Working Paper Mehari Taddele Maru

Division Global Issues

Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik
Causes, Dynamics, and
German Institute for International
and Security Affairs
Consequences of Internal
Displacement in Ethiopia

SWP Working Papers are online publications within the purview

of the respective Research Division. Unlike SWP Research Papers
and SWP Comments they are not reviewed by the Institute.

Ludwigkirchplatz 3−4
D-10719 Berlin
Telefon +49 30 880 07-0
Fax +49 30 880 07-100
www.swp-berlin.org
swp@swp-berlin.org

Working Paper FG 8
May 2017
SWP Berlin
 Inhalt

Working Paper ............................................................................. 1

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms ................................. 3

Executive Summary .................................................................... 6

Background: Setting the Scene ............................................. 9

Introduction to Ethiopia ........................................................ 9
Concepts ................................................................................... 10
Data on Internal Displacement .................................................... 10
Brief History of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia .................. 13

Current State of Internal Displacement: Causes,

Triggers, and Accelerations of Internal Displacement
........................................................................................................... 16
Determinants of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia . 17
Five Causes of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia ...... 18
Natural Disaster-induced Displacement (NDID) ........................ 18
Conflict-induced Displacement (CID) ........................................... 18
Pastoralism and Internal Displacement ..................................... 19
Development-induced Displacement (DID) .................................. 20
Man-made Disaster-induced Displacement (DID) ...................... 24

Socio-Economic Characteristics and Core Needs of

IDPs and Host Communities............................................... 25
Durable Solutions: return, local integration, and
relocation ................................................................................. 27

Governance of Internal Displacement ........................... 28

The Federal Constitution of the FDRE ............................ 28

Conclusion ................................................................................... 29
Key Findings ............................................................................ 29
Recommendations ................................................................ 30
Recommendations for the Government of Ethiopia .................. 31
Recommendations for development partners, including
Germany and the EU ...................................................................... 35

Annex – Stakeholders in internal displacement

governance in Ethiopia ......................................................... 37

Bibliography ............................................................................... 41

SWP-Berlin
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
February 2017

2
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

AABOLSA Addis Ababa Bureau of Labour Social Affairs

ACHPR African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights

ACPMD African Common Position on Migration and Development

AU Africa Union
AIR African Institute for Remittances

APRM African Peer Review Mechanism

AUC African Union Commission

CEWARN Conflict Early Warning and Response Mechanism

CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against

Women

CIDO Citizens and Diaspora Organisations

COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa

CETU Confederation of Ethiopian Trade Unions

CSOs Civil Society Organisations

DAC Development Assistance Committee

DM&N Design, Monitoring, and Evaluation

E.C Ethiopian Calendar

EAC East African Community

ECA Economic Commission for Africa

ECOSOC UN Economic and Social Council

ECOSOCC AU Economic, Social, and Cultural Council

ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States

EDF European Development Fund

EEF Ethiopian Employers Federation

EOEAA Ethiopian Overseas Employment Agencies Association

ESA Eastern and Southern Africa

ESA-IO Eastern and Southern Africa-and Indian Ocean

EYF Ethiopian Youth Federation

EU European Union

EWF Ethiopian Women’s Federation

FeMSEDA Federal Micro and Small Enterprises Development Agency

FDRE Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

G.C Gorgonian Calendar

SWP-Berlin
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
February 2017

3
GoE Government of Ethiopia

ICBT Informal Cross-Border Trade

ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross/Red Crescent

IDPs Internally Displaced Persons

IGAD Intergovernmental Authority for Development

IGAD-ISSP IGAD Security Sector Programme

IGAD-RCP IGAD-Regional Consultative Process

IGAD-RMPF IGAD-Regional Migration Policy Framework

ILO International Labour Organization

I-MAP IGAD-Migration Action Plan

IOM International Organization for Migration

IPF IGAD Partners’ Forum

ISC Inter-Ministerial Steering Committee

MDGs Millennium Development Goals

MF Migration Fund

MIP Minimum Integration Plan

M&N Monitoring and Evaluation

MoFA Ministry of Foreign Affairs

MoJ Ministry of Justice

MoLSA Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs

MPFA Migration Policy Framework for Africa

MSs Member States of IGAD

NCM National Coordination Mechanism

NGOs Non-Governmental Organisations

NMP National Migration Policy

NHRIs National Human Rights Institutions

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

OAU Organisation of African Unity

RMCC Regional Migration Coordination Committee

SADC Southern Africa Development Community
SNNPR Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State

STIs Sexually Transmitted Infections

ToR Terms of Reference
UN United Nations

UNDP United Nations Development Fund

SWP-Berlin
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
February 2017

4
UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

USD United States Dollar

Map 1: Ethiopian – Regional States and Humanitarian Emergency Needs

Source: WFP, November 2016

SWP-Berlin
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
February 2017

5
Executive Summary1
With more than 700,000 Internally Displaced
Persons (IDPs), Ethiopia produces 10.4 percent of
the total IDP population in the IGAD region.
More than 17 percent of the global number and
half of Africa’s IDPs are in the Horn of Africa.
Excluding pastoralist mobility and those
migrants displaced due to man-made disasters
and development projects, the IGAD region
currently produces 6.5 million IDPs, of which 88
percent of this population is in Sudan, South
Sudan, and Somalia.2 The IDP population in
Ethiopia is three times greater than the number
of Ethiopian refugees in many other countries,
and close to the total number of refugees hosted
by Ethiopia.
As of April 2016, there were 777,147 IDPs in
Ethiopia due to a variety of causes. Conflict-
induced Displacement (CID) constituted only 26
percent, whereas the remaining IDPs are due to
flooding, drought, and wildfires. Between August
2015 and April 2016, there were 454,457 IDPs
caused by drought, flooding, local conflicts, and
wild fires. Somali (64.5 percent due to flooding),
Gambella (14 percent due to conflicts), SNNP
(10.6 percent due to flooding), Afar (6 percent
due to flooding), Oromia (2 percent due to
flooding), Amhara (1.5 percent due to flooding),
as well as Harari, (1 percent) were the sources
and hosts of these IDPs. Forty-eight percent of the
IDPs were females. More than 30 percent of the
total IDPs have already returned to their homes.
In April 2016, there were 637,901 IDPs from
protracted displacement, while 139,246 IDPs
were newly displaced in April 2016.
This number does not include Development-
induced Displacement (DID) and Man-made
Disaster–induced Displacement (MDID). In the
past 10 years, Ethiopia is estimated to have had
1
This Working Paper was written within the frame-
work of the project entitled “Forced displacement and
development cooperation – Challenges and opportuni-
ties for German and European politics”, funded by the
German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation
and Development.
2
IDMC, Latest Update of IDPs (by May 2015), available
from http://www.internal-displacement.org/global-
figures (accessed 22 August 2015).
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
close to 220,000 IDPs due to DID, emanating
from infrastructure projects, including dams,
industries and industrial parks, railways, roads,
and urban renewal programmes. Most of these
IDPs were resettled in other locations by the GoE,
particularly by regional states and Woreda
(district) authorities. Thus, if we include IDPs due
to DID in the figure, the number of IDPs in
Ethiopia has been close to a million.
In addition to the staggering number of IDPs,
inevitably internal displacement negates the
most fundamental of human rights. The extreme
circumstances under which IDPs struggle to
survive, only compounds the problem. This is
particularly true with regard to freedom of
movement and residence as well as rights to life,
livelihood, health, education, property and so on.
Seen through the prism of human rights, not
only freedom of movement and residence are of
concern, but also the freedom to remain in a
place of one’s choosing. Internal displacement
causes people to be uprooted against their will.
Ensuring freedom of movement and residence
thus provides protection against forced dis-
placement and unlawful eviction.3
Internal displacement and freedom of movement
exhibit special causes, dynamics, and conse-
quences in the Ethiopian federal system. Ethiopia
has been governed, since 1991, under an ethnic
federal constitution, which also addressed the
main causes of long-standing unrest and civil
war in Ethiopia. However, the federal arrange-
ment also spawned new localized conflicts.
Moreover, in Ethiopia, the recurrence of famine
is still the main source of food insecurity. Three
important factors contribute to the causes and
consequences of internal displacement: the
ethnic federal structure, the persistent threat of
famine, and ethnic conflicts. Both famine and
ethnic federalism (as the outcome and aggravat-
ing factors of ethnic conflicts) often result in
population displacement.4 Large-scale migration
3 UN Human Rights Committee(UNHRC) “General
Comments” available from
http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/(Symbol)/6c76e1b8ee
1710e380256824005a10a9?Opendocument (accessed 09
November 2016).
4
For detailed discussion on this, read Maru, Mehari
Taddele (2004), Migration, Ethnic Diversity and Federal-
ism in Ethiopia, Unpublished Dissertation, University
SWP-Berlin
February 2017
6
has been shown to undermine, considerably, the
rights of regional states to semi-autonomous self-
government and other constitutional rights
(such as preservation of culture and customary
land rights) of Ethiopia’s ethno-cultural
communities. In ethnic federalism, power is
shared in direct proportion to the populations of
ethno-cultural communities. The relative sizes of
ethno-cultural populations would determine the
proportional devolution of power, accorded to
each individual regional state. Therefore, in
ethnic federalism, migration (forced or sponta-
neous) could easily affect the demographic
balance and thereof the power relationships
between ethnic communities. Substantial
changes in population ratios could result in
reversals of power in ethnic state-state and state-
federal relationships. Thus, migration and
mobility encounter more restrictions in an
ethnically-based federal system than in a unitary
system. Ethiopian ethnic federalism (for that
matter, most ethnic federalism) is “holding-
together federalism” that differs from “coming-
together federalism”. While the former is mostly
imposed, the latter is voluntary federalism.
“Holding-together federalism” has different
implications for internal migration, compared to
“coming-together federalism”. In particular,
“holding-together federalism” is much more
restrictive of migration rights.
Protracted refugee complications and tensions
with host communities could cause internal
displacement. For example, Gambella is an
Ethiopian regional state that shares a porous
international border with South Sudan, where
the national identity of the inhabitants (as in all
border areas) is very fluid and where both
internal and international displacement may
trigger and accelerate conflict by upsetting the
demographic balance. At the end of 2003, the
Gambella regional state of Ethiopia experienced
violent inter-ethnic conflict. More than 20,000
people were internally displaced within Ethiopia
or fled to Sudan.5 These IDPs and refugees were
mainly from the Anywaa ethnic community. The
violence was sparked by an attack on a United
Nations (UN) vehicle in early December 2003.
of Oxford, Refugee Studies Centre, Queen Elizabeth
House.
5
Ibid.
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
Eight people in the vehicle were killed, including
three UN refugee workers who were trying to
construct a new refugee camp in the region to
serve the Nuer community as well as other South
Sudanese refugees. Migration created arguments
and disagreements about the outcome of the
1994 population census, because of its implica-
tions for power sharing between ethnic commu-
nities. An Anywaa radical group was blamed for
the attack on the UN vehicle. In the resultant
conflict, emanating from the census findings,
more than one hundred and ninety people were
killed and hundreds of homes were destroyed.
Despite lower levels of violence, refugee-host
community tensions resulted in rioting and
revenge attacks in and around the Jewi refugee
camp in Gambella, following a traffic accident on
21 April 2016 that killed two refugee children.
Another cause of internal displacement in
Ethiopia has been attributed to planned
resettlement programmes and relocations due to
development projects by the GoE and regional
states. The GoE has been conducting a new
resettlement programme as a part of its Food
Security Programme. The previous Ethiopian
regimes encouraged migration and implemented
massive forced resettlement programs that
uprooted more than 600,000 people to relocate
them to areas traditionally inhabited by ethno-
cultural indigenous and minority groups. As a
matter of official policy, resettlement programs
are intended to address economic development
concerns. Nonetheless, this was not always the
case. In the 1980s, the Derg (previous military
regime of Ethiopia) forcibly resettled more than
600,000 people.6 People from the northern
highland region of Ethiopia (for example, Tigray)
were compelled to resettle in the South and
South Western parts of Ethiopia (for example,
Oromia and Gambella). Unlike the Derg
relocations, recent resettlements have been
voluntary. There was no physical coercion.
However, during the early stages of the resettle-
ment process, inadequate preparations and a
lack of prior consultation between the host
communities and the intended settlers affected
long-term settlement very negatively. Albeit
difficult to quantify, the resettlement pro-
6Based on the Ethiopian experience of resettlement as
“relocating people in areas other than their own”.
SWP-Berlin
February 2017
7
grammes have produced significant numbers of produce locally-informed ideas, leading to
IDPs. suitable and sustainable interventions.
With the aim of investigating the scope for
suitable policy interventions on internal
displacement by German and European Devel-
opment actors, this study presents an informed
perspective on the governance of internal
displacement in Ethiopia. The Study elaborates
on the situation and governance of internal
displacement in Ethiopia. In particular, it
provides current data on internally displaced
persons in Ethiopia, maps the landscape of actors
engaged in assisting them, and proposes possible
policy interventions.

The study examines the situation through the

following four critical prisms: situations and
drivers of internal displacement in Ethiopia, the
profile of IDPs, the governance capability related
to internal displacement, the nexus between
internal displacement and international
migration, and the kind of partnership required
between the Government of Ethiopia and its
partners.
In assessing the situation and providing data, the
study employs an approach based on five causes:
Natural disaster-induced displacement (NDID);
Man-made-disaster-induced displacement (MDID);
Conflict-induced displacement (CID); Pastoralism
and Displacement; and Development-induced
displacement (DID). In Ethiopia, the most
consequential and recurrent natural disasters
that have had significant impacts on people's
lives and livelihoods are droughts, earthquakes,
floods, human and livestock diseases, pestilence,
wildfires, and landslides.

The research also identifies some key governance

challenges related to internal displacement,
including violations of fundamental human
rights concerning physical security, livelihood,
access to land, health, education, freedom of
mobility, labour market access, and civic
registration, which are all explained in detail.
Essentially, the study also examines the existing
normative, institutional, collaborative, and
financial frameworks aimed at the effective
governance of internal displacement. By way of
conclusion, the study lists key findings and
advances specific recommendations that may

SWP-Berlin
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
February 2017

8
Background: Setting the Scene
The increase of instances of displacement is a
global trend. A research project based at SWP
investigates both the challenges and the
opportunities that countries of origin, transit,
and destination face in the context of displace-
ment, and develops policy recommendations for
an effective and sustainable linkage between
humanitarian aid and longer-term technical and
financial development cooperation. While
German and European policy interventions are
focused on cross-border displacement, internally
displaced persons (IDPs) constitute the largest
number of those displaced worldwide. Internal
displacement (whether due to conflict, natural,
and man-made disasters, or large-scale develop-
ment projects) is often linked to governance
deficits, yet little research focuses on the
question of what contribution development
cooperation can make, to address these govern-
ance deficits. In the context of the overarching
research project, SWP plans to address this
question through commissioning a number of
country case studies that will serve both as stand-
alone reports and feed into an empirically
informed overview of the governance challenges
and possible policy interventions related to
internal displacement (SWP-Studies 2017).
One of the country case studies is Ethiopia. The
Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC)
estimates that as of July 2015, there were over
413,400 IDPs in Ethiopia due to inter-communal
and cross-border violence, most of them living in
protracted displacement situations, with the
Somali region being the most displacement-
affected region. At least 631,163 people were
displaced within the period of August 2015 to
May 2016 due to El Nino. Flooding displaced
173,695 people, while drought directly displaced
188,243. In July 2012 to May 2016, fires forced
535 people to flee. Although rare, a volcanic
eruption displaced 5,700 people. In the past eight
years, conflict has displaced more than 459,733
people. At the same time, Ethiopia is host to a
large number of refugees from neighboring
countries. Currently, close to 800,000 refugees
reside in Ethiopia, with the majority of them
originating from South Sudan, Somalia, Eritrea,
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
and Sudan. This makes Ethiopia the largest
refugee-hosting country in Africa. The current
tensions and increases in inter-communal
violence threaten further displacement and may
negatively affect already vulnerable IDPs.
The study portrays a comprehensive and detailed
overview of the situation of internal displace-
ment and its governance in Ethiopia. In Part I,
the study offers a conceptualization of migration
and internal displacement, and the current
numbers of IDPs in Ethiopia. More specifically,
Part I also identifies ten primary displacement
hotspots. The driving forces, causes, triggers, and
accelerators of internal displacement are also
identified. Part II of the study lists the direct and
indirect impact of internal displacement on IDPs
and the political, social, economic, and environ-
mental spaces affecting the host communities. In
Part III, the main challenges, namely, prediction,
prevention, responses, and adaption to internal
displacement, are addressed. Part IV describes the
existing governance framework with particular
focus on the normative, institutional, and
collaborative frameworks. It lists key relevant
policies, proclamations, and regulations. It also
offers an overview of actors involved in the
governance of internal displacement, including
data collection. The study provides examples of
capability limitations and political positions as
well as policy impediments to data governance
(availability, quality, comprehensiveness,
accessibility, and dissemination). It identifies key
inadequacies, major shortcomings, and areas
requiring reforms towards effective governance
of internal displacement. Part V presents key
findings and advances specific recommenda-
tions. It recommends an evidence-based strategic
and policy development process, different from
the current ideologically-driven political position
of the denial of internal displacement in
Ethiopia. The study proposes tailor-made
recommendations for consideration by the
German Government and other development
partners, as well as the Government of Ethiopia.
Introduction to Ethiopia
Ethiopia is the second most populous African
country, with a population of 92 million. It is
constitutionally a federation of nine regional
SWP-Berlin
February 2017
9
member-states and two special city administra-
tions, which are mainly based on ethno-linguistic
boundaries. Accordingly, there are nine regional
states. Tigray, Afar, Amhara, Oromia, Somali
regional states (taking the name of their
dominant native inhabitants) are more or less
ethnically homogeneous with a dominant ethnic
community majority at the regional level. The
remaining regional states [the South Nations
Nationalities and Peoples (SNNP), Gambella,
Benshangul/Gumuz and Harari] are multi-ethnic
without a dominant ethnic community. There
are two federally administered cities, Addis
Ababa and Dire Dawa. The country’s regions are
further divided into Zones, with 529 Woredas
(districts) and Kebeles (municipalities). The
Ethiopian Federal Constitution provides for a
parliamentary and federal system of government
that allows the people of Ethiopia to administer
their respective regions semi-autonomously as
per the local context. It shares an international
border with Sudan, Eritrea, Somalia, Djibouti,
and Kenya (see Map 1).
Concepts
Causes and trends of forced migrations are best
understood in terms of the Push-Pull Framework.7
While pull-factors refer to drivers of mobility,
such as better opportunities, better income, and
an increasing demand for labour in globalized
economic competition, push-factors, by contrast,
include threats to life, conflicts, persecution,
famine and drought, and man-made and natural
disasters.8 As a consequence of push-factors, IDPs
and refugees fall under the category of forced
migration. As a result, migration exhibits two
broad forms: displacement or mobility. Dis-
placement occurs when migrants are forced to
move due to factors beyond their control.
Displacement could be external, such as refugees
crossing international borders, or internal, as in
the case of Internally Displaced Persons (com-
7 AU “Decision on the Draft Migration Policy Frame-
work for Africa”, (AU Banjul Summit, 2006), Doc.
EX.CL/276 (IX).
8 See also Everett Lee, A Theory of Migration, (University of
Pennsylvania, 1996), available
http://www.jstor.org/pss/2060063 (accessed 18 July
2009).
monly called IDPs). There are four categories of
causes of internal displacement: natural disaster-
induced displacement (NDID); Man-made-
disaster-induced displacement (MDID); Conflict-
induced displacement (CID); and Development-
induced displacement (DID). Internal displace-
ment in Ethiopia has been predominantly
characterized by spontaneous, short-term
displacement. Spontaneous movements of
pastoral communities have been the traditional
form of internal and cross-border displacement.
In some instances, spontaneous pastoralist
movement could take a form of displacement as
consequence of drought, famine, conflict,
flooding etc. In other instances, pastoralist
movement could cause to conflicts over land
incursions, competition on access to water and
other resources.
Nevertheless, there were and are also planned,
massive movements of people within the country
as part of development resettlement programmes
run nationally and regionally. Given the artificial
nature and inapplicability of colonial borders
that divide kin communities into several
jurisdictions, displacement is most often of the
cross-border type. Pastoralists and other
inhabitants of the border areas tend to disregard
the current borders, and thus do not consider
themselves to be refugees. Therefore, they rarely
seek asylum. Pastoral movements that morph
into displacement are cyclical in nature and are
repeated during specific seasons. Similarly, NDID
are more cyclical, following climatic changes
that cause drought, famine, and even wild fires.
CID occurs during times of political crisis and
MDID, due to extensive farming that involves the
burning of forests to expand land for agriculture.
Data on Internal Displacement
Before discussing the current situations of
displacement and associated data, it is important
to consider the problems related to data on IDPs.
This section presents problems related to data on
IDPs in Ethiopia.
Despite the fact that Ethiopians have been
from displaced by many drivers of displacement,
particularly CID and NDID, it would be an
SWP-Berlin
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
February 2017
10
arduous task to obtain a comprehensive mainly to a lack of skilled data experts or
historical background of, or data on, internal infrastructure, but mainly a general lack of
displacement and IDPs in Ethiopia. There are willingness to collect data on IDPs.
several institutions that collect data on IDPs.
The GoE and its various tiers of administration
These include NDRMA (on NDID), ARRA (return-
adhere to Proclamation No.455/2005 on
ees and refugees that may be displaced within
Expropriation of Landholdings for Public
the country of asylum), Federal and Regional
Purposes and Payment of Compensation. Article
Police Commissions, and in the case of CID,
8 explicitly stipulates and elaborates on the
MoLSA and BoLSAs for returnees who need
displacement compensation scheme. Article 12
reintegration. The IOM, UNHCR, UNOCHA, ICRC,
mandates the Ministry of Federal and Pastoralist
the Danish Refugee Council, and other key
Affairs to ensure the implementation of the
agencies also have important roles to play in data
Proclamation. The main difficulty resides in the
collection.
determination of the amount of compensation to
The National Disaster Risk Management be paid to the IDPs. Most often the gap between
Commission (NDRMC) is the leading body for the market value of the land and the compensa-
hazards, related disasters, and for reducing the tion paid by the GoE are very wide. Other reasons
impact on victims of damage caused by a for the low amount of compensation are that the
disaster. Among other duties, the mandate of the relevant administrative entities only consider the
NDRMC is to save lives, protect livelihoods, and property value and disregard the social and
ensure all disaster-affected people are provided livelihood incomes of IDPs before their reloca-
with recovery and rehabilitation assistance. tion. Due to various protests and grievances by
Often, the Commission provides assistance for IDPs, the GoE is now considering revisiting its
people affected by disasters, including IDPs. This compensation scheme for possible revision.
makes NDRMC a leading internal displacement
Another state institution potentially involved in
agency for NDID and MDID. Some of the staff
internal displacement is the Ethiopian Invest-
members of NDRMC have been training in data
ment Commission, which is mandated to
collection, particularly on IDPs. However, they do
promote and facilitate investment, especially in
not collect specific data on IDPs and are not
the manufacturing sector. The enabling act of
making use of the skill set they acquired.
the Ethiopian Investment Commission, Procla-
Arguing that its main job is to support and
mation No.769/2012, requires that the Commis-
effectively respond to demands coming from the
sion has necessary data on inhabitants in places
regional states after being confronted by natural
where the land is designated to be expropriated
disasters, the NDRMC asserts that regional states
for investment purposes. However, the Commis-
are collecting data. The NDRMC contends that
sion does not collect data on potential or actual
data collection on IDPs is not its function. In
IDPs. Despite a clear legal mandate to collect
addition, it is the opinion of some staff members
data, the Commission is of the opinion that data
that a government agency or ministry should be
collection on IDPs is beyond its mandate. The
designated to regularly collect data on IDPs and
Commission lacks trained officers on data
migration. Such a designated body needs to
collection.
periodically disseminate the data to other
stakeholders and the public. Addis Ababa City Land Development and City
Renewal Agency is mandated to prepare land to
This is not unique to the NDRMC. Despite having
be used for different development projects
an appropriate mandate, the Ministry of Federal
within the city. It conducts studies on develop-
and Pastoralist Development Affairs does not
ment and city renewal projects based on the City
collect data on IDPs. Similarly, the Addis Ababa
Master as well as specific local development
City Administration Road Authority, which is in
plans. As a result, the Agency is tasked with
charge of road construction and possible eviction
implementing inner city renewal projects for two
and relocation of people affected by related
major reasons: renewal related to ensuring the
construction, does not have any data on IDPs. In
habitability of the city, and ensuring the
all these institutions, the challenge is not due
SWP-Berlin
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
February 2017

11
judicious and economic use of land resources.
The Agency is guided by Directive No.19/2006.
Land or house owners or dwellers with legal
documents of ownership and contractual
agreements with public authorities are entitled
to either compensation and relocation to other
areas, or access to housing. Even if the Agency
does not specifically collect data about IDPs, it
nevertheless lists the legal owner and tenure of
his or her house, based on the relevant provision
of a testimonial or legal document. Conducted at
the lower administrative level of the neighbour-
hood ward (Kebele), the registration process is
strict about fulfilling the testimonial documents.
It is not unusual to find two or more families,
relatives, or friends, living in a house or
occupying a plot of land registered to only one of
the occupants. The relocation process recognises
only one landholder or property owner as
legitimate. Therefore, based on legitimate
registration of property ownership, reparations
are made to the owner, and not the adult
occupants of expropriated fixed property.
Registration does not provide detailed infor-
mation about the number of people dwelling on
the land or in the house, or their age, sex, family
situation, or educational qualifications. Those
without such legal documents of ownership do
not receive reparations (restitution, compensa-
tion, rehabilitation, or satisfaction). Hence, these
people fall through the cracks of the system and
become IDPs without any kind of protection or
reparation. Households are also required to
evacuate the expropriated property within three
months, a very short deadline for many families,
considering health and education needs as well
as employment and livelihood difficulties. The
Agency, unlike federal institutions such as the
NDRMC, has no trained personnel for data
collection, but instead relies on the existing ICT
infrastructure.
The International Organization for Migration
(IOM) prepares regular data reports on the state
of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia. Interna-
tionally, all IOM offices use Displacement
Tracking Matrices (DTM) as a tool, and this
procedure has become operational in Ethiopia
since 2012. In collecting data related to IDPs, IOM
works in collaboration with the National Disaster
Risk Management Commission (NDRMC) and its
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
regional, Zonal, and Woreda offices. The primary
purpose of having organised data on IDPs is to
develop an effective procedure for curbing
displacement. In doing so, it will also be useful to
identify the protection gap and people at high
risk. All the data should be gathered at three
levels, starting with site visits by the IOM
personnel, Woreda, and Zonal levels. IOM also
presents segregated data in an organised report.
However, throughout the process, IOM works in
close collaboration with the Government of
Ethiopia and other partners, like the Interna-
tional Red Cross and Danish Refugee Council.
Finally, upon the endorsement of the National
Disaster Risk Management Agency, the IOM
makes the number official.
In summary, the main challenge for the data
collection process on IDPs is the high probability
of inconsistent data. That is the reason IOM
collects data at all administrative levels, from
Woreda to federal levels. In addition, data are
rarely comprehensive and sufficiently detailed,
and in most cases, it is very difficult to verify.9
For example, the data on DID is almost impossi-
ble to assess. As the author argues elsewhere, the
challenges of availability or access to data on
IDPs, for various reasons, could be attributed to
the following five reasons: 1) political sensitivity
and political ramifications; 2) fragmented
mandates on data collection; 3) pastoralist IDPs;
4) lack of resources for data collection; and 5) low
priority given to data collection on IDPs.
Figures often deflate when provided by the
central government and inflate when provided
by local authorities, or vice versa, depending on
the motives involved. The government attempts
to present internal displacement as either non-
existent or temporary, for the sake of image.
Similarly, deliberate underestimation of IDP
figures, meant to build favourable public support
for a development project, contributes to this
problem. In effect, thousands of IDPs go
unrecognised and uncompensated. Many violent
conflicts erupt due to DID and the subsequent
lack of proper compensation. Thus, access to data
depends on the cause of displacement. If
displacement occurs due to natural factors, such
9 IDMC, Internal Displacement, Global Overview of Trends and
Developments in 2008, (n 61) Pp. 16-18.
SWP-Berlin
February 2017
12
as floods and wild fires, it will not be a problem
accessing data, but all data are treated as
confidential and sensitive if the causes of
displacement are due to ethnic or tribal conflicts.
Consequently, data about IDPs in a country could
reflect very significant differences, based on the
sources consulted.10 IDP statistics are disputed
for a number of reasons. In Ethiopia, interna-
tional organisations dispute official IDP
statistics, as do certain tiers of Ethiopia’s
government.
There are also additional reasons data on IDPs
are very difficult to verify. Unlike IDPs found in
towns or dispersed in the bush, those in camps
are more visible to governments and interna-
tional organisations. Consequently, camp-based
IDPs receive more care and attention. In areas of
protracted conflict, IDPs disperse to different
areas of the country. Not all IDPs live in camps,
as they can also be found in makeshift shelters,
shantytowns, and scattered among local
communities. IDPs in towns and cities, moreover,
rarely stand out from slum dwellers or other
populations. IDPs fleeing the 1998 Ethio-Eritrean
border war were largely invisible, as most of
them lived in nearby towns. Mixed into internal
migration, the indistinguishable nature of rural-
urban migrants and IDPs, and the difficulty of
identifying urban IDPs, have all contributed to
the problem of reliable data on IDPs.11 IDPs travel
to live with extended family members and kin
communities, who can provide them with the
necessary assistance. Hundreds of thousands of
IDPs intermingle with host communities and do
not register as IDPs.12 The desire to hide one’s
status as an IDP stands out as another culprit
11 IDMC, Internal Displacement, Global Overview of Trends
and Developments in 2008, (n 61) Pp. 25-26, available
www.internal-displacement.org (accessed November
2009); The Refugee Law Project and the Human Rights
& Peace Centre, “Why Being Able to Return Home
Should be Part of Transitional Justice: Urban IDPs in
Kampala and their quest for a Durable Solution”,
(March 2010) Building Consensus on Sustainable Peace
in Uganda, The Refugee Law Project Working Paper No.
2.
12 Laban Osoro, “Displacement outside camps: identify-
ing IDPs and responding to their Needs-Experience
from Kenya”, Protecting all IDPs, NGO Consultations, 30
June 2010, Nairobi, Kenya.
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
responsible for the low access to data.13 For
example, displaced persons in Ethiopia,
following the war between Ethiopia and Eritrea,
became “invisible” when they dispersed into the
towns14 and cities. Similarly, distinguishing IDPs
from members of pastoral communities is, in
general, very difficult, as displacement occurs as
part of seasonal or spontaneous mobility. In
addition, data on spontaneous famine-induced
IDPs and pastoralist movements have not been
collected. For example, in 2002-2003, about
40,000 famine-affected people migrated within
and out of the Oromia Regional State of
Ethiopia.15 In regional states with dominant
pastoralist communities, IDP camps serve as
temporary, makeshift shelters.16
Finally, the resources allocated to data collection
about IDPs are either non-existent or simply
inadequate. Even if national authorities
recognise data collection as being a crucial
requirement of the government in order to
provide protection and durable solutions to the
plight of IDPs, they do not appear to consider it a
priority, even in the face of complex emergency
situations that may rapidly spiral out of control
due to the lack of resources.
Brief History of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
Internal displacement has remained pervasive
throughout Ethiopian history. NDID, CID, and
DID were the main causes of internal displace-
ment in Ethiopia. Accounts from ancient
Ethiopian history reveal that “intense land
pressure and more erratic rainfall, soil destruc-
tion and ecological degradation during the
seventh and eighth centuries” caused the decline
and fall of the Axum Empire in the ninth
century.17 Deforestation and climate change
forced the elites and the population in Axum to
13 Mehari Taddele Maru, The Kampala convention and its
contributions to international law, Eleven International
Publishers , The Hague, Netherlands, 2014.
14 Ibid.
15 Mehari, “Migration, Ethnic Diversity and Federalism
in Ethiopia”, (n 45) Pp. 51-62.
16 Oxfam Out of Site, (Oxford 2008), Pp. 17-18, also
available from www.oxfam.org
17
Butzer, Rise and Fall of Axsum, Ethiopia: A Geo-
Archaeological Interpretation, American Antiquity, Society
of American Archaeology, July 1981, Vol.46, No. 3.
SWP-Berlin
February 2017
13
migrate to Ethiopia’s southern highland
regions.18 During the Middle Ages (1529 and
1531), Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi launched a
massive invasion campaign of Northern Ethiopia
by leading the ethnic Afar and Somali armies.19
According to Quirin, “the Islamic invasion
facilitated the Oromo migrations, and together
these forces redrew the ethnic-linguistic and
religious map of what is today central and
southern Ethiopia”.20 Perhaps the most im-
portant period pertaining internal displacement
was during the reign of Emperor Menilik II (1889-
1913). Menilik II ascended to power by expanding
his territory to the south. Between 1882 and 1906
he conquered Oromia, Harar, Ogaden, and
doubled the population of Ethiopia.21 He
imposed the neftegna (the Amharic term for
rifleman) system to control these regions by
granting his warlords and soldiers land. The local
people, who were forced to pay over half of their
produce to their overlords, tilled the land.22 This
system continued until the end of the Imperial
regime in 1975.
Famine and Resettlement Programmes23
After the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie,
Ethiopia underwent six famines.24 While
retaining the existing land system, Haile
Selassie’s regime also started massive commer-
cial schemes, which emerged as a new source of
displacement and destitution. Sen’s (1981)
analysis of the 1972-74 famine shows that
200,000 peasants died from starvation when the
overall agricultural output in the country as well
18 Meredith, The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000 History of Wealth,
Greed, and Endeavor, Public Affairs, New York, 2014.
19
Briggs, Ethipia, Globe Pequot Press, Guilfor,
Connecticut, 2015.
20 Quirin, J. A., The Evolution of the Ethiopia Jews: A History
of the Beta Israel (Falasha) to 1920, 1992, University of
Pennsylvania Press, Pennsylvania. Meredith, 2014, p.
74.
21 Ibid., 17.
22
de Waal, Alex, “Evil Days: 30 Years of War and
Famine in Ethiopia”, An African Watch Report, Human
Rights Watch, NY, 1991.
23
Mehari Taddele (2004), Migration, Ethnic Diversity and
Federalism in Ethiopia, Unpublished Dissertation, Univer-
sity of Oxford, Refugee Studies Centre, Queen Elizabeth
House.
24 Kaplan, RD, Surrender or Starve, 1988, Vintage Books,
New York.
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
as the price remained the same.25 The feudal land
system made farmers destitute servants of a few
landholders and commercial agriculture reduced
the grazing land of pastoralists—for instance,
“[in] 1972, 50,000 hectares of irrigated land had
displaced 20,000 Afar pastoralists”, and it
sparked the 1960s Afar rebellion.26 Drought turns
into famine and displacement only when the
state is unable and unwilling to provide the
necessary assistance. Dysfunctional market
mechanisms decreased livestock prices, and poor
infrastructure prevented grains from being
transported to drought-stricken regions.27 The
famine “issue gained political currency among
students and middle class in Addis Ababa” which
resulted in Haile Selassie’s removal from power
in 1974.28
A popular revolution, hijacked by the Military
Regime known as Derg, overthrew Haile Selassie
on December 20, 1974. The new regime imple-
mented a massive land reform in 1975, abolish-
ing expropriation, nationalizing land from
feudal lords and redistributing it to tenants. The
regime also implemented similar policy in the
urban areas, eliminating the urban-based feudal
class. These reforms significantly reduced the
flow of rural-urban migration from 6.5% in 1967
to 3% in 1980s.
Based on deep belief in image building and
legitimacy, the regimes of both Emperor Haile
Selassie and Derg considered internal displace-
ment as projecting a bad image and indictment
on their governance. Thus, they attempted to
stifle any reports regarding IDPs. To avoid a
negative image, in the early 1970s, Emperor
Haile Selassie’s regime put many IDPs (displaced
to the capital Addis Ababa due to famine) in
camps. The 1974 Ethiopian Revolution that
toppled Emperor Haile Selassie mobilized people
to the fact that the imperial regime had covered
up the plight of Ethiopians that had starved to
death by famine. Similarly, the Derg also
attempted to cover up the 1984 Great Famine in
order to celebrate its 10th year anniversary
25
Sen, Amartya, Poverty and Famine: An Essay on Entitle-
ment and Deprivation, Oxford University Press, New York,
1981.
26
Ibid., 21, pp. 59.
27 Ibid., 24.
28
Ibid., 21, pp. 61.
SWP-Berlin
February 2017
14
without a bad image. As the previous regime,
famine, and the attempt to cover it undermined
the legitimacy of the Derg Regime. In one of the
most protracted civil wars in Africa, northern
parts of Ethiopia, including today’s Eritrea, led to
death, displacement, and famine. The war
destroyed barns, bombed urban markets, killed
livestock, and barred the provision of food aid to
the north. Overall, the “massive Derg ground
offensive led to over 800,000 Tigrayans being
internally displaced and a further 200,000
crossing the border to the Sudan”.29 Repeated
military offensives in Eritrea and Tigray between
1980 and 1983 forced thousands to flee their
homes.30
Returnees, Repatriation, and Demobilized
Soldiers and Fighters
Immediately after the demise of the Derg Regime
in 1991, the new Transitional Government of
Ethiopia, led by the Ethiopian Peoples’ Revolu-
tionary Front (EPRDF), began demobilizing and
reintegrating 455,000 Derg combatants (includ-
ing 52,000 and 80,000, who repatriated from
Sudan and Kenya, respectively) and, later on,
22,200 Oromo Liberation Front’s ex-fighters.31
The Transitional Government of Ethiopia also
demobilized 30,000 of EPRDF’s own ex-fighters of
whom the majority participated in the Humera
Resettlement Scheme to grow cotton.32
The staggering number of forcible returns
inevitably produced IDPs. This high number
results in their vulnerability to many physical
and mental risks within their country if they are
not fully assisted and reintegrated. Thousands of
Ethiopian migrants also returned under the IOM
Assisted Voluntary Return and Reintegration
Programme (AVRR). In 2010-2016 (July), about
31,309 migrants returned under the Assisted
Voluntary Return, constituting a minimum of
5,000 returnees per annum.33 While 57 percent
29 Young, John, Peasant Revolution in Ethiopia: The Tigray
People's Liberation Front, 1975-1991, Cambridge University
Press, New York, 1997. pp. 131.
30 Ibid., 17.
31
Colleta, N. J., Kostner, M. & Wiederhofer, The
Demobilization and Reintegration of Ex-Combatants in
Ethiopia, Namibia, and Uganda, The World Bank,
Washington DC, 1996.
32 Ibid., 30.
33
IOM, Special Liaison Office in Addis Ababa, Assisted
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
of the returnees from Yemen are from Amhara,
25 percent are from Tigray. Only 9 percent are
from Oromia. In terms of educational back-
ground, while 65 percent have completed high
school, 20 percent are TVET graduates and 15
percent have attended secondary levels. The
largest evacuation of Ethiopians in 2016 was
from Yemen (1,659 returnees), and the second
largest, from Djibouti (364). Only 27 percent of
these assisted returnees were included in the
reintegration programme.
The Ethio-Eritrean Border War of 1998
As many as 420,000, people were displaced in
Tigray and Afar due to the Ethiopia-Eritrea war in
1998.34 On May 2000, 360,000 people were
displaced in Ethiopia (90 percent from the Tigray
region). Eritrea deported 70,000 Ethiopians
(where 62,000 remained in Tigray). After the two
countries signed the Algiers Agreement on
December 2000, most IDPs began to return to
their areas of origin, mostly in Tigray. However,
until 2004, 62,091 people from Tigray remained
as IDPs.35 Many of the IDPs did not return to their
villages because their villages were hubs for
landmines and further skirmishes.36
In 2003, the UN’s OCHA (Office for the Coordina-
tion of Humanitarian Affairs) estimated the total
IDP figure in Ethiopia to be 256, 506 (See Table
below). The majority of the IDPs were created by
the Ethio-Eritrean war. In the same year, another
significant cause of IDPs was the drought that
displaced 87,820 Ethiopian Somalis.
In 2006, the total IDP population was estimated
to be around 275,000.37 The CID in Tigray
declined to 62,000, whereas NDID in the Somali
Voluntary Return and Reintegration, July 2016.
34 Abebe, A. Mulugeta, “Displacemnet of civilians
during armed conflict in the light of the case law of the
Eritrea-Ethiopia Claims Commissin”, Law, 2009, Leiden
Journal of International, vol. 22, pp. 823-852.
35 NRC, “Profile of Internal Displacement: Ethiopia”,
Norwegian Refugee Council, Geneva, 2004.
36
de Brauw, & Mueller, V., “Do limitations in land rights
transferablity infulence mobility rates in Ethiopia?”,
2012, Journal of African Economies, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 548-
579.
37 IDMC, Ethiopia: Government Recognition of Conflict IDPs
Crucial to Addressing their Plight, 2006, available at:
http://www.internal-
displacement.org/assets/library/Africa/Ethiopia/pdf/Ethi
opia-Overview-Apr06.pdf (accessed 25 November 2016).
SWP-Berlin
February 2017
15
region skyrocketed to 75,000. Similarly, ethnic
and intra-border clashes and induced conflicts
have increased significantly. While CID Gambella
displaced 50,000 people, relatively new conflicts
in the Oromia region (Guju vs. Gabra) displaced
43,000 people.38 The following year, the estimat-
ed aggregate of IDPs in Ethiopia declined to
200,000. While the key drivers such as conflicts
and drought remained, perhaps, among the most
notable natural disasters in 2007 were the floods
that displaced 600,000 people.39
Table 1. IDP Population in Ethiopia 1, August 2003
Category Regions Families
Africa, Libya, Lebanon, United Arab Emirates,
Kuwait, Angola, Saudi Arabia, and South Sudan.
For example, in 2015/2016, two Woredas (Boloso
Sore, Damot Phulasa Damot Gale) of the Wolayta
Zone received 29 returnees from Sudan and
South Sudan. Returnees include very few
deportees from Eritrea, Norway, and the US.
Current State of Internal Displacement:
Causes, Triggers, and Accelerations of
Internal Displacement
Persons

War Induced Tigray 25, 169 125, 845

According to NDRMC, as a result of natural
disasters, at least 827,906 people have been
War Induced Afar 1,766 8,830 internally displaced in the period of July 2012 to
May 2016, of which at least 631,163 people were
Drought Induced Somali 17,564 87, 820 displaced within the period of August 2015 to
May 2016 due to El Nino. Flooding displaced
173,695 people while drought directly displaced
Conflict Induced Somali 2,800 14,200
188,243. In July 2012 to May 2016, fire forced 535
people to flee. Although rare, volcanic eruption
Conflict Induced Gambella 1,100 4,811 displaced 5,700. In the past eight years, conflict
has displaced more than 459,733. Oromia
(Adama, Awash River Basin) Dire Dawa, Amhara
Conflict Induced Addis 3,000 15,000
(Bahir Dar and the surrounding areas of Tana
Ababa
Lake, Fogera, and Kemise) and Gambella are
Grand Total 51, 299 256,000 vulnerable to hydrological hazards, mainly
flooding.

Source: UN OCHA- EUE, 1 August 2003
In 2013/2014, Ethiopia received more than
174,200 returnees: 167,000 from Saudi Arabia
and the remainder from South Sudan (3,600) and
other countries. In 2015/2016, about 1,093
returnees requested Addis Ababa City Govern-
ment to support them financially in order to get
training and establish income-generating
projects. Since 2014, Addis Ababa City Govern-
ment has supported a total of 4,493 Ethiopian
returnees. The returnees are from Yemen, South
38Ibid., 35.
39IDMC, Ethiopia: Addressing the Rights and Needs of People
Displaced by Conflict, 2007, available
http://www.internal-
displacement.org/assets/publications/2007/200710-af-
ethiopia-ethiopia-addressing-the-rights-and-needs-of-
people-displaced-by-conflict-country-en.pdf (accessed 25
November 2016).
In the month of January 2016, there were 30,183
persons internally displaced in Oromia, (19,080
IDPs), Somali (9,498 IDPs), and SNNP (1,605 IDPs)
regional states. The two regions seriously affected
by CID are Oromia (50 percent of IDPs due to
CID), and Somali (30 percent IDPs due to CID),
while IDPs in SNNP are entirely due to NDID. In
total, more than 65 percent of the 30,183 IDP
population is due to CID. Often affected areas
include Oromia, the West Harerege Zone (Miesso,
Doba), the East Wollega Zone (Dig, Jima, Arjo,
Leka Dulech, and Sasiga), the Somali Siti Zone
(Miesso, Ayisha), and the SNNP Gurage Zone
(Abeshege, Cheha, Enimoe, Aner, Endegagn,
at: Geto, Gumer, Kebena, Masken, and Sodo).
Ten primary displacement hotspot zones include
Afder, Siti (2 Zones of Somali), Nuer, Agnuak (2
zones of Gambella), Gurage (1 zones of SNPP),
Mille (1 zones of Afar), North Showa (1 zones of
SWP-Berlin
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
February 2017

16
Amhara), Arsi, Borena, West Hararege (3 zones of
Oromia).
Determinants of Internal Displacement in
Ethiopia
There are six key determinants of internal
displacement’s nature, frequency, and trends.
Socio-economic stressors that are related to
livelihood sources and the delivery of public
economic and social services. These stressors
could have multiplier effect on peace and
development depending on whether they are
delivered in an inclusive or exclusive manner.
Increases in infrastructural and other develop-
mental projects, such as dams, irrigation
projects, airports, roads, railways, and extractive
industries, may lead to increased relocation of
IDPs and, in some cases, resettlement. Increases
in internal displacement could also lead to an
increase in localized conflicts and therefore IDPs
seeking alternative internal flight areas.
Increases in local job protection and restrictive
migration policies may also give rise to increases
in xenophobic attacks. While all communities
may be prone to such xenophobic attitudes,
some are more prone than others due to a lack of
responsive governance or system failure to
protect migrants and refugees, thereby leading to
internal displacement. Ethiopia, hopefully, may
not face this kind of human disruption in the
future, but as a host country of close to 800,000
refugees, such developments should not be ruled
out in the local areas where refugees are
currently located.
Climate/Environmental stressors most often
increase the impact of the insecurity nexus
between rises in global temperature (climate
change), population growth, and shortages of
water, food, and energy that may cause people to
move. As discussed above, famine, a consequence
of climatic drought, in Ethiopia has been one of
the key drivers for internal displacement. Thus,
climate change and environmental degradation
cause displacement in the form of NDID, and the
capability of the Ethiopian agrarian economy to
adapt to climate change and transform domestic
agriculture into a climate resilient economy will
determine the IDP numbers and the gravity of
the impact of displacement.
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
Demographic stressors related to population
growth place an excessive burden on the eco-
system’s carrying capacity and increase the youth
bulge and unemployment as well as put
additional pressure on the social system. In this
context, depending on many factors, including
governance, population becomes either an asset
or a liability.
Migration flux increasingly leads to violations of
human rights, creates stress in host communi-
ties, and may trigger xenophobic attacks and
conflicts. Alternatively, such violations could
facilitate integration and regional economic
prosperity through trade and labour migration.
Depending on whether or not Ethiopia has more
mobility or displacement, the kind of migration
the government encourages will become another
determinant of displacement. The current high
number of refugees from neighboring countries
puts pressure on the host communities,
potentially leading to displacement within or
outside Ethiopia.
International interventions may also play
important roles in fostering mobility and
addressing the causes, triggers, or accelerators of
displacement. Military or other kinds of
unwarranted intervention, peace support
operations, development aid, trade, and
investments by states and organisations, such as
for example, the AU, the EU, NATO, and the UN,
need to ensure that such intervention activities
do not cause displacement. Transnational
companies, such as those in the extractive
industry, construction, and private military and
security companies, also cause and aid displace-
ment through their commercial operations.
Governance capabilities. More essentially, all the
above factors are to a large extent determined by
the governance of the country and its various
provincial regions and their abilities to predict,
prevent, respond, and adapt to the stressors
listed above. Governance capabilities determine
the pace of reforms and crises, whereby crises
may overtake reforms required to address them.
Even the roles of international actors may finally
be determined by the governance capabilities of
the state.
SWP-Berlin
February 2017
17
Five Causes of Internal Displacement in
Ethiopia
Natural Disaster-induced Displacement (NDID)
In 2015, “Ethiopia suffered one of its worst
meteorological droughts in 50 years”.40 The El
Nino weather phenomenon triggered the
displacement of 280,000 Ethiopians. Within six
months of the drought, beginning in August
2016, 146,000 citizens faced severe food
insecurity. In addition to that catastrophe,
67,800 people were displaced fleeing communal
conflict.41 Out of the $1.4 billion worth of
humanitarian pledges made to the GoE, Ethiopia
managed to secure only 37 percent.42 Compared
to the worldwide disaster-related displacement of
19.2 million people and considering the
population size of Ethiopia and the impact of the
drought on its people, Ethiopia’s 146,000 IDPs
were relatively small in number.43
However, as the IMF (2016) pointed out, “rising
temperature and rainfall volatility are expected
to increase the frequency and severity of
droughts and floods, thereby impairing agricul-
tural productivity”. Given the fact that climate
change will increasingly bring frequent and
severe insecurities in water, food, and energy
needs, Ethiopia must consider designing and
implementing a clear policy and institutional
response mechanism for internal displacement
of mainly NDID. Another driving factor for
internal displacement from rural to urban
centres in Ethiopia is environmental degradation
and climate changes in areas of origin that have
made earning a livelihood almost impossible for
IDPs.44
40 IDMC, “Off the GRID: The world's overlooked IDPs”,
Spot light, IDMC,2016. internaldisplacemnt.org.
41 Ibid.
42 Ibid.
43
Ibid
44 Morrissey, J. William, “Understanding the
relationship between environmental change and
migration: The developement of an effects framework
based on the case northen Ethiopia”, 2003, Global
Environmental Change, vol. 23, pp. 1501-1510.
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
Conflict-induced Displacement (CID)
While the political transformation brought with
the establishment of the federal system in 1991,
inter-ethnic conflicts have increased at local
level. Article 32 of the federal constitution
stipulates that freedom of movement and
residence within the federation are fundamental
human rights.
In ethnic federalism, power is shared in direct
proportion to the population of ethno-cultural
communities. The relative numerical superiority
of ethno-cultural communities would result in
more power for the largest ethnic group.
Therefore, in ethnic federalism, migration
(forced or spontaneous) could easily affect the
demographic balance and power relationships
between ethnic communities. Reversal in the
population ratio could mean reversals of political
and federal power. Thus, one of the effects of
holding-together (ethnic) federalism is its
tendency to restrict migration-induced demo-
graphic changes. The ethnic boundaries created
by the federal constitution of Ethiopia have
legitimized any resistance to spontaneous inter-
ethnic migration. Such resistance (for example
from Anywaa to the Nuer, and from Ari to the
Mursi in terms of migration) has led to confron-
tations and violent conflicts. Such projects have
limited the geographical spaces for movement of
traditional communities.
Violent conflicts in and around refugee camps in
Gambella in 2003 and in 2016 reflect this
challenge. The recent massive protests in
Ethiopia’s Oromia Regional State were triggered
by the launching of what is called the Integration
Masterplan of Addis Ababa, the capital city of
Ethiopia, which aims to link its major services to
the nearby suburban areas of Oromia Regional
State. For some of the residents of the Oromia
regional state, the Integrated Masterplan
threatened land expansion through expropria-
tion that led to displacement of famers sur-
rounding the city. Treating the objections as a
technical issue, the Federal Government of
Ethiopia, the City Government of Addis Ababa,
and the Oromia Regional State failed to consult
with city, suburban, or regional state residents
about the Integrated Masterplan. Reacting
reflexively and failing to substantively explain
SWP-Berlin
February 2017
18
the nature and implications of the plan, the
Oromia Regional State abandoned it in January
2016. However, local protests due to the fear of
displacement spread across the country and
transformed into a political crisis across the
regional states of Oromo. An important impact of
such violence was the displacement of people
belonging to a single ethnic community.
CID may also occur as a result of the following
major conflicts:
1. Ethnic identity and federalism:
a. conflicts based on administrative
boundaries between regional states;
b. conflicts based on the recognition and
status of ethnic identities as nationali-
ties;
c. conflicts based on administrative status,
as in the case of local government in
Zones, Woredas etc.;
d. referenda on identities;
e. conflicts over natural resources, includ-
ing water and land usage;
f. questions related to Addis Ababa and its
relations with the federal and regional
state of Oromia.
2. Religious conflicts:
a. religious-based tensions and conflicts;
b. inter-religion relations;
c. concerns of religious-based terrorism
and extremism.
3. Weak implementation of the constitu-
tional protection of minority rights and
ethnic security: in the current political dis-
pensation, ethnic communities face security
impasses due to mobilizations based on fear
and hate of “the other”. The anticipated
consequences are to reinforce undemocratic
political mobilization and platforms based on
ethnic or religious group protection, leading
to discrimination based on “son of the soil”
alienation and violence. The implication of
such behaviour fortifies exclusive and un-
45
democratic political practices and mob-group
dynamics that ultimately stifle voices of
reason and inhibit any possibility of reasona-
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
ble and rational deliberations. These prob-
lems have led to politics of intolerance and
zero-sum political games, politics of fear,
politics of resentment and politics of hate in
society. Protests, violence, and local and
armed conflicts may easily turn to target
ethnicities and produce CID.
Pastoralism and Internal Displacement
Some researchers estimate that 15 percent of the
total population is pastoralist.45 Article 40(5) of
the Federal Constitution stipulates the rights of
pastoralists to grazing land and freedom from
any unlawful encroachment: “Ethiopian
pastoralists have the right to free land for
grazing and cultivation as well as the right not to
be displaced from their own land (emphasis
supplied)”. In Ethiopia, at least two regional
states – Somali and Afar – are largely pastoralist.
Moreover, a significant portion of the popula-
tions of Gambella, Oromia, and SNNP regional
states are pastoralist or agro-pastoralist.
They continually face high levels of displace-
ment. The regional state boundaries with the
highest number of pastoral communities,
namely Somali, Afar, and Oromia, are designated
as regional states with the largest pastoral
communities, basically with the intention of
preventing unnecessary encroachments on their
community rights. For this reason, as with all the
other ethno-cultural communities of Ethiopia,
pastoralists have their respective “natural
homeland” within which they are fully free to
move. From time to time, pastoral communities
are in conflict over grazing land and water wells
which displace people. Pastoral communities
also face serious challenges when their geograph-
ical space is limited or reduced by large-scale
commercial farms or national parks.
Table 2: 2015 Pastoralist Regions Affected by Displace-
ment
Winsor, M., Ethiopia drought crisis: Pastoralists threatened by El Nino,
land grabbing, population growth adopte non- methods to
survivetraditional, 2016, viewed 9 November 2016,
www.ibtimes.com
SWP-Berlin
February 2017
19

Development-induced Displacement (DID)
In an agrarian society such as Ethiopia, DID is
closely intertwined with land governance, which
in turn overlaps with federalism and the identity
of inhabitants living in a specific territory. Given
the economic transformation in Ethiopia, DID
may take various forms, including resettlement
programmes, relocation, and eviction.
Infrastructural and Development Projects
Ethiopia is carrying out massive developmental
transformation in many sectors. Key among these
projects is infrastructural projects such as dams,
industries and industrial parks, railways, roads,
and widespread urban renewal programmes,
particularly in Addis Ababa. With the increased
industrialization and urbanization projects,
infrastructural and city renewal projects, such as
land and identity related national parks and
dams, DID is expected to rise. Thus, DID may
manifest itself in development projects,
displacement, and livelihoods due to the
following infrastructural development projects:
a. road and rail transportation;
b. hydroelectric and irrigation dams;
c. urbanization projects (urban renewals,
integrated urban master plans, and the relo-
cations of persons);
d. industrial parks;
e. national parks;
f. commercial agricultural farms and pro-
cessing industries;
g. state sponsored resettlement programmes.
Urban Renewal Programme
Development of the slum areas in the inner city
of Addis Ababa has resulted in massive reloca-
tions of many households. According to the
available data from the Agency, in 2015/2016, a
total of 17,127 households were relocated. Nine
thousand, one hundred and eighty households
were relocated from the inner city to a housing
project on the outskirts of Addis Ababa. The most
affected areas were Lideta (3477), Kirkos (1330),
Arada (2558), and Addis Ketema (1851). Similarly,
7,947 farmers were displaced due to the
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
Region Conflict Drought Flooding Volca-
no
Afar 61,867 3900
Amhara 7,945
Gambella 2,870
Oromia 29745
SNNP 495
Somali 3,198 72,972
expansion of the boundaries of Addis Ababa City.
These were mainly displaced residents of the
Nefassilk Sub City (568), Kolfe keranio (82), Bole
(3062), and Akaki (4235). Most of these house-
holds subsequently moved in with relatives in
the city. As a coping strategy, many opted to stay
in rented houses during the transition period.46
Some areas identified for renewal and potential
project development slipped into a repetitive
cycle of relocation and displacement. The
resultant reparations included compensatory
cash payments, land restitution, and alternative
condominium (low-cost housing developed by
the city government) accommodation.
In Bahir Dar, the construction of Bahir Dar
Hulegeb Stadium has relocated 352 households.
These households were relocated to the Kotatina
resettlement area, which is on the periphery of
Bahir Dar City.47 The Kotatina resettlement area
was initially used by farmers, but was subse-
quently made available for displaced people.
Through slum clearance operations, the
condominiums given to IDPs offer better space
and more hygienic living spaces. Nevertheless,
the locations are also far away from livelihood
and job opportunities. These limitations gravely
affect any opportunity to earn an income.
Relocated people face declines in income as they
lose most of their customers in the inner city and
there are usually not the same demands for their
services in areas of relocation. In addition, the
low-cost condominiums built on the expropriat-
46
Ambaye, G. & Abelieneh, “Developement-Induced
Displacemnt and its impacts on the livelihoods of poor
urban households in Bahir Dar, North Western
Ethiopia”, 2015, African Human Mobility Review, vol. 1, no.
3, pp. 310-331.
47
Ibid.
SWP-Berlin
February 2017
20
ed land are given to new buyers, and not to the
original inhabitants. The condominiums usually
have too few bedrooms for a typical household,
as most of the relocated people are registered as
one family unit whereas they may actually
include several adults (friends or relations).
Furthermore, the relocation sites are not suitable
for any business enterprises due to a lack of
demand and the absence of infrastructure.48
Some recent studies found that renewal and
expansion projects caused repetitive displace-
ment of people and increased their vulnerabili-
ties. Despite provisions for low cost housing and
improved shelter for urban IDPs through
relocation programmes, most people preferred
living in the same slum areas in order to
maintain their livelihood sources, which often
depended on serving customers in the central
parts of their city. Their preference for their
previous homes and places of residence was
usually due to their previous easy access to many
daily household services such as transportation,
schools, clinics, infrastructure, and traditional
support networks.49
Considering itself to be a developmental state,
the GoE emphasises the need for transformation-
al economic development of double-digit
proportions regarding annual economic growth
and pro-poor deliveries of public services. Given
that the term “transformation” refers to the pace
and depth of change in the national economy,
the nature, scale, and extent of state intervention
requires a monopoly of all economic assets of the
various states. Transformation and economic
development trumps every conceivable kind of
accountability mechanism. For example, lack of
accountability is the main reason DIDs are not
conducted in accordance with international and
constitutional standards but does not necessarily
constitute arbitrary displacement and it may also
offer opportunities to improve the lives of IDPs in
the case of condominium and infrastructural
48 Atalw, H., “Slum redevelopment in Addis Ababa: How
can it become sustainable”, 2014, International Journal of
Science and Research (IJSR), vol. 3, no. 9, pp. 2387-2393.
49 Pankhurst, A. and Tiumellssan, A., “Beyond urban
relocation: Expectations and concerns of children and
caregivers in Addeis Ababa and Hawassa”, 2014, Young
Lives.
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
development projects. If DID is avoidable, the
GoE is required to provide careful planning,
substantive consultation, and effective imple-
mentation of projects, so as to DID, as demon-
strated in the case of resettlement programmes
and relocation in inner-city renewal projects, do
not necessary end up impoverished and
vulnerable. What is largely and gravely missing
in Ethiopia is the absence of judicial or other
constitutional means to oversee and review
decisions of the executive branch to carry out
DID. While there is no arbitrary displacement of
populations as such, there is widespread
disregard to the rights of IDPs who are displaced
due to development projects with a justification
that such projects are for the greater good of the
nation. In the face of the developmental state
and its priority of the “greater good of the
nation”, redress and accountability mechanisms
for the IDPs are very narrow. Current Environ-
mental and Social Impact Assessments (ESIAs) in
Ethiopia that require project feasibility are very
limited in terms of the cultural, historical, and
religious rights, and considerations of the
human rights of inhabitants. In order to
implement this effectively, the ESIAs need to be
replaced by a more comprehensive and advanced
form of feasibility appraisal of development
projects and their impact on human rights in
general, including the socio-economic and
environmental aspects Human Right Impact
Assessment (HRIA).
Effectively removing the oversight and judicial
powers of both legislators and the judiciary,
delivery of the public good is prioritized over
democratic governance and accountability for
internal displacement due to decisions about
land issues. The executive branch, at the highest
federal level and the lowest administrative levels,
is bestowed with the power to decide on land
issues. In preparing land for industrial parks,
large commercial farms, dams, roads and
railways, natural parks, and land for commercial
developers, the executive organ has all the power
to decide on the fate of the people inhabiting the
land. In most cases, these mega-projects increase
landlessness and associated local social conflicts
when they are not properly integrated with other
key social development projects. Land problems
overlap with the identity questions of inhabit-
SWP-Berlin
February 2017
21
ants, self-rule, and federalism. Focusing on the
trickle-down effect of such projects, the limited
distributional impact and beneficiations of local
community projects often create resentment.
Heavily dependent on the accelerated pace of
transformation, the developmental state has
relocated people without any relevant agency
being able to make its own decision.
In 2009 E.C. (2016 G.C.), the Addis Ababa City
government established a project under the
Bureau of Labour and Social Affairs (BoLSA) with
the sole duty of rehabilitating IDP farmers on the
outskirts of the city. With four project offices in
Bole, Yeka, Akaki, and Kaliti cities, in the same
year, it aimed to rehabilitate 20,000 IDP farmers
that were displaced due to the development
projects surrounding the city. Several utility
bodies working on land development, road,
telecommunications, water and sewerage, and
the Sub City administrative bodies, collectively
deliberated and followed up the implementation
of the project.
Dam Construction
Ethiopia’s Gibe III dam is a 243-meter-high
hydroelectric plant located on the Omo River.
This dam started hydroelectric production in
2015. According to Rahmato, the construction of
Gibe III has displaced and affected between
200,000 and 500,000 people in the Omo Valley.50
These communities are composed of the
following eight minority ethnic communities:
Mursi, Bodi, Nygatom, Suri, Hamer, Dasanech,
Me’en, and Kara.51 The livelihood of these semi-
pastoralist communities has always depended on
flooding from the Omo River, as they made use of
flood-retreat agriculture.52
Large Commercial Farms
Massive land investment programs are also
taking place in many parts of Ethiopia, following
the attractive 2010 investment policy for foreign
companies. Although leasing land for investors is
50 Abbink, J., “Dam controversies: Contested governance
and developmental discourse on the Ethiopian Omo
River dam”, 2012, Social Anthropology, vol. 20, no. 2, pp.
125-144.
51 Ibid.
52
Fratkin, E., “Ethiopia's pastorlist policies:
Developemnet, Displacemnet and Resettlement”, 2014,
Nomadic Peoples, vol. 18, pp. 94-114.
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
taking place in Benshangul-Gumuz, SNNP,
Gambella and the Afar regions, the main targets
for large land investments are in Gambella and
Benshagul-Gumuz.53 According to the World
Bank’s 2011 report, Ethiopia has granted 1.2
million hectares (almost 3 million acres) of land
to 406 investors.54 These investment processes
have displaced many households and negatively
affected their livelihoods.
In 2010, the Ethiopian government planned to
relocate an estimated 45,000 households in the
Gambella region to provide better facilities for
those people.55 However, relocation was not
conducted with a well-thought-out plan to better
the people, but in order to facilitate the
investment of gigantic international corpora-
tions on the people’s land.56 Besides, the settled
communities in Gambella did not know why
they were being resettled or that their resettle-
ment had any connection to the extensive
foreign investment plans on their land.57 In
Benshangul-Gumuz, some 30,000 households
were resettled in 43 villages and there were plans
to resettle an additional 10,688 people following
further land investment arrangements.58 The
Kuraz Sugar Development plan incorporates the
development of three sugar factories on 240,000
hectares of land in the Omo Valley.59 Despite the
consequences of forced resettlement of the
inhabitants, the plan also aimed to make
available 111,000 hectares of land for cotton
plantation.
53
Makki, F., “Developemnet by dispossession: terra
nullius and the social ecology of New Enclosures in
Ethiopia”, 2014, Rural Sociology, vol. 79, no. 1, pp. 79-
103.
54 Rahmato, D. 2014, “The perils of development form
above: Land deals in Ethiopia”, Africa Identities , vol. 12,
no. 1, pp. 26-44.
55
Cochrane, L. & Skjerdal, T., “Reading the narratives:
Relocation, investment and developemnet in Ethiopia”,
2015, Forum for Developemnet Studies, vol. 42, no. 3, pp.
467-487.
56 Ibid.
57 Ibid., 5.
58
Ibid., 4.
59 Ethiopian Sugar Cooperation, Omo-Kuraz Sugar
Development Project, available from
http://www.ethiopiansugar.com/index.php/en/projects/
kuraz-sugar-development-project (accessed 16 February
2017).
SWP-Berlin
February 2017
22
Graph 1: Relocation due to Inner City Renewal and violently against a Pakistani investment by
Infrastructural Development setting their plantation on fire.61

3477
3500 IDPs light rail road
3000 2558
2500
1782
2000
1285
1500
1000
500 45 33
0
Lideta Kirkos Arada Addis ketema

Graph 2: Farmers Relocate to the Outskirts of Addis

Ababa

5000 4235
Akaki Kalit
4000 3062 Bole

3000 Kolfe
1578 Nefas Silk
2000
608 568 Yeka
1000

Resettlement Programmes

DID results in homelessness, inaccessibility of As discussed above, in the Ethiopian context,

basic services such as electricity, schools, waste
management, and water, limited mobility due to
transportation unavailability, an absence of an
adequate compensation package, landlessness,
and loss of pre-resettlement social networks.
Frustrations and grievances against resettlement
programmes are expressed mostly in a peaceful
manner through protests and litigation.
Nevertheless, in some instances, inhabitants have
reacted violently. In 2013, inhabitants of the
Godere Forest in Gambella reacted violently to
the leasing of their forest land to an Indian
company called Verenda Harves.60 People in the
Arjo Didessa Valley, Oromia region, also reacted
60
Ibid., 5.
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
resettlement occurs as a spontaneous movement;
for example, due to pastoralist communities or
state-planned programmes. Mostly, resettlement
is conducted as a response to natural disasters,
man-made disasters, conflicts, or development
projects. People and communities spontaneously
resettle in other areas, either as part of the
seasonal pastoral migrations or in search of
fertile land. Spontaneous moves and resettle-
ment programmes to fertile lowland destinations
and to commercial/ development projects/ plants
since the dawn of the twentieth century have
also become the new drivers of IDPs in Ethiopia.62
61
Ibid., 5.
62 Ezra, M., “Environental vulnerability, rular povery,
and migration in Ethiopia: A contextual analysis”,
SWP-Berlin
February 2017

23
Intended to address economic development
concerns, state-sponsored resettlement pro-
grammes began in the 1960s and continued
under the Derg Regime until recent years.63
For political reasons, when it took power in early
1991, the EPRDF was opposed to resettlement of
any kind. However, with the recurrence of
drought, it changed its position and began
preparing for the implementation of a massive
resettlement programme as part of its Food
Security Program. In order to avoid the grave
mistakes of the pervious resettlement pro-
grammes, the GoE issued principles for resettle-
ment programmes. These included intra-regional
state (instead of inter-regional state) resettle-
ment; developmental motivation (instead of
political reasons); well-informed consent of the
person to be resettled; consultations with the
Table 3. Number of Households Planned and Resettled
2002-2007 E.C.
regional states, such limitation does not address
the problem it was intended to solve; namely,
conflict between settlers and host communities
based on their respective ethnic identity. In the
recent intra-state resettlement programme, there
have been many violent incidents, despite
settlers sometimes being of the same ethnic
group as those whose community they have
come to inhabit. The conflicts were sparked by
scarcity of resources.65
Due to poor planning and execution, resettle-
ment in many areas has brought more vulnera-
bility to settlers, tensions, and other social
problems in host communities and degraded the
environment. Settlers face all kinds of health,
education, water, and electricity problems. Most
settlement areas are endemic to malaria. Host
communities have been forced to change their
traditional livelihood methods. Deforestation of
massive areas has contributed to an erratic and
dry climate.

Region Targets 2002/3 2003/4 2004/5 2005/6 2006/7 Total % of Target

Oromia 100,000 19432 31641 6845 3035 14931 75884 75.9

Amhara 200000 6298 5639 31918 8505 7203 59563 29.8

Tigray 40000 6058 11810 12089 0 0 29557 74.9

SNNPR 100000 971 14184 2740 3567 6660 28122 28.1

Total 140000 32759 63274 53592 15107 28794 193,526 44.0

Source: MoARD (2009); MoFED (2007)64

host community; and proper preparation in Man-made Disaster-induced Displacement (DID)

regard to basic services such as shelter, health,
Data on MDID are not available, despite several
and educational services.
reports of arson and fire accidents affecting small
Despite the excellent principles guiding the industries and markets in the country.
resettlement programme, there were several
planning and implementation challenges.
Although resettlement is limited to intra-

2003, Universita degli studi di Roma La Sapienza vol. 59,

no. 2, pp. 63-91.
63
Aptek, L., In the Lion's Mouth: Hope and Heartbreak in
Humanitarian Assistance, 2010, Xlibris Corporation, New
York. Based on the Ethiopian experience of resettle- 65Pankhurst, Alula “Revisting Resettlemnet under two
ment as “relocating people in areas other than their Regimes in Ethiopia”, in A. Pankhurst, F. Piguet (eds.),
own”. Moving People in Ethiopia, 2009, 1st edn., Boydell &
64
Ibid. Brewer Inc., Rochester, NY.
SWP-Berlin
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
February 2017

24
Socio-Economic Characteristics and Core
Needs of IDPs and Host Communities
In general, host communities and the GoE prefer
programmes to achieve the return of IDPs rather
than other available forms of durable solutions.
Thus, more than 92 percent of the IDPs in
Ethiopia return to their areas of origin in less
than a year. In rare cases, IDPs, particularly due
to CID and MDID, stay in their areas of destina-
tion and relocation. Barriers to their return are
mainly related to the causes of their displace-
ment in the first place. Most of the IDPs move to
urban places and rural areas with kin communi-
ties. The impact on local host communities is
substantial, and as IDPs tend to stay longer in
resettlement areas, the socio-economic and
environmental impacts are high. Rises in food
and housing prices and crowding of schools are
the immediate visible impacts, in addition to
environmental degradation due to clearing land
for farming. The economic activities of IDPs in
host communities are various, depending on the
host communities. In urban areas, IDPs may seek
jobs in construction, on commercial farms, in
public service, or in the informal economic
sectors. When provided with land, IDPs from the
rural areas may continue their farming activities.
Displacement is a consequence and potentially a
cause of conflict that links migration to overall
governance, peace, and security at local,
national, regional, and global levels. Spontane-
ous migration, pastoralist movements and
refugee influxes impact the peace and security of
specific regional states hosting pastoralists, IDPs,
and refugees. Thus, migration may pose grave
threats to local, national, regional, and interna-
tional peace as well as to security, health, and
the environment. Internal displacement crises
impede the capacity of states to exercise effective
control over situations within their territories,
and create tensions between IDPs and host
communities as well as neighbouring countries,
as in the case of Gambella and South Sudan.66
66Maru, Mehari Taddele (2004), Migration, Ethnic Diversity
and Federalism in Ethiopia, Unpublished Dissertation,
University of Oxford, Refugee Studies Centre, Queen
Elizabeth House.
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
Overcrowding of public services and utilities
including transportation, health, education,
water, and electricity, occur in the areas of
destination for IDPs. Inflation in some basic
service charges, such as shelter, food, and
transportation was also observed in many rural
areas due to IDPs. Slums and informal shelters
are mostly a result of rural-urban migration, but
in some cases, they are also due to internal
displacement.
Environmental degradation could be the cause or
consequence of migration. Environmental
degradation and natural disasters force pastoral-
ists and farmers to spontaneously move to or
settle in another compatible ecosystem. Recur-
rent droughts and floods, mainly due to El Nino
and La Nina, two commonly experienced weather
phenomena impacting Ethiopia, have resulted in
a devastating impact on rural household
livelihood, through situations of famine and
death, and both internal and external displace-
ment. Climate change, environmental degrada-
tion, droughts, floods, and famine forces people
to leave their homes. Both internal and interna-
tional migration are considered to be a coping
mechanism for many traditional communities,
such as pastoralists, and rural communities.
With its harsh and diverse climatic conditions
and extremely varied topography, Ethiopia
receives from 250 mm to 2000 mm of rainfall per
annum. Ethiopia is known as the water tower of
North East Africa. Running water resources in
Ethiopia flow from 12 major river basins. Despite
efforts aimed at forestation, due to the impact of
deforestation, the vegetation coverage has
declined by 12.2 percent. Land degradation,
deforestation and drought are among the most
severe agricultural challenges in Ethiopia.
Environmental degradation has aggravated rural
poverty. Environmental degradation and poverty
have caused people to consider migration as a
coping mechanism. Not only environmentally
degraded areas are inclined to poverty and
resulting migrations; most rural areas of the
country (hotspots) are generally poor, with only
some exceptions. For these reasons, international
migration, except along the Middle Eastern
route, is predominantly rural-urban to the
nearby zones. Internal migration is predomi-
nantly determined by social-economic capability
SWP-Berlin
February 2017
25
of the communities and families affected by
these external shocks. In 2015, “Ethiopia suffered
one of its worst meteorological droughts in 50
years”.67 This El Nino triggered the displacement
of 280,000 Ethiopians within six months
beginning in August 2016, whereby 146,000
citizens faced severe food insecurity. In addition
to that, 67,800 people have been displaced,
fleeing communal conflict.68 Of the $1.4 billion
humanitarian plead made by the GoE; Ethiopia
managed to secure only 37 percent.69 Compared
to the 19.2 million newly disaster-related
displacement figure worldwide, and considering
the population size and the impact of the
drought on the population, Ethiopia’s 146,000
IDP is quite small.70 However, as the IMF (2016)
has pointed out, “rising temperature and rainfall
volatility are expected to increase the frequency
and severity of droughts and floods, thereby
impairing agricultural productivity”. Given the
fact that climate change will increasingly bring
frequent and severe insecurities in water, food,
and energy, Ethiopia need to consider a clear
policy and institutional response mechanism for
internal displacement mainly from NDID.
Another driving factor for internal displacement
from rural to urban cities in Ethiopia is envi-
ronmental degradation and climatic changes
that made livelihood in origin areas almost
impossible.71
Communicable diseases such as HIV/AIDs,
cholera, malaria and respiratory problems
constitute 80 percent of all IDP health threats.
The HIV/AIDs prevalence among Ethiopian
migrants is higher by 10 percent than the
national average of 1.14 percent.72 Apart from
the devastation these diseases bring to migrant
populations, the threat they pose to host
67 IDMC, “Off the GRID: The world's overlooked IDPs”,
Spot light, IDMC,2016. internaldisplacemnt.org.
68
Ibid.
69 Ibid.
70 Ibid
71
Morrissey, J. William, “Understanding the
relationship between environmental change and
migration: The developement of an effects framework
based on the case northen Ethiopia”, 2003, Global
Environmental Change, vol. 23, pp. 1501-1510.
72 WHO, Ethiopia: HIV/AIDS, available from
http://www.afro.who.int/en/ethiopia/country-
programmes/topics/4480-hivaids.html (accessed 27 July
2015).
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
communities is also staggering. At the very least,
the threat of an epidemic illustrates the global
risks posed by ostensibly internal displacement
crises. Recent records reveal that health
problems result in more IDP deaths than violent
conflict.73 IDPs face a catastrophic degree of
health risks because of the appalling conditions
in which they travel and stay. Their restricted
access to water and poor sanitation are at crisis
levels, and thus aggravate their health circum-
stances. Compared to the World Health emer-
gency threshold, the risk of death for Ethiopian
IDPs is greater than those who are not dis-
placed.74
Indeed, IDPs are not only exposed to high health
risks, but also often expose others to pandemics,
communicable and non-communicable diseases,
and physical and mental health problems.75
Thus, ill governed migration crises pose grave
threats to national, regional, and international
peace and security, health and the environment.
Massive and protracted displacement crises may
also impede the capacity of local and national
authorities to provide services, and create
tensions between IDPs and host communities as
well as neighbouring countries.76 The absence or
limited access to health services in border areas
and on migration routes through remote deserts
or deep forests only compounds the problem.
The socio-economic characteristics and core
needs of IDPs and host communities differ,
depending on the causes of internal displace-
ment in their areas of origin and the situation in
the areas of the host communities. IDPs, due to
NDID, mostly move either to other rural areas to
seek assistance or work in wage-earning farming
activities; move to urban areas to seek govern-
ment assistance; or resort to begging. They need
long-term assistance that can reestablish their
73
Tim Allen, Trial Justice: International Criminal Court and
the Lord’s Resistance Army, International African Institute
(Zed Books, London, 2006).
74
Ibid. Pp. 53-54.
75 UNGA “Report of the Secretary-General on Climate
change and its possible security implications”, (11
September 2009) A/64/350, available at:
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4ad5e6380.html
(accessed 17 October 2010).
76
African Union (AU) “Decision on the Draft Migration
Policy Framework for Africa” (AU Banjul Summit,
2006), Doc. EX.CL/276 (IX) Pp 22-25.
SWP-Berlin
February 2017
26
livelihood sources and build their community
assets. In a nutshell, their specific needs should
focus on building their resilience to natural
disasters. This is mainly because of socio-
economic long-term development interventions.
Due to MDID, the needs of IDPs have become
more focused on preventing future failures of
disaster relief and receiving fair restitution for
their property losses. Financial assistance and
insurance systems have become critically
important, in addition to the need for political
and judicial accountability of those causing or
expected to prevent such disasters. In the case of
CID, IDPs urgent and key needs revolve around
physical security and the desire to avoid threats
to their lives and physical well-being. As targets
of violence threatening their existence, IDPs need
state protection from attacks. Peace and security
in their areas of origin are the long-term needs of
IDPs. IDPs due to DID are mostly the result of
planned infrastructure projects, but they are also
often the least visible. Depending on the losses
and vulnerabilities they face due to eviction,
evacuation, and resettlement, their needs tend to
focus on substitution or compensation of some
kind for the losses they incur. Their main sources
of concern are not legal issues about the right of
the GoE to expropriate land or other properties
for specific constitutionally permitted public
purposes. Since the state or companies are
involved in their displacement, the main source
of their concern is the agency and rights they
have to consult, negotiate, and litigate in
response to the actions of the GoE, and the
entitlements they have under the constitutional
and legal system of Ethiopia. Unfortunately, legal
and judicial mechanisms of challenge and
redress have a limited presence and availability
in Ethiopia. A common need of all IDPs due to
NDID, MDID, CID, or DID, is humanitarian and
legal assistance during their displacement.
Durable Solutions: return, local integration,
and relocation
Despite their importance, protection and
assistance are temporary interventions. As
temporary as they are, protection and provision
of aid need to be conducted with a long-term
vision and in a sustainable manner to ensure
that the phenomenon of IDPs comes to an end at
some point. Unless IDPs regain their livelihood,
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
and the causes of their internal displacement
cease, continuous protection and assistance have
to be provided for them. An end to the predica-
ment of IDPs, by contrast, can come only through
permanent solutions. The Kampala Convention
on IDPs identifies three such solutions to
internal displacement: 1) sustainable return to
areas of origin; 2) local integration in areas of
destination; and 3) relocation to another area
(resettlement). Human rights norms need to
guide the search for durable solutions. Such
solutions are best understood as part of the
freedom of movement and residence of IDPs; that
is, freedom from forcible return and discrimina-
tion. The government needs to give options to
the IDPs and not force them to return. Host
communities may want IDPs to return, but the
host government has to protect the rights of IDPs
to move freely throughout the country. Moreo-
ver, the state should focus on removing obstacles
that constrain the return, integration, or
resettlement of IDPs. The most common
constraints to achieving durable solutions in
general, and return in particular, are: 1) physical
insecurity; 2) political instability; 3) lack of
livelihood sources; 4) violations of HLP-related
rights; and 5) infrastructural problems. Unfortu-
nately, these constraints reinforce one another:
political instability increases physical insecurity;
lack of livelihood exacerbates political instabil-
ity; violations of HLP rights weaken self-
sufficiency; and so on. Similarly, disputes over
HLP may also lead to violent conflict.
For integration and relocation, the rights of host
populations—particularly their economic and
cultural life, customary land use, and owner-
ship—need to be protected. This is particularly
important in agrarian and pastoralist communi-
ties. In some settlement locations such as
Gambella, Wellega, and Benshangul Gumuz in
Ethiopia, IDP settlements have endangered the
ways of life of native inhabitants and pastoralists,
violating their customary rights to use their land
and its resources.77 For example, in Ethiopia,
some areas designated for resettlement were
wrongly assumed to be free and “virgin”, and not
77Maru, Mehari Taddele (2004), Migration, Ethnic Diversity
and Federalism in Ethiopia, Unpublished Dissertation,
University of Oxford, Refugee Studies Centre, Queen
Elizabeth House, Pp. 30-52.
SWP-Berlin
February 2017
27
in use by anybody, only because they were not the following four lenses: normative, institution-
inhabited or cultivated at the time of planning al, collaborative, and financial frameworks.
their settlement. However, this was not a correct
The normative framework refers to the instru-
assumption because some of the areas designated
ments in the form of policy, legislative, decrees,
were indeed occupied by pastoral communities
and regulations that provide policy and
and local people who use shifting cultivation as
legislative regulations and strategies as well as
one traditional way of conserving the fertility of
guidelines aiming to govern internal displace-
their soil and the ecosystem. Thus, while
ment.
searching for a lasting solution for IDPs, the
customary resource (usufruct) rights of host
communities should be respected.
The Federal Constitution of the FDRE
There are several international and national
The 1995 FDRE Constitution is the supreme law
actors that provide assistance to IDPs. Significant
of the land. Under the FDRE Constitution, free
assistance comes from the GoE, and in
mobility of Ethiopians within and outside the
2015/2016, it allocated more than USD 2.2 billion
country is guaranteed. Under Article 32, the
for those affected by the drought. The GoE works
Federal Constitution stipulates that freedom of
closely with UN agencies, IOM, ICRC, and other
movement and residence within the federation is
aid organisations. There are also national
a fundamental human right. The federal
organisations that provide assistance to IDPs.
government is responsible for the establishment
These include regional states, local authorities
of institutions such as the Ministry of Federal
and communities, faith-based organisations,
Affairs, National Disaster Risk Management
such the Ethiopian Red Cross, the Ethiopian
Agency, and so on. Ethiopia has also taken
Orthodox Church Development, Inter-Church
several measures, including legislation with
Aid Commission, the Association for Forced
regard to trafficking in human beings and
Migrants, Islamic Relief, Nolawi services, the
smuggling of persons. However, there are no
Forum for Sustainable Child Empowerment, the
useful documents except for the NDID under the
Hope for Children Organisation of Australia, the
National Disaster Risk Management policy and
Mission for Community Development Pro-
the Disaster Prevention and Preparedness
gramme, and the Organization for Prevention
Commission Establishment Proclamation No.
Rehabilitation and Integration of Female Street
10/1995. The Ministry of Federal Affairs has a
Children, among others.
mandate, but it rarely focuses on IDPs. Under the
Ethiopian federative arrangement, unlike
refugees and immigration issues, internal
Governance of Internal Displacement
displacement is not exclusively a matter to be
addressed by the federal government, but also by
The official position of the government, though the regional states. The FDRE comprises the
not presented in any policy document, is to federal government and the regional states’
discourage the recognition and institutionalisa- various institutions that form part of the
tion of the existence of internal displacement. executive, legislative, and judicial components of
Expressed in several pronouncements by high the government. There are also National
officials, the propensity of the GoE is rather to Collaboration Frameworks, which mainly focus
consider internal displacement as an indicator of on bringing national stakeholders together.
failure of the state to prevent and respond Ethiopia has several collaborative frameworks
effectively to internal displacement; and working on migration, but only two established
therefore, to deny the existence of internal under the Proclamation for Disaster Risk
displacement and IDPs in Ethiopia. Even more Management Commission (see annex 3 (no 9, and
adamantly, on DID, the government denies the 10) and annex 5).
existence of IDPs due to its record level develop-
mental delivery of mega projects. Internal
displacement governance could be seen through
SWP-Berlin
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
February 2017

28
Conclusion
This section focuses on the major findings of the
study and the measures that need to be taken
into account to establish effective internal
displacement governance as part of the compre-
hensive migration governance architecture of
Ethiopia. Finally, it advances general and specific
policy recommendations targeting the Govern-
ment of Ethiopia and the development partners,
including Germany and the EU.
Key Findings
Ethiopia is one of the largest countries of origin
and transit for displaced people, as well as the
host of displaced persons. With more than 60,000
regular and irregular migrants heading to
various destinations, it is one of the largest
sources of migration. Hosting the highest
number of refugees in Africa with close to
800,000, there is the potential to increase this
number due to conflicts in neighbouring
countries. Onward secondary movement of
refugees to third countries is expected to
increase. As a responsible member of IGAD, the
AU, and UN, Ethiopia has ratified several treaties
dealing with refugees and it continues to host
one of the largest refugee populations on the
continent, arguably more than its fair share of
the international refugee burden. In non-
financial terms, Ethiopia is practically one of the
leading in-kind donors to the protection of
refugees. Nevertheless, the link between internal
displacement and international migration is very
weak.
Internal displacement will increase due to
natural disasters such as drought and famine,
massive development projects carried out in
infrastructure, industrial parks, and large-scale
dams and industries. Internal displacement
increases vulnerability and may end in negating
IDP’s fundamental human rights.
For a long time, the position of the Ethiopian
government has been ideologically-led, focusing
on deterrence and containment of internal
displacement, and not on evidence-based policy.
As discussed in the sections on the history of
displacement in Ethiopia, along with the
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
concerns of the state for its political image and
the implications of its large numbers of IDPs,
when internal displacement is considered an
indicator of failure of the state to prevent and
respond effectively to such displacement, there is
almost invariably the tendency to deny the
existence of internal displacement and IDPs in
Ethiopia. In contrast, the federal Government of
Ethiopia denies the existence of long-term IDPs
in the country, perhaps to protect Ethiopia’s
image or to de-institutionalize the IDP situation
by immediately returning IDPs to their areas of
origin. In addition, local authorities stand
accused of falsely reporting increases in the
number of IDPs so as to justify more assistance
on behalf of IDPs.
This study explains that a protection gap exists
when it comes to IDPs in Ethiopia because 1) IDPs
have special vulnerabilities and specific needs; 2)
unlike other vulnerable groups, such as children,
women, refugees, and minority groups, IDPs are
not specifically protected by the Ethiopian legal
system; and 3) despite the existence of the AU
Kampala Convention, which offers protection
specifically tailored to the needs of IDPs, Ethiopia
is yet to ratify, domesticate, and implement that
instrument.
Ethiopia has been considering and deliberating
the ratification of the Kampala convention since
2013. With delays in the ratification of the
Kampala Convention, the protection gap with
regard to IDPs in Ethiopia will continue to exist.
With the Kampala Convention ratified, Ethiopia
could develop a detailed normative and institu-
tional framework that provides a single binding
national instrument to take into account the
specific needs of domestic IDPs, the increasing
volume of internal displacement and its adverse
impact on peace and security, human rights and
justice, development, and the environment.
Therefore, the Kampala Convention would not
only fill the existing protection gap, but would
also reinforce existing norms, laws, and practices
in regard to the protection and assistance of IDPs.
It would effectively provide the legal framework
for better governance of internal displacement
within Ethiopia.
Normative framework (e.g., policy, strategy,
legislation, regulations, and guidelines) should
SWP-Berlin
February 2017
29
determine the institutional framework. In other
words, structure should follow policy and the
strategy to be implemented, and not the other
way around. In the absence of a policy and
strategy on internal displacement governance,
the current institutions and taskforces cannot
effectively discharge their mandates.
Ethiopian NDRMC serves as the national
humanitarian authority with an Inter-Ministerial
governing body and taskforce, but it is mostly
focused on NDID and, to an extent, CID. A review
of the existing system is necessary, so as to make
it comprehensive enough to deal with all four
kinds of displacement.
Data play an important role in enhancing state
capabilities for prediction, prevention and
response. The same data system could also be
used to measure and evaluate policy effectiveness
and enhance a culture of scenario building and
evidence-based decision-making. Ethiopia has
strong national statistical capacities and
geospatial information systems under the CSA
and other cartographic institutions. However,
the same institutions also need enhancement in
terms of financial capability for the collection,
analysis, production, and dissemination of
disaggregated data that is credible and reliable
enough to facilitate the design of evidence-based
policies and to arrive at informed decisions.
The existing data are scant, scattered, and out-
dated. The accuracy of the data that has been
made available by various entities is highly
questionable and tends to lead to discrepancies
among the different mandate holders on internal
displacement. Consequently, there is a need to
enhance national capabilities for the systematic
use of existing data and the collection of new
data, as well as the collection, dissemination,
analysis, and utilization of information. Data has
to be disaggregated by the specific needs of
populations affected by internal displacement
crises, particularly in terms of gender and age.
The existing federal, regional, and local institu-
tional and financial capabilities for migration
governance, including on internal displacement,
are dismal. No institutions have been established
to deal exclusively with internal displacement
governance. The primary purpose of having
organised data on IDPs is to shape a response for
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
curbing displacement. In doing so, it will also be
useful to identify the protection gap and people
at high risk. IDP data need to be effectively
collected and analysed to offer effective govern-
ance of internal displacement. Most of the
regulatory and enforcement agencies have
limited infrastructural capabilities. Those with
the authority to manage data on internal
displacement issues face severe capacity
limitations in terms of human and physical
resources and methodology (software, templates
etc.). Such limitations are more serious at the
local level, and particularly at governmental
peripheries and border areas. Without a long-
term strategic vision, institutional responsibility,
and public accountability, sufficient financial
capabilities, and a clear methodology for data
governance, migration and, more specifically,
internal displacement, will never be governed
effectively.
The fact that no budget is specifically allocated
for migration or internal displacement issues,
the only exception being during cases of
drought, attests to the low level of importance
accorded to migration, by the Ethiopian
government at all levels.
In comparison with other neighbouring
countries, Ethiopia has built up considerable
responsive and adaptive capabilities at policy,
institutional, and collaborative levels. Nonethe-
less, it does not have the necessary predictive and
preventive capabilities.
Recommendations
Ethiopia has been pursuing a pro-poor policy of
economic growth through labour-intensive
micro-, small-, and medium-scale enterprises and
productive investments, trade, employment, and
effective social security. This policy approach has
enabled remarkable achievements, as reflected in
its humanitarian responses; for example, to the
combating of famine through successful early
warning measures in drought-prone areas and
the use of diaspora remittances to enhance the
resilience of families affected by disasters. As a
result, it has reduced the impact of humanitari-
an crises by enabling Ethiopia to allocate a
budget of more than USD 2 billion during the
SWP-Berlin
February 2017
30
2015/2016 drought. It has also played a leading violence among pastoral communities, and flood-
role in international climate change negotiations related disasters.
and the implementation of a climate change-
Prevention, Protection, and Assistance:
resilient green economic policy.

Migration is a local individual act with a serious
Notwithstanding the progress made, more needs
global impact. The solution lies in strong
to be done. Ethiopia remains highly vulnerable
collaboration among the local, the national, and
to many causes of displacement, including
global actors. For this reason, the game changers
conflicts, man-made and natural-disasters such as
in the transformation of migration governance
drought, water shortages and insecurity,
including internal displacement are states, local
flooding, wildfires and so on. Extreme poverty
authorities, and communities. Establishing
remains the principal multiplier of IDP vulnera-
effective governance of migration, including
bility, as it reduces the capabilities of communi-
internal displacement, can only be achieved with
ties and individuals to withstand adversities
the active involvement of states and local
caused by a variety of factors that contribute to
communities, which is unthinkable to achieve
forced migration. Thus, the Ethiopian govern-
without a long-term engagement. The GoE needs
ment needs to build national capabilities that
a clear policy direction on IDPs. As part of the
can transform the existing system into an
national migration policy on migration, which
effective governance programme that will
may be developed by the GoE in the coming
compensate and protect the victims of internal
years, internal displacement should be anchored
displacement.
to a human rights-based approach to addressing
forced migration at its root. The duty of the GoE
to prevent displacement takes pride of place in
Recommendations for the Government of Ethiopia
such a policy. The bedrock principles and
With regard to policy and law: priorities need to be on the prevention of
internal displacement as the best tool to address
Ethiopia needs a Comprehensive National
problems of protracted displacement. The
Migration Policy including on internal displace-
Ethiopian federal system also needs to re-ensure
ment. Moreover, these efforts need to be
the freedom of movement and residence as a
supported by specific policies and legislation
bulwark against forced displacement and
dealing with IDPs in order to protect their rights
unlawful eviction. This should include 1) the
under the rule of law. Such legal standing will
right to move; 2) the right to be free from any
reduce vulnerabilities and enhance the socio-
internal or external displacement; and 3) the
economic capabilities of communities to respond
right to select a place of residence and remain in
to adversities.
a place of choice. Hence, development partners
In order to establish the effective governance of such as the EU need to support the finalisation
internal displacement, the starting point is the and annual updating of the Migration Profile
development of a national migration policy that and the development of an Ethiopian National
will also deal with internal displacement Migration Policy.
governance, the required ratifications of
With regard to NDID:
instruments, particularly the Kampala Conven-
tion, and the necessary institutional and The GoE fully understands that it has the
collaborative framework. primary responsibility to respect, protect, and
fulfil the rights of IDPs. Ethiopia has built an
The ultimate aims of the policy should go beyond
effective preparedness and timely response to
response and recovery, to development, building
crises which are part and parcel of the duty to
capabilities, and resilience. The policy should
prevent factors that cause displacement,
take into account the peculiarities of each
particularly due to drought and flooding. NDID
regional state and locality, including emerging
and MDID can only be reduced and their adverse
issues such as outbreaks of epidemic diseases,
effects mitigated through effective preparedness
cyclical droughts, famine-like situations, local
and timely response to crises. This is attested to
SWP-Berlin
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
February 2017

31
by its appropriation of an emergency budget for migration. IDPs, when they have no alternative
the 2015/2016 drought and to prevent a resultant areas of flight, may seek asylum in another
famine, albeit slowly: it has allocated USD 2.1 country. IDPs in camps, towns, and cities may
Billion (Birr 50 Billion). also consider and saving money for secondary or
onward movements outside the country. Internal
Such response mechanisms should include
displacement is highly linked with trafficking in
monitoring displacement through disaster
human beings and smuggling of persons,
warnings as well as preparing for responses to
especially internally displaced women and
prevent displacement. This constitutes part of
children in Addis Ababa and border areas. Many
the Early Warning System that includes climate-
IDPs, particularly women and children, are
triggered NDID, particularly water related
indeed the victims of such crimes. For this
stressors and drought, which will affect millions
reason, the protection of internally displaced
of Ethiopians, most of whom will end up
women and children takes on a unique urgen-
displaced. The development partners need to
cy.78 Thus, anti-trafficking and smuggling
develop long-term support for the various
campaigns also need to target IDP populations
climate change-resilient economic efforts of
and camps.
Ethiopia. The prevention of the recurrence of
displacement, particularly due to NDID and DID, With regard to DID:
requires more sustainable and long-term
In principle, the GoE needs to attempt to avoid
financial support from the development partners
projects that are likely to produce IDPs. The GoE
including though political and judicial account-
also needs to prevent non-state actors from
ability as well as socio-economic assistance.
causing DID. Ethiopia needs to offer layers of
With regard to CID strict oversight by political bodies, review by
judicial organs, and provision of effective
Prevention of conflicts significantly contributes
remedies for those affected by DID. These
to the prevention of displacement, and vice versa.
oversights and review procedures ensure the
Support for the setting up early warning
legality of decisions related to DID. National
mechanisms for conflict allows for better
policy on migration needs to ensure ten detailed
management of internal displacement and
substantive and procedural obligations of the
ensures national and regional stability. Further-
GoE when DID is unavoidable. These are: 1) that
more, it helps not only to solve conflicts before
the distributional benefits from the project are
they turn violent, but also ensures that emergen-
also shared by the IDPs; 2) part of a development
cy and disaster preparedness and response and
scheme; 3) justified by a compelling and
management measures are in place in case a
overriding public interest; 4) considered only
response is needed. Thus, prevention systems
after all feasible alternatives are exhausted; 5)
involve not only devising early warning systems
carried out in such a manner that it does not
for potential causes of conflicts, but also timely
cause arbitrary displacement; 6) implemented in
response and intervention mechanisms and
such a way that displacement and its adverse
preparedness to respond when disaster and
impacts are reduced, including the protection of
conflict occur. Hence, development partners
heritage sites such as cultural or religious objects
need to support the current efforts of political
from destruction; 7) conducted only after the free
reform, inclusive national dialogue, and
and informed consent of the people affected by
institutional efforts to build effective national
the project is secured; 8) carried out with
early warning systems under the Ministry of
adequate provision of restitution and reparation
Federal Affairs and Pastoralist Areas Develop-
for affected communities, shelter, and other
ment and IGAD.
basic necessities; 9) an established mechanism
With regard to displacement and its linkage to for effective participation of IDPs in the planning
global migration and trafficking:

In rare cases, there is a correlation between Mehari Taddele Maru, Migration in Ethiopia, Making
78

internal displacement and international Migration Beneficial for EU and Africa, 21 October
2015.
SWP-Berlin
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
February 2017

32
and management of the relocation; and lastly,
10) ensuring the reintegration of IDPs in the new
areas.
With regard to durable solutions:
The GoE prefers return, but local integration and
resettlement should also be considered as an
option as far as there is adequate preparation
and the informed consent of the IDPs. Durable
solution principally relates to the recovery of the
capability of the IDPs to earn their livelihood and
re-establish their normal lives. Durable solutions
need to be guided by human rights norms. It is
best understood as part of freedom of movement
and residence of IDPs—freedom from forcible
return and discrimination. The GoE need to
ensure that return, local integration, or
relocation is carried out with full respect for the
human rights of IDPs. In relation to this,
development partners significantly contribute to
the success of durable solutions. While financial
aid could help establish long-term reconstruction
and recovery, humanitarian agencies offer aid for
IDPs until the time when IDPs recover their
livelihoods.
Focusing on building the four capabilities.
The end state of internal displacement govern-
ance architecture should focus on building the
following four capabilities of the state:
1. Predictive capabilities as the first line of
defence against internal displacement and
ensuing humanitarian crises. This is related
to early warning on three of the five major
causes of displacement (NDID, MDID, CID),
which is a function of scientific prediction
and communication capacity;
2. Preventive capabilities as the second line of
defence related to proactive developmental
early intervention to boost the resilience of
groups vulnerable to internal displacement
and to protect their human rights. Such early
warning and intervention would also prevent
and resolve conflicts that are due to low socio-
economic capacity or a lack of pro-poor poli-
cy. Building community assets, as well as
good governance with foresight, and the
application of the principles of subsidiarity at
national and regional levels, through decen-
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
tralization and devolution may also help in
building this capability;
3. Responsive capabilities as the third line of
defence are related to reactive intervention,
including relief and physical protection, by
maintaining law and order as well as both
judicial and political accountability, which
are functions of socio-economic capacity and
governance for effective delivery to the popu-
lation of basic, legitimately expected services,
including security; and
4. Adaptive capabilities as the fourth line of
defence that are related to the abilities and
coping mechanisms of societies, communi-
ties, and state and non-state institutions to
“bounce back” after facing adversity, shocks,
violent conflicts, and changing environments.
This capability relies on building community
socio-cultural traits, social innovative, tradi-
tional structures such as the informal econ-
omy, small-scale, cross-border trade, cross
border spontaneous mobility and migration,
and the sharing of natural resources.
Assistance in shift of focus: from intervention to
prevention
For Ethiopia, with its grave economic challenges
and meagre financial resources, prevention
should take primacy over intervention. In this
regard, its development partners should
continue to support existing institutions with a
focus on early warning and early effective
response. Social mobilization and political
parties can also contribute to promoting a
political context that is constructive and
accountable to the public. In this regard, the
development partners could play a critical role in
building national and regional capabilities for
effective prevention and timely responses to
crises that cause internal displacement.
Implementation of principles of subsidiarity
and complementarity
Ethiopia needs a comprehensive national
architecture for migration governance, within
which the governance of internal displacement
could be included. The national architecture for
migration governance needs to focus on the
effective implementation of the principles of
subsidiarity and complementarity among the
SWP-Berlin
February 2017
33
federal Government of Ethiopia and the regional
states, city governments, zonal, Woreda, and
local authorities. Thus, the role of the federal
Government of Ethiopia should remain subsidi-
ary to the intervention by regional states, local
authority governments, and local communities,
which are the first responders to internal
displacement crises and need to be supported.
Thus, there is a need for the state to build local
capacities, not only at the level of the regional
state, but also at the level of local communities.
Local populations must be seen as vital players
within the entire migration governance and
humanitarian system. This distribution of roles
requires states to build the capacities of their
local communities and to give full effect to the
roles of social and traditional structures at the
local level.
Climate change–security nexus: integrating
climate, food, water, and energy security into
early warning and response mechanisms
Early warning mechanisms are also needed to
tackle climate, weather, and environmental
change-related threats to human security within
the Ministry of Federal Affairs and the National
Disaster Risk Management Agency. While
improving the predictive capability to anticipate
the impact of climate change, it is also important
to work on identifying the most vulnerable water
basin areas to ensure adaptive responses. The
integration of early warning systems for conflict,
drought and famine, climate change and
weather, and floods and disasters may help to
bridge the gap between scientific findings and
political decisions as well as in the climate
change–security nexus.
Capacitate the state in developmental delivery
At the national level, given that extreme poverty
will remain the most formidable socio-economic,
governance, and security challenge, the
international community, including the EU
collectively and Germany individually, should
strengthen its support for the developmental
efforts of Ethiopia. Ethiopia has developed the
necessary normative, institutional, and collabo-
rative framework for poverty eradication and
development. The predictive, preventive,
responsive and adaptive capacity of Ethiopia is
certainly a function of resilience in the face of
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
vulnerabilities to internal and external factors
and shocks. Ethiopia’s fight against poverty could
also contribute to strengthening sustainable
peace and security.
Specific recommendations include the
following:
1. Adopting comprehensive national migration
and humanitarian policies based on the AU's
and IGAD’s various normative instruments,
including the African Union Common African
Position on Humanitarian Effectiveness (CAP-
WHS).79
2. Convening a national consultation confer-
ence on the Kampala Convention. Ethiopia
need to first ratify the Kampala Convention
and then issue a policy or law, and revise its
laws and policies accordingly. It needs to
prioritize the rationalization of existing
agencies in charge of coordinating the im-
plementation. The laws and policies need to
cover all phases of internal displacement.
Furthermore, in terms of durable solutions,
Ethiopia need to ensure such laws stipulate
for just restitution, compensation, and other
forms of satisfactions. In this regard, devel-
opment partners’ support and urge the Ethi-
opian Human Rights Commission to issue
special reports on IDPs in Ethiopia that en-
hance prevention, assistance, and protection
as well as durable solutions.
3. Speeding up ratification and domestication
and implementing the various African in-
struments such as the Kampala Convention
and adhering to the African Peer Review
Mechanism to improve internal displacement
governance.
4. Designating a focal point for internal
displacement within the NCM.
5. Taking measures to integrate internal
displacement issues and the rights of IDPs
generally into national development plans,
including in development projects such as
resettlement programmes, infrastructural
79 Mehari Taddele Maru, AU Common African Position
on Humanitarian Effectiveness (CAP-WHS), available
from http://aga-
platform.org/Common_African_Position.pdf (accessed
16 February 2017).
SWP-Berlin
February 2017
34
 development, extractive industries, large
scale commercial farms, industrial parks,
national parks, and urban renewal pro-
grammes.
6. Adopting additional measures to fight
corruption and ensure transparency and
accountability, especially in the delivery of
humanitarian aid.
7. Establishing clear guidelines and mechanisms
for the deployment of military assets as ena-
blers in the humanitarian system without
compromising the rights of IDPs and the
duties of the National Armed Forces of Ethio-
pia.
8. Ethiopia needs to allocate the necessary
budget and resources for internal displace-
ment crises, and for the CSA’s data collection
purposes.
9. Making use of the existing institutional
mechanisms to develop effective internal
displacement governance as part of the mi-
gration architecture. This includes the Na-
tional Committee, the taskforces at various
levels of administration, the TWG, and NCMs.
10. The CSA may serve as the centre for quality
and comprehensive collection, governance,
and dissemination of data in collaboration
with the other members of the NCMs, TWG,
and the Taskforce.
Recommendations for development partners,
including Germany and the EU
Capacitate the state in developmental delivery
At the national level, given that extreme poverty
will remain the most formidable socio-economic,
governance, and security challenge, the
international community, including the EU and
Germany, should strengthen its support for the
developmental efforts of Ethiopia. Ethiopia has
developed the necessary normative, institutional,
and collaborative framework for poverty
eradication and development. The predictive,
preventive, responsive, and adaptive capacity of
Ethiopia is certainly a function of resilience to
vulnerabilities to internal and external factors
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
and shocks. Ethiopia’s fight against poverty
would also contribute to strengthening sustaina-
ble peace and security and the reduction of
internal displacement.
Financially support the speedy ratification,
domestication and implementation of the
Kampala Convention in addressing issues of
internal displacement. Finance is key to the
effective governance of internal displacement, as
part of a humanitarian response. Germany and
the EU need to effectively implement the
commitment of Sendai that includes the
allocation of more resources to assistance in
Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR). In this regard, the
effective implementation of the Addis Ababa
Agenda for Action on FDD also takes pride of
place in building humanitarian architecture that
is fit for the purpose.
Support the Ethiopian Climate (Change)-
Resilient Green Economy initiative. There is an
urgent need to reverse the devastating impacts of
climate change on the Ethiopian agrarian
economy. Climate change funding should act as
a catalyst for adequate support, including
mobilizing predictable, appropriate, and timely
financial resources in order to enable Ethiopia to
face climate change-related humanitarian
disasters. Germany and the EU need to imple-
ment and call for the speedy implementation of
decisions on various climate change funds,
including the UN Green Climate Change Fund
and other financial support mechanisms. They
also need to support Ethiopia in implementing
its Climate Resilient Green Economy initiative.
Help bridge the policy-implementation gap
Despite the presence of fragments of policies and
laws in Ethiopia, it is regrettable that the GOE is
not able to effectively ensure implementation
and accountability in relation to displacement.
Attributed to the meagre resources allocated to
migration, governance, and institutional
inadequacies, the challenges will remain for the
foreseeable future unless partners put large
resources aside to deal with the above-mentioned
gaps and help the GoE to overhaul its migration
governance, and in particular, internal dis-
placement due to DID. Similarly, the implemen-
tation of livelihood projects for IDPs and refugees
SWP-Berlin
February 2017
35
will be vital for the overall orderly migration to equipment, and fertilizers, fishing boats, and
and from Ethiopia. training of various kinds, including formal
education, are the most common forms of long-
The EU and Germany need to continue their
term impact aid. Such in-kind aid serves to
support in putting significant investment into
improve health and welfare, build local markets,
low-hanging, multiplier, and high-impact, pro-
and otherwise enhance the dignity of IDPs. When
poor economic projects such as labour intensive
such aid targets women and girls, the effect on
small- and medium-scale enterprises for IDPs,
IDPs communities further multiplies by
refugees, and potential migrants. Such successful
benefiting entire families, as well as by protect-
projects already exist in Ethiopia and only
ing women from sexual exploitation and
require finance to scale up and expand. An
insulating children from forced labour and
example is the new industrial parks that will,
sexual abuse.
with assistance from the EU Trust Fund for
Africa, employ tens of thousands of refugees in The relationship between IDPs and host
Ethiopia. Others include on-going development communities plays an important role in the
projects, including urban renewal, road, air, and protection and assistance of IDPs. As discussed
railway infrastructure development, and dams, previously, internal displacement almost always
etc. Intervention in such areas would also help affects both IDPs and host communities. It is for
address potential violence that may spur more this reason that any assessment of an internal
displacement due to the expected growth in displacement crisis must consider the anticipat-
youth unemployment and demand for jobs. ed impact of such a crisis on the host community
and any needs created thereby. Poor IDP and
Hence, aid to IDPs needs to be linked to sustaina-
host-community relations often hamper the
ble livelihood activities in order to help them
effective response to the internal displacement
integrate with the local population. Unlike
crisis. Exclusive aid may also create differences in
emergency aid, livelihood support and assistance
the economic welfare of IDPs and local commu-
in the form of small-scale enterprises and
nities and thereby increase resentment of IDPs
training for the local labour market calculated to
and food aid agencies among the latter. Thus, aid
enhance self-sufficiency contributes greatly to
and investment packages need to consider the
the livelihood and welfare of IDPs. Livestock,
priorities and interests of host communities.
small husbandry, cloth-making, bricklaying,
bakeries, agricultural input, seeds, cultivation

SWP-Berlin
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
February 2017

36
Annex – Stakeholders in internal displacement governance in Ethiopia

Ethiopian National Migration Governance: Institutional Framework

Institutions Mandates/Laws

Government Institutions

The House of Peoples The HPR has legislative, appointment, and oversight powers entrusted by the
Representatives (HPR) FDRE Constitution. All federal laws, including those on migration, are
promulgated by the HPR. It oversees all line Ministries and government
agencies, including those working on internal displacement related issues.

Representing Nations, Nationalities, and the Peoples of Ethiopia, the HoF is

responsible for distinctive powers, albeit partially exercised. These include
decisions on policy and legislative initiatives with regard to economic
development and to restore constitutional order. In addition, the HoF
The House of Federation oversees inter-state relations and dispute resolution, as well as conflict
(HoF) prevention and resolution, and the federal budget appropriation formulae
which have relevance to migration governance, including the protection of
internal migrants from becoming IDPs.

The Judiciary The highest and final judicial power over federal and regional matters is
vested in the federal and regional courts. The judicial organs at federal and
regional levels have mandates on migration in relation to the dispensation
of justice through the adjudication of disputes and the protection of
fundamental human rights of Ethiopian citizens. This body is also responsi-
ble for the adjudication of traffickers, smugglers, and the rights of citizens
in relation to travel.

The Prime Minister This is the apex of political power in Ethiopia, the chief executive officer of
the federal government, the Prime Minister, who is also the principal
Prime Minister’s Office
diplomat and representative of the government, providing overall direction
on internal displacement. All cabinet ministers and the deputy prime
minister report to him.

Council of Ministers Chaired by the Prime Minister, the CM is primarily responsible for federal
(CMs) policy formulation and execution, including migration matters. It is also
constitutionally entrusted with the responsibility of issuing regulations
necessary to ensure human rights protection of nationals in the Ethiopia
and beyond.

Ethiopian National Chaired by the Prime Minister, the ENSC provides the overall direction in
Security Council (ENSC) respect of coordinating and supervising the “proper implementation of
domestic, foreign and defence policies relating to the national security” of
Ethiopia. The ENSC assesses national security threats and forwards recom-
mendations on measures to be taken. It also proposes implementation
guidelines, including on migration issues when they concern national
security measures.

National Human Rights The Ethiopian Institutions of the Ombudsman and Ethiopian Human Rights
Institutions Commission were established to play the role of "watch-dog” over the
executive bodies of the state with regard to violations of human rights and
grievances related to the public sector.

SWP-Berlin
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
February 2017

37
Ministry of Women and
Children
Ministry of Federal
Affairs and Pastoralist
Area Development
(MFAPAD)
Federal Police Commis-
sion (FPC)
Central Statistics Agency
National Intelligence
and Security Service
(NISS)
80 Article 33 (2) (a), Proclamation to Provide for the Definition of Powers and Duties of the Executive Organs of the Federal
Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Proclamation No. 691/2010, 27 October 2010.
The Ministry is responsible for the implementation of policies and strategies
to enhance the enjoyment of the rights of women and children, as stipulated
under the FDRE Constitution and to enable women to participate equally
with men in government and private institutions and thereby enhance their
participation in the political, economic, and social fields.
Entrusted with the powers and duties of cooperating with concerned federal
and regional state organs in maintaining public order, MFAPAD is the focal
point for Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) and Pastoralist Communities
(mostly communities residing in borderlands and dispersed among and
within several countries). It is mandated to develop sustainable political
solutions for disputes and conflicts that may arise within or between
regional states.
With predictive, preventive, investigative, and responsive mandates, the
Federal Police Commission was established by the Constitution of the FDRE
to serve and ensure the peace and security of the public and to duly respect
human and democratic rights and freedoms. Its objective is to maintain the
peaceful life and security of the people through the prevention of crime. Its
responsibilities are to safeguard the security of Ethiopia’s borders, airports,
railway lines and terminals, mining areas, and vital institutions of the
federal government, and to protect and safeguard high officials of the
Federal Government and dignitaries of foreign countries. The federal police
have preventive and investigative powers for all crimes that fall under the
jurisdiction of the federal courts, as well as for execute orders and decisions
issued by courts having judicial powers.
The Agency is responsible for statistical data generation related to the socio-
economic condition of the country. The CSA conducts, produces, dissemi-
nates, and administers data generated from surveys and from every census
conducted in Ethiopia. The major mandates and responsibilities of the CSA,
among others, are: collecting statistical data through census surveys, sample
surveys, administrative records and registration, as well as processing and
evaluating analyses, publishing and disseminating the results, and as the
country’s information centre.
With ministerial status and accountability to the Prime Minister,80 the
House of People’s Representatives (HPR) promulgated a proclamation re-
establishing the National Intelligence and Security Service (NISS). The core
functions of the NISS are the collection and analysis of intelligence and the
provision of security for the population and the state. It seeks to provide
quality intelligence and reliable security services. The NISS shoulders the
responsibility of coordinating national counter-terrorism cooperation and
collaboration. In addition to its intelligence-related mandates, it also has
security duties, including the provision and control of immigration and
nationality services for Ethiopians and foreigners, the protection of refugees,
and for aviation security services. The administration of border controls is
also conducted under the aegis of the NISS.
SWP-Berlin
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
February 2017
38
 The MDINA-Main Department of Immigration and Nationality Affairs
(MDINA) is mandated with the issuance of passports and travel documents to
Ethiopians and non-Ethiopians travelling to and from Ethiopia.

The Authority for Refugees and Returnees Affairs (ARRA) was established by
Proclamation No. 409/2004 and is mandated to administer refugee-related
issues in Ethiopia. Determination of refugee status is also conducted by the
ARRA.

Federal Disaster Risk The Deputy Prime Minister has the country's highest policy level coordina-
Management Council tion mandate. The FDRMC’s mission is to coordinate all efforts to predict,
(FDRMC) prevent, and respond to disasters. The DRMFSS aims at building early
warning and early response capabilities to alleviate the extent of damage
that could be caused by a disaster and to ensure the timely provision of
assistance to victims of such a disaster, including IDPs and citizens who
might be repatriated due to such disasters. Associated with the FDRMC is the
National Disaster Risk Management Commission (NDRMC).

Addis Ababa City Addis Ababa City Land Development and City Renewal Agency is mandated
Government to identify and prepare land to be used for different development projects
within the city. It conducts studies on development and city renewal
projects, based on the City Master Plan, as well as specific local development
plans. As a result, the Agency is tasked with implementing inner-city
renewal projects for two major reasons: renewal related to ensuring an
improved living environment for inhabitants of the city, and economic use
of land resources.

Ethiopian Investment The EIC is mandated to promote and facilitate investment, especially in the
Commission (EIC) manufacturing sector. The enabling act of the Ethiopian Investment
Commission, Proclamation No.769/2012, requires that the Commission has
all necessary data on inhabitants in places where the land is designated and
expropriated for investment purposes.

National Human Rights As a complimentary means toward solving complaints of the public, the
Institutions NHRIs are similar to the Ethiopian Human Rights Commission and the
Institution of the Ombudsman, which contribute to law and order and the
dispensation of justice, the settlement of grievances and conflicts, and
dispute resolution.

Federal Micro and Small The FMSSEDA is a government agency established to play a pivotal role as an
Scale Enterprises economic hub for medium- and large-scale industry, and to promote exports.
Development Agency Another aim in the reduction of poverty and unemployment is the creation
of jobs and business growth.

Addis Ababa City As a federally chartered capital city and seat of the federal government and
Government Oromia Regional State, Addis Ababa hosts the federal and city government
and Oromia Regional State Councils. It has BOLSA.

Regional states Similar to the federal state, the various regional states (provinces) have their
own Regional State BOLSA, Regional State BYWC, Administration and Justice
SWP-Berlin
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
February 2017

39
 Bureaux, Regional State Police Commissions, Militia Offices, Education
Bureaux, Agricultural and Natural Resources, Woreda and Kebele adminis-
trative units, and judicial bodies that ensure law and order, justice, peace,
and security.

International and Regional Organisations, Public and Civil Society Organisations and Think Tanks

International and IGAD, the AU, UN agencies (IOM, ILO, UNHCR), and development partners,
Regional Organisations such as the EU and Norway, have been working closely with the state and
non-state actors mentioned in this Table, particularly MoLSA, MoFA, PMO,
and BoLSA. The ICRC and other organisations play critical roles in the
promotion of humanitarian assistance.

Consortium of Christian The CCRDA was formerly known as the CRDA, an indigenous, non-profit
Relief and Development umbrella organisation of Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and Civil
Association (CCRDA) Society Organisations (CSOs) engaged in relief, rehabilitation, and diverse
developmental activities focusing on poverty alleviation.

Faith-based The Ethiopian Red Cross, Ethiopian Orthodox Church Development and
Inter-Church Aid Commission, Association for Forced Migrants, Islamic
Organisations
Relief, Nolawi services, Forum for Sustainable Child Empowerment, Hope for
Children Organisation (Australia), the Mission for Community Development
Programme, Organization for Prevention Rehabilitation, and Integration of
Female Street Children, etc.

Other CSOs/ Private Faith-based organisations and other charities.

Sector organisations

SWP-Berlin
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
February 2017

40
Bibliography

Abebe, A. M. 2009, “Displacement of civilians during armed conflict in the light of the case law of the
Eritrea-Ethiopia Claims Commissin”, Leiden Journal of International Law, vol. 22, pp. 823-852.

Aptek, L. 2010, In the Lion's Mouth: Hope and Heartbreak in Humanitarian Assistance, Xlibris Corporation, New
York.
Abbink, J. (2012). “Dam controversies: Contested governance and developmental discourse on the Ethiopian
Omo River dam”, Social Anthropology, 20(2), 125-144.

Abebe, A. M. (2009). “Displacement of civilians during armed conflict in the light of the case law of the
Eritrea-Ethiopia Claims Commissin”, Leiden Journal of International Law, 22, 823-852.

Ambaye, G., & Abelieneh, A. (2015). “Developement-Induced Displacement and its impacts on the liveli-
hoods of poor urban households in Bahir Dar, North Western Ethiopia”, African Human Mobility Review, 1(3),
310-331.

Atalw, H. (2014, September). “Slum redevelopment in Addis Ababa: How can it become sustainable”,
International Journal of Science and Research(IJSR), 3(9), 2387-2393

Briggs 2015, Ethiopia, Globe Pequot Press, Guilfor, Connecticut.

Butzer, KW 1981, “Rise and Fall of Axsum, Ethiopia: A Geo-Archaeological Interpretation”, American
Antiquity, pp. 471-495.

Colleta, N. J., Kostner, M. & Wiederhofer, I. 1996, The Demobilization and Reintegration of Ex-Combatants in
Ethiopia, Namibia, and Uganda, The World Bank, Washington DC.

Cochrane, L., & Skjerdal, T. (2015). “Reading the narratives: Relocation, investment and developement in
Ethiopia”, Forum for Developement Studies , 42(3), 467-487.

de Brauw, A., & Mueller, V. (2012, April). “Do limitations in land rights transferablity influence mobility
rates in Ethiopia? Journal of African Economies”, 21(4), 548-579
Ethiopian Sugar Cooperation, Omo-Kuraz Sugar Development Project, 18 January 2017.

Ezra, M. 2003, “Environmental vulnerability, rural poverty, and migration in Ethiopia: A contextual
analysis', vol. 59, no. 2, pp. 63-91.
Fratkin, E. (2014). “Ethiopia's pastoralist policies: Developement, Displacement and Resettlement”, Nomadic
Peoples, 18, 94-114

IDMC 2006, Ethiopia: Government Recognition of Conflict IDPs Crucial to Addressing their Plight, http://www.internal-
displacement.org/assets/library/Africa/Ethiopia/pdf/Ethiopia-Overview-Apr06.pdf http://www.internal-
displacement.org/assets/library/Africa/Ethiopia/pdf/Ethiopia-Overview-Apr06.pdf

IDMC 2007, Ethiopia: Addressing the Rights and Needs of People Displaced by Conflict, http://www.internal-
displacement.org/assets/publications/2007/200710-af-ethiopia-ethiopia-addressing-the-rights-and-needs-of-
people-displaced-by-conflict-country-en.pdf http://www.internal-
displacement.org/assets/publications/2007/200710-af-ethiopia-ethiopia-addressing-the-rights-and-needs-of-
people-displaced-by-conflict-country-en.pdf >.

IDMC, 2015, Latest Update of IDPs, available at: http://www.internal-displacement.org/global-figures

http://www.internal-displacement.org/global-figures (accessed 22 August 2015).
IDMC, “Off the GRID: The world's overlooked IDPs”, Spot light, IDMC,2016. Internal displacement.org.

Kaplan, R. D. 1988, Surrender or Starve, Vintage Books, New York.

SWP-Berlin
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
February 2017

41
Laban O. 2010, “Displacement outside camps: identifying IDPs and responding to their needs-Experience
from Kenya”, Protecting all IDPs, NGO Consultations, Nairobi, Kenya.

Makki, F. (2014). “Developement by dispossession: terra nullius and the social ecology of New Enclosures in
Ethiopia”, Rural Sociology, 79(1), 79-103

Mehari Taddele Maru 2014, The Kampala convention and its contributions to international law, Eleven Internation-
al Publishing , The Hague, Netherlands. Unpublished Dissertation, University of Oxford, Refugee Studies
Centre, Queen Elizabeth House,

Meredith, M. 2014, The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000 History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor, Public Affairs, New York.

Morrissey, J. W. (2013). “Understanding the relationship between environmental change and migration:
The developement of an effects framework based on the case of northern Ethiopia”, Global Environmental
Change, 23, 1501-1510.

Muggah, R. (2011). “A unified approach to conceptualizing Resettlement”. In K. Koser, & S. Martin (eds.), The
Migration-Displacement Nexus (pp. 29-60). Berghan Books .

NRC 2004, “Profile of Internal Displacement: Ethiopia”, Norwegian Refugee Council, Geneva.

Oxfam, 2008, Out of Site, Pp. 17-18, also available at: http://www.oxfam.org www.oxfam.org
Pankhurst, A. 2009, “Revisiting Resettlement under two Regimes in Ethiopia”, in A Pankhurst, F Piguet
(eds.), Moving People in Ethiopia, 1st edn, Boydell & Brewer Inc., Rochester, NY, USA.
Pankhurst, A. & Tiumellssan, A. 2014, “Beyond urban relocation: Expectations and concerns of children and
caregivers in Addis Ababa and Hawassa”, Young Lives.

Quirin, J. A. 1992, The Evolution of the Ethiopian Jews: A History of the Beta Israel (Falasha) to 1920, University of
Pennsylvania Press, Pennsylvania.

Rahmato, D. (2014). “The perils of development from above: Land deals in Ethiopia”, African Identities , 12(1),
26-44.

Sen, A. 1981, Poverty and Famine: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation, Oxford University Press, New York.

Waal, A. D. 1991, Evil Days: Thirty Years of War and Famine in Ethiopia, Human Rights Watch, New York.

Young, J. 1997, Peasant Revolution in Ethiopia: The Tigray People's Liberation Front, 1975-1991, Cambridge University
Press, New York.
Windsor, M. (2016, January). Ethiopian drought crisis: Pastoralists threatened by El Nino, land grabbing, population
growth adopted non-methods to survive traditional Mechanisms Retrieved November 9, 2016, from
www.ibtimes.com

SWP-Berlin
Causes, Dynamics, and Consequences of Internal Displacement in Ethiopia
February 2017

42