.93 + 1.10 = 3.03 kN/mm
Ec = 32800 MPa
f’cy = 40 MPa
Shear stud: dbs = 32 mm, fuc = 480 MPa
αs = 0.7
(a) fks = αsd2bsfuc = 0.7x322x480x10-3 = 344 kN
(b) fks = 0.29d2bs f ' cyEc = 0.29x322x 40 x 32800 x10-3 = 340 kN
Use fks = 340 kN
Try 3 shear connectors per 150 mm, n = 3x1000/150 = 20 per 1.0 m run
Ultimate capacity of shear connector, φvLS = φ0.55nfks = 1.0x0.55x20x340 = 3740 kN/m
OR 3.74 kN/mm > v* = 3.03 kN/mm OK
Shear force at internal support

V* = 3369 kN
Shrinkage force at internal support is nil.
Area of transformed deck slab and deck reinforcement, At = 98350 + 24000 = 122350
mm2
v*L = V*Atyc/Ic = 3369x122350x313/4.22x1010 = 3.05 kN/mm
F*h = 0.55Arsfsy = 0.55x24000x400x10-3 = 5280 kN
This force shall be distributed for a distance from the point of maximum negative
moment to the point of zero moment, i.e. about one-quarter of the span = 20/4 = 5.0 m.
So, F*h = 5280/5000 = 1.06 kN/mm not governs.
v*L = 3.05 kN/mm < φvLS = 3.74 kN/mm OK
j– Longitudinal weld
Near internal support
V* = 3369 kN
Area of top flange shall include in the calculation
v*L = 3369x[122350x313 + 500x36x(438 – 250 – 36/2)]/4.22x1010 = 3.30 kN/mm
For each weld, v*L = 3.30/2 = 1.65 kN/mm
Try 12 mm fillet weld, effective throat thickness, tt = 12/ 2 = 8.48 mm and take kr =
1.0
φvw = φ0.6fuwttkr = 0.8x0.6x480x8.48x1.0x10-3 = 1.95 kN/mm ≥ v*L = 1.65 kN/mm OK
Weld near external support shall be also checked.
k– Transverse reinforcement in deck slab

Near external support
For monolithic construction, kco = 0.5 and µ = 0.9 and f’ct = 0.36 40 = 2.27 MPa
For shear plane 1-1, Atc = 250x1 = 250 mm2
Try DB16 at 150 mm top bars and 2DB20 at 150 mm bottom bars, Ats = 200 + 2x310 =
820 mm2
Page 3-111
φτu = φ(µAtsfsy/S+ kcof’ctAtc) = 0.7x(0.9x820x400/150 + 0.5x2.27x250)x10-3 = 1.576

kN/mm < min[0.7x(0.2f’cAtc, 10Atc)] = min[0.7x(0.2x40x250, 10x250)x10-3] = 2.00
kN/mm
Area of transformed deck slab subject to the longitudinal shear, At = 250x(2400 –
500)/6.1 = 77868 mm2
Reduction in deck slab area = (98350 – 77868)/98350 = 21 %
V* = 2639 kN
Shrinkage force, DSF = 1.10x0.79 = 0.87 kN/mm
v*Lp = 2639x77868x313/4.22x1010 + 0.87 = 2.39 kN/mm < 2x1.576 = 3.152 kN/mm (2
shear planes) OK
For shear plane 2-2, Atc = (500 + 2x150)x1 = 800 mm2
2DB20 at 150 mm bottom bars, Ats = 2x2x310 = 1240 mm2
φτu = 0.7x(0.9x1240x400/150 + 0.5x2.27x800)x10-3 = 2.72 kN/mm
Area of transformed deck slab subject to the longitudinal shear, At = (250x2400 –
500x150)/6.1 = 86065 mm2
Reduction in deck slab area = (98350 – 86065)/98350 = 12 %
Shrinkage force, DSF = 1.10x0.88 = 0.97 kN/mm
v*Lp = 2639x86065x313/4.22x1010 + 0.97 = 2.65 kN/mm < φτu = 2.72 MPa OK
The reinforcement near the internal support shall be checked separately. In addition, the
transverse reinforcement shall be also checked due to bending/sagging of the steel
girders.
L– Steel girder splice

Bolted splice to flanges and web is very common for the construction of steel girders.
Bolted splices have more advantage than welded splices on site. Splices shall be made
where stresses in the girder are low. In this example, a bolted splice is made at one-
quarter of span (20/4 = 5 m) from the internal support. At the splice location, the design
forces are:
Shear force, V* = 1.1x41 + 1.2x129 + 1.7x193+ MAX[1.6x1.19x548,1.2x1074,1497] +
1.2x103 = 2149 kN
Bending moment, M* = 1.1x0 + 1.2x0 + 1.7x0 + MAX[1.6x1.29x1034,1.2x2221,3584]
+ 1.2x0 = 3584 kNm
However, according to AS5100.6 the minimum design bending moment for splicing
shall be 50% of steel girder section capacity, so M*min = 0.5x9660 =4830 kNm.
The bolted splice at 5.0 m from the internal support shall be design for the following
forces:
V* = 2149 kN
M* = 4830 kNm
N* = 0 kN (Axial force)
Ratio of moment of inertia of web to the total moment of inertia of steel girder, kmw =
Iw/I = (25x12283/12)/1.828x1010 = 0.21
Compression or tension force in each flange, N*f = M*(1 – kmw)/(dw + tf) = 4830x(1 –
0.21)/[(1228 + 36)/1000] = 3019 kN. Bolts in each flange shall be designed for this
axial (shear) force. Please note that the bolts will fail with two shear planes. From
Table 3.14, the shear capacity of single M36 8.8/TF bolt, φVf = 313 kN (Threads
included), then the number of bolts required = 3019/(2x313) = 4.8 bolts. Use 6xM36
bolts on flange of each side of the splice with 2x25 mm thick steel plates.
Page 3-112
Eccentricity of shear force V* to group of bolts in web, e = (65x6 + 195x5 + 325x6)/17

= 195 mm
Bending moment in web, Mw = M*kmw + V*e = 4830x0.21 + 2149x0.195 = 1433 kNm
Shear force in web, V* = 2149 kN
5 mm gap 12xM36 8.8/TF in each flange
25 PL
N*f
65 V* V*2
190 typ.
e V*1 V*res
34xM36 8.8/TF in web

Mw 2x25 PL
N*f
130 typ.
Figure 3.90 Bolted Splice
Shear force in bolts due to V*, V*1 = 2149/17 = 126.4 kN (Vertical shear force)
Moment of inertia of bolt group about horizontal axis of plate
I = 2x[2x(952 + 2852 + 4752)] + 2x(1902 + 3802) = 1634500 mm2
Horizontal shear force on the most upper/lower bolt, V*2 = Mwd/I =
(1433x106x475/1634500)x10-3 = 416.4 kN (Horizontal shear force)
Resultant shear force, V*res = (126.42 + 416.42)0.5 = 435 kN
For two shear planes of M36 8.8/TF bolt, φVf = 2x313 = 626 kN > V*res = 435 kN OK
Now we need to check web plates for bending and shear.
The plate dimension is 1080mm high x 25 mm thick
Bending capacity of 2 plates, φMs = φfyS = (2x0.9x300x25x10802/4)x10-6 = 3936.6
kNm > Mw = 1433 kNm OK
Assume the bolt hole diameter = 40 mm.
Effective area of web, Aew = (1228 – 6x40)x25 = 24700 mm2
Web shear capacity, φVw = φ0.6Aewfy = 0.9x0.6x24700x300x10-3 = 4001.4 kN > V* =
2149 kN OK
Now check bearing failure of the bolt-ply interface.
φVb = φ3.2dftpfup = 0.8x3.2x36x25x430x10-3 = 990.7 kN > 0.5V*res OK (where df is the
bolt diameter)
The tear-out capacity of plate, φVp = φaetpfup = 0.8x65x25x430x10-3 = 559 kN > 0.5V*2
OK (where ae is the distance from centroid of bolt to the edge of plate)
Now we need to check girder plates. Effective area of a flange, Ae = (500 – 2x40)x36 =
15120 mm2
Top/bottom flange yield capacity, φNf = φAefy = 0.9x15120x300x10-3 = 4082.4 kN >
N*f = 3019 kN OK
Page 3-113
Chapter 4: Bridge Substructure

4.1 Loading
4.1.1 Permanent Effects
4.1.1.1 Dead load
As discussed in the previous chapters.
4.1.1.2 Earth pressure
Estimating earth pressure:

For design of any retaining walls and structures, estimate of earth pressure sometimes
can be debatable. In some circumstances, earth pressure may be overestimated or
underestimated using different assumptions. Walls that can tolerate little or no
movement shall be designed with at-rest earth pressure (Ko). Walls which can move
away from soil mass should be designed with active earth pressure using Ka.
Movement required to reach the minimum active pressure or the maximum passive
pressure is a function of wall height and soil type. Table 4.1 presents the relationship
between wall movement and the active or passive pressure.
Table 4.1 – Approximate values of relative movements to reach minimum active and
maximum passive pressure (Source: AASHTO, 2005, SI edition)
Type of backfill Value ∆/H

Active Passive
Loose sand 0.004 0.04
Medium dense sand 0.002 0.02
Dense sand 0.001 0.01
Where ∆ – Movement of top of wall

H – Total height of wall
In general, backfill material behind a retaining structure is granular soil and after
compaction the backfill can be considered as medium dense with a friction angle, φ =
30°.
• At-rest pressure
If an abutment is designed not to have large displacement at top, at-rest earth pressure
may be used for design of abutment and wing wall.
Coefficient for at-rest earth pressure, Ko = 1 – sinφ’ (4.1)

Where φ’ – Effective internal friction angle of fill material in degrees
For the effective internal friction angle of 30°, the coefficient for at-rest earth
pressure, Ko = 1 – sin30° = 0.5
• Passive pressure
Coefficient for passive pressure, Kp = [1 + sinφ’]/ [1 - sinφ’] (4.2)
Page 4-1
4.1.2 Transient Effects
4.1.2.1 Live load surcharge
• Live load surcharge from railway load

Vertical unfactored pressure, kPa
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
147.5
0
x = 1.25 m or
x = 2.25 55.2 abutment approach
d = 1.03 69.8
x ≤ 1.25
2 36.3
47.0 147.5
No loads d
x = 4.0 34.5 3.5 m d = 2.1 m
d = 2.78
No loads
Depth below x = 5.0 32.0 x > 1.25
Sleeper, m 4 d = 3.78 1V:1H
2V:1H
d’
No loads
d
x = 6.0 30.0 4.5 max. d = 2.1 m
d = 4.78
No loads
x = 7.0 27.5
d = 5.78
6
x – Distance from centerline of track to the
closest structure in m
d – Depth below sleeper in m
22.4 30.1
8
Figure 4.1 Unfactored Vertical Pressure for 300-A-12 Train Load (Source: AS5100.2)
For design of abutment walls or any walls locating no more than 1.25 m (x ≤ 1.25 m)
from the track centreline, the unfactored vertical pressure due to rail load shall be
determined as shown in the dashed red line in Figure 4.1. For any walls locating
further than 1.25 m (x > 1.25 m) from the track centreline, the unfactored vertical
pressure due to rail load shall be determined as shown in the solid dark line. The
pressure shall be applied to the walls starting from depth d’ = x – 1.22 ≥ 1.03 m. For
Page 4-2
intermediate values of depth, a linear interpolation is permitted to calculate the

vertical pressure.
When adjacent rail load distributions overlap, the total load shall be considered to be
uniformly distributed over the area defined by the outside limits of the individual rail
load distribution at that depth.
An appropriate earth pressure coefficient shall be multiplied to the vertical pressure to
obtain an unfactored horizontal pressure due to the surcharge.
• Live load surcharge from traffic loads

Live load surcharge due to traffic loads is applied irrespective of whether or not there
is a provision for an approach slab at the abutment. Due to live load surcharge, an
equivalent additional height to wall height can be determined from AS5100.2 as
illustrated in Figure 4.2 below.
Equivalent additional
fill: 1.0 m high
0
3
Depth below
top of wall (m)
Figure 4.2 Additional Height of Fill Due to Surcharge (Source: AS5100.2)
4.1.2.2 Horizontal Loads on Superstructure
• Braking forces
Refer to clause 2.5.2 Braking forces, CAM PW 04.102.99, braking force on a

superstructure having total length from 10 to 60 m shall be defined from equation
below
BF = 300 kN + (L – 10) m x 6 kN/m (4.3)
Where L – Total length of superstructure in m
When the total length of superstructure is outside the range or in an alternative way,
braking force can be determined from Figure 4.3 below.
Page 4-3
Figure 4.3 Braking Force (Source: CAM PW 04.102.99)
Braking force shall range between 300 and 600 kN. The force shall be distributed in
proportion of superstructure stiffness. Load factor of 2.0 shall be applied to braking
force for ULS design. No dynamic load allowance is required for braking force.
For rail bridges, braking or traction force shall be determined from Table 4.2 below

Track type Loaded length Braking or traction force
(kN)
Discontinuous All lengths 200 + 20L
Continuous < 50 m 100

> 50 m 100 + 15(L – 50)
The braking or traction force shall be distributed to the bridge supports under the
loaded length in proportion to their stiffness. For two or more tracks, the horizontal
force shall be applied to two tracks simultaneously. For ULS design, the load factor is
1.60.
• Centrifugal force
For bridges on a horizontal curve, a centrifugal force shall be calculated as follows:
Fc = V2Wc/(rg) ≤ (0.35 + θ)Wc (4.4)
Where V – Speed in m/s

Wc – Weight of vehicle in kN
r – Radius of curvature on the bridge in m
Page 4-4
g = 9.81 m/s2
θ – Super elevation of the bridge in fraction (e.g. 0.05)
Refer Chapter 3 for multiple lane modification factors.
4.1.2.3 Minimum restraint load
As mentioned in clause 2.5.4, CAM PW 04.102.99, for a waterway-crossing bridge,

restraints shall be designed for a minimum horizontal load acting normal to the bridge
centreline of 200 kN or 5% of superstructure dead load at support, whichever is
greater. This is an ultimate force and shall be applied for the whole span. However,
for a waterway with water traffic where the bridge deck is more likely to be hit by
water traffic, a minimum ultimate load of 500 kN shall be used.
4.1.2.4 Seismic force
Earthquake resistant design is stipulated in clause 2.13.2, CAM PW 04.102.99.

However, since the design standard is permitted to use coefficient of acceleration a =
0.05 which is small and the design of bridge structures may be carried out with a load
combination PE + Earthquake force which in most cases, according to the author’s
experiences, gives little effects on structures, the design for seismic may be
conservatively neglected. The above statement is an author’s opinion only. Designers
have to demonstrate that the load combination of PE with earthquake does not govern
the design loading prior to neglecting it.
4.1.2.5 Wind loads
The design wind speeds are specified in Table 2.8.2 of CAM PW 04.102.99 in regard
to wind regions and are shown in Table 4.3 here.
• Transverse wind load
At serviceability, design transverse wind load

W*ts = 0.0006Vs2AtCd (kN) (4.5)
At ultimate, design transverse wind load

W*tu = 0.0006Vu2AtCd (kN) (4.6)
Page 4-5
Where At – Area of structure transverse to wind direction in m2

Cd – Drag coefficient, depends upon ratio of total bridge width
“b” to depth of superstructure “d” (including solid
parapet/railing) and can be determined from AS5100.2 as
illustrated in figure below.
2.8
2.4
2.0
1.6
Cd
1.2
0.8
0.4
0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 2 6 10 30
Ratio b/d
Figure 4.4 Drag Coefficient Cd (Source: AS5100.2)
• Longitudinal wind load
For pier and other structures which have significant area to resist longitudinal wind
load, longitudinal wind load shall be considered. It shall be calculated in a manner
similar to those for transverse wind load.
• Vertical wind load
An upward or downward vertical wind load acting at centroid of superstructure plan

can be calculated as follows:
At serviceability, design transverse wind load

W*vs = 0.0006Vs2ApCL (kN) (4.7)
At ultimate, design transverse wind load

W*vu = 0.0006Vu2ApCL (kN) (4.8)
Where Ap – Area of superstructure in plan in m2

CL – Lift coefficient = 0.75
4.1.2.6 Forces resulting from water flow
Bridge structures shall be designed to resist forces resulting from water flow for 2000
years return interval at Ultimate Limit State and for 20 years return interval at
Serviceability Limit State. In the case of absence of 2000 years return interval flood
data, an ultimate load factor γWF can be determined from AS5100.2 as shown in
Figure 4.5 below.
Page 4-6
γWF = 2 – 0.5log(ARI/20) where ARI in years

2.0
1.65
γWF
1.0
20 100 2000
Years, (Log scale)
Average return interval (ARI) for critical design conditions
Figure 4.5 Ultimate Load Factor for Design Flood Load (Source: AS5100.2)
• Drag force on pier
At ultimate, design drag force

F*du = 0.5Vu2AdCd (kN) (4.9)
At serviceability, design drag force

F*ds = 0.5Vs2AdCd (kN) (4.10)
Where Vu – Mean velocity of flow for Ultimate Limit State in m/s

Vs – Mean velocity of flow for Serviceability Limit State in m/s
Ad – Area of pier equal pier thickness times height of water
flow in m2
Cd – Drag coefficient
= 0.7 for semi-circular pier nosing
= 1.4 for square end pier nosing
= 0.8 for wedge, sharper than 90° nosing
Forces shall be applied at centroid of area submerged in water.
• Lift force on pier
When water flow direction is not parallel to bridge transverse centerline, lift force
may occur, dependent on the angle θw between the direction of water flow and the
transverse centerline.
At ultimate, design lift force

F*Lu = 0.5Vu2ALCL (kN) (4.11)
At serviceability, design lift force

F*Ls = 0.5Vs2ALCL (kN) (4.12)
Page 4-7
Where AL – Area equal to width of pier normal to water flow

multiplied by height of flow, in m2
CL – Lift coefficient
= 0.9 for θw ≤ 30°
= 1.0 for θw > 30°
• Forces on superstructure due to water flow

Due to 2000 years return interval flood, superstructure may be partially or fully
submerged in water. Then two kinds of forces shall be calculated:
Drag force on superstructures
F*du = 0.5Vu2AsCd (kN) (4.13)

F*ds = 0.5Vs2AsCd (kN) (4.14)
Where As – Wetted area of superstructures including parapet or rail

projected on a plane normal to water flow, in m2
Cd – Drag coefficient, depends on the following definitions
Sr = dwgs/dsp and Pr = ygs/dss
The above parameters can be determined from AS5100.2 as shown here in Figure 4.6.
Case 1: Fully submerged

Flood level
dwgs dwgs
dsp dsp = dss
dss
Direction of flow Direction of flow

ygs ygs
Bed level
Case 2: Partially submerged
Flood level
dwgs = dsp = dss dwgs = dsp = dss
Direction of flow Direction of flow

ygs ygs
Bed level
Figure 4.6 Dimension Terminology (Source: AS5100.2)
Page 4-8
The drag coefficient Cd shall be determined from AS5100.2 as shown in Figure 4.7
below.
4.0
Linear interpolation of intermediate values is permitted
Pr = 1.5
3.0
Cd Pr = 2.5
2.2 Pr = 3.5
2.0
1.8 Pr ≥ 8.0
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Relative submergence, Sr
Figure 4.7 Drag Coefficient Cd (Source: AS5100.2)
Lift force on superstructure
At ultimate, design lift force

F*Lu = 0.5Vu2ALCL (kN) (4.15)
At serviceability, design lift force

F*Ls = 0.5Vs2ALCL (kN) (4.16)
Where AL – Area of bridge deck in m2

CL – Lift coefficient, determined from AS5100.2 as shown in
Figure 4.8 here
0.8
0.4
0.0 Upward
-0.4
CL
-0.8 Downward
-1.2
-1.6
-2.0
-2.2
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Relative submergence, Sr
Figure 4.8 Lift Coefficient CL (Source: AS5100.2)
Page 4-9
Moment on superstructures
Ultimate design moment

M*gu = 0.5Vu2AsdspCm (4.17)
Serviceability design moment

M*gs = 0.5Vs2AsdspCm (4.18)
Where Mgu and Mgs – Moments about the longitudinal axis of the
superstructure at the soffit level in kNm
As – Wetted area of the superstructure including any
parapet/railing normal to water flow in m2
Cm – Coefficient, determined from AS5100.2 as shown in
Figure 4.9 here
6.0
Pr = 1.5
5.0
Pr = 3.5
4.0
Cm Pr ≥ 6.5
3.0
2.0
Linear interpolation of intermediate values is permitted

1.0
0.0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Relative Submergence Sr
Figure 4.9 Coefficient Cm (Source: AS5100.2)
• Forces due to debris
Debris load on pier shall be considered where flood level is below superstructure. A
debris load acting on superstructure shall be considered where flood level is above a
level of 600 mm below the soffit level. The debris depth may vary from 1.20 m to 3.0
m. The length of debris mat shall be taken as one half the sum of the adjacent span or
20.0 m, whichever is smaller. The debris load shall be applied at mid-height of the
debris mat.

F*du = 0.5Vu2AdebCd (kN) (4.19)

F*ds = 0.5Vs2AdebCd (kN) (4.20)
Where Adeb – Projected area of debris, in m2

Cd – Drag coefficient, obtained from Figure 4.10 and 4.11
Page 4-10
3.4
3.0 V is either Vs or Vu
y is the average depth of flow
2.6 (m)
Cd
2.2
1.8
1.4
1.0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400
V 2y
Figure 4.10 Drag Coefficient Cd for Pier (Source: AS5100.2)
6.0
5.2 F = V/(gy)0.5
Where V = Vu or Vs (m/s)
4.4 y – Avg. depth of flow (m)
g = 9.81 m/s2
3.6
Cd
2.8
2.0
1.2
0.4
0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.5 9.5 10.5
Proximity Ratio Pr
Figure 4.11 Drag Coefficient Cd for Superstructure (Source: AS5100.2)
• Buoyancy and uplift
In assessing stability of bridge structures, buoyancy and uplift shall be considered.
Load combination shall be: 1.5F*Lu + Buoyancy - γgDL (4.21)

Where F*Lu – Ultimate uplift force on deck in kN
γg – Dead load factor for increase of safety (γg = 0.85)
DL – Dead load of structures in kN
4.2 Soil Parameters

4.2.1 Type of Soil and Consistency
Type of soil and its consistency can be summarised in the table below.
Page 4-11
Table 4.4
Type of soil and NSPT Cu (kPa) φ (°) qu (MPa)
consistency
Clays
Very soft 0-5 0 - 24
Soft 5 - 10 25 - 49
Stiff 10 - 20 50 - 96
Very stiff 20 - 35 97 - 192
Hard 35 - 50 193 - 383
Sands
Very loose 0-5 0 - 28
Loose 5 - 10 28 - 30
Medium dense 10 - 20 30 - 40
Dense 20 - 35 33 - 50
Very dense 35 - 60 > 50
Rocks
Very low strength 0.7 - 2.4
Low strength 2.4 - 7.0
Medium strength 7.0 - 24.0
High strength 24.0 - 70.0
Very high strength > 70.0
Where NSPT - SPT blow count per 300 mm penetration

Cu - Undrained shear strength of clay
φ - Internal friction angle of granular soil
qu - Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of rock
4.2.2 Spring Stiffness for Footing
Movement of substructure depends upon the interaction of substructure and soil

stiffness. Soil properties are obtained from a geotechnical investigation and laboratory
analysis. Spring stiffness of soil is an important parameter for analysis of substructure.
According to E.C. Humbly, spring stiffness of soil for footings can be empirically
determined as follows:
Vertical stiffness: Kz = 2.5GA0.5/(1 – µ) (4.22)

Horizontal stiffness: Kx = 2G (1 + ν) A0.5 (4.23)
Rotational stiffness: Km = 2.5GZ/(1 – µ) (4.24)
Where A – Foundation area, width times length, in m2

Z – Foundation section modulus, in m3
µ - Poisson’s ratio of soil
G – Shear modulus of soil, in kPa, G = E/2(1 + µ)
E – Young’s modulus of soil, in kPa
Furthermore, E.C. Humbly suggests that for soil having Poisson’s ratio rages from 0.3
to 0.5, the equations above can be rewritten as:
Kz = 1.5EA0.5 (4.25)
Kx = EA0.5 (4.26)
Km = 1.5EZ (4.27)
Page 4-12
The springs shall be spaced at, L = 2(Km/Kz)0.5 (4.28)
4.2.3 Soil Spring Constant for Pile Modelling
Soil-structure interaction shall be considered in bridge substructure modelling, i.e.

bridge foundation structure shall be modelled with spring supports which represent
actual soil stiffness. The most acceptable method for determination of soil modulus is
p-y curve analysis which can be carried out in some geotechnical software such as
COM624P, AllPile and LPile. Alternatively, a soil spring constant may be estimated
as:
Soil spring constant, k = KsDS (kN/m) (4.29)
Where Ks – Subgrade reaction modulus of soil/rock in kPa/m

D – Pile diameter in m
S – Spring support spacing in m
Many technical literatures and textbooks provide different ways of how to calculate
subgrade reaction modulus. For clays (cohesive soils), Ks may be estimated as Ks =
125Cu/D where Cu is undrained shear strength of clay in kPa. Similarly, weathered
rocks may be treated as clay-like soils. Typical values of subgrade reaction modulus
Ks are presented in Table 4.5 for clays and sands. Based on experiences, the common
values of subgrade reaction modulus (kPa/m) of rocks can be presented as follows:
Extremely low strength rock 25000/D

Very low to low strength rock 90000/D
Medium strength rock 625000/D
High to very high strength rock 1500000/D
Because estimated soil springs are not accurate, it is advised to design bridge
foundation structure with the soil springs within a range of 50% to 200%. For pile
group analysis under lateral loads, where multiple-row piles are spaced at 5D or less,
spring constants shall be also reduced in the direction of applied lateral loads. The
reduction factors are shown in Table 4.6. For piles spaced in between 3D and 5D, a
reduction factor may be obtained by a linear interpolation.
Table 4.5 (Source: COM624P)
Page 4-13
Table 4.6 – Reduction factors for multiple-row piles

Centre to centre Reduction factors
pile spacing Row 1 Row 2 Row 3 and
higher
3D 0.7 0.5 0.35
5D 1.0 0.85 0.7
Row 1 Row 2 Row 3 Row 4
Applied Load
Spacing
Figure 4.12 – Pile Arrangement for Reduced Spring Constant
For pile group analysis under vertical loads, where vertical load distribution on piles
is necessary, a vertical spring support may be required for each pile toe. A vertical
spring constant is calculated based on settlement of pile at 1% of pile diameter D.
4.3 Abutments
There are two types of abutment which are commonly built in Cambodia:
• Inverted T abutment: applicable for all types of girder including RC flat slab
superstructure, i.e. the abutment is appropriate for fixed-expansion articulation
superstructure.
• Diaphragm abutment: applicable for PSC deck unit superstructure, i.e. the
abutment is appropriate for fixed-fixed articulation superstructure.
Spill-through abutments are also built in many countries around the world. The design
of spill-through abutments is discussed in section 4.3.3.
Figure 4.13 illustrates both types of abutment. Only abutments with piles are
considered in the examples. For design of abutment with spread footing, refer other
literatures.
Page 4-14
Figure 4.13 Inverted T and Diaphragm Abutment
4.3.1 Inverted T Abutment
Generally, an inverted T abutment comprises two wing walls, a back wall, a bracket
to support an approach slab, a main wall and a pile cap. Pile row shall be at least two.
Multiple row of piles provides good fixity of pile cap with foundation. Front piles are
normally raked to reduce horizontal displacement. The abutment may be subject to
the following loading:
• From superstructure: permanent effects, vehicular traffic loading (includes
braking force) and live load surcharge.
• Dead load of abutment structures, earth pressure, earthquake and buoyancy.
Since the abutment is built from various structures, it is important to determine the
centroid of abutment mass. The abutment, except piles, may be simplified for analysis
and design. Piles should be analysed in a 3D model with soil-structure interaction
using pile material properties and spring constants of soil.
Example 4.1: Design of Inverted T Abutment
Let’s have an inverted T abutment with dimensions as shown in Figure 4.14. Total
width of abutment is 10.0 m. Unit weight of concrete is 25 kN/m3 and soil is 20
kN/m3. The abutment supports RC girders having fixing end.
Page 4-15
Figure 4.14 Inverted T Abutment for Example
Material properties
Yield strength of steel, fsy = 400 MPa
Geometry properties of abutment
Total height of abutment, H = 5.95m
Wing wall:
C1 = 1.115 m
C2 = 4.7 m
C3 = 0.8 m
C4 = 0.5 m
C5 = 1.452 m
C6 = 2.087 m
C7 = 1.828 m
C8 = 3.13 m
tw = 0.5 m
Back wall:
Wb = 10.0 m
A1 = 0.3 m
A2 = 0.97 m
Main wall:
Wbr = 10.0 m
A3 = 3.78 m
A5 = 0.93 m
Page 4-16
Pile cap:
Wp = 10.0 m
B1 = 1.2 m
B2 = 4.0 m
Back fill:
We1 = 9.0 m
A6 = 2.07 m
He1 = 4.75 m
Front fill:
We2 = 10.0 m
He2 = 1.0 m
A4 = 1.0 m
1. Design of wing wall
From Figure 4.2, additional height due to live load surcharge is h’ = 0.65 m.
Ps1 + Pa1
1.5
Ps2 + Pa2 1.0
Ps3 + Pa3
Pressures on wall
Figure 4.15 Wing wall Areas Subject to Design Loads
Using coefficient of at-rest pressure, Ko = 0.5
Collision load, P* = 250 kN over a contact length of 1.10 m at 0.8 m high from road
surface (see section 3.1.6, Chapter 3) is applied to wing wall. Assume that horizontal
reinforcement will provide bending resistance for the collision load, bending moment
at X-X face due to collision load, M = P*x(C2 – A1 – 1.1/2) = 250x(4.7 – 0.3 – 1.1/2)
= 962.5 kNm.
Dimensions of wing wall:
A = C2 + C3 - A1 = 5.20 m B = C4 + C5 - C1 = 0.81 m
C = C6 = 2.087 m D = C7 = 1.828 m
E = ( A/1.5 ) = 3.47 m F = C + D - E = 0.445 m
Assumption is made that pressure on wing wall area 1 & 2 will be taken by horizontal
reinforcement along vertical line X-X and pressure on area 3 will be taken by vertical
reinforcement along horizontal line X-Y.
Area 1
Earth pressure, Pa1 = 0.5γKoB(AB) = 0.5x20x0.5x0.81x5.2x0.81= 17 kN
Page 4-17
Surcharge, Ps1 = γKoh’(AB) = 20x0.5x0.65x5.2x0.81 = 27.4 kN

Lever arm, X1 = A/2 = 5.2/2 = 2.6 m
M*1 = 1.5(Pa1 + Ps1)X1 = 1.5x(17 + 27.4)x2.6 = 173 kNm
V*1 = 1.5(Pa1 + Ps1) = 1.5x(17 + 27.4) = 66.7 kN
Area 2
Earth pressure, Pa2 = 0.5[γKo B + γKo(B + E)](AE/2) =
0.5x[20x0.5x0.81 + 20x0.5x(0.81 + 3.47)]x(5.2x3.47/2) = 229.6 kN
Surcharge, Ps2 = γKoh’(AE/2) = 20x0.5x0.65x5.2x3.47/2 = 58.6 kN
Lever arm, X2 = A/3 = 5.2/3 = 1.73 m
M*2 = 1.5(Pa2 + Ps2)X2 = 1.5x(229.6 + 58.6)x1.73 = 748 kNm
V*2 = 1.5(Pa2 + Ps2) = 1.5x(229.6 + 58.6) = 432.3 kN
Design for horizontal reinforcement (per 1m strip):
Total horizontal moment, M = 173 + 748 + 962.5 = 1883.5 kNm
or M* = 1883.5/(0.81 + 3.47) = 440 kNm/m
Total shear force V = 66.7 + 432.3 + 250 = 749 kN or V* = 175 kN/m
Flexure: Assume concrete cover 70 mm and use DB28 bar
Effective depth, d = tw – 70 – 28/2 = 500 - 70 – 28/2 = 416 mm
and b = 1000 mm
Assume reinforcement DB28@175, As= 615x1000/175 = 3514 mm2/m
Steel ratio, ρ = As/bd = 3514/(416x1000) = 0.0084 > ρmin = 0.0025
φMu = φρbd2 fsy [1 – 0.6ρ(fsy /f’c)] =
= 0.8x0.0084x1000x(4162)x400x[1 – 0.6x0.0084x(400/40)]x10-6
= 441.7 kNm/m > M* = 440 kNm/m OK
1.2Mcr = 1.2[0.6x f' c x(bd2/6)] =
1.2[0.6x 40 x(1000x417.52)/6] = 110 kNm/m < φMu OK
γ = 0.85 - 0.007(f'c - 28) = 0.85 – 0.007x(40 – 28) = 0.766
ku = ρ fsy /(0.85γf'c) = 0.0084x400/(0.85x0.766x40) = 0.13 < 0.4 OK
Shear: φVu = φ0.17bd f' c = 0.7x0.17x1000x416x 40 x10-3
= 313 kN/m > V* = 175 kN/m OK
Area 3
Earth pressure, Pa3 = 0.5[γKo (B + E) + γKo(B + C + D)]x[A6(D + F)/2] =
0.5x[20x0.5x(0.81 + 3.47) + 20x0.5x(0.81 + 2.087 + 1.828)]x[2.07x(1.8.28 + 0.45)/2]
= 106 kN
Surcharge, Ps3 = γKoh’[A6(D + F)/2] = 20x0.5x0.65x[2.07x(1.828 + 0.445)/2] = 15 kN
Lever arm, Y = (D + F)/2 = (1.828 + 0.445)/2 = 1.13 m
M*3 = 1.5(Pa3 + Ps3)Y = 1.5x(106 + 15)x1.13 = 205 kNm
V*2 = 1.5(Pa3 + Ps3) = 1.5x(106 + 15) = 181.5 kN
Design for vertical reinforcement (per 1m strip):

Design moment, M = 205 kNm or M* = 205/2.07 = 99 kNm/m
Design shear force, V = 181.5 kN or V* = 135/2.07 = 88 kNm/m
Use DB16@200,
Effective depth, d = 500 – 70 – 28 – 16/2 = 394 mm
As = 1000 mm2/m
Steel ratio, ρ = As/bd = 1000/(394x1000) = 0.00254 > 0.0025 OK
1.2Mcr = 1.2[0.6x f' c x(bd2/6)] =
1.2[0.6x 40 x(1000x3942)/6] = 118 kNm/m > M*
φMu = φρbd2 fsy [1 – 0.6ρ( fsy /f’c)] =
Page 4-18
= 0.8x0.00254x1000x(3942)x400x[1 – 0.6x0.00254x(400/40)]x10-6
= 124 kNm/m > 1.2Mcr OK
DB16@200 EF DB16@200
DB28@175
Wing wall
Abutment wall
Figure 4.16 Wing wall Reinforcement
Note: The assumption for design of wing wall in this guidebook is very conservative.
An accurate analysis of wing wall can be done with a grillage model.
2. Design of back wall
The back wall is subject to vertical vehicular loading as well. If design vertical axial
force N* is not greater than 0.03f’cAg and the ratio of effective height to wall
thickness is less than 50, the compression can be ignored. Therefore, the wall may be
designed for bending alone and its minimum reinforcement shall be ρmin = 1/fsy =
1/400 = 0.0025.
M* = 1.5[0.5γKoA22 x A2/3 + γKoh’ A22/2] =
= 1.5x[0.5x20x0.5x0.972x0.97/3 + 20x0.5x0.65x0.972/2] = 7.5 kNm/m
Assume concrete cover 50 mm and use DB16 bar
Effective depth, d = A1 – 50 – 16/2 = 300 – 50 – 16/2 = 242 mm
and b = 1000 mm
Assume reinforcement DB16@200, As = 1000 mm2/m
Steel ratio, ρ = As/bd = 1000/(242x1000) = 0.0041 >ρmin = 0.0025 OK
= 0.8x0.0041x1000x(2422)x400x[1 – 0.6x0.0041x(400/40)]x10-6
= 75 kNm/m > M* OK
1.2Mcr = 1.2[0.6x f' c x(bd2/6)] =
1.2[0.6x 40 x(1000x2422)/6] = 44.4 kNm/m < φMu OK
γ = 0.85 – 0.007(f’c – 28) = 0.85 – 0.007x(40 – 28) = 0.766
ku = ρfsy/(0.85γf’c) = 0.0041x400/(0.85x0.766x40) = 0.063 < 0.4 OK
Conclusion: use DB16@200 vertical bars in both faces.
At wing wall-back wall interface, the back wall shall be designed for bending moment
of wing wall in area 1 as shown in Figure 4.15. The design moment, M*1 = 173 kNm.
Assume reinforcement DB25@150, As = 490x970/150 = 3169 mm2
Page 4-19
Effective depth, d = 300 – 50 – 16 – 25/2 = 221.5 mm and b = 970 mm

φMu = φρbd2fsy[1 – 0.6ρ(fsy/f’c)] = 0.8x0.0147x970x(221.52)x400x[1 –
0.6x0.01471x(400/40)]x10-6 = 204 kNm/m > M* = 173 kNm OK
Use DB25@150 for internal face and DB16@150 for external face.
3. Design of main wall
R W3 DL, LL
Br
Fs W2
y
Fa
Point O
x
Figure 4.17 Main Wall and Loading
Earth pressure, Pa = γHe1Ko = 20x4.75x0.5 = 47.5 kPa

Surcharge, Ps = γh’Ko = 20x0.65x0.5 = 6.5 kPa
Earth force, Fa = 0.5Pa(10 – 2tw)He1 = 0.5x47.5x(10 – 2x0.5)x4.75 = 1015 kN
The force acts on main wall at a distance He1/3 = 1.58 m from bottom
Surcharge force, Fs = Ps(10 – 2tw)He1= 6.5x(10 – 2x0.5)x4.75 = 278 kN
The force acts on main wall at a distance He1/2 =2.375 m from bottom
Weight of main wall, w2 = A3A5x10x25 = 3.78x0.93x10x25 = 879 kN
Weight of back wall, w3 = A1A2x10x25 = 0.3x0.97x10x25 = 73 kN
Table below summarizes the force components and their centroid with reference to
point O.
Loads V H x y M
kN kN m m kNm
Dead loads
- Weight of main wall 879.00 - 0.00 - -
- Weight of back wall 73.00 - -0.315 - -23.0
- Approach slab reaction 312.00 - -0.615 - -192
- Superimposed DL 75.00 0.165 12
- Superstructure 745.00 - 0.165 - 123
Earth pressure - 1015 - 1.58 1604
Page 4-20
V H x y M
Loads kN kN m m kNm
Surcharge - 278 - 2.375 660
Live loads
- Braking force - 330.00 - 3.78 1247
- Vehicular loading 912.00 - 0.17 - 150
V – Vertical forces
H – Horizontal forces
M – Moment, +ve clockwise
x – Horizontal distance from force centroid to point O
y – Vertical distance from force centroid to point O
Forces and loads from superstructures are obtained from analysis of superstructures.
Load Factors: Dead Load = 1.20
Superimposed DL = 2.00
Live Load = 1.50 (for HLP)
Braking Force = 2.00
Earth Pressure = 1.50
Load combination: Dead Load + Earth Pressure + Live Load
Design vertical load, V* = 4065 kN
Design horizontal load, H* = 2600 kN
Design bending moment, M* = 6050 kNm
Design forces per 1m strip: V* = 451 kN/m
(Effective width of main wall = 9.0 m) H* = 289 kN/m
M* = 672 kNm/m
Since V* = 451 kN/m < 0.03f’cAg = 0.03x40x1000x930x10-3 = 1116 kN/m and Hef/A5
= 2.2x3.78/0.93 = 9 < 50, the main wall is designed for bending and shear only.
Flexure: Assume concrete cover 70 mm and use DB25 bar
Effective depth, d = A5 – 70 – 25/2 = 930 - 70 – 25/2 = 847.5 mm
and b = 1000 mm
Assume reinforcement DB25@150, As= 490x1000/150 = 3267 mm2/m
Steel ratio, ρ = As/bd = 3267/(847.5x1000) = 0.0038 > ρmin = 0.0025
= 0.8x0.0038x1000x(847.52)x400x[1 – 0.6x0.0038x(400/40)]x10-6
= 853 kNm/m > M* = 672 kNm/m OK
1.2Mcr = 1.2[0.6x f' c x(bd2/6)] =
1.2[0.6x 40 x(1000x847.52)/6] = 545 kNm/m < φMu OK
γ = 0.85 - 0.007(f'c - 28) = 0.85 – 0.007x(40 – 28) = 0.766
ku = ρfsy/(0.85γf'c) = 0.0038x400/(0.85x0.766x40) = 0.058 < 0.4 OK
Shear: φVu = φ0.17bd f' c = 0.7x0.17x1000x847.5x 40 x10-3
= 637 kN/m > H* = 289 kN/m OK
Conclusion: use DB25@150 for vertical reinforcement
Page 4-21
4. Design of pile and pile cap

Weights of abutment components
w1 = B1B2x10x25 = 1.2x4x10x25 = 1200 kN
Moments of abutment weights with reference to front toe of pile cap
Weights, kN Lever arm, m Moment, kNm
w1 x1 = B2/2 = 4/2 = 2.0 M1 =1200x2 = 2400
w2 x2 = A4 + À5/2 = 1 + 0.93/2 = 1.465 M2 =879x1.465 = 1288
w3 x3 = A4 + A5 - À1/2 = 1 + 0.93- 0.3/2=2.08 M3 =73x2.08 = 152
Weights of wing wall components

w4 = 2(A1 + A6)(C4 + C5 + C6 + C7)(tw)x25 =
2(0.3 + 0.97)(0.5 + 1.452 + 2.087 + 1.828)x0.5x25 = 185.4 kN
w5 = 2(C6 x C8/2)(tw)x25 = 2x2.087x3.13/2 x0.5x25 = 81.6 kN
w6 = 2(C8 - C3)(C4 + C5)(tw)x25 = 2(3.13 – 0.8)(0.5 + 1.452)x0.5x25 = 112.1 kN
w7 = 2(C3)(C5)(tw)x25 = 2x1.452x0.8x0.5x25 = 28.5 kN
w8 = 2(C3)(C4/2)(tw) = 2x0.8x0.5/2 x0.5x25 = 4.5 kN
Moments of wing wall weights with reference to front toe of pile cap

w4 x4 = A4+A5+A6/2 = 1+0.93+2.07/2= 2.965 M4 =185.4x2.965= 549.7
w5 x5 = B2+C8/3 = 4+3.13/3 = 5.04 M5 =81.6x5.04 =411.5
w6 x6 = B2+(C8 – C3)/2=4+(3.13-0.8)/2=5.165 M6 =112.1x5.165 =579
w7 x7 = B2+C8 – C3/2=4+3.13-(0.8/2)=6.73 M7 =28.5x6.73 = 191.8
w8 x8 = B2+C8 – C3/3=4+3.13-(0.8/3)=6.86 M8 =4.5x6.86 = 30.9
Weights of soil fill

Back fill w9 = A6He1(10 -2tw)x20 = 2.07x4.75x(10 – 2x0.5)x20 = 1770 kN
Front fill w10 = A4He2x10x20 = 1.0x1.0x10x20 = 200 kN
Moments of soil weights with reference to front toe of pile cap

w9 x9 = B2 – A6/2 = 4 – 2.07/2 = 2.965 M9 =1770x2.965 = 5248
w10 x10 = A4 /2 = 1/2 = 0.5 M10 =200x0.5 = 100
Total weight, Σw = 4534 kNm

Total moment, ΣM = 10951.5 kNm
Centroid of abutment components, x = ΣM/Σw = 10951.5/4534 = 2.41 m from front
pile cap toe.
Total weight of abutment without earth fill, Σw = 2764 kNm

Total moment without earth fill, ΣM = 5603.5 kNm
Centroid of abutment components, x = ΣM/Σw = 5603.5/2764 = 2.02 m from front
pile cap toe.
Earth pressure, Pa = γHKo = 20x5.95x0.5 = 59.5 kPa

Surcharge, Ps = γh’Ko = 20x0.65x0.5 = 6.5 kPa
Earth force, Fa = 0.5Pa(10 – 2tw)H = 0.5x59.5x(10 – 2x0.5)x5.95 = 1593 kN
Page 4-22
The force acts on main wall at a distance H/3 = 1.98 m from bottom
Surcharge force, Fs = Ps(10 – 2tw)H = 6.5x(10 – 2x0.5)x5.95 = 348 kN
The force acts on main wall at a distance H/2 =2.975 m from bottom
Table below summarizes the force components and their centroid with reference to
front toe of pile cap.
Distances from Toe Moment @ Toe

Force components V H x y Vx Hy
kN kN m m kNm kNm
Dead loads:
Deck dead load RDL 745 - 1.40 - 1043.0 0.00
Superimposed DL SDL 75 - 1.40 - 105.0 0.00
Abutment W 2764 - 2.02 - 5583 0.00
Earth loads:
Earth Fill 1, Ef1 1770 - 2.965 - 5248 0.00
Earth Fill 2, Ef2 200 - 0.50 - 100.00 0.00
Earth Pressure Fs - 1593 - 1.98 0.00 3154
Surcharge Fa - 348 - 2.975 0.00 1035
Live loads:
Vehicular loading RLL 912 - 1.40 - 1277 0.00
Braking force Br - 330 1.40 4.98 0.00 1643
V – Vertical forces
H – Horizontal forces
M – Moment
x – Horizontal distance from force centroid to front toe of pile cap
y – Vertical distance from force centroid to front toe of pile cap
Load combination: Dead Load + Earth Pressure + Live Load (including braking
force)
Total Vertical Load, V = 8684 kN
Total Horizontal Load, H = 3571 kN
Total Moment @ Toe from Vertical Load, Mv = 18098 kNm
Total Moment @ Toe from Horizontal Load, Mh = 9596 kNm
Note that no dynamic load allowance is included in loading calculation of piles.

Location of resultant force from toe, x = Mv/V = 18098/8684 = 2.08 m
Eccentricity from centroid of pile cap, e = B2/2 – x = 4/2 – 2.08 = -0.08 m
Negative value indicates that the resultant vertical force locates behind the centroid of
pile cap.
Resultant moment, M* = Mh + Ve = 9596 + 8684x(-0.08) = 8901 kNm
Therefore, resultant forces at centroid of pile cap:
Vertical force, V* = 8684 kN
Horizontal force, H* = 3571 kN
Moment, M* = 8901 kNm
Page 4-23
The forces are used for the analysis and design of pile cap. Piles shall be analysed
with a 3D model or soil-structure interaction. Let’s have RC pile 0.4x0.4 m and f’c =
40 MPa.
Spring constant, k = Ksx(0.4x1.0)
Assume that soil properties are shown below (submerged soils).
Depth (from pile top), NSPT Type of soil Ks, kPa/m k, kN/m
m
1–4 18 Med. sand 16300 6520
5–8 28 Dense sand 33900 13560
9 – 15 35 Dense sand 33900 13560
The front row of piles is raked at 1 horizontal and 6 vertical. Each row contains 6
piles. Pile spacing is 1.8 m and row spacing is 2.80 m. The forces (axial, horizontal
and moment) shall be uniformly distributed and applied at the centre of pile cap.
Figure 4.18 presents a 3D computer model of pile cap and piles. Normally, the front
row piles attract more forces than the back row piles do. Forces on piles also depend
on the fixity of pile head. In this example, pile head is fixed with pile cap. The springs
are spaced at 1.0 m and the end springs have only half value.
1447
1447 Pile cap grid
1447
595
1447
595
1447
595
1447 1483
595
1483
595
1483
595
1483
1483
1483
Front row piles

0.4x0.4x15 m Raked at 1:6
RC piles
Springs spaced
at 1.0 m
Half k value at
end point
Figure 4.18 Model for Analysis of pile Cap and Piles
Page 4-24
Figure 4.19 Bending Moment and Shear Force Diagrams of Piles
From the analysis, we obtain forces for piles (at pile head) as follows:
• Front row pile: Axial force, N* = 1463 kN
Shear force, V* = 180 kN
• Back row pile: Axial force, N* = 30 kN (Compression)
The above forces shall be used for design of RC pile 0.4x0.4 m. The pile shall be
designed as a column with an eccentricity, e = M*/N*. The displacement of pile cap
may be obtained from the analysis using loads at SLS.
Considering for bending and shear for back row piles, we may obtain main
reinforcement of 8-DB25 and stirrup RB8@100 for the pile.
Pile cap shall be designed with pile reaction as a deep beam because the ratio of clear
span to depth A4/B1 = 1.0/1.2 = 0.83 < 1.50.
bef
Pile cap
B1
150 mm
Pile reaction
Pile
Figure 4.20 Effective Width of Pile Cap for Design
An allowance shall be made for pile head embedment in pile cap for 150 mm. The
effective width bef of pile cap for design is pile width + (pile cap depth – 150 mm), i.e.
bef = 0.4 + (B1 – 150 mm) = 0.4 + (1.2 – 0.15) = 1.45 m which is less than pile
spacing. Accept the effective width of pile cap to be equal to 1.45 m.
Page 4-25
Main wall
400
C*
1050
T*
H
Pile cap
R
V
Figure 4.21 Strut-Tie Model for Design of Pile Cap
Pile inclined angle is 9.4° to vertical due to 1:6 rake.

Pile reaction of front row, R = 1463 kN
Vertical component V = R x con(9.4°) = 1463 x cos(9.4°) = 1444 kN
Horizontal component, H = R x sin(9.4°) = 1463 x sin(9.4°) = 236 kN
Angle α between T* and C* is 69°, cos(α) = 0.358 and sin(α) = 0.933
C* x sin(α) = V or C* = V/sin(α) = 1444/0.933 = 1547 kN
T* = C* x cos(α) – H = 1547x0.358 – 236 = 318 kN
Steel area, As = T*/(φfsy) = 318x103/(0.8x400) = 1297 mm2 per 1.45 m width
Use DB20, number of steel bars = 1135/310 = 4.2 bars
The reinforcement seems to give the section under-reinforced, therefore, cracking
shall be checked.
A4
Possible d
failure line
200
Figure 4.22 Model for Shear Design of Pile Cap

Try to use DB20@200 for top and bottom reinforcement
Permissible steel stresses
Thus, fscr = max[240,240] = 240 MPa
Total area of bars, As = 310x1450/200 = 2247 mm2 > 1297 mm2
Assuming that an average factor for ultimate limit state is 1.40, so tension force at
SLS is T = T*/1.40 = 318/1.40 = 227 kN
This is very conservative since weight of pile cap and earth fill in front of pile cap are
ignored. Tension force at SLS may be accurately calculated from the service loads.
Page 4-26
Stress in steel bar: fscr.c = T/As = 227x103/2247= 101 MPa < fscr = 240 MPa OK
Note: If back row piles are in tension, top reinforcement shall also be checked.
Check for shear:
There is a possible punching shear failure in pile cap.
dom = d = 1200 – 150 = 1050 mm
a = A4 = 1000 mm
b = bef = 1450 mm
u = 2x(a + b) = 2x(1000 + 1450) = 4900 mm
βh = 400/400 = 1.0
fcv = 0.17[1 + 2/βh] f' c = 0.17x[1 + 2/1] 40 = 3.22 MPa
fcv = 0.34 f' c = 0.34 40 = 2.15 MPa. Therefore, use fcv = 2.15 MPa
φVuo = φudomfcv = 0.7x4900x1050x2.15x10-3 = 7743 kN > V OK
DB16@200 BOTH WAYS EF
DB25@150 EF
DB16@200 EF
DB20@200 EF
DB16@200 EF
8-DB25
Figure 4.23 Detail of Abutment Reinforcement
4.3.2 Diaphragm Abutment
Generally, a diaphragm abutment comprises two wing walls, a back wall, a bracket (if
required) to support an approach slab, a main wall and a single row of piles. The
abutment may be subject to the following loading:
• From superstructure: dead loads, vehicular traffic loading (includes braking
force), live load surcharge and thermal, creep and shrinkage effects.
• Dead load of abutment structures, earth pressure.
Page 4-27
Since the substructure may support PSC deck units which have fixed-fixed end, it is
recommended to analyse the substructure with superstructure in a 3D model with all
possible horizontal loads such as braking force, thermal, creep and shrinkage effects.
Example 4.2: Design of Diaphragm Abutment

Let’s have a bridge structure as shown in Figure 4.24. The superstructure spans 10 m
and comprises PSC deck units with fixed-fixed articulation. Total width of abutment
is 10.0 m. Unit weight of concrete is 25 kN/m3 and soil is 20 kN/m3.
10 m
PSC deck units
Wing
wall
6 RC piles
0.4x0.4 m
spaced at 1.80 m
Figure 4.24 Diaphragm Abutment
Material properties Soil spring constants

Concrete strength, f’c = 40 MPa As mentioned in Example 4.1
Horizontal loads
Total height of abutment, H = 2.40 m and additional height due to live load surcharge
is h = 1.0 m.
Use at-rest earth pressure coefficient, Ko = 0.5 and ignore passive earth pressure
Earth pressure, Fa =0.5γKoH2 = 0.5x20x0.5x2.42 = 29 kN/m
Live load surcharge, Fs = γKohH = 20x0.5x1.0x2.4 = 24 kN/m
Apply earth pressure and surcharge as uniform load on abutment main wall. Live load
surcharge shall be applied for one abutment only.
Collision load on wing wall, P* = 250 kN over 1.10 m contact length
Braking force, = 300 kN + (L – 10)m x 6 kN/m = 300 + (10 – 10)x6 = 300 kN
The force shall be uniformly distributed over the entire bridge deck.
Strain due to thermal contraction, εt = 165x10-6 (Equivalent to ∆T = - 15°C)
Strain due to creep and shrinkage, εs + εc = 225x10-6 (Equivalent to ∆T = - 20°C)
Apply strains or equivalent temperatures on PSC deck units in longitudinal direction.
Vertical loads
Weight of abutment = 48 kN/m (ignore weight of wing wall here)
Superimposed dead load = 7 kN/m
PSC deck units = 62 kN/m on abutment main wall
Traffic loads = 780 kN. Assume that the loads uniformly distribute on each pile, so
each pile will support 780/6 = 130 kN.
Page 4-28
Load combination
Permanent effects (PE) = Earth pressure, dead load, superimposed dead load, creep
and shrinkage.
Case 1: PE + Live load (including braking force and live load surcharge) + Service
Thermal effects
Case 2: PE + Thermal effect + Service live load
For ULS, load factors shall be taken as follows:

Earth pressure : 1.50
Live load surcharge : 1.50
Dead load : 1.20
Super dead load : 2.0
Traffic loads : 2.0 (T44)
Braking force : 2.0
Temperature : 1.25
Creep and shrinkage : 1.20
Soil properties
Refer to Example 4.1. Pile length = 15.0 m.
1. Design of wing wall

Wing wall width, W = 2.90 m
M* = 1.5W[FaW/2 + FsW/2] + P*x(2.2 – 1.1/2) =
= 1.5x2.9x[29x2.9/2 + 24x2.9/2] + 250x(2.2 – 1.1/2) = 747 kNm
or M* = 747/2.4 = 311 kNm/m
V* = 1.5W[Fa + Fs] + P* = 1.5x2.9x(29 + 24) + 250 = 480 kN
or V* = 480/2.4 = 200 kN/m
With 400 mm thickness and DB25@150 reinforcement, φMu = 390 kNm/m > M* OK
and φVu = 239 kN/m > V* OK
Figure 4.25 Wing wall and Horizontal Forces
2. Design of bracket
Bracket shall be designed using strut-tie theory.

Reaction from approach slab at ULS, R* = 120 kN/m
Page 4-29
Figure 4.26 Bracket and Design Forces

Take 45° as an angle between strut C and tie T. So, T = R* = 120 kN/m
As = T/φfsy = 120x103/(0.7x400) = 428 mm2/m
Use DB16@200, As = 1000 mm2/m > 428 mm2/m OK
3. Design of pile
PSC deck units
Abutment
main wall
Springs
spaced at
6 RC piles 1.0 m
0.4x0.4 m
15 m deep
Y
Half k
value for
Z
X
theta: 295 phi: 30

end point
Top of Figure 4.27 3D Model for Analysis

abutment
Top of
pile
theta: 235 phi: 8

theta: 235 phi: 8
Figure 4.28 Bending Moment and Shear Force Diagrams of Piles
Page 4-30
From the analysis, displacement due to creep, shrinkage and thermal effects is 5 mm
at top of abutment.
Load combination Case 1 governs the design forces. From the analysis, we obtain
forces for pile as follows:
Axial force, N* = 1030 kN
The above forces shall be used for design of RC pile 0.4x0.4 m. The pile shall be
designed as a column with an eccentricity, e = M*/N*.
Using any computer software for design of column section, we may obtain main bars
8-DB20 and stirrup RB8@150 for the pile.
4. Design of main wall and pile head interface

Design forces from load combination Case 1:
Moment, M* = 72 kNm
Axial compression force, N* = 794 kN
These forces shall be designed at the interface between pile and abutment main wall.
900
8-DB20
600 M*
min
V*
150 mm
embedment 400x400
RC pile
400
Figure 4.29 Details for Reinforcement Design
Design of pile:
The 400x400 mm pile shall be designed as a column with N* = 794 kN and M* = 72
kNm. Try 8-DB20, use a column design program we can obtain Load/Capacity = 0.60
< 1.0 OK.
Design for shear:
It is very important to check shear capacity at the interface. Therefore, we need shear
reinforcement RB8@150 at pile head to resist design shear force V* = 96 kN.
Minimum reinforcement is used for back wall and main wall.
4.3.3 Spill-Through Abutment
A spill-through abutment looks exactly like a diaphragm type abutment. It comprises

two wing walls, a back wall, a headstock and a single row of piles. The abutment may
be subject to the following loading:
Page 4-31
• From superstructure: dead loads, vehicular traffic loading (includes braking

force), live load surcharge and thermal, creep and shrinkage effects.
• Dead load of abutment structures, earth pressure.
The term "Spill-Through" means to allow soil behind the abutment to spill through
piles, however, the soil in front of the abutment stabilises the soil slide. Thus, the
slope of soil in front of a spill-through abutment shall be stable and shall have a
maximum slope of 1.0 vertical and 1.5 horizontal. Figure 4.30 shows typical details of
a spill-through abutment.
Wing wall
Gap closed with

expansion joint
Girder & deck slab

Approach slab
Back wall
Pedestal & bearing
Headstock 1.0 m min.
x’ Max. slope
1.0V:1.5H
h
Piles
Figure 4.30 Typical Spill-Through Abutment
If a spill-through abutment is built on an engineered fill slope with a well-compacted

granular material, the soil properties can be assumed as c’ = 5 kPa and φ’ = 30° which
are equivalent to φ’ = 32° (Medium dense sand). Due to the spill-through slope in
front of the abutment, a reduction factor for soil modulus can be estimated as follow:
ψ = x/(4.5D) (4.30)
Where D – Pile diameter in m

x – Horizontal distance from front face of pile at a depth (h) of
interest to the spill- through slope in m
The examples of soil modulus with 1.0V:1.5H spill-through slope for different piles
sizes in the engineered fill are illustrated in Table 4.7.
Alternatively, the p-y soil modulus can be obtained from a geotechnical analysis with
software such as AllPile and LPile.
Page 4-32
Table 4.7 – Typical Soil Modulus for Different Pile Sizes in Spill-Through Abutments with Engineered Fill Below Water
Page 4-33
Example 4.3: Design of Pile for Spill-Through Abutment

Let’s have a spill-through abutment as shown in Figure 4.30. Headstock height up to
the top of approach slab H = 3.2 m. Clear distance between wingwalls L = 7.0 m.
Approach slab thickness, D = 0.4 m. Take soil density γs = 20 kN/m3 and φ = 30°. The
abutment headstock supports 5 PSC girders as shown in Figure 3.6. The headstock is
supported by 3x900 mm diameter bored piles spaced at 2.20 m and soils are medium
dense sand from underside of headstock to 3.0 m and very dense sand up to pile toe.
Use elastomeric bearings with shear stiffness k = 900 kN/m and creep & shrinkage
displacement on bearings ∆cs = 15 mm.
Take headstock dimension 1.2 m high x 1.5 m wide and back wall dimension 1.6 m
high x 0.3 m wide.
1. Load calculation
A. Horizontal loads
Weight of approach slab, Ws = 0.4x25 = 10 kPa
Weight of deck wearing surface, Wd = 0.07x23 = 1.6 kPa (70 mm thick DWS)
Total weight, W = 11.6 kPa
Active earth pressure coefficient Ka = 0.33 and clear height, h = 3.2 - 0.4 = 2.8 m
Horizontal force due to total weight of approach slab, Ps = 11.6x0.33x2.8x7 = 75 kN
or 75/3 = 25 kN/Pile
Bending moment at pile head, Ms = 25x2.8/2 = 35 kNm/pile
Earth pressure, Pa = 0.5x20x0.33x2.82x7 = 181 kN or 181/3 = 60.3 kN/Pile
Bending moment at pile head, Ma = 60.3x2.8/3 = 56.3 kNm/Pile
Total active earth pressure P = 25 + 60.3 = 85.3 kN/Pile
Total moment at pile head due to active earth pressure M = 35 + 56.3 = 91.3 kNm/Pile
For at-rest earth pressure, Ko = 0.5 and ratio Ko/Ka = 0.5/0.33 = 1.515
For at-rest earth pressure, P = 1.515x85.3 = 129.2 kN/Pile and M = 1.515x91.3 =
138.3 kNm/Pile
For permanent action, i.e. when no live load surcharge is applied on top of approach
slab, use at-rest earth pressure (no displacement/movement on abutment headstock).
However, due to live load surcharge, the piles move further, so active earth pressure is
considered in combination with live load surcharge.
Live load surcharge = 20kPa (equivalent to additional soil height of 1.0 m)
Load per pile, PL = 20x0.33x2.8x7/3 = 43.1 kN/Pile
Moment ML = 43.1x2.8/2 = 60.3 kNm/Pile
Load and moment due to earth pressure and live load surcharge shall be applied at
pile head.
Horizontal load due to creep and shrinkage, Pcs = ∆cs x k = 0.015x900 = 13.5
kN/Bearing. This load shall be applied at pedestal level.
B. Vertical loads
Weight of headstock, Wh = 1.2x1.5x25 = 45 kN/m applied on headstock centreline
Weight of back wall, Wb = 0.3x1.6x25 = 12 kN/m applied on back wall centreline
Weight of wing wall, assume Ww = 150 kN for each wing wall. Eccentricity measured
from centroid of wing wall to pile centerline, e = 2.6 m. So, moment due to eccentric
load, Mw = 150x2.6 = -390 kNm/wing wall. Weight of wing wall shall be applied at
each end of headstock and the moment shall be applied in counter-clockwise direction
as it twists the abutment backward. To increase safety, moment due to weight of wing
wall shall be reduced by 15%, so M = -331.5 kNm
Live load surcharge effect on back wall:
Page 4-34
Assume that the soil under the approach slab is compacted to CBR = 80% which is
equivalent to subgrade reaction of 190000 kN/m3. Since back wall provides a rigid
support to approach slab, then a vertical line load Rs = 14 kN/m from 20 kPa live load
surcharge is transferred to top of back wall.
Girder reactions:
Girder/Load Dead load Superimposed Live load (T44)
(kN) dead load (kN) (kN)
Girder 1 1200 125 325
Girder 2 1200 125 310
Girder 3 1200 125 175
Girder 4 1200 125 50
Girder 5 1200 125 0
C. Load Combination
For ULS, load factors shall be taken as follows:
Earth pressure : 1.50
Live load surcharge : 1.50
Dead load : 1.20
Superimposed dead load : 2.0
Traffic loads : 2.0 (T44)
Creep and shrinkage : 1.20
Load case 1: PE (dead load, superimposed dead load, at-rest earth pressure and creep
and shrinkage)
Load case 2: PE (dead load, superimposed dead load, active earth pressure and creep
and shrinkage) + Live load (surcharge and T44)
2. Abutment modelling
Weight of back wall
and surcharge
Girder reactions + weight of headstock

Moment due to
weight of wing wall
Creep and shrinkage
Rigid offset
Earth pressure
and surcharge
3x900 dia piles
Figure 4.31 Spill-Through Abutment Model
Page 4-35
3. Design of abutment pile
Pile displacement due to live load surcharge, ∆ = 6 mm

Comparing with abutment height, h = 2800 mm, ∆/h = 0.0021 > 0.002. Thus,
according to Table 1, we can use active earth pressure with live load surcharge.
From load case 1, Nmax = 3136 kN/pile, ΣN* = 9274 kN and Mmax = 356 kNm/pile
From load case 2, Nmax = 4362 kN/pile, ΣN* = 11061 kN and Mmax = 350 kNm/pile
Treat all piles as free cantilever columns. Assume point of full fixity of piles locates at
5 times of pile diameter from top of pile, so L = 5x0.9 = 4.5 m.
Effective length of pile, Le = 2.0x4.5 = 9.0 m (k = 2.0)
Ratio of permanent load to total load, βd = 0.84
Try reinforcement 16/DB32 (2% steel), RB10 stirrup, 50 mm cover and f’c = 32 MPa
do = 900 - 50 - 10 -32/2 = 824 mm
φMub = 1579 kNm (Moment capacity at balanced failure)
Critical load (refer section 4.4.1 for more details), Nc = (π2/92)x[182x0.824x1579]/(1
+ 0.84) = 15665 kN per pile
Moment magnifiers:
Case 1: δs1 = 1/[1 - (ΣN*/ΣNc)] = 1/[1 - (9274/3x15665)] = 1.245 < 1.50 OK
Case 2: δs2 = 1/[1 - (ΣN*/ΣNc)] = 1/[1 - (11061/3x15665)] = 1.310 < 1.50 OK
Figure 4.32 Pile Moment Diagram
Note that for sway frames, moment magnifier δs shall not be greater than 1.50.
Page 4-36
Case 1: M* = 1.245x356 = 443.2 kNm and axial load N* = 3136 kN

Case 2: M* = 1.31x350 = 458.5 kNm and axial load N* = 4362 kN
Figure 4.33 Pile Capacity Interaction Diagram
4. Design of abutment headstock
Headstock of spill-through abutments is generally very stocky and it shall be designed

as a non-flexural member. Refer section 4.4.2 for more details. The headstock shall be
also designed for torsion due to earth pressure and live load surcharge.
Example 4.4: Railway Load Surcharge on a Spill-Through Abutment

Let’s have a spill-through abutment for a dual track railway bridge as shown below.
8.0
0.4 m thick 4.0
approach Wing wall
slab 2V:1H 2.4
2.1 1.6
3.5
3.15
Headstock
Pile
Figure 4.34 Spill-Through Abutment and Rail Load Distribution
Page 4-37
As shown in Figure 4.1, vertical load distribution from the underside of sleepers is in
2.0V:1.0H slope up to 2.1 m deep. As the sleepers are 2.4 m long and the two tracks
are located 4.0 m apart, vertical load overlaps at 1.6 m from underside of sleepers.
With a single track bridge, the maximum width of load distribution is 4.50 m (at 2.1
m deep). In this example, the overall bridge width is 8.0 m, so to consider
overlapping, the vertical load shall be increased by a factor of 2x4.5/8 = 1.125. This
factor is included to the load from 1.6 m below underside of sleepers. Note that
overlapping is considered only for pressure applied to the abutment headstock.
2.0
Underside of sleeper
147.5 kPa
1.03 121.0 kPa 1.03
1.6 2.0
69.8 kPa 55.2 kPa
56.4x1.125 = 63.45 kPa

36.3 kPa
42.78x1.125 = 48.18 kPa 32.70 kPa
Figure 4.35 Vertical Pressures on Abutment Headstock and Wing Wall
To calculate horizontal load pressure on the abutment headstock and wing wall,
appropriate coefficients of earth pressure shall be applied. If the headstock moves
more than 3500x0.002 = 7.0 mm under the horizontal pressure, a coefficient of earth
pressure Ka = 0.333 shall be used. For the wing wall, Ko = 0.5 shall be used as the
wing wall does not move away due to the horizontal pressure.
4.4 Piers
There are three types of pier which are commonly built in Cambodia:
• T-pier (hummer-head pier): applicable for high pier construction where water
flow is critical. The pier consists of a headstock, a column (blade/round) or a
wall, a pile cap and piles.
• Multi-column pier: similar to T-pier, it may be constructed where water flow
is critical. The pier consists of a headstock, columns (blade/round), a pile cap
and piles. The columns can be also constructed on top of bored piles without
any pile cap. The bored pile shall be larger than the column to account for
construction tolerance.
• Pile-bent pier: applicable for shallow pier construction and required high
quality control in the construction. The pier consists of a headstock and a
single row of piles.
A pier headstock is generally designed as a deep beam when the depth-span ratio
meets the criteria as specified in section 4.4.2. Columns, walls or piles shall be
analysed in a 3D model with superstructure and substructure/soil springs. Design of
pile cap and piles shall be carried out as presented for design of abutment.
Design loads may be permanent loads, vertical live load, braking force, earthquake,
wind load, water flow, debris and log impact.
Page 4-38
Headstock
Column/wall
Pile cap
Piles
Figure 4.36 T-pier
Headstock
Multi column
Pile cap
Piles
Figure 4.37 Multi-column Pier on Pile Cap
Page 4-39
Headstock
Circular column
Ground surface
Bored pile
(Circular)
Figure 4.38 Multi-column Pier on Bored Piles
Headstock
Riverbed surface
Single row piles
Figure 4.39 Pile-bent Pier
Page 4-40
4.4.1 Design of Column
In most cases, columns built in bridges are sway/unbraced, i.e. columns can
sway/move under a horizontal load. Columns shall be designed in a combination of
axial load and bending moment magnified due to column slenderness for the worst
load effect. For all unbraced columns with slenderness ratio greater than 22 (Le/r >
22), slenderness effect shall be considered.
According to AS5100.5, critical load of a RC column can be determined as
Nc = (π2/Le2)x[182xdoxφMub]/(1 + βd) (4.31)
Where Nc - Critical load in kN

Le - Effective length of column and Le = kL
k - Effective length factor of column
L - Clear height of column measured between lateral supports in m
do - Effective depth of reinforcement in column section in m
φMub - Bending moment capacity at balanced failure in kNm
βd - Ratio of permanent load to total load
With a simple restraint at each end of column, k factor can be taken directly from
Table 4.8. However, in many circumstances, rotational and translational restraint at
each end of column are complex and k factor in Table 4.8 cannot be used and we shall
rely upon a buckling analysis to determine k factor as per equation (4.32).

End conditions Braced Unbraced
One End Other end (no sway) (sway allowed)
Fixed Fixed k = 0.70 k = 1.20
Fixed Pinned k = 0.85 k = 2.20
Pinned Pinned k = 1.00 k = ∞ (Unstable)
k = (π/L)x[EI/Nc]0.5 (4.32)
Where EI - Flexural stiffness of column in kN.m2

Nc - Critical load in kN, and Nc = λucN*
λuc - Buckling load factor obtained from a buckling analysis
A buckling analysis shall be performed in a computer structural program such as

Microstran, Space Gass, Starnd7, Staad Pro and SAP2000, etc.
Moment magnifier of a sway frame:
δs = 1/[1 - (ΣN*/ΣNc)] ≤ 1.50 (4.33)
Where ΣN* - Summation of axial load applied to all bridge columns in kN

ΣNc - Summation of critical load of all bridge columns in kN
Page 4-41
Summation of axial load and critical load in a sway frame is considered only for
columns that are connected together by girders or deck slab, i.e. those columns will
move by the same magnitude of displacement.
Alternatively, the moment magnifier δs of a sway frame can be calculated using the
below equation.
δs = 1/{1 – [(1 + βd)/(φsλuc)]} ≤ 1.50 (4.34)
Where βd - Ratio of permanent load to total load

φs – Correlation factor, taken as 0.6
λuc - Buckling load factor obtained from a buckling analysis, calculated
by taking cross-sectional stiffness of flexural members and columns as
0.4EfIf and 0.8EcIc respectively
In this case, δs shall be applied to all columns/piles (even in a multi-storey frame)
containing in the frame in the direction considered.
4.4.2 Design of Headstock and Pile Cap
4.4.2.1 Non-flexural design
Most pier/abutment headstocks and pile caps are very stocky in term of their thickness
and they may need to be designed as a non-flexural member (deep beam). According
to AS5100.5, a structural member is treated as a non-flexural member if a ratio of its
clear span to overall depth is less than:
- 1.5 for cantilever
- 3.0 for simply supported members
- 4.0 for continuous members
To design a non-flexural member, strut-tie theory shall be used, i.e. a truss analogy
model shall be built to analyse a load flow in the member. However, pile caps and
headstocks (non-flexural members) shall be designed for M*, V* and T* induced by
horizontal loads due to a frame action.
Capacity of concrete strut can be calculated as follows:
Cs = φstβs0.9f’cAc (4.35)
βs = 1/[1.0 + 0.66cot2θ] and (0.3 ≤ βs ≤ 1.0) (4.36)
Where φst – Strength capacity reduction factor for strut, taken as 0.6
Ac – Smallest cross-sectional area of concrete strut at any point along
its length and measured normal to the line of action of the strut
θ – Angle measured between axis of the strut and axis of a tie passing
through a common node in degrees (θ ≥ 30°)
Allowable stress of a node for ULS shall be limited to φstβn0.9f’c = βn0.56f’c

For CCC-node, βn = 1.0
For CCT-node, βn = 0.8
For CTT-node, βn = 0.6
Page 4-42
For a bottle-shaped strut, bursting forces shall be included in design of the non-
flexural member.
Vertical
reinforcement C
Node
Bottle-shape strut α
C/2 γ1 Tb/2
γ2 dc/2
Horizontal reinforcement
Tb/2
C/2
dc/2
Lb
Node
C
dc dc/2
Figure 4.40 Bursting Forces in Bottle-Shaped Struts (Sources: AS5100.5)
For ULS, tan(α) = 0.2 and Tb = Ctan(α) = 0.2C

For SLS, tan(α) = 0.5 and Tb = Ctan(α) = 0.5C
Bursting force capacity across the strut at cracking
Tb.cr = 0.7bLbf’ct (4.37)
Where b – Width of cross section of concrete member

f’ct – The uniaxial tensile strength of concrete, taken as 0.36 f' c
Both vertical and horizontal reinforcement shall be provided for bursting forces
within Lb if Tbs > 0.5Tb.cr.
For SLS, fs[ΣAsvsinγ1 + ΣAshsinγ2] ≥ max(Tbs,Tb.cr) (4.38)

For ULS, φstfsy[ΣAsvsinγ1 + ΣAshsinγ2] ≥ T*b (4.39)
Where Asv, Ash – Area of vertical and horizontal reinforcement in mm2

fs – Allowable stress in reinforcement at SLS in MPa
γ1 and γ2 – Angle of vertical and horizontal reinforcement crossing the
strut in degrees
φst – Strength capacity reduction factor for tie, taken as 0.8
Capacity of any tie, T = φstfsyAst (4.40)
4.4.2.2 Heat of hydration, shrinkage and temperature variation
Because most headstocks and pile caps are very thick, heat from cement hydration
may cause significant early-age cracking to the headstocks and pile caps. For
calculations of temperature drop T1 caused by heat of hydration refer CIRIA C660. In
Page 4-43
addition, shrinkage and temperature variations can also cause long-term cracking to
the headstocks and pile caps. Bending in columns/piles induced by heat of hydration,
shrinkage and temperature variations shall include in the design.
Early-age crack-inducing strain in concrete due to heat of hydration can be calculated
as follows:
εcr = K1[αcT1 + εca]R – 0.5εctu (4.41)
Where K1 – Creep factor, taken as 0.65 (CIRIA C660)

αc – Thermal expansion coefficient of concrete, taken as 11x10-6
T1 - Temperature drop in concrete (°C) = peak temperature in concrete
- average ambient temperature
R – Restraint factor
εca – Autogenous shrinkage strain of concrete at 3 days, refer table
below
εctu – Tensile strain capacity of concrete at 3 days, refer table below
Maximum crack spacing, Sr,max = 3.4c + 0.425k1φ/ρeff (4.42)
Where k1 – Bond factor, taken as 0.8 for deformed bars and 1.14 for plain bars
c – Concrete cover to the reinforcement considered in mm
φ – Diameter of reinforcement considered in mm
ρeff – Ratio of reinforcement in effective concrete area subject to
tension = As/Ac.eff and Ac.eff = Width x hc.eff
hc.eff = min{h/2, 2.5(c + φ/2)}
Table 4.9
Concrete Concrete age Autogenous shrinkage Tensile strain capacity
strength (days) strain εctu, (x10-6)
f’c, (MPa) εca, (x10-6)
25 3.0 11 70
32 15 78
40 22 86
50 29 94
25 28.0 24 100
32 34 110
40 49 123
50 65 134
Crack width, wk = Sr,maxεcr (4.43)
Long-term crack-inducing strain, εcr.lt = K1[αcT2 + (δεca + εcd)]R – δεctu (4.44)
Where T2 – Long-term contraction temperature in °C

δεca – Differential autogenous shrinkage strain (between 3 and 28
days)
εcd – Drying shrinkage strain
δεctu – Differential tensile strain capacity (between 3 and 28 days)
Page 4-44
Example 4.4: Design of Multi-Column Pier

Let’s have a multi-column pier as shown in figure below.
1.0 x 1.5 m
Headstock
2.35
1.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 1.2
8.4
Q2000
4.4 φ1200
column
6.0
5.5
1.2 x 2.7 m
Pile cap Riverbed
10/400 x 400
RC piles
1.5 m typ.
Figure 4.41 Multi-Column Pier with 15 m Span RC Girders
Material properties
Equal span, L = 15.0 m
Horizontal loads
Wind loads
Design wind speed at ultimate, Vu = 45 m/s
• Transverse wind load
Solid parapet height = 1.10 m and total height of girder = 1.25 m
Total depth of superstructure, d = 2.35 m
Total width of deck, b = 9.4 m, so ratio b/d = 9.4/2.35 = 4.0, Cd = 1.40
Area At = dL = 2.35x15 = 35.25 m2
W*tu = 0.0006Vu2AtCd = 0.0006x452x35.25x1.40 = 60 kN, applied at headstock.
Effects of wind load on the columns in transverse and longitudinal direction are
ignored since the load is very small.
Page 4-45
• Vertical wind load

CL – Lift coefficient = 0.75
Ap = bL = 9.4x15 = 141.0 m2
W*vu = 0.0006Vu2ApCL = 0.0006x452x141x0.75 = 128 kN, applied at midspan of
headstock. The load may be upward or downward.
Flood loads
Ultimate flow velocity at 2000 years occurrence, Vu = 3.5 m/s
• Drag force on pier
Assumption is made that top soil is eroded up to the top of pile cap.
Area of column subject to flooding, Ad = 1.2x5.5 = 6.6 m2
Drag coefficient, Cd = 0.7
F*du = 0.5Vu2AdCd = 0.5x3.52x6.6x0.7 = 28 kN, applied at 3.35m high from centroid
of pile cap on each column.
• Lift force on pier
Assumption is made that water flow hits the columns in 40°. CL = 1.0
Lift area, AL = Ad = 6.6 m2
F*Lu = 0.5Vu2ALCL = 0.5x3.52x6.6x1.0 = 40 kN, applied at 3.35m high from centroid
of pile cap on each column.
• Log impact
Take mass of log as 2 tonnes or m = 2000 kg. For hollow concrete pier (2 columns)
the stopping distance S = 150 mm. The equation is Vo2 = Vu2 + 2aS. When the log
stops Vo = 0 m/s and the deceleration a = Vu2/2S = 3.52/(2x0.15) = 40.8 m/s2. Impact
force, F = ma = 2x103x40.8 = 81600 kgm/s2 or 81.6 kN, applied at 5.5 m high from
centroid of pile cap on the upstream column.
• Debris load
Assumption is made that debris size 1.20x15.0 m may hit the pier.
Adeb = 1.20x15.0 = 18 m2
V2y = 3.52x5.5 = 67.4, Drag coefficient, Cd = 2.80
F*du = 0.5Vu2AdebCd = 0.5x3.52x18.0x2.80 = 309 kN, applied at 5.5 m high from
centroid of pile cap on the upstream column.
Debris load governs the design load.
Braking force
The bridge has 2 spans of 15 m each. Total length of bridge is 30.0 m. However, since
only Span 2 is fixed to pier headstock whereas Span 1 must be able to slide on pier,
braking force BF = 300 kN + (L – 10)m x 6 kN/m = 300 + (15 – 10)x6 = 330 kN. The
force is applied in longitudinal direction at top pedestal level. Load factor of 2.0 shall
be used.
Minimum restraint load

A 500 kN force shall be applied on pier headstock in transverse direction.
Vertical loads
Lane factor of 0.9 shall be applied for T44.
Page 4-46
Girders Dead load Super DL HLP240 T44

kN Factor kN Factor kN DLA Factor kN DLA Factor
G1 454 1.2 36 2.0 485 0.1 1.5 178 0.35 2.0
G2 396 1.2 44 2.0 775 0.1 1.5 316 0.35 2.0
G3 396 1.2 44 2.0 505 0.1 1.5 247 0.35 2.0
G4 454 1.2 36 2.0 33 0.1 1.5 78 0.35 2.0
HLP loading governs the design live load.
Weight of headstock, 1.0x1.2x25 = 30 kN/m

Weight of each column, 3.14x(1.22)/4 x 25 = 28.3 kN/m
Weight of pile cap, 1.2x2.7x25 = 81 kN/m
Weight of each pile, 0.4x0.4x25 = 4 kN/m
1. Design of headstock
Pier headstock is treated as a continuous beam. Clear interior span is 4.4 – 1.2 = 3.2
m. Span-depth ratio is 3.2/1.0 = 3.20 which is less than 4.0, so the headstock will be
designed as a continuous deep beam using a truss model.
1842
1417 1396 1.1 m 0.9 m

671
16 40 40 40 16
0.9 m
Column support
1767 1767 1767 1767
856 856 856 856

1085
16 16 16 16
86.9 22.6
40 40
16 95 55 16
22.6 150 1085
600 600
783 783
716 716 716 716 783 783
600 600
86.9 22.6
16 95 55 16
40 40
22.6
16 16 150 2118 16 16
2263
3059
. 2263
2118
3059
LC: 1.2DL+2SDL+1.5x1.1LL (HLP240)

Figure 4.42 Truss Model for Pier Headstock Design
Top reinforcement
Tensile force on top chord, T* = 1767 kN
Required steel area, As = T*/(φfsy) = 1767x103/(0.8x400) = 5521 mm2
Use 9-DB32, As = 7200 mm2 > 5521 mm2 OK
Crack control
Assuming load factor of 1.40 for ULS, tensile force at SLS, T = 1767/1.4 = 1262 kN
Calculated stress, fscr.cal = T/As = 1262x103/7200 = 175.3 MPa
Page 4-47
Thus, fscr = max[160,268] = 268 MPa > fscr.cal OK
Check compressive strut
C*
dc
DB32 bars
α
100
50
300
Figure 4.43 Geometry of Bottom Node
Take 50 mm from headstock soffit to centroid of longitudinal bottom bars (DB32).

Node height (100 mm) is twice the concrete cover to centroid of longitudinal bars.
Node width (300 mm) is taken as one-quarter of column diameter (1200 mm). Note
that for a small bearing width, the node width shall be taken as one half the bearing
width.
Inclined angle of strut to horizontal line, α = 39°
Width of compressive strut, dc = 300sin(39°) + 100cos(39°) = 266.5 mm
Maximum compressive force, C* = 3060 kN
Strut efficiency factor, βs = 1/(1 + 0.66cot2α) = 1/(1 + 0.66cot239°) = 0.5 > 0.3 OK
Pier headstock width, B = 1500 mm
Ultimate capacity of concrete strut, φNc = φstβs0.9bdcf’c
For f’c = 40 MPa, φNc = 0.6x0.5x266.5x1500x0.9x40/1000 = 4317.3 kN > C* OK
Web reinforcement
For ULS, T*b = Cx0.2 = 3060x0.2 = 612 kN
Lb = 900/sin(39°) – 266.5 = 1163.6 mm
Vertical bars: DB16 stirrups at 200 in pairs within 900 mm, Asv = 200x4x900/200 =
3600 mm2
Horizontal bars : 4-DB20 bars each face, Ash = 2x4x310 = 2480 mm2
φstfsy[ΣAsvsinγ1 + ΣAshsinγ2] = 0.8x400x[3600xsin(90 – 39) + 2480sin(39)]x10-3 =
1395 kN > T*b OK
For SLS and use steel stress fs = 200 MPa. Take Cs = C*/1.4 = 3060/1.4 = 2186 kN
Bursting force Tbs = Csx0.5 = 2186x0.5 = 1093 kN
Tb.cr = 0.7bLbf’ct = 0.7x1500x1163.6x0.36x 40 x10-3 = 2782 kN
0.5Tb.cr > Tbs, horizontal and vertical reinforcement is not required by calculation.
Check node stress

It’s a CCT node, βn = 0.8
Assume effective breadth of node (equivalent width of column) = 1063 mm
Node stress, f* = 3060x103/(266.5x1063) = 10.8 MPa
Page 4-48
Allowable stress, fa = βn0.56f’c = 0.8x0.56x40 = 17.92 MPa > f* OK

Note that strut capacity and node stress shall be checked for top node too.
1500
9-DB32
DB16@200 (Pairs)
1000
4- 4-DB20 EF
9-DB32
Figure 4.44 Reinforcement Details of Pier Headstock
Headstock
φ1200 column
Pile cap grid
10/0.4x0.4x15 m
RC piles
Springs spaced
at 1.0 m
Half k value
for end point
Figure 4.45 Model for Analysis of Pier
Page 4-49
Now we need to check pier headstock for heat of hydration, shrinkage and negative
temperature. Let’s assume temperature drop (from heat of hydration analysis) is 45°C,
shrinkage strain εcd = 280x10-6 (equivalent to -25.5°C) and negative temperature is -
15°C.
Figure 4.46 Bending Moments and Displacements Due To Heat of Hydration
Headstock length, L = 8400 mm

For heat of hydration, free contraction = 45x11x10-6x8400/2 = 2.08 mm at each end
From a structural analysis, displacement due to the temperature drop is 2.0 mm. So,
the restraint factor, R = (2.08 – 2.0)/2.08 = 0.04
Early-age crack-inducing strain in concrete due to heat of hydration at 3 days
εcr = K1[αcT1 + εca]R – 0.5εctu = 0.65x[11x10-6x45 + 22x10-6]x0.04 – 0.5x86x10-6
= -29.5x10-6
The negative value means the early-age crack-inducing strain from heat of hydration
is lower than one half tensile strain capacity of concrete, therefore, cracks will not
form at early age. Because the columns are flexible the restraint factor R is very low.
However, bending moments in columns due to heat of hydration, shrinkage and
negative temperature shall include in design of the pier columns.
M*y = 1.2x(218 + 134) + 79 = 501.4 kNm transversely
Page 4-50
30 30
30
454 30
30
36 396 30 30
396 247 316
28.3 454
36 78
178
28.3
28.3
Dead load
28.3 Live load
28.3 (T44)
40.5 40.5
40.5 40.5 40.5
40.5
40.5 40.5 40.5
40.5
40.5 40.5
4
4
4 4
4 4 4
4 4 4
4 4
4 4
4 4
4 4
82.5
82.5
82.5
82.5
500
Braking force
500 kN
Figure 4.47 Forces on Pier Model
Page 4-51
309
Flood loads Debris load

27
19
27
19
Figure 4.47 Forces on Pier Model (Cont.)
380
908 380 190
178
190
908 454
293
350
1452 454
350
1452
1452 726
1452 18.8 726

726
58.3
18.8 726
2360
58.3
2360
1180
534
1180
355
Figure 4.48 Bending Moment Diagrams in Columns
2. Design of columns
Possible load combinations for ULS may be as follows:

PE + Live load (including braking force) + Heat of Hydration + Shrinkage +
Service temperature
PE + Wind load + Heat of Hydration + Shrinkage
PE + Flood load + Service Traffic Load + Heat of Hydration + Shrinkage
PE + Debris load + Service Traffic Load + Heat of Hydration + Shrinkage
PE + Minimum restraint load (500 kN) + Heat of Hydration + Shrinkage
Soil spring constants and pile length shall be the same as mentioned in Example 4.1.
The governing load combination is PE + Live load (Braking) + Heat of Hydration +

Shrinkage + Service Temperature. For left column, we obtain:
Axial load, N* = 2445 kN
Page 4-52
ΣΝ* = 4550 kN and βd = 0.78

M*x = 2360 kNm Longitudinally
M*y = 501.4 kNm Transversely
Shear force V* = 330 kN
Try 24-DB28 for main bars and RB10 for stirrups. For exposure class B1, use 45 mm
concrete cover and f’c = 40 MPa.
Effective depth of reinforcement, do = 1200 - 45 - 10 - 28/2 = 1131 mm
Using a spreadsheet or a column design program, bending moment capacity at
balanced failure φMub = 3845 kNm
Treat columns as free cantilever columns in longitudinal direction with kx = 2.0, Lex =
2x7 = 14.0 m
Ncx = (π2/142)x[182x1.131x3845]/(1 + 0.78) = 22367 kN per column
Moment magnifier, δsx = 1/[1 - (ΣN*/ΣNc)] = 1/[1 - (4550/2x22367)] = 1.11 < 1.5 OK
Design moment, M*x = 1.11x2360 = 2620 kNm
Transversely, ky = 1.2, Ley = 1.2x6 = 7.2 m
Ncy = (π2/7.22)x[182x1.131x3845]/(1 + 0.78) = 84567 kN per column
Moment magnifier, δsy = 1/[1 - (ΣN*/ΣNc)] = 1/[1 - (4550/2x84567)] = 1.03 < 1.5 OK
M*y = 1.03x501.4 = 516.5 kNm
Design axial load, N* = 2445 kN
Load/Capacity = 0.90 < 1.0 OK
Figure 4.49 Column Capacity Interaction Diagram
Discussion:
The pier column and headstock shall be also checked with unbalanced loads on
headstock where live loads may occur in one span only. If we have live loads on span
2, load factors for dead load and superimposed dead load shall be reduced in Span 1
Page 4-53
to increase safety as mentioned in Table 1.1 of Chapter 1, whereas load factors in

Span 2 shall be ultimate. This purpose is to obtain maximum unbalance loads on
headstock.
Without live load With live load
P*1 P*2
Span 1 Span 2
Bearing
Pedestal Munb
Pier centreline Headstock

e
Column
Figure 4.50 Unbalanced Loads on Pier Headstock
In Span 1: P*1 = 0.85DL + SDL

In Span 2: P*2 = 1.2DL + 2SDL + 1.5x1.1LL (HLP240)
Unbalanced moment: Munb = (P*2 – P*1)e
In the pier model, the unbalanced moment Munb shall be applied at top pedestal level.
For eccentricity e = 0.45m, unbalanced moment Munb is calculated as shown below:
Girders Dead load Super DL HLP240 P*2 – P*1 Munb

kN kN kN kN kNm
G1 227 18 340 658 296
G2 198 22 540 982 442
G3 198 22 350 669 300
G4 227 18 23 135 60
According to the analysis, an additional bending moment of 551 kNm occurs in the
left column due to the unbalanced moment Munb. The bending moment shall be added
in design of the column. Torsion induced by the unbalanced moment on headstock is
also needed to be checked.
3. Design of pedestal
Ultimate load on pedestal, N* = 1.2x198 + 2x22 + 1.5x540x1.1 = 1173 kN.
Take pedestal size as 650x500x200 mm and elastomeric bearing as 350x280x101
mm.
Area of bearing, A1 = 350x280 = 98000 mm2
Bearing stress on pedestal at ultimate, σb = N*/A1 = 1173x103/98000 = 12.0 MPa
Plan area of pedestal, A2 = 650x500 = 325000 mm2
Page 4-54
Bearing stress capacity, φ0.9f’c[(A2/A1)]0.5 = 0.6x0.9x40x[(325000/98000)]0.5 = 39.3

MPa or φ1.8f’c = 0.6x1.8x40 = 43.2 MPa whichever is lesser. So, the design bearing
stress is 39.3 MPa > σb = 12.0 MPa OK.
High tensile stress
on top surface
Sxx
High tensile stress

at edge Szz
Syy
x
Vertical tensile
stress
Figure 4.51 Stresses in Pedestal
Page 4-55
A finite element model of the pedestal was created and an analysis with the bearing
pressure of 12 MPa was carried out accordingly. The analysis result shows stresses in
three directions as presented in Figure 4.49.
In x-direction, maximum tensile stress is 1.09 MPa.
In z-direction, maximum tensile stress is 1.12 MPa.
In y-direction, maximum tensile stress is 1.45 MPa.
The allowable tensile strength of concrete is one-half principal tensile strength, fa =
0.5f’ct = 0.5x0.4x 40 = 1.26 MPa. In this case, only vertical stress exceeds the
allowable tensile strength, so reinforcement is required by calculations. The stress is
high near the exterior surface of the pedestal and the reinforcement shall be placed as
close to this surface as possible. Take 50 mm cracking depth measured from the
exterior surface, the tensile force Ft = 50x650x(1.45 – 1.26)/1000 = 6.2 kN. Take
allowable tensile stress of reinforcement as 200 MPa, the required area of tensile
reinforcement would be 6.2x103/200 = 31 mm2. The area of tensile reinforcement
required by calculations is very small, therefore, provide DB12 @ 150 c/c in all
directions.
Potential spalling 350

350x280 bearing
50
200
DB12 @ 150 u-bars
both ways
2-DB12 stirrups
Potential cracking
650
Figure 4.52 Reinforcement Details of Pedestal
Example 4.5: Analysis for Longitudinal Loads
In this example, analysis for longitudinal loads for substructures having a series of
consecutive fixed articulation is discussed with detailed calculations. Let’s have a
bridge as shown in Figure 4.53 on the next page.
1. Description of bridge
As shown in Figure 4.53, the bridge superstructure comprises 3 equal spans of 25 m
each. Each span has 5 T-roff girders with 200 mm thick RC deck on top. The girders
are spaced at 2.10 m apart. The bridge articulation is expansion at both abutments and
fixed at both piers, i.e. an expansion joint is required for each abutment. A restraint
block is provided for each substructure headstock. The bridge superstructure is fully
restrained in transverse direction but it can slide longitudinally at abutment locations.
Link slab is provided over pier to transfer horizontal loads and movement and
bending moment due to deck wearing surface and traffic load. The girders are treated
as simply supported.
Page 4-56
Figure 4.53 Bridge Details
Page 4-57
The pier contains 1500 mm deep and 1900 mm wide headstock, 2 circular columns in
1200 mm diameter, a 1200 mm deep and 2500 mm wide pile cap and 14 of
400x400x15000 mm square RC piles. Each abutment comprises a 1500 mm deep and
1800 mm wide headstock and 2 rows of 400x400x15000 mm RC piles. The total
number of piles is 10 per abutment. The front row piles are raked at 1:6. Refer Figure
4.51 for more details.
2. Construction sequence for superstructure
The following assumptions are made for the construction of superstructure:

• At 0 – 1 day: girders are stressed (at transfer)
• At 30 days: girders are delivered to construction site
• At 90 days: girders are erected
• At 100 days: deck and diaphragm are cast
In accordance with this construction sequence, from 0 to 100 days the girders are non-
composite and their both ends are unrestrained. From 101 days to 30 years the girders
are composite with RC deck, and one end or both ends are restrained against
movement. Creep and shrinkage effects shall be taken into account regarding to this
sequence.
3. Material properties and loading
• Material properties
Concrete compressive strength for all structures is taken as f’c = 40 MPa. Take spring
constant k to be 8000 kN/m for the whole depth of piles (this never happens in a real
design). Let’s have shear stiffness of elastomeric bearing K = 1300 kN/m. The effect
of elastomeric bearing is also taken into account in the analysis at expansion
articulation due to frictional effect between elastomeric bearings and pedestals.
Shear stiffness of bearing, K = N/δ

Strain, ε = δ/L
Where N – Applied longitudinal force in kN
δ – Displacement in m
L – Length of bearing in m
For linear analysis, ε = σ/E and σ = N/A
Then, ε = N/(EA) or δ/L = N/(EA)
Area, A = (N/δ)(L/E) or A = K(L/E)
In the model, the elastomeric bearing is converted to a concrete member.

For f’c = 40 MPa, E = 32800 MPa or 32800x103 kPa. Take L = 0.5 m, A =
1300x0.5/(32800x103) = 2x10-5 m2 or 20 mm2. Assume a square section for the
equivalent area, the member size shall be 4.5x4.5 mm.
For the composite section of T-roff girder: A = 0.92 m2, I = 0.35 m4.
• Loading
Earth pressure and surcharge:
Take soil density γ = 20 kN/m3, Ko = 0.5 and additional equivalent height h’ = 0.90 m.
Total abutment height H = 3.50 m.
Page 4-58
Load due to earth pressure, Pa = 0.5γKoH2 = 0.5x20x0.5x3.52 = 61.25 kN/m

Load due to surcharge, Ps = γKoh’H = 20x0.5x0.9x3.5 = 31.5 kN/m
If under live load surcharge, abutment headstock moves more than 0.002H, then use
Ka = 0.33 for both earth pressure and surcharge.
These loads shall be applied as UDL along abutment headstock.
Braking force:
For the whole bridge, refer Figure 4.3, braking force BF = 600 kN.
Temperature variations:
As discussed in Example 3.8 of Chapter 3, the temperature rise is +16°C and the
temperature drop is -19°C. These two temperature loads shall be applied to the girders
in the model.
Creep and shrinkage effects:

Location: Cambodia – tropical climate
Properties of T-roff girder before composite:
th = 128 mm
Assume that 200 mm thick RC deck will be cast on top of the girders at 100 days after
the girder manufacture.
For 100 days after casting concrete, t = 100 days
α1 = 0.8 + 1.2e-0.005x128 = 1.33
k1 = 1.33x1000.8/(1000.8 + 0.15x128) = 0.89
From the previous example in Chapter 3, for 30 years, k1 = 1.295
So, from 100 days to 30 years, k1 = 1.295 – 0.89 = 0.405
εcsd = 0.405x0.5x(1.0 – 0.008x50)x1000x10-6 = 121x10-6
εcse = (0.06x50 – 1.0) x50x10-6 x(1.0 – e-0.1x10950) = 100x10-6
Similarly, for creep effects:
For 100 days after casting concrete, t = 100 days
α2 = 1.0 + 1.12e-0.008x128 = 1.40
k2 = 1.40x1000.8/(1000.8 + 0.15x128) = 0.94
From the previous example in Chapter 3, for 30 years, k2 = 1.20
So, from 100 days to 30 years, k2 = 1.20 – 0.94 = 0.26
k3 = 1.26
k4 = 0.5
k5 = 1.0
φcc = 0.26x1.26x0.5x1.0x2.4 = 0.393
Design creep strain, εc = 0.393x20.8/34800 = 234x10-6
The total strain due to creep and shrinkage effects = 455x10-6
This strain is equivalent to 455x10-6/11x10-6 = - 41°C (temperature drop).
Apply the strain or the equivalent temperature drop to each girder.
Page 4-59
• Load combinations and load factors
The following load combinations will be applied in the analysis:

(1). PE + Surcharge + Braking force + Service Thermal
(2). PE + Thermal + Service Surcharge + Service Braking force
PE – Permanent effects include earth pressure, shrinkage and creep effects.
Load factors:
Loads Factors for ULS Factor for SLS
Earth pressure 1.50 1.0
Shrinkage and creep 1.20 1.0
Temperature 1.25 0.7 (1) or 1.0 (2)
Surcharge 1.50 1.0
Braking force 2.0 1.0 (1) or 0.7 (2)
4. Modeling and analysis
A computer model is shown in Figure 4.54 on the next page. At an abutment, bearing
members are connected to abutment pedestals which are directly linked to abutment
headstock. In this model a restraint block member is not required at abutment because
the superstructure slides longitudinally at abutment, however, we need a restraint
block for transverse restraint. At a pier location, two diaphragms are connected to a
restraint block which is linked to pier headstock. The restraint block transfers only
shear forces from superstructure to substructure by steel pins or other means. The
girders are continuous with link slab over piers but bending moment restraint is
released since the girders are simply supported.
From the analysis we obtain:

• Displacement of bridge deck at abutment:
Due to creep and shrinkage effects: 17 mm
Due to temperature drop: 8 mm
Due to braking force: 14 mm
Total deck movement (contraction) at ULS, ∆t = 1.2x17 + 2x14 + 8 = 56.4 mm
• Forces in pier columns:
For load combination (1)
M* = 2350 kNm
V* = 295 kN
• Shear forces in a restraint block
V* = 590 kN
Discussion:
Some designers may have a conservative approach by ignoring elastomeric bearing
effects in the analysis. If the effects of bearing are completely disregarded (no effects
of abutment are taken into account), the deck movement and forces in pier columns
are higher than those obtained from the analysis with the effects of bearing for the
same load combination. As the result, substructure may have to be revised to
accommodate larger movements and forces. To obtain accurate girder movements
and forces in substructure, construction sequences shall be carefully studied.
Page 4-60
Double diaphragm
RC deck
2x700x800 mm
Diaphragm
700x800 mm
Bearing
Restraint
block
RC deck
T-roff
girder T-roff girder
Pier (Moment release at each end)
Pedestal headstock
Pier column
Abutment Pier
headstock pile cap
Figure 4.54 Computer Model for Analysis
Page 4-61
5. Design of steel pin
The ultimate shear force acting on a restraint block, V* = 590 kN.

The capacity of steel pin shall be a minimum of:
• Capacity of steel pin: shear, bending and shear-bending interaction; and
• Capacity of concrete in restraint block: pryout, breakout capacity and concrete
bearing stress
As a rule of thumb, minimum embedment of steel pin shall be 8 times pin diameter
and a minimum distance from concrete edge to centre of steel pin and minimum pin
spacing shall be 4 times pin diameter. Under a high shear force, concrete on top of
restraint block and underside of cross girder may spall off by one-quarter pin
diameter. The steel pin bends/deflects under the applied load and as a result the load is
transferred from steel sleeve to the pin at the point of contact which locates at the
centre of bottom rubber ring.
90 OD x 6 thick
steel sleeve
Cross Girder 65 dia steel pin
5 mm thick rubber ring
Point of contact
15 mm spall
(D = 65 mm)
15 mm gap V*
e
F
Restrain Block Highly stressed concrete block

hef
R10 spirals 120 PDC

75 pitch
D
Figure 4.55 Typical Steel Pin Detail
Take pin diameter D = 65 mm and effective embedment hef = 600 mm.
A. Steel pin capacity

Steel pin 250 grade, yield strength fy = 230 MPa and tensile strength fu = 410 MPa.
Plastic moment capacity of pin, φMp = φfuSx = 0.9x410x(1.5xπx653/32)x10-6 = 14.9
kNm
Shear capacity of pin, φVu = φfu0.62Ap = 0.9x410x0.62x(πx652/4)x10-3 = 759 kN
Assume the load (V*) is applied at the centre of the bottom rubber ring.
Load lever arm, e = 10 + 15 + 15 + 65/2 = 72.5 mm. Allowable shear force, V* =
φMp/e = 14.9/0.0725 = 205.5 kN say 205 kN
Assuming M* = φMp, the maximum shear capacity φVv = φVu[2.2 – (1.6M*/φMp)] =
0.6φVu = 0.6x759 = 455.4 kN
So, maximum shear capacity of steel pin = MIN[759, 205, 455.4] = 205 kN
Page 4-62
B. Concrete capacity
Concrete properties: f’c = 40 MPa, Ec = 32800 MPa
Refer Appendix D of ACI 318 for calculations of concrete pryout and breakout
capacity. Steel pins are installed in restraint block as shown in figure below.
Concrete breakout strength in tension, Nb = 10 f' c h1.5ef = 10x 40 x6001.5x10-3 =
929.5 kN
ANC = (400 + 850/2)x950 = 783750 mm2 and ANCO = 9x6002
1650
400 850
Lsy
325
≥ 0.5 edge
distance
950 300
V*
4-DB16 per pin
2-DB16 u-bars per pin
65 dia. pin
Figure 4.56 Restraint Block and Steel Pins – Plan View
ANC/ANCO = 783750/(9x6002) = 0.242

ψec,N = 1.0, ψed,N = 0.7 + 0.3x(325/1.5x600) = 0.81, ψe,N = 1.25, ψcp,N = 1.0
Ncbg = (ANC/ANCO) ψec,N ψed,N ψe,N ψcp,N Nb = 0.242x1.0x0.81x1.25x1.0x929.5 = 228
kN (For 2 steel pins)
Pryout capacity, φVcpg = φkcpNcbg = 0.75x2.0x228 = 342 kN or 171 kN per pin (very
low capacity). Pryout failure is a tension failure of concrete. To overcome this failure,
fully anchored reinforcement can be provided. Let’s provide 2-DB16 u-bars per pin
location and tensile capacity is φNs = 0.8x400x4x200x103 = 256 kN. Embedment of
the u-bars shall be hef + Lsy – Cover = 600 + 500 – 45 = 1055 mm min.
Breakout capacity of pins does depend on edge distance, however, as stipulated in
ACI 318, reinforcement capacity can be used instead of concrete breakout capacity as
long as the reinforcement is fully anchored and installed not further than half edge
distance from pin centerline to reinforcement centerline. Let’s provide fully anchored
4-DB16, φNs = 0.8x400x4x200x103 = 256 kN.
Concrete modulus reaction, k = Ec/[D(1 – µ2)] = 32800x103/[0.065x(1 – 0.22)] =
525.6x106 kN/m3
Ultimate design concrete bearing stress, Fc = φ1.9f’c + f’cs. f’cs is the additional lateral
pressure/resistance in concrete due to confining reinforcement. It depends on bar size,
shape and spacing but in this example take f’cs = 4.5 MPa (For R10 spirals). So, Fc =
0.6x1.9x40 + 4.5 = 50.1 MPa say 50 MPa.
A computer model is created as shown in Figure 4.57 and a horizontal load (V*) is
applied at 10 + 15 + 15 = 40 mm from surface of concrete. Concrete is modelled as
spring supports with k = 525.6x106 kN/m3. From the analysis, the total force in the
concrete block generated by the applied load (V*) is F = 90.2 + 114 + 61.8 + 25.1 +
1.55 = 292.6 kN.
Assume a rectangular stress block in concrete, the ultimate design bearing resistance,
φRu = 50x65x90x10-3 = 292.5 kN = F OK.
From the analysis, the allowable applied load V* = 197 kN per pin.
Page 4-63
Steel pin
V* =
40 mm
M* =
90 mm Depth of concrete resistance
Figure 4.57 Computer Model for Steel Pin Analysis
So, allowable shear capacity of concrete = MIN[256, 256,197] = 197 kN

Ultimate shear capacity of a single steel pin = MIN[205, 197] = 197 kN
Capacity of 4 pins = 4x197= 788 kN > V* = 590 kN OK
6. Design of restraint block
The restraint block size is 1650x950x950 mm. Since the restraint block is a non-
flexural member, it shall be designed as a bracket using a strut-tie model as shown in
Figure 4.57.
Horizontal force, T*1 = V* = 590 kN
Required horizontal reinforcement, Ash = T*1/(φfsy) = 590x103/(0.8x400) = 1844 mm2
Use 12-DB16 with As = 2400 mm2 in traffic direction
Vertical tension force, T*2 = (950/1450)V* = (950/1450)x590 = 386.6 kN
Required vertical reinforcement, Asv = T*2/(φfsy) = 386.6x103/(0.8x400) = 1208 mm2
We can use 12-DB16 U-BARS with As = 2400 mm2 in traffic direction. For
reinforcement transverse to traffic, we can design the restraint block with 500 kN.
Traffic direction
V*
T*1
C*
950
950
T*2 1450
Figure 4.58 Strut-Tie Model for Restraint Block
Page 4-64
Example 4.6: Buckling Analysis of Pier Column

This example provides a buckling analysis of pier columns of the bridge shown in
Figure 4.53. Bridge buckling analysis model is shown in Figure 4.59.
The bridge model in Figure 4.59 contains similar structural elements as shown in
Figure 4.54 except for abutment structure which is unnecessary for modelling.
Bearing members are replaced by horizontal spring supports which have shear
stiffness of 1300 kN/m. Each end of the girder is propped by a vertical support.
Because the bridge deck is fixed over all pier locations, the bridge deck is modelled to
link to pier headstocks in both horizontal directions.
To perform a buckling analysis of pier columns, a compression load shall be provided
on top of each column. There are two options to apply the compression loads:
• Apply a dummy load on top of each column (in Figure 4.59, the dummy load
N* = 6000 kN). The dummy load is chosen to be approximately equal to the
maximum axial load (at ULS) in any column. The reason to use the maximum
load for all columns is that all columns are assumed to buckle at the same
time, i.e. no any column braces other columns. However, this assumption
applies only when all columns have the same geometric configuration (same
size and height) reinforcement and similar degree of restraint at each end of
column.
• Apply actual axial loads (at ULS) on top of columns. In this circumstance, the
heavily loaded column will buckle first and the other columns will brace it.
This method applies to the analysis of bridge piers which contain columns
with different stiffness and degree of restraint.
For concrete, use Ec = 3.2x107 kPa
Column clear height, L = 6.0 m
Moment of inertia of column, I = 0.1017 m4
From a buckling analysis with N* = 6000 kN on top of each column, buckling load
factor, λuc = 27.34
Critical load, Nc = λucN* = 27.34x6000 = 164040 kN for each column
From equation (4.32), effective length factor of column
k = (π/6)x[3.2x107x0.1017/164040]0.5 = 2.33. This factor applies to all columns.
Effective length of each column, Le = 2.33x6.0 = 13.98 m say 14.0 m
Note that both pile caps and piles do not provide full rigidity to columns, so k > 2.0. If
the pile caps are replaced by a full rigid restraint at base of each column, then k < 2.0.
When link slab is modelled as rigidly connected to the girders (refer Figure 3.71), the
columns are partially restrained against rotation at top and so effective length factor
will be slightly lower. Buckling analysis in transverse direction shall be carried out
separately.
Page 4-65
Figure 4.59 Bridge Model for Buckling Analysis
Page 4-66
Example 4.7: Submerged Bridge and Uplift Analysis
Let’s have a bridge superstructure as shown below. The superstructure comprises

5x1500 mm deep T-roff girders. Girders are spaced at 2.10 m. Span length, L = 30 m
and full width B = 10.8 m. The flood velocity at 200 ARI, V200 = 3.0 m/s. Average
flow depth measured from girder soffit is 12.0 m.
200 ARI
V200 = 3.0 m/s
3.5
2.9
2.9
G1 G2 G3 G4 G5
M*gu
Figure 4.60 Bridge Superstructure

dwgs = 3.5 m
dss = dsp =2.9 m
ygs = 12.0 m
Sr = dwgs/dsp = 3.5/2.9 = 1.20 and Pr = ygs/dss = 12/2.9 = 4.13
V2y = 32x12 = 108
γWF = 2 – 0.5log(ARI/2000) = 2 – 0.5xlog(200/2000) = 1.50
Deck area, AL = 30x10.8 = 324 m2
Lift force coefficient, refer Fig. 4.8, uplift CL = 0.1 and downward CL = - 2.0
Uplift force, F*Lu = γWF0.5Vu2ALCL = 1.5x0.5x32x324x0.1 = 219 kN per entire
superstructure
Downward force, F*Ld = γWF0.5Vu2ALCL = 1.5x0.5x32x324x2 = 4374 kN per entire
superstructure. This downward force shall include in design of headstocks, columns,
piles and pile caps.
From Fig. 4.9, Cm = 2.7 and As = 2.9x30 = 87 m2
M*gu = γWF0.5Vu2AsdspCm = 1.5x0.5x32x87x2.9x2.7 = 4598 kNm
Unit weight of girder = 14.35 kN/m, deck slab = 11.5 kN/m per girder, barrier = 16
kN/m (0.64 m2) and DWS = 3.5 kN/m.
Enclosed area of girder, Ag = 1.462 m2
Buoyancy force = Enclosed volume of structure x 10 kN/m3
Load/Load G1 G2 G3 G4 G5
combination (kN) (kN) (kN) (kN) (kN)
Dead load -1360 -880 -880 -880 -1360
Uplift force (F*Ld) 44 44 44 44 44
Overturning (M*gu) 438 219 0 -219 -438
Buoyancy 757 565 565 565 757
Load combination 324 211 -117 -445 -990
(Eq. 4.21)
(-ve) downward
Page 4-67
Girder G1 & G2 are uplifted during the flood, so a tie-down system shall be provided
to the girders
4.5 Design of Pile

4.5.1 Design of Driven Pile
Driven piles can be constructed from concrete, steel and timber. However, because of
durability issue, concrete piles gain popularity in the today bridge construction.
Concrete piles are fabricated as precast prestressed or reinforced concrete piles in
octagonal, circular and square shape. From lifting and handling point of view,
prestressed concrete piles have more advantages over reinforced concrete piles. There
are three available sizes of octagonal PSC piles: 450, 500 and 550 mm. Precast
concrete piles are driven by a pile hammer – diesel or drop hammer. Pile bearing
capacity (compression) may be verified by Hiley’s equation and by a dynamic load
test. Based on past experiences, driven precast concrete piles refuse in very dense
granular soils with SPT-N ≥ 50 and low strength rocks. As a rule of thumb, driven
piles shall penetrate at least three times pile diameter into a bearing strata/firm soil.
The piles can be driven in a vertical or raked position.
According to AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 2005, Third Edition:

• Application: The driven piles are suitable for foundation where shallow
footings cannot be founded on hard strata, and where the soil may expand.
• Penetration: Unless refusal is encountered, the design penetration of pile
should not be less than 3.0 m into hard cohesive soil and dense granular soil
and not be less than 6.0 m into soft cohesive or lose granular soil. For pile
bent, the penetration should be at least one-third of unsupported length.
• Spacing, clearance and embedment: Piles shall be spaced not less than 0.75
m or 2.5 pile diameter or width. The distance from any side of pile to the
nearest edge of footing/cap shall not be less than 225 mm. The top of pile shall
be embedded in footing/cap for at least 150 mm.
• Bearing capacity: Piles shall be designed at ULS for bearing capacity. Piles
may be designed for shaft resistance, end bearing or a combination of shaft
resistance and end bearing. Pile capacity in group shall be taken into account.
• Pile settlement: Pile settlements shall be considered at SLS. Settlements shall
be taken into account in horizontal and vertical direction.
4.5.1.1 Shaft resistance
• Cohesive soil: use α-Method
Unit skin friction, qs = αSu (MPa) (4.45)
Where Su – Mean undrained shear strength in MPa

α – Adhesion factor
The adhesion factor α can be determined from Figure 4.61.
• Cohesionless/granular soil: use SPT method
Page 4-68
For displaced driven pile, unit skin friction, qs = 0.0019N (MPa) (4.46)
For non-displaced driven pile, unit skin friction, qs = 0.00096N (MPa) (4.47)
Where N – Average (uncorrected) SPT blow count per 300 mm
Ultimate shaft resistance, Qs = qsLp (N) (4.48)
Where L – Pile length in consideration in mm

p – Pile perimeter in mm
1.0
0.8 σ’o – Vertical effective stress
α 0.6
0.4
0.2
0 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Cu/σ’o
Figure 4.61 Adhesion Factor α (Source: Principle of Foundation Engineering,

M. Das, 6th Edition)
4.5.1.2 Pile tip resistance
• Cohesive soil:
Unit tip resistance, qp = 9Su (MPa) (4.49)
• Cohesionless/granular soil: use SPT method
Unit tip resistance, qp = 0.038NcorrDb/D ≤ ql (MPa) (4.50)
Where D – Pile width or diameter in mm

Db – Depth of pile in penetration strata in mm
ql – Limit point resistance taken as 0.4Ncorr for sand and
0.3Ncorr for non-plastic silt in MPa
Corrected number blow of count Ncorr due to overburden pressure:
Ncorr = [0.77log10(1.92/σ’v)]N (4.51)
Where σ’v – Overburden pressure in MPa
Ultimate tip resistance, Qp = qpAp (N) (4.52)
Page 4-69
Where Ap – Area of pile tip in mm2
Ultimate pile bearing capacity for a single pile, Qult = φg(Qs + Qp) (4.53)
Where φg – Geotechnical strength reduction factor, refer section 4.5.4
4.5.1.3 Pile group resistance
Pile group factored resistance, QR = φgQg (N) (4.54)
QR can be determined as follows:
• Cohesive soil:
Each individual pile resistance shall be modified by multiplying with a group
efficiency factor η which is taken as follows:
- η = 0.65 for piles with centre-to-centre spacing of 2.50 pile diameter of width.
- η = 1.0 for piles with centre-to-centre spacing of 6.0 pile diameter of width.
- For intermediate pile spacing, a linear interpolation can be made to determine
η.
The group resistance shall be the lesser of:
- the sum of modified resistance of individual pile in the group.
- the resistance of pier consisting of the piles and the block of soil within the
area bounded by the piles.
• Cohesionless/granular soil:
For cohesionless/granular soil, the group efficiency factor η = 1.0. The bearing
capacity of pile group shall be the sum of the resistance of all piles in the group.
4.5.1.4 Uplift resistance
Uplift in pile may occur in back row of pile for inverted-T abutment and in pier as
well. Uplift resistance of a single pile shall be estimated in the manner similar to that
for estimating shaft resistance of pile.
Factored uplift resistance, QR = φgQs (N) (4.55)
Where Qs – Nominal shaft resistance in N
4.5.1.5 Downdrag loads
Downdrag may occur on piles if:

• Site is underlain by compressible clays, silts or peats.
• Fill has been recently placed on top.
• The ground water is substantially lowered.
Downdrag load may be determined as reversed shaft friction (downward) on piles.
The factored downdrag load shall be added to factored vertical dead loads for
assessing pile bearing capacity and vertical settlement of piles.
Page 4-70
According to AustRoad’92 Bridge Design Code, Section 3, clause 3.7.4.7, the unit
friction for downdrag can be estimated as below:
fn = fασ’v (kPa) (4.56)
Where fα – Adhesion factor and may range from 0.2 for soil with
plasticity index of 15 or less to 0.3 for soil with plasticity index
of 50 or greater for uncoated piles.
σ’v – Overburden soil pressure
4.5.2 Design of Bored Pile
Bored (also known as cast-in-place) piles are reinforced concrete piles and their
construction involves in the following process:
• Driving steel liners/casings if required to prevent collapse of soft soils
• Boring, coring soils
• Removal of soils
• Geotechnical inspection
• Installation of reinforcing steel cage
• Pour of concrete
Bored piles are constructed in a circular shape in many sizes commencing from 600 to
2100 mm in diameter. To increase pile load capacity, the piles shall be socketed into
rock or stiff strata with 1.5 to 2 times pile diameter. The piles shall be constructed
vertically. To prevent soil collapse during pile construction, steel liners (casings) are
used. Steel liners can be temporary and permanent. Temporary steel liners are
removed soon after concrete is cast. Permanent steel liners are sacrificial and are left
in place, however, they shall not include in calculations of pile load and pile structural
capacity. Any gaps between the surrounding soils and permanent steel liners shall be
filled in with flowable materials to enhance pile lateral load capacity.
4.5.2.1 Shaft resistance
• Cohesive soil:
Unit skin friction, fs = αSu (Su = Cu) (4.57)
Where Su – Mean undrained shear strength in kPa

α – Shear strength reduction factor
If Su/Pa ≤ 1.50, α = 0.55
If 1.50 ≤ Su/Pa ≤ 2.50, α = 0.55 - 0.1(Su/Pa - 1.5)
Pa - Atmospheric pressure = 100 kPa
• Cohesionless soil:
Unit skin friction, fs = βσ’v (kPa) (4.58)
Where σ’v - Overburden pressure = γZ in kPa
Z - Depth of considered soil from top in m
β - Imperial factor and 0.25 ≤ β ≤ 1.20
If NSPT < 15, β = (N/15)[1.5 - 0.245Z0.5]
If NSPT ≥ 15, β = 1.5 - 0.245Z0.5
Page 4-71
• Rock:
Unit skin friction, fs = 0.65Pa[qu/Pa]0.5 (kPa) (4.59)
Where qu – Unconfined compressive strength of rock in kPa
Ultimate shaft resistance, Qs = fsLp (kN) (4.60)
Where L – Pile length in consideration in m

p – Pile perimeter in m
4.5.2.2 Tip resistance
• Cohesive soil:
Unit tip resistance, fp = NcSu (kPa) (4.61)
Where Nc - Modified bearing capacity factor

Nc = 6.5 for Su = 25 kPa
Nc = 8.0 for Su = 50 kPa
Nc = 9.0 for Su ≥ 100 kPa
For intermediate values linear interpolation may be permitted
• Cohesionless soil:
Unit tip resistance, fp = 57.5NSPT ≤ 3000 kPa (4.62)
• Rock:
Unit tip resistance, fp = 2.5qu (4.63)
Ultimate tip resistance, Qp = fpAp (kN) (4.64)
Where Ap – Area of pile tip in m2
Ultimate pile bearing capacity for a single pile, Qult = φg(Qs + Qp) (4.65)
Where φg - Geotechnical strength reduction factor, refer section 4.5.4
4.5.3 Design of Continuous Flight Auger (CFA) Pile
The construction of CFA piles is similar to that of bored piles, however, sacrificial
steel liners are not required for CFA pile construction and boring, removal of soils,
pour of concrete and installation of reinforcing steel cage are performed in one
continuous operation. Geotechnical inspections are unable to be undertaken on site. In
some cases, soils collapse while concrete is being poured and as the result voids are
formed in cast concrete. Occasionally, poor quality of CFA pile construction is found
and therefore some engineers are reluctant to use CFA piles. Refer equations above
for calculation of geotechnical capacity of CFA pile.
Page 4-72
4.5.4 Geotechnical Strength Reduction Factor
The geotechnical strength reduction factor φg shall be determined in accordance with

AS2159 – 2009 as follows:
φg = φgb + (φtf – φgb)K ≥ φg (4.66)
Where φgb – Basic geotechnical strength reduction, refer Table 4.10

φtf – Intrinsic test factor, taken as
0.75 for rapid load testing
0.80 for dynamic load testing
0.85 for bi-directional load testing
0.90 for static load testing
φgb for no testing
K – Testing benefit factor, taken as
1.33p/(p + 3.3) ≤ 1.0 for static or rapid load testing
1.13p/(p + 3.3) ≤ 1.0 for dynamic load testing
p – Percentage of the total piles that are tested and meet the
acceptance criteria
Table 4.10 – Basic geotechnical strength reduction factor (Source: AS2159-2009)

Range of average Overall risk φgb for low φgb for high
risk rating (ARR) category redundancy systems redundancy systems
ARR ≤ 1.5 Very low 0.67 0.76
1.5 < ARR ≤ 2.0 Very low to low 0.61 0.70
2.0 < ARR ≤ 2.5 Low 0.56 0.64
2.5 < ARR ≤ 3.0 Low to moderate 0.52 0.60
3.0 < ARR ≤ 3.5 Moderate 0.48 0.56
3.5 < ARR ≤ 4.0 Moderate to high 0.45 0.53
4.0 < ARR ≤ 4.5 High 0.42 0.50
ARR > 4.5 Very high 0.40 0.47
The average risk rating can be calculated using the following equation.
ARR = Σ(wiIRRi)/Σwi (4.67)
Where IRR – Individual risk rating, refer Table 4.11

w – Weighting factor, refer Table 4.12
Table 4.11 – Individual risk rating (IRR) (Source: AS2159-2009)

Risk level IRR
Very low 1
Low 2
Moderate 3
High 4
Very high 5
Page 4-73
Table 4.12 – Weighting factor and individual risk rating (Source: AS2159-2009)
Risk factor Weighting Typical description of risk circumstances for IRR
factor 1 (Very low) 3 (Moderate) 5 (Very high)
Site investigation
Geological 2 Horizontal strata, Some variability over Highly variable profile or
complexity well-defined soil and site, but without presence of karstic features
rock characteristic abrupt changes in or steeply dipping rock
stratigraphy levels or faults present on
site
Extent of ground 2 Extensive drilling Some boreholes Very limited investigation
investigation investigation extending at least 5 with few shallow boreholes
covering whole site pile diameters below
to an adequate depth the base of the
proposed pile
founding level
Amount and 2 Detailed information CPT probes over full Limited amount of simple in
quality of on strength depth of proposed situ testing, e.g. SPT, or
geotechnical data compressibility of the piles or boreholes index testing only
main strata confirming rock as
proposed founding
level for piles
Design
Experience with 1 Extensive Limited None
similar
foundations in
similar
geotechnical
conditions
Method of 2 Based on appropriate Based on site specific Based on non-site specific
assessment of laboratory or in situ correlations or on correlations with , for
geotechnical tests or relevant conventional example SPT data
parameters for existing pile load test laboratory or in situ
design testing
Design method 1 Well-established and Simplified methods Simple empirical methods or
adopted soundly based with well-established sophisticated methods that
method or methods basis are not well established
Method of 2 Design values based Design methods based Design values based on
utilizing results on minimum on average values maximum measured values
of in situ test measured values on on test piles loaded up only
data and pile loaded to failure to working load or indirect
installation data measurements used during
installation and not
calibrated to static loading
tests
Pile installation
Level of 2 Detailed with Limited degree of Very limited or no
construction professional professional involvement by designer,
control geotechnical geotechnical construction process that are
supervision, involvement in well established or complex
construction process supervision,
that are well conventional
established and are construction
relatively procedures
straightforward
Level of 0.5 Detailed Correlation of No monitoring
performance measurements of installed parameters
monitoring of the movements and pile with non-site static
supported loads load tests carried out
structure during in accordance with
and after this standard
construction
Page 4-74
4.5.5 Pile Buckling
Piles are constructed to transfer vertical and horizontal loads from bridge structures to
the ground. Piles shall be modelled using a soil-structure interface as mentioned
earlier in this chapter. Because piles take compressive loads, they are designed as
columns. Some piles are slender, so their buckling shall be assessed in both axes. The
depth measured from top of the ground to point of effective fixity of piles can be
calculated using equation (4.68) and (4.69). The top part of pile that is exposed above
the ground shall be included in buckling assessment.
For clays: Lp = 1.4[Ep Ip/ Es]0.25 (4.68)
For sands: Lp = 1.8[Ep Ip/ nh]0.2 (4.69)
Where Ep – Modulus of elasticity of pile material

Ip – Moment of inertia of pile section in direction considered
Es – Modulus of elasticity of clay, may be taken as 465Cu (kPa)
nh – Rate of increase of soil modulus with depth for sands as
specified in table below
Figure 4.62 Pile Modelling for Analysis
Page 4-75
Table 4.13 – Rate of increase of soil modulus with depth for sands (Source:
AASHTO, 2005, SI edition)
Soil Consistency nh (kPa/m)
Dry or moist Submerged
Loose 9400 4700
Medium 25000 13000
Dense 63000 31000
From the above equations, Lp ≈ 3 to 6D (D – pile diameter)
4.5.6 Settlement of Pile
4.5.6.1 Horizontal movement
According to AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 2005, SI units, Third

Edition, design horizontal movement shall not exceed 38.0 mm. The horizontal
movement of pile shall be obtained from soil-structure interaction analysis.
4.5.6.2 Vertical settlements
The allowable settlement permits that angular distortion between two adjust
foundations shall not exceed 0.008 rad in sample spans and 0.004 rad in continuous
spans. Pile settlement shall be estimated at Serviceability Limit State (SLS).
According to Vesic, the settlement of a single pile may be estimated as:
S = S1 + S2 + S3 (4.70)
Where S – Total settlement in mm

S1 – Elastic settlement/shortening of pile in mm
S2 – Settlement of pile caused by load at pile tip in mm
S3 – Settlement of pile caused by load along pile shaft in mm
S1 = [Qwp + ξQws]L/(ApEp) (4.71)
Where Qwp – Working load carried by pile tip in N

Qws – Working load carried by pile shaft in N
L – Pile length in mm
Ap – Cross sectional area of pile in mm2
Ep – Modulus of elasticity of pile in mm4
ξ - Factor depends on shape of shaft resistance distribution
ξ = 0.5 for rectangular and parabolic shape of shaft resistance
distribution
ξ = 0.67 for triangular shape of shaft resistance distribution
The working loads carried by pile shaft and tip may be proportioned based on shaft
and tip resistance estimated as discussed earlier.
S2 = QwpCp/(Dqp) (4.72)
Page 4-76
Where D – Pile diameter or width in mm

qp – Unit tip resistance in MPa
Cp – Factor depends on soil types
For driven piles: Cp = 0.02 – 0.04 for dense to loose sand

Cp = 0.02 – 0.03 for stiff to soft clay
Cp = 0.03 – 0.05 for dense to loose silt
For bored piles: Cp = 0.09 – 0.18 for dense to loose sand

Cp = 0.03 – 0.06 for stiff to soft clay
Cp = 0.09 – 0.12 for dense to loose silt
S3 = QwsCs/(Lqp) (4.73)
Where Cs – Factor which is [0.93 + 0.16 (L/D) ]Cp
Elastic settlement of pile group:
Sge = S[ (Bg/D) ] (4.74)
Where Bg – Width of pile group section in mm

D – Pile width or diameter in mm
Example 4.8: Bearing Capacity of Driven Pile
Let’s have geotechnical information as shown below.
Soil depth Soil type γ Su N-SPT Water table

(m) (kN/m3) (kN/m2)
0-2 Mud 15.0 - - At 0 m

depth
2-6 Soft clay 19.5 35.0 -
6-8 Stiff clay 20.05 85.0 -
8-12 Medium sand 20.8 - 25
12-20 Dense sand 21.5 - 45
Pile section properties: Pile spacing = 1.50 m or 3.75D

Size: 0.4x0.4 m (square pile), D = 0.4 m Total number of piles = 10
Perimeter, p = 1.60 m Pile layout: 2 rows with 5 piles
Area of pile tip, Ap = 0.16 m2 in each row
The pile will be designed as a combination of shaft and end bearing. Let’s have pile
tip penetrates at the level of 14.0 m from top and Db = 30D.
Assume IRR = 3.0 (Moderate risk) for all aspects
Weighting factors = 2.0 for site investigation, 1.0 for design and 0.5 for pile
installation
ARR = Σ(wiIRRi)/Σwi = (2.0x3 + 1.0x3 + 0.5x3)/(2.0 + 1.0 + 0.5) = 3
Refer Table 4.10, for high redundancy systems, φgb = 0.6
Page 4-77
10% of installed piles will be dynamic tested, p = 10%, K = 1.13p/(p + 3.3) =

1.13x10/(10 + 3.3) = 0.85
φtf = 0.8 for dynamic load testing
φg = φgb + (φtf – φgb)K = 0.6 + (0.8 – 0.6)x0.85 = 0.77
Shaft resistance
The first 2.0 m on top is mud and shaft resistance shall be ignored.
• For 2-6 m from top:
σ’o = 19.5x4.0 – 9.81x4.0 = 39 kPa and Su/σ’o = 35/39 = 0.9
Adhesion factor, α = 0.55
Unit shaft resistance, qs = αSu = 0.55x35 = 19.3 kN/m2
Shaft resistance, Qs = qsLp = 19.3x4x1.60 = 123.5 kN

σ’o = 20.05x7.0 – 9.81x7 = 72 kPa and Su/σ’o = 85/72 = 1.2
Adhesion factor, α = 0.5
Unit shaft resistance, qs = αSu = 0.5x85 = 42.5 kN/m2
Shaft resistance, Qs = qsLp = 42.5x2x1.60 = 136 kN
Total shaft resistance for cohesive soil, Qs = 123.5 + 136 = 259.5 kN say 260 kN
For pile spacing = 3.75D, the group efficiency factor η = 0.775
Modified shaft resistance for cohesive soil, Qsm = ηQs = 0.775x260 = 201.5 kN
Shaft resistance in group for cohesive soil shall be
Qs1 = No. of piles x Qsm = 10x201.5 = 2015 kN
Qs2 = αSu L(A + B) = (30x4 + 48.5x2)x[1.9 + 2x(4x1.5 + 0.4)] = 3190 kN
Therefore, Q’s = 2015 kN

Unit shaft resistance, qs = 0.0019N = 0.0019x25 = 0.0475 MPa = 47.5 kN/m2
Shaft resistance, Qs = qsLp = 47.5x4x1.60 = 304 kN

Unit shaft resistance, qs = 0.0019N = 0.0019x45 = 0.0855 MPa = 85.5 kN/m2
Shaft resistance, Qs = qsLp = 85.5x2x1.60 = 273.6 kN
Total shaft resistance, Qs = (304+273.6) = 577.6 kN
Shaft resistance in pile group for sandy soil, Q’’s = No. of pile x Qs = 10x577.6 =
5776 kN
Ultimate shaft resistance of pile group, Qus = Q’s + Q”s = 2015 + 5776 = 7791 kN
Tip resistance
Overburden pressure:
σ’v = (15x2 + 19.5x4 + 20.05x2 + 20.8x4 + 21.5x2) – (9.81x14) = 137 kN/m2 or
0.137 N/mm2
(Where 9.81 kN/m3 is unit weight of water)
Ncorr = [0.77log10(1.92/σ’v)]N = [0.77log10(1.92/0.137)]x45 = 40
Limiting point resistance, ql = 0.4Ncorr = 0.4x40 = 16 MPa
Unit tip resistance, qp = 0.038NcorrDb/D = 0.038x40x2.0/0.4 = 7.6 MPa < 16 MPa
Ultimate tip resistance of single pile, Qp = qpAp = 7.6x160000 = 1216000 N or 1216
kN
Page 4-78
Ultimate tip resistance of pile group, Qup = No. of piles x Qp = 10x1216 = 12160 kN
Pile group resistance

Ultimate resistance of pile group, QR = φg(Qus + Qup) = 0.77x(7791 + 12160) = 15362
kN
For any load combination at ULS (may PE + Traffic load governs), the ultimate load
of substructure shall not exceed the ultimate resistance of pile group. Please note that
for the calculation of load on substructure, self-weight of pile shall not be taken into
account.
Example 4.9: Settlement of Driven Pile

Let’s have pile arrangement and soil properties as mentioned in Example 4.8.
Working load @ SLS on pile, Qw = 1060 kN
Pile material properties: Ep = 33915 MPa
Pile width, D = 0.4 m
Pile length, L = 14.0 m
Cross sectional area of pile, Ap = 0.16 m2
Group width, Bg = 1.50 m
Ultimate pile resistance, Qult = 1536 kN

Ultimate shaft resistance, Qus = 600 kN or 600/1536 = 39% of ultimate resistance
Ultimate tip resistance, Qup = 936 kN or 61% of ultimate resistance
Working load carried by pile tip, Qwp = 1060x0.61 = 646.6 kN

Working load carried by pile shaft, Qws = 1060x0.39 = 413.4 kN
For triangular shape of resistance distribution, ξ = 0.67

S1 = [Qwp + ξQws]L/(ApEp) =
[646.6x103 + 0.67x413.4x103]x14x103/(0.16x106x33915) = 2.4 mm
For dense sand, take Cp = 0.02

Unit tip resistance, qp = 7.6 MPa
S2 = QwpCp/(Dqp) = 646.6x103 x 0.02/(400x7.6) = 4.2 mm
Cs = [0.93 + 0.16 (L/D) ]Cp = [0.93 + 0.16x (14/0.4) ]x0.02 = 0.037

S3 = QwsCs/(Lqp) = 413.4x103x0.037/(14x103x7.6) = 0.14 mm
Total settlement, S = S1 + S2 + S3 = 2.4 + 4.2 + 0.14 = 6.74 mm

Settlement in pile group, Sge = S[ (Bg/D) ] = 6.74x[ (1.5/0.4) ] = 13.05 mm
say 13.0 mm
Page 4-79
Chapter 5: Special Bridges
In this book, special bridges are referred to non-standard bridges which are built
overpassing highways/roads or railway lines. The bridges may have complex
geometric features such as high skew, vertical and horizontal curve. With less
geometric complexity, the bridge superstructure may be constructed using standard
precast prestressed concrete girders as discussed in Chapter 3. However, with more
complicated bridge geometry, a special type of superstructure such as box girders and
voided slabs may be suitable for this construction. Box girders shall be post-tensioned
and they may be cast-in-situ or precast. Voided slabs are post-tensioned and cast-in-
situ.
5.1 Abutments
Because most special bridges are constructed in urban areas with space restraint,
abutments built with slope as discussed in Chapter 4 are not suitable. In this case, an
appropriate soil retaining structure shall be built to retain soil behind abutments.
Where backfill is required for abutment construction, mechanically stabilized earth
(MSE) walls or reinforced soil structure (RSS) walls shall be built in front and on
both sides of the abutments. If the abutments are constructed on natural ground, soil
nail walls or soil anchors may be suitable for this kind of construction.
For these types of abutment, vertical loads are supported by piles whereas earth
pressure and live load surcharge are restrained by a soil retaining system. For design
of this kind of soil retaining system, refer to textbooks of geotechnical engineering.
Backfill
MSE or RSS
walls
Metallic straps
Figure 5.1 Abutment with MSE or RSS Walls
Page 5-1
Natural soil
Shotcrete wall
with precast facia
Nails
Figure 5.2 Abutment with Soil Nail Walls
Natural soil
Shotcrete wall
between piles
Precast facia fixed

to shotcrete wall
Soil anchors
Figure 5.3 Abutment with Soil Anchors
5.2 Piers
Types of pier are described in Chapter 4. Apart from loads induced by superstructure,
piers shall be designed for collision loads as follows:
Page 5-2
• Bridges overpassing highways: if no appropriate protective barriers are

provided, the piers shall be designed for a minimum equivalent static impact
ultimate load of 2700 kN acting in any direction in a horizontal plane. This
load shall be applied at 1.20 m above the ground. Both pier column and its
foundation shall be designed for this impact load.
• Bridges overpassing railway lines: unless specified otherwise by the railway
authority, the bridge piers shall be designed for minimum collision loads of
3000 kN parallel to rails and 1500 kN normal to rails. These loads shall be
applied at one location simultaneously at 2.0 m above rail level.
All above impact loads are ultimate design loads with a load factor of 1.0. Because
the collision is a rare event, a combination of the impact load may be taken with 60%
traffic load on the bridge.
5.3 Superstructure
5.3.1 Continuous Post-Tensioned Girder
As discussed early, superstructure can be any form of structure ranging from standard
PSC girders to box girders and voided slabs. In the Chapter 3, pre-tensioned
prestressed girders are well presented and so in this Chapter, continuous post-
tensioned prestressed girders are shown. In post-tensioned prestressed girders, the
profile of prestressing tendons is parabolic and the tendons are anchored at each end
of girder by anchor plates.
5.3.1.1 Loss of prestress
Like design of pre-tensioned girders, loss of prestress due to steel relaxation, elastic
shortening of concrete, creep and shrinkage shall be considered. In addition, for post-
tensioned girders, loss due to fiction of tendon and metallic duct and loss due to slip
of anchorage shall include as well.
Loss due to friction of tendons
Force in tendon at any point Lpa (m) from the jacking end
Pa = Pje-µ(αt + βpLpa) in kN (5.1)
Where αt - Summation of change of angle of tendons in parabolic

profile in radians
µ - Friction curvature coefficient taken between 0.15 and 0.20
βp - Angular deviation in rad/m and depends on duct diameter
and taken as
0.016 to 0.024 for duct dia. less than 50 mm
0.012 to 0.016 for duct dia. between 50 and 90 mm
0.008 to 0.012 for duct dia. greater than 90 mm
Pj - Jacking force in kN
So, loss due to friction can be expressed as:
Page 5-3
Loss due to friction = [1 - e-µ(αt + βpLpa) ] x 100 in % (5.2)
Loss due to slip of anchorage

When prestressing force is transferred from the jack to the beam, the wedges typically
draw in between 4.0 and 6.0 mm. The inward movement of the tendon is resisted by
friction between the tendon and the duct. Additional loss occurs from the jack up to a
distance Lslip.
Lslip = [δEpAp/∆P]0.5 (5.3)
Where δ - Draw in, usually taken between 4.0 and 6.0 mm

Ep - Modulus of elasticity of tendon in MPa
Ap - Area of tendon in mm2
∆P - Change of prestressing force due to friction loss in kN/m
Loss of prestress = [2∆PLslip/Pj] x 100 in % (5.4)
5.3.1.2 Anchorage zone
The bearing pressure on the bearing plate Fb resulting from pressing force shall be not
greater than allowable stress.
Fb = φ0.85f’ci(A2/A1)0.5 ≤ φ2f’ci (5.5)
Where φ - Bearing reduction factor taken as 0.6

f’ci - Concrete strength at transfer in MPa
A1 - Area of bearing plate in mm2
A2 - Area of concrete supporting the pressure in mm2
The bursting force resultant Tb of transverse tensile stress induced along the line of
action of an anchorage force shall be taken as follows:
Tb = 0.33Pi(1 - k) in kN (5.6)
Where Pi - Effective prestressing force after immediate loss in kN

k - Ratio of the depth or breadth of bearing plate to the
corresponding depth or breadth of concrete
Reinforcement resisted bursting force Tb shall be uniformly distributed within 0.1D to

1.0D, where D is the full depth of girder. For a normal environment, it is reasonable to
take an allowable stress of reinforcement of 200 MPa.
5.3.1.3 Design for SLS and ULS
Refer Chapter 3 for more details.
5.3.1.4 Uplift force and parabolic profile geometry
Page 5-4
Due to prestressing force in a parabolic profile, an uplift force exerts as shown in the
figure below. Slope of tendon in a parabolic profile can be also calculated as shown
here.
UDL, wp = 8Ph/L2
P
y P
θA θC
h
x
h
θA = θC = 4h/L
Figure 5.4 Parabolic Geometry
At a distance x from any end point of parabola, vertical offset y can be calculated as
follows:
y = 4h[x/L - (x/L)2] (5.7)
5.3.1.5 Bearing
For standard PSC girders, elastomeric bearings can be used. However, for box girders
and voided slabs, elastomeric bearings do not have sufficient capacity to support
heavy loads and pot bearings are more appropriate for these types of girder. A special
attention shall be made for curved bridges as the bridge deck moves toward a fixed
point.
Curved bridge deck
Fixed
Figure 5.5 Movement Direction of Curved Bridge (Source: Concrete Box-Girder

Bridges)
Example 5.1: Design of Curved PSC Voided Slab Bridge

A three span curved bridge will be built in Phnom Penh (Tropical climate). The
superstructure is composed of PSC (post-tensioned) voided slab as shown in Fig. 5.7
(superelevation is not shown). The bridge deck is fixed to pier 1 column (integral) and
Page 5-5
fixed against transverse direction at all supports (piers and abutments). Radius of
curvature R = 100 m. Span length along the bridge centreline: first span and last span
= 28.0 m and the middle span = 32.0 m. The bridge is designed to support T44
loading. The slab will be stressed by 10 tendons and each of them consists of 27x15.2
dia. strands. Jacking force = 200 kN per strand. Each pier is composed of an 1800 mm
diameter column which is supported by 2x1500 mm diameter bored piles.
Abut B
Voided slab
R = 100 m
Curve starts at 16.0 m

from Abut A Pier 2
Pier 1
Abut A
1800 dia.
column
Figure 5.6 Bridge Deck Plan View
9.10 m
70 DWS
Section 1 Section 2
4x1200 dia. voids
250
1450
1560 430 3300 10 tendons
Figure 5.7 Section of Voided Slab
A. Section properties of slab

A = 8.18x106 mm2 Ix = 2.79x1012 mm4
Zt = 3.70x109 mm3 Iy = 5.05x1013 mm4
Zb = 2.94x109 mm3 J = 7.59x1012 mm4
ZL = ZR = 9.55x109 mm3 yb = 947 mm
th = 516 mm yt = 753 mm
Assume weight of concrete parapet = 15 kN/m

Weight of DWS = 0.07x22 = 1.54 kPa
Use 2xT44 with a multiple-lane modification factor of 0.9
Page 5-6
To perform a grillage modelling, the voided slab is split into two of section 1 at the
edge and three of section 2.
Section properties of section 1: Section properties of section 2:

Zt1 = 8.08x108 mm3 Zt2 = 6.64x108 mm3
Zb1 = 4.48x108 mm3 Zb2 = 6.64x108 mm3
A1 = 1.63x106 mm2 A2 = 1.64x106 mm2
Figure 5.8 Section 1 and 2 for Grillage Modelling
B. Material properties
• Concrete
At transfer, f’ci = 40 MPa, Eci = 32800 MPa
Allowable concrete stresses, compression: -0.6f’ci = 0.6x40 = -24 MPa
tension: 0.5 f' ci = 0.5x 40 = 3.16 MPa
At 28 days, f’c = 50 MPa, Ec = 34800 MPa
tension: 0.5 f' c = 0.5x 50 = 3.53 MPa
Tensile strength of strand, fp = 1750 MPa
Jacking force, use 80% of braking force, Fj = 0.8x250 = 200 kN per strand. The
tendons are jacked at each end, so live anchorage is used at both ends.
Use 6.0 mm draw-in, µ = 0.12 and βp = 0.01
Offset distance from top and soffit of slab to centroid of upper and lower tendon shall
be 300 mm. So, eb = 947 - 300 = 647 mm and et = 753 - 300 = 453 mm.
Yield strength of steel bar, fsy = 400 MPa
C. Losses
1. Loss due to elastic shortening

Assume initial relaxation is 3% (normal curing)
Jacking force, Pj = NxFj = 10x27x200 = 54000 kN
Jacking stress, σj = 200x103/143 = 1398 MPa
Pi = (100% - 3%)x54000 = 52380 kN
Page 5-7
Self-weight of girder, W = Ax25 = 8.18x25x1.05 = 215 kN/m (Add 5% due to weight

of solid sections)
Pi/A = 52380x103/8.18x106 mm2 = 6.4 MPa
Stress of concrete at centroid of strand, ∆σci = (Pi/A) + (Pie2 / I) - (Moe/ I)
At anchorage: 6.4x(195000/31950)/1389 = 2.8%
At 11 m from abutment
Mo1 = 12400 kNm (Moment due to self-weight of slab)
∆σci1 = 6.4 + (52380x103x6472/2.79x1012) - (12400x106x647/2.79x1012) = 11.38 MPa
Stress in strands, ∆σe1 = ∆σci1(Ep/Eci) = 11.38x(195000/31950) = 69.45 MPa
Loss due to elastic shortening, ∆σe1/σj = 69.45/1389 = 5.0%
At pier 1
∆σci2 = 6.4 + (52380x103x4532/2.79x1012) - (19730x106x453/2.79x1012) = 7.08 MPa
Stress in strands, ∆σe2 = ∆σc2i(Ep/Eci) = 7.08x(195000/31950) = 43.2 MPa
At midspan of span 2
∆σci3 = 6.4 + (52380x103x6472/2.79x1012) - (8100x106x647/2.79x1012) = 12.37 MPa
Stress in strands, ∆σe3 = ∆σci3(Ep/Eci) = 12.37x(195000/31950) = 75.5 MPa
Page 5-8
Centroid of two tendons
h2 = 0.33 m
h1 = 0.42 m h3 = 0.44 m
L1 = 22 m L2 = 12 m L3 = 10 m
Half Bridge Length
Figure 5.9 Typical Tendon Profile
θ: 0.076 0 -0.076 0 0.088 0
αt: 0 0.076 0.152 0.262 0.350 0.438
Lpa: 0 11 22 28 34 44
e-µ(αt + βpLpa): 0 0.96 0.93 0.90 0.87 0.84
Loss: 0% 4% 7% 10% 13% 16%
Page 5-9
Abut B
Abut A
34° = 0.593 rad
Figure 5.10 Geometry of Horizontal Curve
2. Loss due to friction of tendons

Refer Fig. 5.9 for calculation of loss due to friction of tendons in parabolic profile.
Because the slab is curved horizontally, so are tendons. Friction loss due to horizontal
curvature shall be also considered.
Lpa = (88 - 16)/2 = 36 m and αt = 0.593 rad
e-µ(αt + βpLpa) = e-0.12x(0.593 + 0.01x36) = 0.89, so loss = 11%
Assume this loss occurs near midspan of span 2
3. Loss due to slip of anchorage

Area of each tendon, Ap = 27x143 = 3861 mm2
Rate of decrease of prestressing force due to friction, ∆P = 27x200x0.04/11 = 19.6
kN/m
Lslip = [δEpAp/∆P]0.5 = [6x195000x3861/19.6]0.5 = 15181 mm or 15.18 m
Loss of prestress at anchorage = [2∆PLslip/Pj] x 100 = [2x19.6x15.18/27x200]x100 =
11.0%
Loss at 11 m from anchorage = 11x11/15.18 = 8%
4. Total immediate loss

At anchorage (At Abut A): 3% + 2.8% + 0% + 11% = 16.8%
At 11 m from anchorage: 3% + 5% + 4% + 8% = 20.0%
At 28 m from anchorage: 3% + 3.1% + 10% + 0% = 16.1%
At 44 m from anchorage: 3% + 5.4% + 16% + 0% +11% = 35.4%
Average immediate loss after transfer = 22%
1. Shrinkage loss:
For th = 516 mm
ε*csd.b = 1000x10-6
α1 = 0.8 + 1.2e-0.005x516 = 0.89
k1 = 0.89x10.8/(10.8 + 0.15x516) = 0.011
Page 5-10
k1 = 0.89x109500.8/(109500.8 + 0.15x516) = 0.851

εcsd = 0.84x0.5x(1.0 – 0.008x50)x1000x10-6 = 252x10-6
εcse = (0.06x50 – 1.0) x50x10-6 x(1.0 – e-0.1x10950) = 100x10-6
Design shrinkage strain for 1 year, εcs = (100 + 252)x10-6 = 352x10-6
Ap = 27x143x10 = 38610 mm2
Ag = 8.18x106 mm2
∆σsh = 0.000352x195000/[1 + 15x38610/8.18x106] = 64 MPa
Percentage of loss, ∆σsh/σj = 64/1472 = 4.3%
2. Creep loss
Refer creep calculation procedures as outlined in Chapter 3
Design creep coefficient, φcc = 1.16
Design creep strain, εc = φcc(∆σci/Ec)
Stress in strand, ∆σc = 0.8εcEp
Percentage of loss, ∆σc/σj
Pi = (100% - 22%)x54000 = 42120 kN
Pi/A = 42120x103/8.18x106 = 5.1 MPa
Stress of concrete at strand centroid:
∆σci = (Pi/A) + (Pie2 / I) – (Moe/ I)
At anchorage: 0.8x5.1x1.16 x(195000/34800)/1389 = 1.9%
At 11 m from abutment
∆σci1 = 5.1 + (42120x103x6472/2.79x1012) - (12400x106x647/2.79x1012) = 8.55 MPa
εc1 = 1.16x8.55/34800 = 285x10-6 , ∆σc1 = 0.8x285x10-6 x195000 = 44.5 MPa
Loss due to creep, ∆σc1/σj = 44.5/1389 = 3.2%
At pier 1
∆σci2 = 5.1 + (42120x103x4532/2.79x1012) - (19730x106x453/2.79x1012) = 5.00 MPa
εc2 = 1.16x5.0/34800 = 166x10-6 , ∆σc2 = 0.8x166x10-6 x195000 = 26 MPa
Loss due to creep, ∆σc2/σj = 26/1389 = 1.2%
∆σci3 = 5.1 + (42120x103x6472/2.79x1012) - (8100x106x647/2.79x1012) = 9.54 MPa
εc3 = 1.16x9.54/34800 = 318x10-6 , ∆σc3 = 0.8x318x10-6 x195000 = 49.6 MPa
Loss due to creep, ∆σc3/σj = 49.6/1389 = 3.6%
3. Relaxation loss: 3%
• Total loss
At anchorage: 16.8% + 4.3% + 1.9% + 3% = 26.0%
At 11 m from anchorage: 20.0% + 4.3% + 3.2% + 3% = 30.5%
Average total loss = 31.85% say 32%
D. Uplift forces
Due to parabolic profile of tendons, vertical prestressing forces are calculated as
follows:
• At transfer
Curve 1: w1 = 8x(1.00 - 0.22)x54000x0.42/222 = 292.4 kN/m (upward)
Page 5-11
Curve 2: w2 = 8x(1.00 - 0.22)x54000x0.33/122 = 772.2 kN/m (downward)

Curve 3: w3 = 8x(1.00 - 0.22)x54000x0.44/202 = 370.6 kN/m (upward)
• At service
Curve 1: w1 = 292.4 kN/m (upward)
Curve 2: w2 = 531.0 kN/m (downward)
Curve 3: w3 = 254.8 kN/m (upward)
Full voided slab
Figure 5.11 Vertical Prestressing Forces and Moment Diagram
The bending moments shown in figure above represent the total moment due to
prestress which is equal to prestress force times eccentricity plus secondary moment.
E. Stresses at transfer
1. In-plane stresses (Vertical bending)
Pi/A = 5.1 MPa

At 11 m from abutment A (max. sagging in span 1)
Net moment due to weight of slab and prestress
M = 12400 - 14600 = -2200 kNm (hog moment - slab bends upward)
At top fibre, σt = (-Pi/A) + (-M/Zt) = -5.1 + (2200x106/3.70x109) = -4.50 MPa
(Compression) < -24 MPa OK
At bottom fibre, σb = (-Pi/A) + (M/Zb) = -5.1 + (-2200x106/2.94x109) = -5.84 MPa
At Pier 1 (max. hogging)
M = 19730 - 13650 = 6080 kNm (hog moment)
At top fibre, σt = (-Pi/A) + (M/Zt) = -5.1 + (6080x106/3.70x109) = -3.45 MPa
At bottom fibre, σb = (-Pi/A) - (M/Zb) = -5.1 - (6080x106/2.94x109) = -7.17 MPa
M = 8100 - 12960 = -4860 kNm (hog moment - slab bends upward)
At top fibre, σt = (-Pi/A) + (-M/Zt) = -5.1 + (4860x106/3.70x109) = -3.78 MPa
At bottom fibre, σb = (-Pi/A) + (M/Zb) = -5.1 + (-4860x106/2.94x109) = -6.75 MPa
The slab is in compression at transfer.
Page 5-12
2. Out-of-plane stresses (horizontal bending)

The total stressing force will be concentric to the entire slab section. However, the
stressing sequence shall be made in such a way to ensure that horizontal force caused
by eccentric force shall be minimised in order to maintain concrete stress within
allowable limit.
5 8 1 7 4
9 3 6 2 10
Figure 5.12 Stressing Sequence
Check horizontal stresses at sequence No. 9

Prestressing force, Pi = 42120x9/10 = 37908 kN
Pi/A = 37908x103/8.18x106 mm2 = 4.63 MPa
For tendon 9, Pi = 4212 kN applied at eccentricity e = 3.30 m
M = 4212x3.3 = 13900 kNm (Horizontal bending)
Stress at far left, σL = (-Pi/A) - (M/ZL) = -4.63 - (13900x106/9.55x109) = -6.08 MPa
Stress at far right, σR = (-Pi/A) + (M/ZR) = -4.63 + (13900x106/9.55x109) = -3.17 MPa
In addition to the eccentric force in slab, compression due to prestress in horizontal
curvature also causes out-of-plane bending.
Compressive stress due to prestress for 9 tendons is 4.63 MPa.
So compressive strain, εc = σ/Ec = 4.63/32800 = 141x10-6
Equivalent negative temperature, ∆T = -141x10-6/11x10-6 = -12.8 °C
Apply the compressive strain or the negative temperature to the model.
Figure 5.13 Out-of-Plane Bending
Out-of-plane bending due to prestress, M = 2430 kNm which causes tension on right
hand side.
Total stress at far left, σL = -6.08 - (2430x106/9.55x109) = -6.33 MPa
Total stress at far right, σR = -3.17 + (2430x106/9.55x109) = -2.92 MPa
All stresses are in compression, OK.
Page 5-13
F. Stresses at service
1. In-plane stresses (Vertical bending)

P = (1.0 - 0.32)x54000 = 36720 kN
P/A = 36720x103/8.18x106 mm2 = 4.5 MPa
Section 2
Dummy member
Section 1 Pier column
Integral pier
Figure 5.14 Bridge Grillage Model
At 11 m from abutment A (max. sagging in span 1)

M = 12400 - 9840 = 2560 kNm (sag moment - slab bends downward)
Section 1:
Moment due to concrete parapet, DWS and T44 on section 1
M’ = 324 + 1.3x136+1027x0.9x(1+0.35) = 1748.6 kNm
At top fibre, σt = (-P/A) + (-M/Zt) + (-M’/Zt1) = -4.5 + (-2560x106/3.70x109) + (-
1748.6x106/8.08x108) = -7.36MPa < -20 MPa OK
At bottom fibre, σb = (-P/A) + (M/Zb) + (M’/Zb1) = -4.5 + (2560x106/2.94x109) +
(1748.6x106/4.48x108) = 0.27 MPa < 3.53 MPa OK
Section 2:
M’ = 362 + 1.3x136+987x0.9x(1+0.35) = 1738 kNm
1738x106/6.64x108) = -7.80 MPa < -20 MPa OK
(1738x106/6.64x108) = -1.03 MPa < 3.53 MPa OK
At Pier 1 (max. hogging)

M = 19730 - 9200 = 10530 kNm
Section 1:
M’ = 530 + 1.3x188+1075x0.9x(1+0.35) = 2080.5 kNm
Page 5-14
At top fibre, σt = (-P/A) + (M/Zt) + (M’/Zt1) = -4.5 + (10530x106/3.70x109) +

(2080.5x106/8.08x108) = 0.92 MPa < 3.53 MPa OK
At bottom fibre, σb = (-P/A) + (-M/Zb) + (-M’/Zb1) = -4.5 + (-10530x106/2.94x109) +
(-2080.5x106/4.48x108) = -12.72 MPa < -20 MPa OK
Section 2:
M’ = 362 + 1.3x136+987x0.9x(1+0.35) = 1738 kNm
1738x106/6.64x108) = 0.97 MPa < 3.53 MPa OK
(1738x106/6.64x108) = -11.00 MPa < -20 MPa OK
M = 8100 - 8740 = -8740 kNm (sag moment - slab bends upward)
Section 1:
Prestressing force, P = 2x(1 - 0.465)x5400 = 5778 kN
P/A1 = 5778x103/1.63x106 = 3.54 MPa
M’ = 240 + 1.3x105 + 1020x0.9x(1+0.35) = 1616 kNm
At top fibre, σt = (-P/A1) + (-M/Zt) + (-M’/Zt1) = -3.54 + (8740x106/3.70x109) + (-
1616x106/8.08x108) = -3.18MPa < -20 MPa OK
At bottom fibre, σb = (-P/A1) + (M/Zb) + (M’/Zb1) = -3.54 + (-8740x106/2.94x109) +
(1616x106/4.48x108) = -2.90 MPa < 3.53 MPa OK
Section 2:
P/A2 = 5778x103/1.64x106 = 3.52 MPa
M’ = 241 + 1.3x112 + 890x0.9x(1+0.35) = 1468 kNm
At top fibre, σt = (-P/A2) + (-M/Zt) + (-M’/Zt2) = -3.52 + (8740x106/3.70x109) + (-
1468x106/6.64x108) = -3.37 MPa < -20 MPa OK
At bottom fibre, σb = (-P/A2) + (M/Zb) + (M’/Zb2) = -3.52 + (-8740x106/2.94x109) +
(1468x106/6.64x108) = -3.67 MPa < 3.53 MPa OK
2. Out-of-plane stresses (Horizontal bending)

Similar to calculation of stresses at transfer, prestress in a horizontal curvature causes
out-of-plane bending. In addition, creep, shrinkage and temperature effect also
generate out-of-plane bending.
Elastic shortening strain = 141x10-6
Average creep strain, εc = φcc(∆σci/Ec) = 1.16x[(5.1 + 8.55 + 5 + 9.54)/4]/34800 =
235x10-6
Shrinkage strain, εsh = 352x10-6
Take temperature drop, ∆T = 20°C and thermal expansion coefficient of concrete, α =
11x10-6, equivalent strain in concrete, εT = 20x11x10-6 = 220x10-6
Total compressive strain, ε = (141 + 235 + 352 + 220)x10-6 = 948x10-6
Equivalent negative temperature, ∆T = -952x10-6/11x10-6 = -86.2°C
Apply the compressive strain or the negative temperature in the structural model.
Out-of-plane bending, M = 15335 kNm obtained from the analysis with ∆T.
Stress at far left, σL = (-P/A) - (M/ZL) = -4.5 - (15335x106/9.55x109) = -6.10 MPa
Stress at far right, σR = (-P/A) + (M/ZR) = -4.5 + (15335x106/9.55x109) = -2.90 MPa
Page 5-15
All stresses are in compression, OK.
G. Anchorage zone
Take bearing plate 435x435 mm for each tendon. Upper and lower bearing plates are
placed about 50 mm apart.
For two plates, depth of plate, d = 435 + 435 + 50 = 920 mm
Ratio of plate depth to slab depth, k = 920/1700 = 0.54
Bursting force Tb = 0.33P(1 - k) = 0.33x2x(1 - 0.168)x5400x(1 - 0.54) = 1363.6 kN
for upper and lower tendon.
Take allowable stress of steel bar, fs = 200 MPa, required steel area to resist bursting
force, As = Tb/fs = 1363.6x103/200 = 6818 mm2.
Use 17/DB16 bars spaced at 100 mm in a form of stirrup, As = 2x200x17 = 6800
mm2. The bars shall be installed around upper and lower tendon within D = 1700 mm.
Bearing stress at jacking, Fj = (1 - 0.168)x5400x103/(435x435) = 23.7 MPa
Allowable bearing stress, Fb = φ0.85f’ci(A2/A1)0.5 = 0.6x0.85x40x(1700/920)0.5 = 27.7
MPa > Fj OK
17/DB16 stirrups
Figure 5.15 Details of Anchorage Reinforcement
H. Anchorage of curved tendons

As the tendons are laid in a horizontal curve to match up slab profile, each tendon
shall be anchored against horizontal force acting out-of-plane.
H = 1.2Pi/R = 1.2x(1 - 0.22)x5400/100 = 50.5 kN/m, where R is the radius of slab
curvature. Steel area per 1.0 m length of tendon, As = 50.5x103/(0.7x400) = 180
mm2/m. Use DB12 at every 200 mm, As = 110x1000/200 = 550 mm2/m > 180 mm2/m
OK.
Page 5-16
DB16 at 200
Ducts DB12 at 200
Figure 5.16 Details of Stirrups
I. Bearing
Pot bearings are arranged to have guided movement toward pier 1 (fixed point)
Guided movement
(Movement allowed
in arrow direction)
Pier 1
Fixed/integral pier
Figure 5.17 Bridge Bearing Arrangement
Important Notes :
The calculations shown in this example are simplified. In a real design, the designer
shall :
1. Work out profile for each tendon. Vertical curvature of superstructure shall
also include in tendon profile.
2. Calculate prestress loss for each tendon, each span and each internal support.
3. Check stresses at a few spots along tendon prfile.
4. Check stress due to temperature effect on superstructure.
5. Check support reaction caused by out-of-plane prestress in horizontal
curvature.
6. Search for uplift on bearing which locates on shorter side of the curvature. The
uplift may be caused by unbalanced weight of superstructure and other loads.
7. Design the voided slab for ULS (Bending, shear and torsion). Refer Chapter 3
for more details.
Page 5-17
5.3.2 Precast Segmental Box Girder
It is one of the popular types of construction for long span bridges. Construction of
precast segmental box girders can be carried out with the following construction
methods:
• Balanced cantilever method: it is the most popular construction method of

precast segmental box girders. Segmental boxes are erected and stressed at
each pier location and balanced loads at each side of the pier shall be
maintained during the construction. A stitch pour is carried out to close a gap
between two cantilevers.
• Incremental launching method: in this method, all segmental boxes are
stressed up to one girder and it is pushed from one end to another end of the
bridge using hydraulic jacks.
• Span-by-span method: in this method, segmental boxes are erected and
stressed up in one span and this process repeatedly continues until the last
span is completed.
Whatever construction method is used to build segmental box girder bridges, all
engineering aspects such as changes in bending moment, prestressing force and creep
effect which may occur during construction stages of box girders shall be carefully
considered during the design stage.
In addition to the construction methods described above, the joint of two segments
can be a dry joint using shear keys to transfer shear from one segment to another and
wet joint where epoxy is used in the joint. Dry joint is the most popular construction
of segmental box girders.
5.3.2.1 Types of tendon
In construction of segmental box girders there are two types of tendon: internal and
external tendon.
• Internal tendon: internal tendons are embedded in ducts which locate in
flanges or/and webs. The ducts are completely covered/protected by concrete.
• External tendon: external tendons are embedded in ducts/sheaths which locate
outside concrete protection but usually inside the box girders. External
tendons are commonly required with internal tendons for long span bridges
where improvement in bending capacity is needed.
5.3.2.2 Anchorage of tendon
In most cases, internal tendons locate in top and bottom flange. However, the tendons
may also locate in web if more tendons are needed. Top tendons are anchored in top
flange, in a small recess to fit anchor plate as shown in the figure below. They may be
also anchored in a concrete block. Bottom tendons are anchored in a concrete blister.
Page 5-18
Box CL
Concrete block for

Top tendons temporary stressing bars
Shear keys
Concrete blister
Bottom tendons
Figure 5.18 Typical Section of Box Girder - Half Shown
Top tendons
anchored in
concrete block
Recess in top flange
Figure 5.19 Anchorage of Top Tendons
Concrete blister
Figure 5.20 Anchorage of Bottom Tendons
5.3.2.3 Shear lag of box section
According to AS5100.5, shear lag shall be considered in any section of flange

extending beyond the face of web if:
Page 5-19
(a) For positive bending moment, L1/bfc ≤ 5

(b) For negative bending moment, L2/bfc ≤ 10
For continuous members, take L1 ≈ 0.40L and L2 ≈ 0.15L and for simply supported
members, L1 = L, where L is the effective span length.
bfc bfc bfc bfc

b
45°
bfc bfc
Figure 5.21 Terminology to Determine Effective Width of Flange (Source: AS5100.5)
Where l is the support-to-support span length, bm and bs are effective width extended
from face of web for near mid-span and near support respectively.
0.7
0.6
For b/li ≥ 0.7, bm = 0.173li
0.5
bs = 0.104li
b/li bm
0.4
0.3
bs
0.2
0.1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Effective width/Physical width
Figure 5.22 Determination of Effective Width of Flange (Source: AASHTO, LRFD

Bridge Design Specification, 2007, SI Edition)
For simply supported members: li = 1.0l

For continuous members: li = 0.8l for end span
li = 0.6l for interior span
For cantilever members: li = 1.5l
Page 5-20
b1 b2
be1 b2e
b3e
b3
Figure 5.23 Effective Width of Flange (Source: AASHTO, LRFD Bridge Design
Specification, 2007, SI Edition)
5.3.2.4 Construction sequence and creep analysis
The way a bridge is built affects bending moments and shear forces generated in the
structure. This shall be taken into account carefully during design stage. The final
bending moment Mfinal may be determined as follows:
Mfinal = Mas-built + (1 - e-φ) [Minst - Mas-built] (5.8)
Where Minst - Instantaneous bending moment, i.e. bending moment

before stitch pour is completed in kNm
Mas-built - Bending moment after stitch pour is completed in
kNm
φ - Creep factor
Below is an example how to calculate final bending moment of two cantilever beams
joining together at a later stage. Each cantilever beam has a span length of L/2 and
supports a uniform distributed load q.
Instantaneous BM diagram Final BM diagram

Minst
Mas-built Mfinal
Stitch joint qL2/24 As-built BM diagram
Figure 5.24 Change in Bending Moment Due To Construction Sequence
At support:
Instantaneous bending moment, Minst = q(L/2)2/2 = qL2/8
As-built bending moment, Mas-built = qL2/12
Final bending moment, Mfinal = qL2/12 + (1 - e-φ) [qL2/8 - qL2/12]
Page 5-21
5.3.2.5 Allowable stress
For unreinforced joint, no tensile stress is allowed in the joint.
5.3.2.6 Shear capacity of dry joint
Where epoxy is not provided at a joint, shear at interface between two precast boxes is
transferred by shear friction and shear resistance of any shear keys built in webs and
flanges. According to AS5100.5, shear capacity of a dry joint can be determined as
follows:
φVuj = φ{1.875Akf'ct[1 + 0.205σcp(Ap/Ag)] + 0.45Asmσcp} (5.9)
Where Ak - Area of shear keys in vertical plane (plane of failure)

Asm - Area of contact between smooth surfaces on failure plane
Ap - Area of all tendons
Ag - Gross sectional area of box section
f'ct - Principal tensile strength of concrete, taken as 0.4 f' c
σcp - Average intensity of effective prestress in concrete
φ - Shear capacity reduction factor, taken as 0.7
Example 5.2: Design of Segmental Box Girder Bridge

A three span bridge will be built in Phnom Penh (Tropical climate). The
superstructure is composed of PSC (post-tensioned) segmental box girder as shown in
Fig. 5.25. The girder will be constructed as a continuous girder using the balanced
cantilever method. Span length along the bridge centreline: first span and last span =
32.0 m and the middle span = 45.0 m. The bridge is designed to support T44 loading.
Top and bottom tendon layout are shown in Fig. 5.26 and 5.27 respectively.
Box CL
6180
225
450
1200 2000 1480
2400
350
250
Figure 5.25 Half Box Section
Page 5-22
Pier 1 Tendon with live Pier 2

Abut A Stitch joint Stitch joint
anchorage
Girder web
Box CL
Top tendon – plan view (half shown)
Top tendon
125
Temporary stressing bar
Figure 5.26 Top Tendon Layout - Half Section Shown
Page 5-23
Bottom tendon with

live anchorage Girder web
Abut A Stitch joint Pier 1 Stitch joint Pier 2
Box CL
Bottom tendon – plan view (half shown)
125
Bottom tendon
Figure 5.27 Bottom Tendon Layout - Half Section Shown
Page 5-24
A. Section properties of box

A.1 Full box
A = 6.33x106 mm2 Ix = 5.15x1012 mm4 th = 353 mm
A.2 Effective section properties
Span 1: l = 32.0 m, li = 0.8l = 0.8x32 = 25.6 m
Bottom flange width, b = 2700 - 350 = 2350 mm or 2.35 m
b/li = 2.35/25.6 = 0.092
Span 2: l = 45.0 m, li = 0.6l = 0.6x45 = 27 m
b/li = 2.35/27 = 0.087
For cantilever: l = 45/2 m, li = 1.5l = 1.x45/2 = 33.75 m
b/li = 2.35/33.75 = 0.07
Take b/li = 0.10 and from Fig. 5.26, bs = 0.7b and bm = 0.92b
Conservatively, use be = 0.7b for top and bottom flange. Effective flanges are shown
in the figure below.
Box CL Effective section
yt
2700
2435
1645 yb
Figure 5.28 Half Effective Section
A = 2.55x106 mm2 Ix = 2.0x1012 mm4

Zt = 2.31x109 mm3 Iy = 2.56x1012 mm4
Zb = 1.29x109 mm3 yb = 1538 mm
yt = 862 mm
B. Material properties
• Concrete
At 28 days, f’c = 50 MPa, Ec = 34800 MPa
tension: 0 MPa
Tensile strength of strand, fp = 1750 MPa
Jacking force, use 80% of braking force, Fj = 0.8x250 = 200 kN per strand. Each
tendon contains 12 strands, so Pj = 12x200 = 2400 kN per tendon
Page 5-25
The tendons are jacked at each end, so live anchorage is used at both ends.
Tendon eccentricity: top eccentricity, et = 862 - 125 = 737 mm
bottom eccentricity, eb = 1538 - 125 = 1413 mm
C. Construction stages
Stage 1:
• Build substructure: piers and abutments
• Install temporary supports at pier 1
• Erect diaphragm segment at Abut. A and pier 1
Diaphragm
segments Temporary support
Abut A Pier 1 Pier 2
Stage 2:
• Erect subsequent segments one by one after diaphragm segment at pier 1
• Stress temporary and permanent top tendons for each segment installed
Install 8 segments at both sides
Stage 3:
• Install a temporary support under the 8th segment on the left (near Abut. A)
• Erect other segments in span 1 using temporary stressing
Install temporary support here

Temporary stress
Stage 4:
• Cast the stitch pour in span 1
• Stress permanent bottom tendons in span 1
• Remove temporary support near Abut. A
Page 5-26
Initial permanent stress

Pour stitch
Remove temporary support
Stage 5:
• Repeat construction stage 1 to 4 for erection of segments at pier 2 and Abut. B
Stage 6:
• Finally, cast the stitch pour in span 2 (midspan)
• Stress permanent bottom tendons in span 2
Cast stitch pour

Initial permanent stress
D. Temporary stressing
Refer Stage 2 above
• Erect one segment on each side of the pier
• Stress temporary bars (2 bars per segment)
• Install and stress permanent top tendons
• Remove temporary stressing bars
Temporary stress bars Previously installed permanent stress
New segment
Temporary support
Page 5-27
Remove temporary
stress bars Install permanent stress
E. Losses
Loss due to initial relaxation = 3%

Loss due to elastic shortening (top tendons)
Self-weight of full segmental box, W = 6.33x25x1.1 = 174 kN/m (10% accounts for
additional weight due to concrete blocks and blisters)
Bending moment due to cantilever of half segment, Mo = (174/2)x(45/2)2/2 = 22022
kNm
Modulus ratio, n = Ep/Ec = 195000/34800 = 5.6
Jacking force of top tendons, Pj = 10x2400 = 24000 kN
Jacking stress, σj = 200x103/143 = 1398 MPa
Pi = (100% - 3%)x24000 = 23280 kN
Pi/A = 23280x103/2.55x106 = 9.13 MPa
Stress of concrete at centroid of tendon, ∆σci = (Pi/A) + (Pie2 / I) - (Moe/ I)
∆σci = 9.13 + (23280x103x7372/2.0x1012) - (22022x106x737/2.00x1012) = 7.34 MPa
Stress in strands, ∆σe = ∆σcin = 7.34x5.6 = 41.1 MPa
Loss due to elastic shortening, ∆σe/σj = 41.1/1389 = 3.0%
Assume loss due to draw-in = 7% and loss due to horizontal curvature of tendons =
7%.
Total immediate loss = 3% + 3% + 7% + 7% = 20%
1. Shrinkage loss:
Refer Chapter 3 for more detailed calculations of shrinkage strain
Design shrinkage strain for box girder, εsh = 212.5x10-6
∆σsh = εshEp = 0.0002125x195000 = 41.4 MPa
Percentage of loss, ∆σsh/σj = 41.4/1398 = 3.0%
2. Creep loss
Refer Chapter 3 for more detailed calculations of creep coefficient
φcc = 0.70
Design creep strain, εc = φcc(∆σci/Ec)
Stress in strand, ∆σc = 0.8εcEp
Percentage of loss, ∆σc/σj
Page 5-28
Pi = (100% - 20%)x24000 = 19200 kN

Pi/A = 19200x103/2.55x106 = 7.53 MPa
Stress of concrete at centroid of tendons:
∆σci = (Pi/A) + (Mpe / I) – (Moe/ I)
Where Mp is the final bending moment due to top prestress and Mo is the final
bending moment due to self-weight of girder at pier location. Refer the next page for
calculation on these bending moments.
∆σci = 7.53 + (8441x106x737/2.0x1012) - (17752x106x737/2.00x1012) = 4.07 MPa
Stress in strands, ∆σe = 0.8∆σcin = 0.8x4.07x5.6 = 18.2 MPa
Loss due to elastic shortening, ∆σe/σj = 18.2/1389 = 1.3%
3. Relaxation loss: 3%
• Total loss
Total loss = 20% + 3% + 1.3% + 3% = 27.3% say 28%
F. Stresses at transfer
Check stresses at transfer due to cantilever action
Pi = 19200 kN
Pi/A = 7.53 MPa
Assume 2.0 kPa construction live load for 11.0 m wide.
WLL = 2.0x11 = 22 kN/m
For half section, MLL = (22/2)x(45/2)2/2 = 2784 kNm
Total cantilever bending moment, M = 22022 + 2784 = 24806 kNm
At top fibre, σt = (-Pi/A) + (M - Pe)/Zt = -7.53 + (24806x106 -
19200x103x737/2.31x109) = -2.92 MPa (Compression) < 0 MPa OK
At bottom fibre, σb = (-Pi/A) + (Pe - M)/Zb = -7.53 + (19200x103x737 - 24806x106
/1.29) = -15.80 MPa (Compression) < -20 MPa OK
G. Construction stage analysis

For φcc = 0.70, [1 - e-φcc] = 0.50
• Bending moment analysis due to self-weight of girder
Refer Fig. 5.29 for calculations of bending moments
Final bending moments for half section of girder:

At pier, M = 17752 kNm
In span 1, M = 4007 kNm (at 11.3 m from Abut. A)
In span 2, M = 4270 kNm (at midspan)
Page 5-29
22022
Instantaneous Gap opened
moment, Minst
2847
32 m 45 m
13482 Gap closed

As-built moment,
Mas-built
5415
22022 - 13482 = 8540
(1 - e-φ) [Minst - Mas-built]
1508
(22022 - 13482)x0.5 = 4270
13482 + 4270 = 17752
Final moment
5415 - 1508 = 4007 8540 - 4270 = 4270

11.3 m
Figure 5.29 Bending Moment Diagrams Due To Self-Weight of Half Girder
• Bending moment due to top prestress

Instantaneous Gap opened
moment, Minst
2546 1273
12730
As-built moment,
Mas-built Gap closed 7305 Prestress in all
1420 spans included
4152
32 m 45 m

(12730 - 4152)x0.5 = 4289
1340
10 m
Final moment Approximate BM diagram

1420 - 1340 = 80 7305 - 4289 = 3016
2546
4152 + 4289 = 8441
0 + 1340 = 1340
Figure 5.30 Bending Moment Diagrams Due To Top Prestress of Half Girder
Page 5-30
Bending moment due to prestress is computed as prestressing force times eccentricity

of top tendons. Prestressing force varies within segments and so does the bending
moment.
• Bending moment due to bottom prestress

Bottom prestress is applied to span 1 and 3 before the cast of stitch pour in span 2, so
creep effect shall be analysed. However, bottom prestressed in span 2 is applied after
the cast of all stitch pours (refer stage 6) and creep analysis for this prestress is not
required.
Instantaneous
moment, Minst
Gap opened
7326 9395
Prestress in span 1 & 3

As-built moment,
Mas-built Gap closed
6917 8950 5953
2911
32 m 45 m
250
1090 (2911 - 0)x0.5 = 1455
8950 - 250 = 8700 Approximate BM diagram

6917 5953 - 1090 = 4863
1455
Final BM diagram for
prestress in span 1 & 3
Gap closed
8553
920
4597 6129 Prestress in span 2 only
8700 - 920 = 7780 Approximate BM diagram

6917 8553 - 1455 = 7098
4863 - 4597 = 266
6750
11 m
6129 + 1455 = 7584
Total BM of prestress in all spans
Figure 5.31 Bending Moment Diagrams Due To Bottom Prestress of Half Girder
H. Grillage modelling and analysis
The bridge can accommodate up to 3xT44
Page 5-31
Take weight of traffic barrier = 12 kN/m per barrier.

For deck wearing surface, use 70 mm thick DWS for 11.0 m wide, UDL =
0.070x11x22 = 17 kN/m.
Due to T44 loading:

At pier 1: M = 2640 kNm
At 11.0 m from Abut. A (span 1), M = 4391 kNm
At midspan of span 2, M = 4870 kNm
Due to traffic barrier:
Due to DWS:
Half box
T44
Figure 5.32 Grillage Model with T44 loading
I. Stresses at service
At pier 1:
P = 0.72x10x2400 = 17280 kN
P/A = 6.78 MPa
Service moment, M = 17752 - 8441 - 7584 + 1862 + 1.3x1320 + 2640x1.35x0.8 =
8156 kNm
At top fibre, σt = (-P/A) + (M/Zt) = -6.78 + (8156x106/2.31x109) = -3.24 MPa
(Compression) < 0 MPa OK
At bottom fibre, σb = (-P/A) - (M/Zb) = -6.78 - (8156x106/1.29x109) = -13.10 MPa <
20 MPa OK
At 11.0 m from Abut. A (span 1):

Pi = 0.72x6x2400 = 10368 kN (Top prestress included)
Page 5-32
P/A = 4.08 MPa

Service moment, M = 4007 + 1340 - 6750 + 746 + 1.3x525 + 4391x1.35x0.8 = 4768
kNm
At top fibre, σt = (-P/A) - (M/Zt) = -4.08 - (4768x106/2.31x109) = -6.14 MPa
At bottom fibre, σb = (-P/A) + (M/Zb) = -4.08 + (4768x106/1.29x109) = -0.38 MPa
At midspan of span 2:
Pi = 0.72x7x2400 = 12096 kN
P/A = 4.75 MPa
Service moment, M = 4270 - 3016 - 7098 + 1173 + 1.3x830 + 4870x1.35x0.8 = 1668
kNm
At top fibre, σt = (-P/A) - (M/Zt) = -4.75 - (1668x106/2.31x109) = -5.47 MPa
At bottom fibre, σb = (-P/A) + (M/Zb) = -4.75 + (1668x106/1.29x109) = -3.45 MPa
All stresses at service are in compression, OK.
J. Shear capacity of dry joint
Check shear capacity of dry joint near pier 1.

Design shear force of half box, V* = 1.2x(2080 + 265) + 2x192 + 633x1.35x2x0.8 =
4565 kN
Prestress effect on shear is neglected here.
Average intensity of effective prestress, σcp = (3.24 + 13.10)/2 = 8.17 MPa
Area of prestressing tendons, Ap = 10x143 = 1430 mm2
Area of half gross box section, Ag = 3.16x106 mm2
Principal tensile strength of concrete, f’ct = 0.4 f' c = 0.4 50 = 2.83 MPa
For shear key location refer Fig. 5.18. Detailed dimensions of shear keys are shown
below.
Shear key, Ak = 14x300x100 = 420x103 mm2

Area of duct, Ad = 10x(πx702)/4 = 38465 mm2
Area of contact between smooth surface, Asm = 2.55x106 - 420x103 - 38465 = 2091
x103 mm2. Area of effective section is used for calculation of Asm.
Shear capacity of dry (unreinforced) joint for half box section
φVuj = 0.7x{1.875x420x103x2.83x[1 + 0.205x8.17x(1430/3.16x106)] + 0.45x2091
x103x8.17}x10-3 = 6940 kN > V* OK
Page 5-33
350
30
100
300 50
50 100 50
Figure 5.33 Shear Key Details
K. Stress due to temperature variation
Check stress of girder due to temperature drop (cold top).

Refer section 3.12.1.2, T = 13°C
300 0.4T = -5.2°C

300 mm
0
Figure 5.34 Girder Section and Temperature Drop Variation
Average top flange thickness = 350 mm

Compressive force in top flange, F = 0.5∆TαEcAf
F = 0.5x5.2x11x10-6x35750x12360x300x10-3 = 3690 kN
Eccentricity of the force, e = 839 - 300/3 = 739 mm
Bending moment, M = 3690x0.739 = 2727 kNm
This bending moment is uniform throughout the girder length, however, the moment
shall be redistributed in the indeterminate system.
11 m
430
2000
2727
Figure 5.35 Bending Moment Diagram for Full Section
Because contraction of top flange is resisted by girder webs, tensile stress occurs in
top flange.
At top fibre, tensile stress σt = ∆TαEc = 5.2x11x10-6x34800 = 2.0 MPa
At 300 mm below top fibre, σ = 0 MPa
At pier location
Stresses due to compressive force F and bending moment M
Page 5-34
At top fibre, σt = (-0.5F/A) + (0.5M/Zt) = (-0.5x3690x103/2.55x106) +

(0.5x430x106/2.31x109) = -0.63 MPa
Total stress at top fibre, σt = 2.0 - 0.63 = 1.37 MPa (tension)
In combination with stress due to dead and live load, the total stress at top fibre would
be σt = -3.24 + 1.41x0.7 = -2.25 MPa (Compression) < 0 MPa OK.
At 11.0 m from Abut. A (span 1)
At bottom fibre, σb = (-0.5F/A) + (0.5M/Zb) = (-0.5x3690x103/2.55x106) +
(0.5x2000x106/1.29x109) = 0.06 MPa Very low stress and it can be neglected.
Important notes:
The calculations in this example are simplified. In a real design, the designer shall:
1. Calculate loss of prestress for each segmental box at each stage of
construction. Loss of prestress may vary along girder length.
2. Consider all construction loads including weight of equipment and crane used
during installation of segments
3. Check stresses at service at all unreinforced joints
4. Check ultimate bending capacity of the girder
5. Check girder stress due to hot top (temperature rise variation)
6. Build a 3D grillage model including webs and flanges to obtain bending
moment in webs and flanges
7. Design the box girder for ULS (Bending, shear and torsion). Refer Chapter 3
for more details.
5.4 Integral Bridges

The term “Integral” means superstructure is rigidly connected with substructure with
a full moment connection, i.e. girders and deck slab are rigidly connected with
abutment and/or pier headstock. If superstructure is partially connected with
substructure, it is called “Semi-integral”. In integral bridges, superstructure and
substructure form a portal frame. Integral bridges have the following benefits:
• Bearings are not required, therefore, no bearing replacement is needed and
cost of bridge maintenance is reduced significantly.
• Expansion joint is not required over abutment or pier and cost of bridge
maintenance is reduced. Moreover, aesthetic view of the bridge is also
improved as there are no ugly stains from water leakage through expansion
joints.
• Girders can be built with longer span and weight of superstructure is reduced
significantly comparing to conventional girders (simply supported girders)
with the same span.
• The portal frame in an integral bridge improves structural reliability and
redundancy.
However, there are some limitations and requirements to design integral bridges. The
limitations are as follows (Source: VicRoads):
• Overall bridge length shall not exceed 70 m.
• Maximum thermal movement at abutments shall not exceed ±20 mm for 120
year return period.
• Skew of bridge deck shall not exceed 30°.
Page 5-35
5.4.1 Earth Pressure for Abutment Design
Strain ratcheting of backfill material occurs due to the following activities:
• Contraction of the bridge deck causes a gap developed between abutment back
wall and backfill material
• Vibration on relieving slab due to traffic loads may cause backfill material to
fall into and close the gap
• Expansion of the bridge deck pushes the abutment back wall to compact
backfill material
• This process repeats over years and thermal cyclic movements (contraction
and expansion) of the bridge causes an increase in density of backfill material
and earth pressure
With this reason, coefficient of earth pressure K*d that develops behind the abutment
back wall due to thermal cyclic movements, is estimated based on the approach
adopted in PD 6694-1.
K*d = Ko + [(C d’d/H)]0.6 Kp;t (5.10)
Where Ko – Coefficient of at-rest pressure

Kp;t – Coefficient of passive earth pressure determined using φ’triax;d
H – Height of the abutment
d’d – Wall movement at H/2 below ground level, taken as 0.5dd, where
dd is determined from equation (6.2) below
C – Coefficient dependent upon elasticity of subgrade (Es)
C = 20 for Es = 100MPa
C = 66 for Es = 1000MPa
C may be determined by linear interpolation for 100MPa ≤ Es ≤
1000MPa
dd = 0.5αLx(Te;max – Te;min)(1 + ψγQ) (5.11)
Where α - Coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete taken as 11x10-6 /°C

Lx – The expansion length measured from the end of the bridge to the
position on the deck that remains stationary when the bridge expands
Te;max and Te;min – the characteristic maximum and minimum uniform
bridge temperature components for a 50-year return period
Take 1 + ψγQ = 1.25
Page 5-36
Table 5.1 Maximum values of Kp;t (Source: PD 6694-1:2011)

φ’triax;d Values of Kp;t
Inclination of abutment face
Vertical Forwards Backwards
+10° +20° -10° -20°
30° 4.29 3.67 3.15 5.00 5.79
35° 5.88 4.86 4.02 7.09 8.49
40° 8.38 6.65 5.28 10.51 13.06
45° 12.57 9.51 7.20 16.52 21.45
50° 20.20 14.24 10.28 28.10 38.55
The pressure distribution on the retained face of an abutment can be illustrated in the
figure below.
γzK*d
H/2 z
γ(H/2)K*d
γzKo
H/2
γHKo
Figure 5.36 Earth Pressure Distribution (Source: PD 6694-1:2011)
For abutments that accommodate thermal movements by translation only without

rotation, the coefficient of earth pressure may be calculated as follows:
K*d = Ko + [(40 d’d/H)]0.4 Kp;t (5.12)
For this type of abutment, the pressure diagram is assumed to be triangular with
design pressure at depth z equal to zK*dγ.
When checking the bridge with other longitudinal loads such as traffic surcharge,
braking force and positive temperature, it is recommended to apply active earth
pressure and surcharge behind an abutment and passive pressure with K*d behind
another abutment.
Braking Temperature rise
Active earth Passive earth

pressure and pressure with
surcharge with K*d
Ka
Figure 5.37 Bridge Diagram for Longitudinal Load Design
Page 5-37
Stability of the bridge shall be also checked to ensure a minimum safety factor of 1.50
for longitudinal load design.
Active earth pressure + Surcharge + Braking

SF = ≥ 1.50
Passive earth pressure
5.4.2 Skew Effects
Due to skew effects in an integral bridge, a plan rotation will occur due to an
eccentricity of the resultant force caused by lateral earth pressure at both abutments.
When the plan rotation occurs, earth pressure on wing walls at obtuse angle also
causes an additional rotation.
Figure 5.38 Bridge Diagram and Force Components
The twisting moment in the bridge caused by eccentric resultant earth pressure (Pp)
behind abutment back wall and active earth pressure on wing wall at obtuse angle is
calculated as M = PpLsinθ + PawLaw. Movement caused by twisting may cause
significant damages on utilities and services installed on the bridge. The skewed
bridge is designed to ensure that resistance against twisting is sufficiently provided.
To ensure no twisting occurs, resisting moments shall be greater than the twisting
moments and the following requirement shall be satisfied:
0.85[PR(2B + Lcosθ) + PwLw] ≥ 1.25[PpLsinθ + PawLaw] (5.13)
Where Pp - Earth pressure on abutment back wall calculated with K*d

PR – Friction resistance of abutment back wall due to Pp, PR = Pptanφ’
Paw – Active earth pressure on wing wall calculated with Ka
Ppw – Passive resistance of wing wall calculated with Kp
If the above requirement is not satisfied, resistance of abutment piles and pier
columns/piles may include in the analysis which shall be carried out in a full 3D
model of the bridge.
Page 5-38
5.4.3 Earth Pressure for Wing Wall
Wing walls in non-skewed bridges and wing walls at obtuse angle of skewed bridges
are designed with earth pressure with the coefficient of KaK*d but shall not be less
than Ko. For skewed bridges, wing walls at acute angle will move towards backfill if
the bridge deck twisting occurs. The pressure on the wing walls is determined
considering the equilibrium of the earth pressure wedge ABC with K*d pressure
applied to line AB as shown in Figure 5.39. The coefficient of earth pressure acting on
these wing walls can be conservatively assumed as K*d.
All wing walls are designed with earth pressure, surcharge and impact on the wing
walls.
Wing wall B C
K*d
K*d
Bridge deck
KaK*
d
Wing wall A
Figure 5.39 Wing Wall Earth Pressure (Source: PD 6694-1:2011)
5.4.4 Design of Continuous Girder
PSC girders in integral bridges are designed in accordance with the design
requirements for simply supported girders as mentioned in Chapter 3. Moreover, for
the effects of girder continuity the girders are designed for differential shrinkage,
residual creep, temperature gradient through girder depth and differential settlement
between two adjacent supports. The differential settlement may be taken as 25 mm.
Bending moments due to permanent effects shall be reduced with the factor (1 - e-φcc).
5.4.5 Design of Integral Abutment
The piles usually built for integral abutments shall be flexible so that hogging moment
in the girders at abutments is minimised. Precast PSC piles are suitable for the
construction of integral abutments. To reduce stiffness of soil-structure interaction,
the piles are isolated from the surrounding soils by using HDPE tubes. The tube is
installed from soffit of the abutment headstock and extended down approximately 3.5
m. The gap between the tube and the pile is filled with compressible material.
Bending moment in the piles due to shrinkage and creep effects in PSC girders shall
be relaxed by applying (1 - e-φcc). Because the piles are slender they shall be checked
for buckling.
Page 5-39
The design of integral connection at the abutment shall be considered with the
following construction sequence:
1. Construct abutment and pier piles

2. Install HDPE tubes and fill compressible filler for abutment piles
3. Construct abutment and pier headstock
4. Install PSC girders on high strength non-shrink grout
5. Cast deck slabs, fender wall at abutments and diaphragm at piers
6. Install precast parapets and cast in-situ parapets
7. Backfill behind abutment headstock
8. Construct relieving slabs on both sides
9. Apply deck wearing surface (DWS)
10. Open bridge for traffic
Approach slab
PSC girder
Figure 5.40 Typical Details of Integral Abutment
Reinforcement in deck slab over the abutment is designed for negative moments
caused by weight of deck wearing surface, parapet and traffic loading. Differential
shrinkage between deck slab and girder and temperature gradient (cold top) cause an
additional negative moment. A positive moment in the girders at abutments is induced
by residual creep and temperature gradient (hot top). For this reason, prestressing
strands and steel bars in girder web shall be extended into the fender wall to develop
adequate positive moment capacity. Vertical bars in fender wall near girder faces may
be placed between the girders only to avoid clashing with projecting strands from the
girders. The vertical reinforcement shall be designed with the positive moment as
Page 5-40
well. In addition, shear capacity at the interface between girder end and fender wall
shall be checked to ensure integral connection between the girder and the fender wall
is sufficiently developed.
5.4.6 Design of Integral Pier
Similarly, deck reinforcement over pier shall be designed for all negative moments
occurring due to girder continuity. Some deck steel bars are required to anchor into
diaphragm and they shall be designed for unbalanced moment (Munb) caused by
unbalanced loads in two adjacent spans. For the unbalanced moment, reinforcement in
diaphragm shall be designed for tension force (T) as outlined in the figure below. Pier
headstock shall be designed for torsion induced by the unbalanced moment. Bottom
strands shall be projected into diaphragm to enhance shear friction capacity along
girder-diaphragm interface. The projected bottom strands can also provide positive
moment capacity to the girder.
Figure 5.41 Typical Details of Integral Pier
Example 5.3: Residual Creep and Temperature Gradient Analysis

for Integral Girder
Refer to PSC girder and deck slab as shown in Example 3.9. Girder span length, L =
17 m and the girder is integral with abutment at both ends. It is assumed that the
girder is fully restrained against rotation at each end. Calculations of temperature
gradient of the girder are detailed in Example 3.9 for simply supported case and
calculations of residual creep are presented in Example 3.16 for continuous case.
From previous calculations, (1 - e-φcc) = 0.683 and dead load = 14.45 kN/m.
Page 5-41
Prestress for Simply Supported Case
Prestress for Integral Case
Dead Load for Integral Case
Restraint Moment MR
Figure 5.42 Bending Moment Diagrams for Residual Creep Calculation
Restraint moment (caused by residual creep), MR = (Mint - Mss - MDL)x(1 - e-φcc)

Where Mint - Moment due to prestress for integral case
Mss - Moment due to prestress for simply supported case
MDL - Moment due to dead load for integral case
MDL includes in the calculation because dead load restrains hogging (upward
deflection).
MR = (122 - (-441) - 348)x0.683 = 147 kNm. This positive moment applies to the
whole span of girder.
Residual creep is a long-term phenomenon and it does take place for several years.
Therefore, stress in reinforcement (prestressing strands) at connection with abutment
(fender wall and girder) shall be checked and satisfied with the stress limit.
For temperature gradient, T = +13°C (hot top), the girder hogs upward and produces
negative moment at top of girder. However, full moment connection at abutment
restrains hogging due to temperature gradient and as a result a positive moment is
induced by the restraint. From Example 3.9, bending moment calculation due to
temperature gradient MT = 281 kNm. This positive moment applies to the whole span
of girder. The bending moment shall be included in calculation for positive moment
reinforcement at the integral connection (fender wall and girder).
Moreover, sagging (positive) moment generated by residual creep and temperature

gradient shall be also included in calculation with permanent load and live load at
midspan. In contrast, differential shrinkage occurring between deck slab and PSC
girder and drop temperature gradient (cold top) produce negative moments in the
Page 5-42
girder. The bending moments shall be included in calculation for negative moment
reinforcement in fender wall and deck slab.
In addition, elastic shortening/elongation in girder due to creep, shrinkage and

temperature variation (drop or rise) shall be included in the model for analysis to
obtain positive and negative moments accordingly. Braking force on the bridge shall
not be overlooked.
5.5 Footbridges
Footbridge superstructures shall be designed to satisfy Ultimate Limit State (ULS)
and Serviceability Limit State (SLS). The minimum live load for footbridges shall be
5.0 kPa, however, this load shall be increased where possible overcrowding is
considered in the design. At ULS, live load factor is 1.8, but dynamic effect is not
required to be considered. At SLS, footbridge superstructures shall be designed to
satisfy the requirements of static deflection and vibration (For human comfort). For
vibration requirements, where the fundamental frequency of vibration (f) of foot
bridge superstructures is less than 5.0 Hz, the maximum vertical acceleration shall not
exceed 0.25f0.78. The vertical acceleration can be estimated with the following
equation.
a = 2π2f2yKψ (5.14)
Where a – Vertical acceleration in m/s2

f – Fundamental frequency of foot bridge superstructure in Hz
y – Maximum vertical displacement due to 0.7 kN vertical load
(design pedestrian load)
K – Factor depending on span configuration, refer Table 5.2
ψ – Dynamic response factor, refer Figure 5.43
Table 5.2 K factor (Source: BS5400-2)

Span configuration Span ratio (L1/L) K
- 1.0
L
- 0.7
L L
1.0 0.6
L1 L L1 0.8 0.8
0.6 or less 0.9
Table 5.3 Logarithmic decrement of decay of vibration δ (Source: AS5100.2)

Bridge superstructure δ
Steel with asphalt or epoxy surface 0.03
Composite steel/concrete 0.04
Prestressed and reinforced concrete 0.05
Page 5-43
16.0
δ = 0.03
14.0
δ = 0.04
12.0
δ = 0.05
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Span, m
Figure 5.43 Dynamic Response Factor (Source: AS5100.2)
When the fundamental frequency of horizontal vibration is less than 1.5 Hz, special
cares shall be made to control possibility of excitation by pedestrians of lateral
movements of unacceptable magnitude.
Example 5.4: Vibration Analysis of a Footbridge

Let’s have a footbridge as shown in Figure 5.44. The footbridge consists of two steel
trusses spaning 20.0 m. The bridge height is 3.5 m and the width is 5.0 m. The bridge
deck will be constructed from a 150 mm thick continuous RC slab spaning across the
transverse beams. The top (roof) and bottom transverse beams are rigidly connected to
the vertical members to provide lateral stability of the trusses.
• Steel: 450 grade for SHS, Ancon 500 tension rod (Stainless steel)
• Concrete: f’c = 32 MPa
Page 5-44
200x10 SHS
200x10 SHS top and bottom chord (SHS – Square Hollow Section)
150x10 SHS top and bottom

transverse beam
150 mm thick RC slab
150x10 SHS vertical member
42 dia. ROD top and side cross bracing

(Tension-only)
200x10 SHS
Figure 5.44 Steel Truss Footbridge
Page 5-45
Total weight of the bridge, W = 488 kN

Vertical stiffness of the bridge, Kv = V/∆v
Apply V = 100 kN at midspan of the bridge, ∆v = 0.0139 m
Kv = 100/0.0139 = 7194 say 7200 kN/m
Vertical fundamental frequency of the bridge, fv = (1/2π) (gKv) / W
fv = (1/2π) (9.81x 7200) / 488 = 1.91 Hz < 5.0 Hz, Vertical acceleration shall be
checked
For simply supported trusses, K = 1.0
For steel composite structure, δ = 0.04 and for 20.0 m span, ψ = 7.3
From the analysis with 0.7 kN applied at midspan of the bridge, the corresponding
vertical deflection, y = 0.0001 m.
Vertical acceleration, a = 2π2f2yKψ = 2π2x1.912x0.0001x1.0x7.3 = 0.053 m/s2 <
0.25f0.78 = 0.25x1.910.78 = 0.414 m/s2 OK
Apply H = 100 kN at midspan of the bridge, ∆h = 0.0023 m

Kh = 100/0.0023 = 43478 say 43500 kN/m
Horizontal fundamental frequency of the bridge, fh = (1/2π) (gKh ) / W
fh = (1/2π) (9.81x 43500) / 488 = 4.71 Hz > 1.50 Hz, Lateral excitation of the bridge
will not occur.
Page 5-46
References
AASHTO, Guide Specifications for Design and Construction of Segmental Concrete Bridges,
Second Edition, 1999
AASHTO, LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, SI Unit, Third Edition, 2005 and 2007
Arthur H. Nilson, Design of Concrete Structures, published by McGRAW-HILL
INTERNATIONAL EDITIONS, 1997
AustRoads’92, Bridge Design Code, Section 5, Foundations
Australian Standard, Bridge Design, AS5100 new draft (2016)
Australian Standard, Concrete Structures, AS3600 – 2009
Australian Standard, Piling – Design and installation, AS2159-2009
Australian Standard, Road Barrier Safety Design, AS3845 – 1999
Braja M. Das, Principles of Foundation Engineering, Thomson publishing, Sixth Edition,
2007
BSI Standard Publication, Recommendations for the design of structures subject to traffic
loading to BS EN 1997-1:2004, PD 6694-1:2011
Cambodian Bridge Design Standard, CAM PW 04.102.99
Cambodian Bridge Design Standard, CAM PW 04.102.99 Commentary
Cambodian Road Design Standard, CAM PW 03.103.99, Part 3 – Drainage
CIRIA C660, Early-age thermal crack control, London 2007
Hambly E. C., Bridge Deck Behaviour, published by E & FN Span, 1990
Ken Faulkes and Paul Uno, Prestressed Concrete Design Seminar & Workshop, PTIA 2008
Les Hamill, Bridge Hydraulics, published by E & FN Span, 1999
Nigel R. Hewson, Prestressed Concrete Bridges: Design and Construction, Thomas Telford
publishing, 2006
Overseas Road Note No.9, A Design Manual for Small Bridges, by TRL, DFID, 2nd Edition,
2000
Piya R. Piyasena, 7023ENG: Bridge Engineering, School of Engineering and Information
Technology, Griffith University, 2005
RailCorp, Engineering Manual Structures, Structures Assessment TMC 305, Version 1.0,
December 2009
Technical Note BD03.3, Elastic Deformations of Prestressed Girders, Worked Example,
2004Wai-Fah Chen, Lian Duan, Bridge Engineering, Substructure Design, published by
CRC PRESS, 2003
Warner R. F., Concrete Structures, Addison Wesley Longman Australia, First Edition, 1999

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Practical Design Examples

eróberógeday Rtåg sunßar:a

Chapter 2: Hydraulic Design

Chapter 3: Bridge Superstructure

Chapter 4: Bridge Substructure

Chapter 5: Special Bridges

5.1 Abutments 5-1

The following standards are applicable for structural design of bridges:

1.2 Design Philosophy

1.2.2 Limit states

Bridge design shall be carried out in two limit states:

• Ultimate limit state (ULS) includes:

• Serviceability limit state (SLS):

1.3 Load Factors and Combinations

1.3.1 Load factors

Table 1.1 (Source: AS5100.2)

1.3.2 Permanent effects

Permanent effects (PE) can be weight of structure/element, normal water flow,

1.3.3 Transient effects

1.3.4 Load combinations

Restraint device and block PE + Traffic load + Shear, -

Table 1.2 (Cont.)

1.4 Design for Durability

1.4.1 Concrete exposure classification

Table 1.3 (Source: AS5100.5)

Table 1.3 (Cont.)

Table 1.4 (Source: AS5100.5)

Soil conditions A – high permeability soils

Concrete cover to reinforcing steel bars or prestressing tendons shall be adopted in

Table 1.5 (Source: AS5100.5)

Concrete members subject to exposure classification U shall be specifically

1.4.2 Design crack widths

Alternatively, cracking in reinforced concrete structures is limited to prevent

Table 1.6 – Design crack widths

Moderate = Class A and B1

1.5 Structural Analysis

1.6 Factors Affecting Selection of Bridge Structural System

Table 1.7 – Advantages and disadvantages of bridge structural systems

Table 1.7 (Cont.)

1.7 Safety-in-Design of Bridges

Table 1.8 – Examples of safety-in-design

Erection/installation • Construction sequence shall be stated in design

Substructure • Be beware of scour effects due to contraction of waterways

Barriers • Determine appropriate level of barrier performance

Table 1.8 (Cont.)

Materials • Use non-toxic materials

Fire • Avoid welding on site

Lighting and anti- • Provide adequate lighting for bridges

Confined space • Provide ventilation in confined space

Working on height • Reduce the work on height by optimizing design to

Chapter 2: Hydraulic Design

Bridges are designed not to be overtopped by flood in design recurrence intervals as

Hydraulic design shall be performed by hydraulic engineers. Nonetheless, in the absence of a

2.1 Flow Discharge

Table 2.1 (Source: CAM PW 03.101.99)

Where: Q – Flow discharge in m3/s

Table 2.2 (Source: CAM PW 03.101.99)

And flow velocity, V = Q/A (2.3)

Where: Q – Flow discharge in m3/s

0.6 – 1.0 m DFL

Table 2.3 (Source: CAM PW 03.101.99)

2.2 Bridge Length

Using Lacey’s equations: