Key Terms

Omnipotent-having total power over the universe

Transcendent-unlimited by the world and ordinary reality; Surpassing others; preeminent or supreme;
Lying beyond the ordinary range of perception

Immanent-within the Universe; present in the world

Pantheism-nature is holy; universe not created but manifestation of sacred nature

Theistic-a religion based on one’s relationship with or to a divine being (father, mother, etc)

Atheism-denies the existence of any god or gods

Agnosticism-states the existence of god(s) cannot be proven

Monotheism-belief in one supreme God

Polytheism-belief in many gods; can be separate manifestations of same reality

Animism-belief that all nature is filled with spirit or spirits

Orthodox- stands by historical form of tradition; strict followers

Cosmogony-sacred creation accounts

Eschatology-beliefs regarding the end of the world

Monistic-one underlying substance beneath multiplicity

Nontheistic-no sense of personal creator god (“the way” etc)

Incarnation-an appearance of the divine in human form

BCE/CE-In the academic study of religion we mark time with the terms BCE (Before Common Era) and
CE (Common Era) and try to avoid BC (Before Christ) and AD (Anno Domini [The Year of Our Lord]).

Other Terms

Anglicanism

The version of Christianity espoused by the Church of England, often understood to comprise a blend of
Catholic and Protestant elements. NB - this concept, and the word itself, is anachronistic before about the
middle of the seventeenth century. Before then (and for long after) the great majority of the members of
the Church of England thought of themselves as Protestants.

Antichrist

the leading enemy of Christ and his teaching, referred to in various biblical passages, and widely
expected to appear on earth before the end of the world. Luther, and many subsequent Protestants,
identified the papacy (rather than an individual pope) as the antichrist.

Arminianism
beliefs associated with the Dutch theologian, Jacobus Arminius (1560-1609), who came to deny
predestination - a kind of Calvinist 'heresy'. Arminian clergy were much promoted by Charles I of England.
(NB Arminians, not Armenians, a people from the Caucasus!)

Augustinian

connected with the teaching of St Augustine (354-430), probably the most important theological authority
for both Catholics and Protestants in this period. Often associated with a 'hard' line over grace [qv],
stressing that people can do little by their own efforts, and everything comes from God.

baptism

sacrament [qv] by which persons are admitted to membership of the visible church on earth, involving
water and a formula invoking the Trinity (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit). Catholics, and most Protestants
insisted on baptism of infants, and condemned Anabaptists who held there was no authority for this in
scripture and practised adult baptism.

catechism

a form of religious instruction set out in a simple question-and answer format.

Catholics/Catholicism

most commonly used to signify Christians recognising spiritual authority of the pope. 'Roman Catholic'
can be used after about 1560. Technically, 'Catholic' means universal, and the creed recited by most
Christians in this period affirms belief in 'the holy catholic church'. Thus, in theological terms, Protestant
thinkers would deny that the Roman Church was the same as the Catholic Church, and would themselves
claim to be Catholics! (Hence, the popularity of derogatory terms such as 'papist').

Elevation

the lifting up of the consecrated host [qv] and chalice during the mass, regarded by many Protestants as
idolatrous.

eucharist

the sacrament [qv] in which bread and wine is blessed or consecrated and then consumed (the
communion).

grace

the supernatural assistance of God to make Christians more holy (sanctified). Much theological debate
has focused on whether the free gift of God's grace is a necessary precondition for all good works, and
the role that human freewill plays in co-operating with grace.
host

the flat wheaten disc used for celebration of the eucharist. Many Protestants preferred to use ordinary
bread.

heresy

obstinate persistence in false belief. Both the Catholic and Protestant churches recognised the concept,
though the Catholics had more developed mechanisms (Inquisition, Index of forbidden books) for
punishing it.

iconography

the systematic description of the visual components of an image; the pattern of images making up the
theme in a depiction. (adj. iconographical).

iconoclasm

the breaking of religious imagery (statues, stained glass, crosses etc) in belief that they represent idolatry
[qv].

idolatry

the worship of false idols, condemned in the bible, especially the Ten Commandments. Protestants had a
much wider concept than Catholics of what constituted idolatry.

justification

the process by which people are restored to God's favour, having lost it through sin. Luther taught the
doctrine of 'justification by faith alone' - ie good works had no role in making Christians pleasing to God.
He also held that justification did not make people good or righteous, but because of the sacrifice of Christ
on the cross God accepted them as if they were.

laity/laypeople

members of the Church who do not belong to the clergy.

liturgy

the various texts of church services (adj. liturgical).

Lord's Supper

term sometimes used by Protestants for the eucharist.

mass, the

Catholic church service in which the eucharist [qv] is celebrated.

mendicants

another name for friars.

millenarianism

the belief that the end of the world is imminent, and will be preceded by the rule of the 'saints' upon earth.
Also called chiliasm.

penance

the sacrament by which Christians express sorrow for sin, and receive God's forgiveness. In Catholic
practice done through confession to a priest (auricular confession) who confers absolution. Penance is
also used to mean the action required to demonstrate true repentance: 'doing penance' by saying
prayers, fasting etc.

predestination

belief that from the beginning of time, God has chosen some for eternal life in heaven, others for eternal
damnation in hell. Virtually all Christian theologians accepted predestination in some form or other, but
the doctrine is particularly associated with Calvin and his followers, who believed that men and women
played no co-operating role in their salvation - ie heaven could not be 'won' or 'lost' by any actions in this
life.

Protestantism

generic term for the churches (excluding the eastern orthodox) who rejected the authority of the papacy.

purgatory

a place or state of being after this life, where souls destined for heaven would have their sins purged
away - in Catholic popular teaching images of fire and torment predominated. Protestants rejected
purgatory as unscriptural.

real presence

the belief that Christ is present in the bread and wine of the eucharist in more than a merely figurative or
symbolic way. (Lutherans and Zwinglians disagreed over this).

Reformed, the
Protestant churches of Switzerland and southern Germany who drew their inspiration from the Swiss
reformers rather than from Luther.

regular clergy

priests living under a rule (lat. regula) and in a community: monks and friars. (NB monks were supposed
to live a contemplative life, withdrawn from the world, while friars took a more active role in preaching and
hearing confessions and were supposed to live by begging. The distinction was sometimes blurred in
practice.)

religious, the

often used to mean members of religious orders (ie not just modern sense of 'pious')

sacrament

a visible ritual action designed to convey an invisible spiritual grace, usually performed by a priest. The
Catholic Church recognised seven sacraments: baptism [v], confirmation, eucharist [qv], penance [qv],
holy orders, marriage, anointing of the sick (extreme unction); Protestantism usually only two: baptism
and the eucharist (though sometimes penance as well).

schism

split within the church, which may or may not lead to heresy [qv]. (Catholics regarded the eastern
orthodox as schismatics, but not usually as heretics, even though they rejected the authority of the pope).

scripture

the bible. Believed by both Catholics and Protestants to be the ultimate source of religious truth.
Protestantism regarded it as the only source of authority (sola scriptura), and believed God would enable
right-minded readers to interpret it the right way. Catholicism taught that scripture was supplemented by
the tradition of the Church, and that the Church was the authoritative interpreter of scripture. (NB
Protestants and Catholics recognised slightly different texts: Catholicism accepted as authentic books in
the Greek version of the Old Testament not included in the Hebrew bible - the Apocrypha).

Thomist

refers to the teaching of the thirteenth-century systematic theologian Thomas Aquinas, favoured by
Catholics, but not Protestants.

transubstantiation

The Catholic belief that in the eucharist the bread and wine is completely replaced by the real body and
blood of Christ. This depends on a philosophical distinction between the accidents and substance of an
object. While the accidents (shape, colour, taste etc) remain, the substance is transformed. All
Protestants rejected transubstantiation, even those retaining a belief in the real presence.
Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. All three faiths trace their
origins to the patriarch Abraham who rejected the polytheism of ancient Sumer to
embrace a belief in one, invisible, deity. Sometimes referred to as “the desert
religions.”

agnosticism: the philosophical position that the existence or non-existence of

God or a First Cause is unknowable.

Anglican: relating to the Church of England. An ancient name for the English
people was “Angles.” The Church of England traces its beginning to 597, the
year in which Pope Gregory I sent St. Augustine to Canterbury. The Church of
England remained under papal authority until 1534 when Henry VIII declared
himself the Supreme Head of the Church because of conflicts with Pope Clement
VII.

animism: the belief that every material form of reality (plants, animals, stones,
thunderstorms, earthquakes) have an indwelling spirit; often includes belief in the
continued existence of individual disembodied human spirits capable of helping
or harming the living.

asceticism: a mode of life that excludes physical pleasures and self-indulgence.

Many religions regard asceticism (fasting, abstaining from sexual activity,
wearing inadequate clothing) as a means of reaching a higher spiritual state.

atheism: disbelief in any deity or supernatural power.

blasphemy: indignity offered to God, from Greek blasphemia, “a speaking ill,

impious speech, slander.” Religions define blasphemy in terms of their own
beliefs, often designating prophets and holy objects along with God as subjects
not to be profaned. Many countries have anti-blasphemy laws.

Buddhism: the teaching that suffering is inherent to life and that the way to
escape suffering and repeated existence is to limit one’s desires and
expectations. There are various sects with varying beliefs.

Confucianism: a system of teachings characterized by central emphasis on the

practice and cultivation of the cardinal virtues of filial piety, kindness,
righteousness, propriety, intelligence, and faithfulness.
ecclesiastic: relating to a church. Greek ekklesiastikos referred to the ancient
Athenian political assembly. First century Christians writers adopted the word to
mean “assembly of believers,” or “church.”

episcopal: having to do with a bishop. Like “ecclesiastic,” the English word

bishop derives from a Greek word, episkopos, “watcher, overseer. The Greeks
used their word to refer to government officials. First century Christian writers
used bishop or episkopos to refer to church elders. In time bishop came to mean
the chief administrator of a diocese (administrative district governed by a bishop)
with the power to ordain. Episcopal is the adjective for bishop.

evangelical: having to do with the Christian gospel/New Testament writings. The

word is also used to describe a type of Christian belief that emphasizes the
inerrancy of scripture and salvation through personal conversion.

Eucharist: the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper, a rite in which bread and wine
are consecrated and consumed in symbolic union with Christ. The word comes
from a Greek word meaning “grateful.”

ecumenical: worldwide. As applied to religion, the word’s current use to mean

cooperation among religious groups began with a 20th century movement
promoting the idea of an inter-confessional Christian unity. Now an “ecumenical”
group cooperating on some matter of general social benefit might include
representatives from non-Christian religions.

eschatology: the study of matters relating to the ultimate destiny of mankind and
the world.

Gnosticism: the belief that salvation is to be obtained by means of secret

knowledge and that the material world is evil. Gnostic mystery religions
abounded in the Roman Empire. The early Christian church was fragmented into
various sects, many of which taught a Gnostic version of the new religion.

gospel: the story of Christ’s life and teachings as told in the first four books of the
Christian New Testament. The literal meaning of the word is “good news.”

heresy: a religious opinion, or adherence to such an opinion, that is contrary to

an established religious teaching. The word comes from Greek hairesis, “action
of taking, choice, sect.” Originally a heresy was simply a difference of opinion. It
became a religious crime, often punished by death.
Hinduism: a body of social, cultural, and religious beliefs and practices found
chiefly in India. It includes a belief in reincarnation and transmigration of souls.

indulgence: in Roman Catholicism, a remission of punishment, especially

punishment in Purgatory (in Catholic belief, Purgatory is an intermediate place of
purification for souls that departed stained with minor sins not deserving of
eternal punishment in Hell).

Immaculate Conception: the Roman Catholic doctrine that the Virgin Mary was
conceived without Original Sin (the sin of Adam and Eve conveyed to all human
beings). This is not the same thing as the Virgin Birth, “the belief that Jesus was
divinely begotten and miraculously born of a virgin mother.”

jihad: a holy war on behalf of Islam. The Christian equivalent word is crusade, “a
campaign or war sanctioned by the Church against unbelievers or heretics.”
Literal crusades were common in the Middle Ages and were directed against
Christian heretics as well as non-Christians. Now the term is used figuratively to
mean “any remedial activity pursued with zeal and enthusiasm.” The same
meaning is becoming attached to jihad.

lay: not in holy orders. In a monastery there are monks who pray and do
intellectual work, and those who do manual work and attend to secular affairs.
The latter are called lay brothers. The term has spread to non-religious
professions. Someone who lacks professional knowledge of a particular
profession is called a layman. In a church setting one may speak of the clergy
and the laity (non-clerical members of the church).

monotheism: the doctrine or belief that there is only one God.

nihilism: the viewpoint that all traditional beliefs are unfounded and that human
life has no meaning.

orthodox: in agreement with the official doctrine of a given religion. The word is
from Greek orthodoxein, “to have the right opinion.” The noun is orthodoxy.
Departure from orthodoxy is called heterodoxy.

pagan – This is a term difficult to define in even such a superficial treatment as

this. For the early Christians, a pagan was a believer in polytheistic religion. The
word originally meant “country dweller.” The rural population was slower to adopt
Christianity than the city dwellers, probably because their religion was closely
bound to agricultural cycles. Nowadays there are religious groups that identify
themselves as Pagans. Modern paganism is earth-centered and can include
polytheistic beliefs. The word heathen is used pejoratively to mean a person
without religion. Like pagan, heathen also points to the fact that non-city dwellers
tended to reject religious change. Heath comes from a word meaning “field.”
Heathen was originally an adjective meaning “of the heath.”

polytheism: belief in more than one god.

profane: not holy. Anything not related to religion and spirituality is profane. The
word can also be used as a verb meaning “to treat something sacred with
irreverence.”

secular: worldly, not sacred. Similar to profane, secular refers to anything that is
not specifically religious.