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Instructor's Course Code Course Topic Date Tutor's

Name Name in Full Name & ID
Montasir Yousof EEN338 Electromagnetic Electrostatics 29/12/2021 Mohammad
Abdallah Fields and Tahmid Hassan
Qasymeh Waves

Electric charges and forces for stationary charges

There is a force in the universe called the electric force. This force acts on structures called electric
charges. There are two kinds of charges: positive and negative. Two charges of the same kind exert
forces to push each other away. Two charges of the opposite kind exert forces to pull each other
closer.

For two charges that have shapes small enough to be considered as points, the law for determining
the force between them is called Coulomb’s law. It states the following:

The force lies along the straight line that joins the two point charges.

The force is proportional to the magnitude of the product of each point charge.

If the product of the point charges is positive, they get pushed apart, or else they will get pulled
towards each other.

The force on each charge is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the two
point charges.

The force 𝐹⃗ on each charge follows the following equation

1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑟⃗ 1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑟̂
𝐹⃗ = ∗ 3
= ∗
4𝜋𝜖0 | 𝑟⃗ | 4𝜋𝜖0 |𝑟⃗|2
Here, 𝑟⃗ is the vector that points from the charge that is taken to be the source and towards the
other charge. 𝑟̂ is the unit vector of this vector.

This force is linear; if there is a set of charges, the total force on one charge is the sum of the forces
exerted by each of the other charges on that charge.

This can be applied to find the force on a charge due to a charge distribution where charge is spread
over a line, an area or a volume.

For a charge distribution over a curve,

1 𝑞1 𝜌𝐿 𝑟⃗ 1 𝑞1 𝜌𝐿 𝑟̂
𝑑𝐹⃗ = ∗ 3
= ∗ 𝑑𝑙
4𝜋𝜖0 |𝑟⃗| 4𝜋𝜖0 |𝑟⃗|2

1 𝑞1 𝜌𝐿 𝑟⃗ 1 𝑞1 𝜌𝐿 𝑟̂
𝐹⃗ = ∫ ∗ 3
𝑑𝑙 = ∫ ∗ 𝑑𝑙
𝐶 4𝜋𝜖0 | 𝑟⃗ | 𝐶 4𝜋𝜖0 |𝑟⃗|2

Here, 𝑟⃗ is the vector that points from the differential length element that is taken to be the source
and towards the other charge. 𝑟̂ is the unit vector of this vector. 𝜌𝐿 here is the charge per unit
length.

For a charge distribution over a surface,

1 𝑞1 𝜌𝑆 𝑟⃗ 1 𝑞1 𝜌𝑆 𝑟̂
𝑑𝐹⃗ = ∗ 3
𝑑𝑠 = ∗ 𝑑𝑠
4𝜋𝜖0 | 𝑟⃗ | 4𝜋𝜖0 |𝑟⃗|2
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1 𝑞1 𝜌𝑆 𝑟⃗ 1 𝑞1 𝜌𝑆 𝑟̂
𝐹⃗ = ∫ ∗ 3
𝑑𝑠 = ∫ ∗ 𝑑𝑠
𝑆 4𝜋𝜖0 |𝑟⃗| 𝑆 4𝜋𝜖0 |𝑟⃗|2

Here, 𝑟⃗ is the vector that points from the differential surface element that is taken to be the source
and towards the other charge. 𝑟̂ is the unit vector of this vector. 𝜌𝑆 here is the charge per unit area.

For a charge distribution over a volume,

1 𝑞1 𝜌𝑉 𝑟⃗ 1 𝑞1 𝜌𝑉 𝑟̂
𝑑𝐹⃗ = ∗ 3
𝑑𝑣 = ∗ 𝑑𝑣
4𝜋𝜖0 |𝑟⃗| 4𝜋𝜖0 |𝑟⃗|2

1 𝑞1 𝜌𝑉 𝑟⃗ 1 𝑞1 𝜌𝑉 𝑟̂
𝐹⃗ = ∫ ∗ 3
𝑑𝑣 = ∫ ∗ 𝑑𝑣
𝑉 4𝜋𝜖0 | 𝑟
⃗ | 𝑆 4𝜋𝜖0 |𝑟⃗|2

Here, 𝑟⃗ is the vector that points from the differential volume element that is taken to be the source
and towards the other charge. 𝑟̂ is the unit vector of this vector. 𝜌𝑉 here is the charge per unit
volume.

In each case, 𝑟⃗ varies as the integration is done.

The force depends on the charge 𝑞1 considered. It is better to consider a standardized version of the
force called the electric field. This is the force per unit positive electric charge placed at a certain
point. The symbol of the electric field is 𝐸⃗⃗. The calculation for 𝐸⃗⃗ is the same as that for 𝐹⃗ , except
that 𝑞1 = 1.

Electric Potential and energy for stationary charges

Let there be a force field. Let there be a small movement due to the force field. The work done by
the force field is

𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗

However, the law of conservation of energy cannot be violated. Where does the energy come from?

It comes from the interaction between the force field and the charge, as well as due to the relative
position and orientation of the force field. The energy stored in this way is called the potential
energy.

A similar concept lies for an electric field; if a point charge is placed in the field, it will move due to
the interaction with the field and lose potential energy in the process.

If the movement goes against the field, energy is expended and this goes to increase the potential
energy of the charge.

If a point charge interacts with the field created by a point charge, it will happen to have potential
energy due to the electric field of that point charge.

Now, if work is done against the field

𝑑𝑊 = −𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗

The amount of energy that goes into being the potential energy of the charge 𝑞1 is 𝑑𝑊.

Therefore,
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𝑊 = ∫ −𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗
𝐶

where 𝐶 is the curve over which the line integral is taken.

𝑑𝑊 = −𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗

also means

𝐹 = −∇𝑊
Now,

1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑟⃗ 1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑟̂
𝐹⃗ = ∗ 3
= ∗
4𝜋𝜖0 |𝑟⃗| 4𝜋𝜖0 |𝑟⃗|2
is the force that is exerted on 𝑞1 due to 𝑞2 .

It can be noticed that this field is radial in nature.

Therefore, only the component of the displacement along the radial direction will affect the
potential energy, as this is the component that is parallel to the electric field of the point charge.

If the path taken by the point charge is closed, the work done is zero, as the net displacement is
zero.

Therefore, the electric potential energy depends only on the relative positions of the charge
distribution and the point charge.

The electric force is conservative; in other words, if a closed curve C is taken,

∮ −𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 0
𝐶

On applying Stokes’s theorem, we deduce

∮ −𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = ∮−∇ × 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗ = 0

𝐶 𝑆

When a unit point charge is considered, 𝐹⃗ 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝐸⃗⃗ .

For any electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ , over a closed curve 𝐶,

∮−𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 0
𝐶

On applying Stokes’s theorem, we deduce

∮−𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = ∮−∇ × 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗ = 0

𝐶 𝑆

∇ × 𝐸⃗⃗ = 0

Therefore, for a static electric field, there is zero curl.

If a point charge moves a radial distance from radius 𝑎 to radius 𝑏 in the field created by another
point charge, the resulting change in the electric potential energy is
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𝑏
−1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑟̂ ∙ 𝑑𝑟 𝑟̂ 𝑏
−1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑑𝑟 −1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑟=𝑏 −𝑞1 𝑞2 1 1
∫ ∗ 2
= ∫ ∗ 2
= [− ∗ ] = − ( − )
𝑎 4𝜋𝜖0 |𝑟⃗| 𝑎 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 𝑟=𝑎 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑏 𝑎
𝑞1 𝑞2 1 1
= ( − )
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑏 𝑎

However, to find the potential energy at a point, it is usually assumed that at an infinite distance
from the charge, the potential energy is zero.

So, at a distance 𝑟 from the charge, the integral becomes

𝑟
−1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑟̂ ∙ 𝑑𝑟 𝑟̂ 𝑟
−1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑑𝑟 −1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑟=𝑟 −𝑞1 𝑞2 1 1
∫ ∗ 2
= ∫ ∗ 2
= [− ∗ ] = − ( − )
∞ 4𝜋𝜖0 |𝑟⃗| ∞ 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 𝑟=∞ 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 ∞
𝑞1 𝑞2 1
= ( )
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟
This potential energy is linear; if there is a set of charges, the potential energy for one charge is the
sum of the potential energies from each of the other charges on that charge.

This can be applied to find the potential energy on a point charge due to a charge distribution where
charge is spread over a line, an area or a volume.

For a charge distribution over a curve,

𝑞1 𝜌𝐿 1
𝑑𝑊 = ( ) 𝑑𝑙
4𝜋𝜖0 |𝑟⃗|
1 𝑞1 𝜌𝐿 1
𝑊=∫ ∗ ( ) 𝑑𝑙
𝐶 4𝜋𝜖0 4𝜋𝜖0 |𝑟⃗|

Here, 𝑟⃗ is the vector that points from the differential length element that is taken to be the source
and towards the other charge. 𝜌𝐿 here is the charge per unit length.

For a charge distribution over a surface,

𝑞1 𝜌𝑆 1
𝑑𝑊 = ( ) 𝑑𝑠
4𝜋𝜖0 |𝑟⃗|
𝑞1 𝜌𝑆 1
𝑊=∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑠
𝑆 4𝜋𝜖0 |𝑟
⃗|

Here, 𝑟⃗ is the vector that points from the differential surface element that is taken to be the source
and towards the other charge. 𝜌𝑆 here is the charge per unit area.

For a charge distribution over a volume,

𝑞1 𝜌𝑉 1
𝑑𝑊 = ( ) 𝑑𝑣
4𝜋𝜖0 |𝑟⃗|
𝑞1 𝜌𝑉 1
𝑊=∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑣
𝑉 4𝜋𝜖0 |𝑟
⃗|

Here, 𝑟⃗ is the vector that points from the differential volume element that is taken to be the source
and towards the other charge. 𝜌𝑉 here is the charge per unit volume.

The potential energy depends on the charge 𝑞1 considered. It is better to consider a standardized
version of the potential energy called the electric potential or voltage. This is the electric potential
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per unit positive electric charge placed at a certain point. The symbol of the electric field is 𝑉. The
calculation for 𝑉 is the same as that for 𝑊, except that 𝑞1 = 1.

Gauss’s Law and electric flux density

An interesting observation happens when an electric field is integrated over a closed surface.

Let there be an arbitrary closed surface surrounding a point charge.

If the surface is divided into a large number of small sections, each section may be approximated as
a small portion of a spherical shell.

So, the flux through a section, when it is at a distance 𝑟 from the charge, can be taken to be

1 𝑞𝑟⃗ 2 𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗ = ∙ 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟 = sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
4𝜋𝜖0 |𝑟⃗ |3 4𝜋𝜖0
This is due to the radial nature of the field caused by a point charge.

Now, integrating with respect to 𝜃 and 𝜙, we find

2𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜙=2𝜋
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
∫ ∫ sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙 = ∫ (−1)[cos 𝜃]𝜃=𝜋
𝜃=0 𝑑𝜙 = ∫ (2)𝑑𝜙 = [ (2)𝜙]
0 0 4𝜋𝜖0 0 4𝜋𝜖0 0 4𝜋𝜖0 4𝜋𝜖0 𝜙=0
𝑞
=
𝜖0
This is also true for another charge in the same surface,

So, for the total charge contained by the surface

𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
∮𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗ =
𝑆 𝜖0

But,

𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ∫ 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑉

By using the divergence theorem,

∫𝑉 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣
∮𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗ = ∮ ∇ ∙ 𝐸⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑣 =
𝑆 𝑉 𝜖0

So,
𝜌𝑣
∇ ∙ 𝐸⃗⃗ =
𝜖0
10−9
Now 𝜖0 is the permittivity of free space, which equals 8.854 ∗ 10−12 ( 36𝜋 ).

So far, the equations discussed apply to free space.

When talking about a general medium, 𝜖0 should be replaced with 𝜖 of the medium, also calculated
as 𝜖 = 𝜖𝑟 𝜖0 .

⃗⃗ = 𝜖𝐸⃗⃗.
There is also something called the electric flux density, 𝐷
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Hence,
⃗⃗ = 𝜌𝑣
∇∙𝐷

The electric flux 𝜓 is given by taking the dot product of an electric flux density and the normal vector
of a surface and integrating this dot product over that surface.

⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗
𝜓 = ∫𝐷
𝑆

Boundary conditions
If an 𝐸⃗⃗ or a 𝐷
⃗⃗ exists in two media, certain conditions have to be fulfilled. The electric field or electric
flux density can be broken down into a component parallel to the interface between the two media
and another component perpendicular to the interface between the two media.

For the component of the 𝐸⃗⃗ parallel to the interface, this component must have the same
magnitude and direction in either medium at the interface to allow for the conservative nature (lack
of curl) of the electrostatic force. In other words, 𝐸⃗⃗ 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 1 =
𝐸⃗⃗ 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 2
⃗⃗ perpendicular to the interface, imagine a very small box centered at the
For the component of the 𝐷
interface between two media. If the interface has a certain charge density 𝜌𝑠 at a point, then we get
⃗⃗| 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 1
−|𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 2 = 𝜌𝑠
+ |𝐷|
to satisfy Gauss’s law.

⃗⃗ enters medium 2 from medium 1.

It is assumed that the 𝐷

Current
A current is a flow of charge through space. Its value is the rate of charge flow per unit time. The
𝜕𝑄
quantity current has the symbol 𝐼 and equals .
𝜕𝑡

There is a quantity called the current density 𝐽⃗. This is a vector quantity and the current passing
through a surface is 𝐼 = ∫𝑆 𝐽⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗.

S is the surface (cross section) the current passes through.

The current density is related to the electric field in a uniform medium as follows:

𝐽⃗ = 𝜎𝐸⃗⃗

𝜎 is the electrical conductivity of the medium.

Moreover, there is a quantity called the resistance R; this is defined as the ratio of the voltage across
a region to the current to the current flowing through the region.

𝑉 ∫𝐶 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗
𝑅= =
𝐼 ∫𝑆 𝐽⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗

Now, if a current is assumed to flow out of a closed region, we have

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−𝜕𝜌𝑣
∫𝐽⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗ = ∫ ∇ ∙ 𝐽⃗ 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 𝑑𝑣
𝑆 𝑉 𝑉 𝜕𝑡

So,
−𝜕𝜌𝑣
∇ ∙ 𝐽⃗ =
𝜕𝑡
Therefore, the rate at which the charge density decreases is the divergence of the current density.

If a steady current is applied, then

−𝜕𝜌𝑣
∇ ∙ 𝐽⃗ = =0
𝜕𝑡
Due to the fact that charges enter and leave at the same time.

There is another quantity called the capacitance C: this is the ratio of the charge stored on one
conductor of a pair of separated conductors to the potential difference between them.

A capacitor is a device that is used to store charge. It works by having two conductors close together
but separated. Electrons are forced into one conductor and forced out by repulsion from the other.

The capacitance is calculated as

⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗
∫𝑆 𝐷
𝐶=
∫ 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗
𝐶

An important thing to note is that in a perfect conductor, there is no electric field present inside the
conductor.

References
[1]M. Sadiku, Elements of electromagnetics, 6th ed. New York, NY: Oxford Univ. Press, 2015.