Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Materials 2022; 31:52–63

Research Article

Chakkaravarthi Rajarajan*, Paramasivam Sivaraj, Tushar Sonar, Selvaraj Raja, and Nallusamy
Mathiazhagan

Investigation on microstructural features and

tensile shear fracture properties of resistance spot
welded advanced high strength dual phase steel
sheets in lap joint configuration for automotive
frame applications
https://doi.org/10.1515/jmbm-2022-0006
Received Dec 27, 2021; accepted Feb 17, 2022
Abbreviations
Abstract: The main objective of this research paper is to AHSS Advanced High strength Steel
study the microstructural features and mechanical prop- DP steel Dual Phase Steel
erties of resistance spot welded advanced high-strength RSW Resistance Spot Welding
steel of dual phase grade in lap joint configuration which SSW Solid State Welding
is mainly employed in sheet form for fabrication of the au- NZ Nugget Zone
tomotive structure. Resistance spot welding (RSW) being a HAZ Heat Affected Zone
solid-state welding (SSW) process is used to overcome the TSFL Tensile Shear Fracture Load
problems in fusion welding of AHSS-DP steel such as heat SL − TSFL Straight Lap TSFL
affected zone (HAZ) softening, solidification cracking and CL − TSFL Cross Lap TSFL
distortion which significantly deteriorates the mechanical WNZH Weld Nugget Zone Hardness
properties of AHSS-DP800 steel joints. The straight lap (SL- OM Optical Microscopy
TSFL) and cross lap tensile shear fracture load (CL-TSFL) of SEM Scanning Electron Microscopy
spot joints were evaluated. Optical microscopy (OM), scan- TEM Transmission Electron Microscopy
ning electron microscopy (SEM), and transmission electron XRD X-ray diffraction
microscopy (TEM) techniques were used to characterize the FG − HAZ Fine Grain HAZ
weld nugget. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) results are also CG − HAZ Coarse Grain HAZ
presented for phase identification in the weld nugget. The
fracture surface of failed TSFL specimens was analyzed
using SEM. The lap joints made using RSW disclosed su-
perior SL-TSFL, CL-TSFL, and WNZH of 21.7 kN, 17.65 kN,
and 589 HV0.5 The superior joint strength and hardness of
the weld nugget zone are correlated to the evolution of lath
martensite in the nugget zone.
Paramasivam Sivaraj: Centre for Materials Joining and Research
Keywords: Resistance spot welding, advanced high
(CEMAJOR), Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Annamalai
strength steel, tensile shear fracture load, microhardness, University, Annamalai Nagar – 608 002, Tamil Nadu State, India
microstructure Tushar Sonar: Centre for Welding and Additive Manufacturing
(C-WAM), Department of Mechanical Engineering, G. S. Mandal’s
Maharashtra Institute of Technology, Aurangabad-431010, Maha-
rashtra State, India
Selvaraj Raja: Central Library, Alagppa University, Karaikudi – 630
*Corresponding Author: Chakkaravarthi Rajarajan: Department 003, Tamil Nadu State, India
of Mechanical Engineering, Meenakshi Ramaswamy Engineering Nallusamy Mathiazhagan: Department of Mechanical Engineering,
College, Thathanur-621804, Tamil Nadu State, India; Meenakshi Ramaswamy Engineering College, Thathanur-621804,
Email: rajachozhan93@gmail.com Tamil Nadu State, India

Open Access. © 2022 C. Rajarajan et al., published by De Gruyter. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 License
 Advanced high strength dual phase steel sheets for automotive frame applications | 53

grades due to the higher martensite volume fraction of the

1 Introduction base metal in stronger steels. Yuan et al. [23] investigated
the nugget zone characteristics of dissimilar RSW (DP600 –
The invention of new materials in the modern engineer-
DC54D) weld joints. The studies concluded, the nugget zone
ing world proves to have an impact on every engineering
consists of lath martensite and intensive ferrite phases. The
application. These materials help to achieve environment-
tensile shear strength has variable effects with changes in
friendly vehicles from emission reduction, fuel efficiency,
welding current. Kishore et al. [24] studied the weldability
weight reduction, and crashworthiness factors [1]. For these
and failure behavior of bare and galvanized DP600 steel
concerns, Advanced High Strength Steels (AHSS) were de-
joints. The critical nugget diameter was found to be 4.4 mm
veloped with the high strength-to-weight ratio at a moder-
nominal ensuring pull-out failure mode of fracture. With
ate cost [2]. Among this category, Dual-Phase steels and
increased welding current and time, a diameter of nugget
their variants have proved that better formability and
and load-carrying capability increased as well. Aslanlar et
machinability for automotive structures [3]. Dual-phase
al. [25] analyzed the impact of welding time from 5 cycles
800 (DP800) steel consists of 70% ferrite and 30% marten-
to 15 cycles on resistance spot welded micro-alloyed steel.
site phases which offers a high rate of work hardening,
The optimized welding parameters yielded maximum ten-
strength, and elongation. Thereby it proves its feasibility
sile peel and shear strength values. The joint strength has
as high strength lightweight material for automobile struc-
increased with an indentation depth of approximately 15%
tural frames [4]. The weight reduction in an automobile is
of sheet thickness. Hernandez et al. [26] investigated the
required to achieve a lower rate of gas emission, fuel effi-
nanoindentation characteristics of HAZ and parent inter-
ciency [5]. The high heat input in fusion welding leads to
face region in RSW DP steel joints. The results concluded
wider bead and heat affected zone (HAZ), solidification and
the formation of tempered martensite (TM) in HAZ which
HAZ cracking problems and distortion of alloy sheets [6–
led to lower hardness because of broken tempered marten-
12]. In this investigation, resistance spot welding (RSW) is
site morphology towards the parent metal. Wan et al. [27]
employed to overcome the heat input-related problems in
studied the effect of welding current parameters on spot-
fusion welding of AHSS DP800 steel such as HAZ softening,
welded DP600 steel and found the direct effect of welding
solidification cracking, micro fissuring in HAZ, and distor-
current on nugget size and strength of joint. It is confirmed
tion which significantly lowers the joint performance [13].
through numerical model along nugget zones and temper-
It involves resistive heating of joining surfaces under pres-
ature distribution of weld zone.
sure at a temperature less than melting point of parent
The experimental work on RSW of AHSS-DP800 thin
metal. The RSW is widely used for joining sheet metal in
sheets, so far, is limited. There is a lack of systematic inves-
automotive industries for fabricating automobile structural
tigation on evaluating the microstructural features of weld
frames as it is economical, shop-friendly, and can be easily
nugget zone and mechanical properties of AHSS-DP800
automated [14]. The weld nugget size and associated tensile
spot weld joints. This necessitates further research in RSW
shear strength are commonly used to check the quality of
of AHSS-DP800 sheets. So, the main objective of this re-
RSW joints. The microstructure and tensile shear strength of
search paper is to evaluate the microstructural features of
spot weld joints are influenced by RSW parameters such as
nugget zone using advanced characterization techniques
welding current, welding time, and electrode pressure [15–
and assess the mechanical performance for lap joint con-
17].
figuration required in automotive applications.
Manickam et al. [18] investigated the tensile shear frac-
ture properties of friction stir spot welded AA6061 and
copper alloy joints. Rajendran et al. [19] studied the frac-
ture load properties of solution treated and artificially aged 2 Experimental methodology
lap joints of AA2014-T6 alloy developed using friction stir
welding process. Rajendran et al. [20] investigated the ten- For this study, 1.6 mm thick cold-rolled AHSS-DP800 sheets
sile shear fracture properties of riveted and friction stir were chosen as a parent metal. The chemical composition of
welded AA2014-T6 lap joints. Liao et al. [21] studied the mi- AHSS-DP800 sheets is provided in Table 1. The mechanical
crostructure of RSW DP600 steel joints. The results revealed properties of parent metal are provided in Table 2. The spot
needle-like martensite in the fusion zone, which consists of welds were developed employing the semi-automatic elec-
primitive orthorhombic and face-centered cubic Chromium trical Resistance Spot Welding machine. The photograph
carbides (Cr3 C2 and CrC). Zhao et al. [22] observed that of RSW machine employed in this investigation is shown
Heat affected zone (HAZ) softening increases with the steel in Figure 1. A Conical type water-cooled electrode was used
54 | C. Rajarajan et al.

Table 1: Chemical composition (wt.%) of AHSS-DP800 steel

C Si Mn Cr P S Ni Mo Ti Fe
0.146 0.88 1.500 0.025 0.007 0.0036 0.027 0.0018 0.0016 balance

Table 2: Mechanical properties of AHSS-DP800 steel

0.2% offset Yield Strength Ultimate Tensile Strength Elongation in 50 mm gauge length Microhardness
(MPa) (MPa) (%) (HV)
604 832 26 295

Table 3: Working limits of RSW parameters for joining AHSS-DP800 steel

Parameter Notation units Levels

−1.68 −1 0 +1 +1.68
Welding current WC kA 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
Electrode pressure EP MPa 3.5 3.75 4.0 4.25 4.5
Welding time WT s 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

Table 4: Optimized RSW parameters for joining AHSS-DP800 steel

Condition WC EP WT SL-TSFL CL-TSFL NZH

(kA) (MPa) (s) (kN) (kN) (HV0.5 )
Experimental 5.0 4.0 1.50 21.70 17.65 589
Predicted 5.05 3.99 1.53 21.57 17.34 585

Figure 1: Photograph of RSW machine employed in this investigation

with 16 mm shank and 5 mm lid diameter respectively. The
welding trials were performed to determine the working
limits of process parameters.
Table 3 shows the process parameters for finding the
optimal conditions of RSW parameters for joining AHSS-
DP800 lap joints. Response surface methodology (RSM)
is commonly employed for optimizing process parame-
ters [28]. It is a set of mathematical equations used to de-
velop a design matrix for predicting the responses [29]. RSM
is also utilized to fit the empirical relationships to data ob-
tained from the developed design matrix [30]. The RSW
parameters to attain maximum strength and nugget zone
hardness are enumerated in Table 4.
An empirical relationship was derived from the RSW
parameters and validated by analysis of variance (ANOVA)
to predict the SL-TSFL, CL-TSFL, and NZH of AHSS-DP800
 Advanced high strength dual phase steel sheets for automotive frame applications | 55

sheet spot joints as given by equations 1, 2, and 3. The RSW

parameters were designated as I, P, and T.

SL-TSFL(kN) = −913.57 + 9.42(I) + 350.27(P) (1)

− 10.26409(T) − 0.086(I × P)
(︁ )︁
+ 0.80200(I × T) + 3.16(P × T) − 0.101 I2
(︁ )︁ (︁ )︁
− 43.93 P2 − 13.84 T2

CL-TSFL(kN) = −691.74 + 10.43(I) + 214.64(P) (2)

+ 20.98(T) − 0.63(I × P) + 0.11(I × T)
(︁ )︁ (︁ )︁
+ 0.98(P × T) − 0.08 I2 − 23.32 I2
(︁ )︁
− 10 I2

NZH(HV) = −26058.16 + 253.26(I) + 10067.52(P) (3)

+ 229.3(T) + 1.9(I × P) + 11.25(I × T)
(︁ )︁ (︁ )︁
+ 51(P × T) − 2.77 I2 − 1280.9 P2
(︁ )︁ Figure 2: Dimension of TSFL specimens: a) SL-TSFL and b) CL-TSFL
− 328.22 T2

The spot weld joints were made for the straight lap and
cross lap joint configurations as per ASTM – ANSI/SAE/AWS
/D8.9 – 13a standards. The dimensions of straight lap tensile
(SL-TSFL) and cross lap tensile shear fracture load (CL-TSFL)
testing specimens are illustrated in Figure 2. The photo-
graph of typical SL-TSFL and CL-TSFL specimens of RSW
AHSS-DP800 joints is displayed in Figure 3. The shear frac-
ture test performed under the servo motor enabled a univer-
sal testing machine with a maximum capacity of 1000 kN.
For each welding condition, three TSFL specimens were
prepared and the average of three was reported as final
reading. The nugget of spot weld was cross-sectioned and Figure 3: Photograph of typical TSFL specimens of RSW AHSS-
subjected to metallography specimen preparation. A Vick- DP800 joints: a) SL-TSFL; b) CL-TSFL
ers microhardness testing machine was used to measure
microhardness across the weld nugget. The microhardness
optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy
of weld nugget was measured on mirror-polished speci-
(SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The
mens of AHS-DP800 steel RSW joints. The hardness mea-
metallographic specimens for TEM were prepared accord-
surement was recorded from the weld nugget cross-section
ing to the standard procedures. The EDS line analysis of
employing 0.5 kg load and 15 sec dwell time. The RSW lap
weld nugget was performed to study the elemental changes
joint was cut along the longitudinal direction of spot weld
and X-ray diffraction (XRD) results are also presented for
and mirror polished to finer finish.
the phase identification in the weld nugget region. The
The mirror-polished metallographic specimens were
crystallographic nature was revealed from selective area
etched using Villella’s reagent for analyzing the macro and
diffraction patterns through TEM.
microstructural features. It was developed as a mixed so-
lution of 1gram picric acid, 5 ml HCl and 100ml ethanol.
The macrostructure of AHSS-DP800 joints was analyzed
using stereo zoom microscope. The microstructural fea-
tures of weld nugget and HAZ were characterized using
56 | C. Rajarajan et al.

energy of 85 kJ and 77 kJ in SL-TSFL and CL-TSFL specimens.

3 Results and discussion The fractured surface of SL-TSFL and CL-TSFL specimens
was analyzed by SEM as shown in Figure 6. The failure oc-
3.1 Tensile shear fracture load curred in the periphery of the weld nugget due to severe
plastic deformation. The fractured surface showed finer
Figure 4 shows the photograph of fractured SL-TSFL and
dimpled features in SL-TSFL and CL-TSFL specimens. The
CL-TSFL specimens of DP800 steel joints for the optimized
size of dimples has a significant effect on the mechanical
condition of RSW parameters. SL-TSFL specimens showed
and metallurgical properties of the welded joints. The dim-
tearing mode failure initiated in HAZ of joints. The CL-TSFL
ple and microvoid size observed in fractured surfaces of
specimens showed a partially pullout type of failure mode
SL-TSFL specimens is much finer whereas it was observed
in DP800 steel RSW joints. The joints welded using opti-
to be slightly coarser in CL-TSFL specimens. The CL-TSFL
mized RSW parameters showed maximum SL-TSFL and
specimens revealed the presence of cleavage facet regions.
CL-TSFL of 21.70 kN and 17.65 kN with 7% and 9% elonga-
It is mainly attributed to the presence of carbides. The break-
tion respectively. The SL-TSFL of RSW DP800 steel joints is
age of carbides during the tensile shear loading provides
22.94% higher than the CL-TSFL of joints. Thus, the load-
the crack imitation and propagation path resulting in the
carrying capability of RSW DP800 steel joints is superior in
formation of cleavage facet region and river pattern.
straight lap joint configuration than cross lap joint configu-
ration.

Figure 4: Failure of optimized joint of RSW AHSS-DP800: a) SL-TSFL

and b) CL-TSFL specimen

The failure energy for SL-TSFL and CL-TSFL joints was

evaluated from the failure energy absorption equation.
Smax
∫︁
Failure energy absorption (Q) = fdx (4)
Smin
X
∑︁ [︀ ]︀
= F(x) y(x) − y(x − 1)
x=1
Figure 5: Failure energy of RSW AHSS-DP800 joints: a) SL-TSFL and
b) CL-TSFL
Whereas, S – displacement at load, x – number of sampling
experiments, X – maximum fracture load in kN. The shear
fracture load and failure energy corresponding to elonga-
tion of both SL-TSFL and CL-TSFL joints are illustrated in
Figure 5. The joints were observed to get failed by the failure
 Advanced high strength dual phase steel sheets for automotive frame applications | 57

Figure 6: SEM fractograph of TSFL specimens of optimized joint at lower and higher magnification: a) and b) LAP-TSFL; c) and d) CROSS-TSFL
specimen

(FG-HAZ) of welded joints. The NZ showed higher hardness

than HAZ and base metal. The NZ showed higher hardness
of 589 HV0.5 which is much higher than base metal hard-
ness of 295 HV0.5 . The hardness variation was observed in
HAZ of RSW joints due to change in grain size resulting in
the formation of CG-HAZ and FG-HAZ. The CG-HAZ showed
lower hardness than FG-HAZ. It is mainly attributed to the
grain coarsening in CG-HAZ. The higher hardness of 584-
589 HV0.5 in the NZ was associated with the formation of
martensite structure due to the severe cooling rate associ-
ated with the process. The martensite formation in dual-
phase steel is approximately from 40–120∘ Cs−1 [31, 32]. The
Figure 7: Microhardness mapping of weld nugget from the centre severe elastic strain rate during the process assisted the
softening of grains in CG-HAZ and initiated failure of the
spot weld. The hardness plot and its corresponding con-
3.2 Microhardness
tour maps revealed the hardness distribution around joints.
It was evident from the distribution map that CG-HAZ re-
The microhardness of nugget zone (NZ) is directly proposi-
gions showed less hardness when compared with FG-HAZ
tional to SL-TSFL and CL-TSFL. Figure 7 shows the micro-
regions due to the fine grains associated with the latter. Due
hardness mapping of different regions of RSW DP800 steel
to the cooling rate of the process, the martensite formation
joints. The hardness variation was observed in nugget zone
was induced which attributed to the higher hardness in NZ
(NZ), coarse-grained HAZ (CG-HAZ), and fine grained HAZ
compared to HAZ and base metal.
58 | C. Rajarajan et al.
3.3 Microstructural characteristics
Figure 8 displays the optical microstructure of DP 800 steel. and imperfections were analyzed by the macrostructural
It reveals the presence of ferrite along with martensite. The characteristics of the weldments. Figure 10 displays the
average grain size of ferrite phase and martensite phase is optical microstructure of DP800 steel spot weld at lower
7–9 µm and 3–7 µm respectively. The macrostructure of RSW magnification showing different regions of weld. The opti-
Figure 8: Optical microstructure of AHSS-DP800
Figure 9: Macrostructure of AHSS-DP800 RSW joints
Figure 10: Optical microstructure of weld nugget of RSW AHSS- finer grain heat affected regions (CG-HAZ & FG-HAZ). The
DP800 joints showing NZ, CG-HAZ, FG-HAZ and BM regions
spot joint of AHSS-DP800 steel is shown in Figure 9. The
macrostructure showed no weld defects. The weld defects
cal microstructures of NZ, CG-HAZ, FG-HAZ at lower and
higher magnification are shown in Figure 11. The SEM mi-
crostructure of nugget zone at lower and higher magnifica-
tion, CG-HAZ and FG-HAZ are shown in Figure 12. The NZ
microstructure shows dynamic recrystallization of grains
exhibiting a columnar structure. This formation suggests
the formation of martensite and bainite phases in the ferrite
matrix during solidification. The superior TSFL and NZH in
DP800 steel RSW joints are attributed to the evolution of
needle/lath-like martensitic structure in nugget zone.
The CG-HAZ and FG-HAZ exhibit volumes of Tem-
pered martensite (T α′ ) in the deformed region with colum-
nar/needle/lath type martensite (α′ ) in the supercritical
region. These phases induce the softening effect and accel-
erate the failure near the weld nugget. The region near the
HAZ will exhibit high elastic distortion than farther regions.
The average grain size of the martensite was in the range of
5–7 µm with a columnar profile. The grain morphology of
the nugget and weld interface zones were classified based
on grain sizes and orientations with columnar hard face
martensite (α′ ) and tempered martensite structure (T α′ )
in alpha (α) ferrite matrix as discussed. The dissolution of
high carbon content assisted the formation of these phases
in fully deformed region [33]. The region formed due to
heat dissipation next to HAZ regions composed of ferrite
and Tempered martensite (Tα′ ) phases. The weld failure oc-
curred in the subcritical cooling regions due to the presence
of soft tempered martensite (Tα′ ).
Figure 13 displays TEM microstructural features of weld
nugget: a) NZ; b) HAZ; c) SAD pattern of NZ and d) SAD pat-
tern of HAZ. Figure 13a describes the columnar/ needle/ lath
type martensite structure (α′ ) in the supercritical region of α
matrix. Although Figure 13b indicates the sub-critical heat-
affected (HAZ) region of dual-phase steel, which clearly
shows the coarser grain structure. It contains a few vol-
umes of Tempered martensite (T α′ ) in the deformed grain
matrix. This will induce the softening effect nearer the weld
joint, which is also used to correlate the failure pattern of
the weldment. To reveal the crystallography orientations
through the selective area diffraction patterns (SAD). it was
observed from various regions of the spot weld such as
dynamically recrystallization region (DRX), Coarser and
nucleated grains are rapidly formed as a columnar grain
at the inner core section associated with equiaxed grains
 Advanced high strength dual phase steel sheets for automotive frame applications | 59

Figure 11: Optical microstructure of different regions of weld nugget of RSW AHSS-DP800 joints: a) NZ at 200X; b) NZ at 500X; c) CG-HAZ at
200X; d) CG-HAZ at 500X; e) FG-HAZ at 200X and f) FG-HAZ at 500X magnification
60 | C. Rajarajan et al.
Figure 12: SEM micrograph of different regions of weld nugget: a) nugget zone at lower magnification; b) nugget zone at higher magnifica-
tion; c) CG-HAZ; d) FG-HAZ
at the outer core section. The observed diffracted crystal-
lography patterns consisted of [101]α′ and [200]𝛾 phases
in Figure 13c and 13d. While the high cooling rate condi-
tion dissolution of high carbon content in the nugget zone
forms carbide phases. This diffracted pattern revealed that
intermetallic precipitates found were cementite (Fe3 C) and
manganese carbide (Mn3 C). The cementite (η) phase was
an orthorhombic crystal structure with lattice dimensions
about a = 0.526 nm, c = 1.263 nm. Very few researchers
were reported Mn content was induces the formation of
retained austenite interweaves in the martensitic block. It
will also assist the stability of the austenite phase in the
subcritical region which induces the retained austinite and
tempered martensite phase [33]. From the SAD patterns,
the intermetallic precipitates cementite (Fe3 C) and man-
ganese carbide (Mn3 C) were found which was formed due
to the dissolution of high carbon content in the deformed
regions [22]. Thus, cementite and manganese carbide struc-
tures were identified as orthorhombic and body-centered
cubic with a = 0.526 nm, c = 1.263 and a = 0.458 nm, c = 0.963
nm lattice dimensions. The EDS results confirmed the Fe,
Mn, Si, C elements and their percentage of the composition.
The diffraction pattern and SAED patterns confirmed the
presence of cementite and manganese carbide with [101],
[200] and 2.00520 Å, 1.42582 Å from XRD and 101, 1̄01, 200,
2̄00 from TEM results.
3.4 Elemental and phase analysis
Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) analysis was used
to quantify the constitutional elements in the weldment.
Figure 14 shows the EDS line scan analysis of weld nugget.
The major elements in the spot-welded regions were Fe,
Mn, C, and Si along with other traces. The X-ray diffraction
(XRD) tool was used to categories the phase composition of
 Advanced high strength dual phase steel sheets for automotive frame applications | 61

Figure 13: TEM microstructural features of weld nugget: a) NZ; b) HAZ; c) SAD pattern of NZ and d) SAD pattern of HAZ

Figure 14: EDS line scan analysis of weld nugget: a) Line scanning region; b) EDS spectrum
62 | C. Rajarajan et al.

tion defects encountered in resistance spot welding

processes.
2. The RSW DP800 steel joints made using the welding
current of 5.0 kA, electrode pressure of 4.0 MPa, and
welding time of 1.50 s displayed maximum SL-TSFL
of 21.7 kN, CL-TSFL of 17.65 kN, and NZH of 589 HV0.5
respectively.
3. The AHSS-DP800 joints were fractured by failure en-
ergy of 85 kJ and 77 kJ in SL-TSFL and CL-TSFL speci-
mens respectively. The performance of AHSS-DP800
spot joints is superior in straight lap joint configura-
Figure 15: XRD Patterns for AHSS-DP800 joint tion than cross lap joint configuration.
4. The weld failure occurred in CG-HAZ as a result of
the weldments. The XRD was working under the elemen- lower hardness than weld nugget and base metal. It
tal diffraction angle and intensity of the atomic elements. is due to the evolution of soft tempered martensite
The observed diffracted patterns peaks are in the form of (Tα′ ) in CG-HAZ.
two theta angles (2θ) vs. intensity. The XRD peaks were 5. The weld nugget microstructure consisted of a
analyzed through pan analytical Xpert high score software needle/lath-like martensitic structure along with a
to predict diffracted phases, miller indices, and D-spacing ferrite matrix due to the critical cooling rate which
values. Figure 15 shows the XRD patterns of RSW DP800 is mainly responsible for superior strength and hard-
steel joints. It discloses the presence of two peak intensity ness of AHSS-DP800 spot weld joints.
phases at the angle about 45.22∘ and 65.46∘ , and it was
working under the Cu-Ka1 (1.540598 A). These peak intensi- Funding information: The authors state no funding in-
ties were rich in Fe (45.22∘ ), and Mn (65.46∘ ) assisted with volved.
minor elements presence of Carbon and Silicon. The possi-
ble phases found in a Nugget zone were Fe3 C (cementite) Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsi-
and Mn3 C (manganese carbide). The formation of this in- bility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved
termetallic phase is mainly due to the critical cooling rate its submission.
that occurred in the nugget zone. Instead of this cemen-
tite phase, the weld failures occurred mainly due to the Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of inter-
formation of Tempered martensite (Tα′ ) in the interfacial est.
region of the coarser grain heat-affected region. Although
the founded the miler indices and d-spacing values iron
(Fe), manganese (Mn) rich phases about (101) and 2.00520 References
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