TECHNICAL INFORMATION SERVICE ISSN No COE2GRD No 62. 1986 Foundation problems associated with low-rise housing Part 2 by Roger Johnson, CEng, MiStructé 8. Mine and mineral workings The most common types of mining are coal, clay, mineral and ‘metallic ores, chalk and sandstone and limestone workings. ‘Mining tends to be concentrated in localities and therefore local, knowledge is invaluable. Only since 1887 has there been a statutory obligation to record, the position and extent of mine workings. A large percentage of the earlier workings are, therefore, unknown and may pre: sent a hazard to building Methods of mining have evolved over the centuries and may bbe summarised as follows: Drift mines or bell pit workings The earliest forms of mining were either drift mines or bel pt, workings. In these cases access was gained to the seams by tunnels from the surface or by shallow vertical shafts. The minerals were then worked to a very limited extent from this point of access, with only the minimum of temporary support being provided. Once the workings became unstable, work ceased and the area was backfilled with waste or allowed to collapse Pillar and stall The major form of organized mining used for many centuries, ‘was the pillar and stall method. In this system access was gain- ed from the surface by either shafts or adits. Work atthe seam progressed by driving tunnels at right angles to each other, Ground level ‘Area of extraction for coal, minerals, etc. Extent of working depends upon the nature of the strata above Figure 8.1 Bell pit type of mine through the mineral, leaving unworked pillars of varying dimen- ‘ions to support the roof. Large pillars were left beneath chur. ‘ches and public buildings and sometimes beneath the caliery, headworks. Extraction by this method varied between 50% and 75%. On completion of an area, waste may be left in the tunnels or they ‘would remain open. These cavities would then migrate upwards as the root graduaily collapsed into the voids. The size of the void decreased as it progressed towards ground level because soils in a disturbed condition fil a greater volume than that SERES EDTOR PETER HARLOW Englomere, King's Ride, Ascot, Berks, SLS5 88J Tet: Ascot (000) 23065— Ground level Figure 8.2 Pillar and stall workings with access from an adit, Figure 8.3 Plans of pillar and stall workings previously occupied, Depending upon the depth, width and thickness ofthe collapsed working, the void may cause or have caused a depression called a ‘crown-hole'in the ground surface. Long-wail method Modern coal mining is carried out by the long-wall method. The coal is extracted from a long face which is progressing con- tinuously. Collapse of the strata above is also allowed to occur as the face progresses. This results in a subsidence at the sur- face of about 60% of the thickness of the seam. As the sub- sidence wave progresses, the surface stratum is subjected to, tension and compression forces which must be accommodated by the structure and foundation. The magnitude and extent of the movement can be accurately predicted. Figure 8.4 Subsidence caused by long-wall mining Statutory compensation for subsidence due to coal mining may be available but only ifthe correct procedures have been follow ed. Initially the National Coal Board or an equivalent authority for other types of mining must be consulted. It will be necessary to determine: © if workings are present either beneath the site or in the im: mediate locality; ¢ if future workings are proposed: © the foundation type recommended, Where there is a risk of unrecorded workings, itis useful to ‘consult local people and the local authority. British Rail often have useful information on mine workings near railways. ‘An experienced mining engineer should be employed to carry ‘ut a full site investigation. Bore holes, tral pits, site stripp: ing, and other techniques may be required to determine the extent and depth of any workings and the location of shafts, The consulting engineer will then design a suitable foundation solution and may recommend ground treatment to stablise cavities which are considered to represent a risk of collapse, which may in turn migrate to the surface, causing a depres: sion or crown-hole to form. Relocating buildings away from ‘areas of greatest risk should always be considered, revised house position Original location of building| Belipit or old shaft Figure 8.5 ‘Small square buildings are preferable to long blocks or L-shaped buildings. Flexible drain and service connections are advisable. The con. sulting engineer will tailor a foundation solution to conform to the risk represented by the site. Nevertheless, the following are familiar methods of overcoming the potential settlements: Ball pit and pillar and stall mining Its sometimes necessary to grout subterranean cavities to ar rest the collapsing mechanism of the mines.PLAN Figure 8.6 Grouting equipment Grout filing. cavity cavities Figure 8.7 In situations where collapsed or filled workings are present, a relatively stiff foundation or raft capable of spanning any depressions is required. Long wall mining The National Coal Board will often advise upon the foundation solution. Generally a flat raft foundation on a granular bed is Figure 8.8 suspended tloor granular fill Figure 8.9 considered to be the best solution. The granular bed is designed to reduce the friction and therefore the forces in the raft. Consideration should be given to introducing reinforcement over the openings in the superstructure. Mine shafts Mine shafts will require capping and in some instances will need to be grouted or filled with compacted material to avoid col- lapse. The collapse of an undetected mine shaft can lead to the subsequent loss of support to a building or cause extensive repair to a road or services. ‘Some old mineshatts were capped with timber staging and backilled. Decay of the staging can cause dramatic collapses xcorton bocktiled wih selected oft rable ‘ing ‘youtea mt fone! oh cama wo (@) shallow overbufen, shaft lining stable; stable; ryther be (0) deep overburden, shaft lining Ring of coniquous bored ond cast m ace Coneree ples rocketed no rock oo te (©) deep overburden, shaft lining ‘weak or collapsed. Figure 8.10 Treatment of abandoned mine shafts9. The inner city infill site The inner city infill site is usually a site which becomes ave for development following the demolition of a former by It may well be situated adjacent to existing buildings which are ‘occupied and in use. ‘There are a number of inherent problems with developing the inner city infil site: © following demolition of a building most of the rubbl removed from the site. However, the old foundation may still remain and will need careful treatment prior to the construc- tion of the new building. Old foundations not removed can ‘cause a hardspot for new foundations, resulting in locals: ed differential settlement in the new building. Old foundations left causing localised differential settlement. Existing foundation New foundation Figure 9.1 ‘© basement walls supporting the highway or footpath behave 1g walls. Removal of the super-structure reduces, lity ofthe old retaining wall. Furthermore, if demoli- tion material or buttressing walls are removed from inside the basement the retaining wall may become unstable and collapse causing damage to the highway, footpath and services. ‘© demolition and the need to adjust ground levels will often result in a mantle of made ground overiying the site. Demol tion material can contain substances which may have 2 detrimental affect upon substructure masonry and concrete. (Gee Section 6). ‘© adjoining buildings may have been gaining support from the demolished buildings, and even if they were not, the owners. may claim they were and employ the services of professional advisers to support their case. The excavation of new foun- dations adjacent to an adjoining property may need to be taken deeper than those of the neighbouring buildings for, no other reason than to comply with modern building regula- tions and standards of good building practice. ‘© consideration must also be given to ensure that any new foundation does not surcharge the basement walls of an ad- joining building, ‘The use of driven piled foundations and/or vibro-treatment ‘techniques can only be considered in instances where the vibra- tions generated will not cause damage to the existing buildings and services. Reference should be made to Section 7 if the site has been us- ed as a chemical or industrial tip Care should be taken to identify the risk of polluted or con- taminated soils. Professional advisers must be involved at an early stage. The solutions they recommend often take the following form: © 2 thorough survey ofall existing basements and foundations; © 2 footing, pile or pier foundation with ground beams design- ed to bridge existing foundations and walls, etc. The footing, piles or piers must penetrate to the indigenous soils at a depth where the soils are competent to support the impos- ed loads. The ground floor constructoin must be suspend- ed off the new foundation throughout. All existing founda- tions and walls need to be removed to at least 300mm beneath the ground beams and suspended ground floors; | Suspended floor | ‘existing work Lo Figure 9.2 © Alternatively, following the removal of all existing founda- tions and basement walls, etc. good, clean imported fill is laid and compacted in layers to fil the basements and ex- ccavation voids on the site. Significant variations infill depth under the foundation system should be avoided. The foun dation constructed upon the imported fill often a reinforc. ‘ed concrete raft) must be capable of resisting differential settlements; © adjoining buildings require a thorough survey prior to ‘demolition andlor construction work on the site. Any cracks ‘oF deformed sections will require monitoring throughout the ‘demolition and construction of the new development. Under- pinning of the adjoining property foundations may be necessary. Some form of temporary support by buttressing etc. may be required; © existing retaining walls may require temporary support following demolition of the former building or the removal ‘of demolition material from inside the basement. Old retain- ing walls supporting the highway or footpath may need to be replaced with a new retaining wall designed to support the loads from the retained soils and highway loading. Anew retaining wall constructed integrally with the new building can be designed to perform as a foundation system. 10. The effect of frost on soils and foundation concrete Soils Frost affects soils by the formation of ice lenses. For ice lenses to form the following conditions must exist within the soils: © availability of water, ie high water table, leaking drain, etc; © ‘sufficiently permeable soils to allow the water to flow through ‘the soil; © sufficient voids to allow enough water to collect to form ice lenses. The voids must be of sutticiently small aperture to allow suc- tion to develop. Croney and Jacobs? state;(@) clays — not frost susceptible ifthe plasticity index is greater than 15% in well drained soils and 20% in areas of poor drainage; (b)sands, gravels and crushed rock — not frost susceptible if they contain less than 10% of clay and silt; (© chalk — frost susceptible; (@limestones — frost susceptible if they contain small pores (like Cotswold and Bath stone); (@)colliery shales and pulverised fuel ash — can be frost susceptible; (f silty soils — can be frost susceptible. Frost damage has a two-stage effect: © heave as ice lenses form. Ice lenses can vary in thickness between a few millimetres to about thirty millimetres; © settlement as the ice thaws. ‘A reduction of 1°C in temperature can increase the soil struc- ture within certain soils by approximately 12 atmospheres, ie as the temperature falls, so the ground water is sucked into tthe soll. Ice lenses form within the soil causing expansion and possible uplift of foundations, oversites, ground beams, etc. Frost penetration into the top 100mm occurs within a few hours. After about three days of sub-zero temperatures, the frost action penetrates to about 300mm and after ten days to approximately 400mm, Severe frost attack near London in the winter of 1954-55 caused frost attack and subsequent heave of the chalk infill beneath concrete ground floor oversite slabs in partly constructed houses. The concrete ground floors rose ‘25mm and the frost expansion caused displacement of the sur: rounding brickwork. (CP2004 : 1972 : Code of Practice for foundations recommends ‘2 minimum of 500mm depth for foundations and ground beams. Alternatively, the frost susceptible soils may be removed and replaced with ciean sandy gravels or crushed and graded rock. ‘These precautions are generally considered to be adequate for foundations in the United Kingdom. In winter a protective layer of concrete should be laid as soon ‘as possible after the final excavation level is reached. Particular care needs to be taken with ground floor slabs and shallow rafts during construction. Concrete ‘Amaximum and minimum thermometer must be hung outside a site office during the construction of all concrete and masonry during the winter period. The specified strength of concrete with relation to time (ie at seven or twenty-eight days) is related to the temperature dur- ing curing (usually around 60°F). At lower temperatures the ‘concrete will ake longer to achieve the specified strength. For ‘example, concrete maturing at 38°F will take twice as long to develop its specified strength than concrete curing at temperatures of 62°F. Not only does the strength take longer to develop but if the temperature falls to freezing point the water in the fresh concrete will freeze, expand and cause spall: ing and fissures in the concrete. Conerete can be constructed in freezing weather ifthe follow- ing precautions are taken: (@)frozen aggregates are not used; (b)the concrete has a temperature of at least 40°F; (©)the concrete is maintained above 36°F until it has thoroughly hardened; (@)a daily record of maximum and minimum air temperatures is kept; (if during frosty weather the temperature rises above 32°F during the day, it wil often be sufficient to use extra rapid hardening cement or concrete with an air-entraining agent. This introduces small bubbles Imm diameter or less into the concrete which consists of about 5% air. These bubbles, unlike voids left by poorly compacted concrete, are evenly distributed throughout the concrete. Any reduction in strength produced by the voids can be off-set by reducing the fine aggregates and water in the mix. This is possible because the workability of air-entrained concrete is improved; water and aggregates may be heated betore mixing and con- crete should be carefully protected after placing. To ensure a constant temperature when cast of 40°F, the temperature at the mixer should be 60°F or higher. To avoid a flash set the cement should not be put into the mixer until the ag- sregates and heated water have been well mixed and their resulting temperature is not greater than 90°F; (®)all ice and snow and frost must be removed from excava- tions and formwork, etc. prior to pouring. 0 Freshly poured concrete must be protected during cold weather. Methods vary with the type of structure and the degree of exposure, but the following offer some guidance: (@)timber shuttering gives some insulation against heat loss ‘and is more efficient as an insulant than metal forms; (b)floor slabs and all exposed surfaces should be covered with protective materials such as straw blankets to retain the heat in the curing concrete; (©)all external openings in buildings should be closed temporari- ly to protect the concrete from the effect of cold winds, 11. The hard rock site Itis often assumed the most desirable foundation material for building is @ hard bedrock in the form of unweathered limestone, sandstone, chalk, granite, etc. However, there are, with such sites hazards which require attention. ‘Some sandstones, limestones and other sedimentary deposits, together with metamorphic rocks like slates, can be laminated with bedding planes and joints. The folding and former ground movements of the rock stratum can result in bedding planes and joints occurring at an incline or dip. If the lower section of the stratum in a dipping sedimentary deposit has been removed through weathering, erosion or quar- rying, the section above can be in an unrestrained and poten- tially unstable condition. Building upon the upper stratum can cause the unrestrained formation to slide along the joints and bedding planes. This is particularly relevant when developing land on the rim of 2 {quarry or open cast mining excavation. The economic extrac: tion of the stone or coal is not necessarily compatible with en: ‘uring the stability of the quarry face. Clay horizons are often visible within the joints and bedding planes. The strength of a dipping rock is significantly reduced since the clay seams are often drainage planes and wet soft Clay behaves as a slip plane for the rack stratums, Some rocks appear as hard rock and excellent founding | 5Existing ground ‘The A, B, and C strata ‘are potentially unstable since they can slide along the bedding planes {and jpints in the rock formation Bedding planes, and joints sometimes with clay horizons Figure 11.1 ‘material, but are soluble in water, eg chalk and limestone. Sur- face water drainage points can cause local softening and subter- ranean water can, with time, create voids. Development of a site can cause local disturbance and a change in the ground water regime. A relatively thin roof to a cave or ‘cavern can become unstable as the soluble rock formation is ‘eroded from the discharge of a soakaway or leaking drain. Figure 11.2 Section through a limestone plateau to show solu- tion features (WT = watertable) ‘Cheddar Gorge in Somerset, 128 metres deep at one point, is thought to have been a large cave system formerly eroded by subterranean water which has become exposed to the sur- face following the collapse of the root. Foundations (On bedded and jointed rocks it is important to not only iden- tify the material but also to note the dip of joints and bedding planes, noting any variation, since folding rarely results in con- istent dip gradients, I building on a slope or at the top of the slope, ensure the foun- dations are constructed on a restrained or buttressed stratum of rock ‘The dipping stratum must be restrained or buttressed unless it can be determined that the additional load from the founda: tions can be adequately accommodated by the shear resistance of the joints of bedding planes. Alternatively, unstable rock formations may be bolted and an- ‘chored to restrained material. This can be an expensive opera- tion and would only be feasible if the previous solutions were found to be uneconomic or impractical. It the rock is covered with drift deposits, trenching as oppos- ed to trial pits can reveal the general slope or dip formation, GA 4 J Fett ste Figure 11.3 ‘Aerial photographs and old survey drawings are useful for detecting depressions which may suggest collapsed solution features or softened soluble rocks caused by the localized {drainage of surface water. Abundant trial trenching, although ‘not fool-proof, can reduce the risk of encountering the unex: pected depression or hazard during the foundation construc- tion. Local knowledge of caves, caverns and swallow holes are of great value. ‘The design of foundations on chalk or limestone sites must be ‘compatible with the problem. A ground beam can economical- ly span small surface depressions and softened areas. if a raft is proposed itis important to ensure the compressibility of the rock does not vary dramatically or else tilting of the structure ‘can occur as differential settlement develops. Caves and underground voids may be filled sometimes wit ‘mass concrete, However, the cause of the solution void is un- doubtedly a flow of water and mass concrete can cause an ‘obstruction, allowing water to build up and develop new water courses elsewhere. In the case of a slope, the factor of safety ‘against instability can be greatly reduced if ground water is allowed to accumulate within the soil formation. A single size ‘compacted stone, say 40mm, is often used to fill the cavity and. ‘then capped with a reinforced concrete beam. The stone must, ‘of course, be insoluble. The foundations of the building can then bea ratt constructed upon compacted quarry waste or similar‘over the filled void and capping beam. The voids must be of sufficiently small aperture to allow suction to develop. 12. The non-suspended oversite slab In the late 1960's, it became clear to NHBC that settlement ‘of non-suspended oversite slabs and partitions and fittings sup- Ported by the slabs was the most frequent and costly major defect claim in low-rise housing, The non-suspended concrete oversite slab was used as an alternative to the timber floor, ‘supported on load-bearing and sleeper walls and a fully Isuspended pre-cast and in situ reinforced concrete floor. The concrete oversite was sometimes reinforced and constructed ‘upon hardcore. The hardcore was not always thoroughly com- ppacted and this was found to be one of the major causes of damage. Significant settlements of the slab relative to the re- mainder of the structure occurred with fll depths between 0.3, and 1.5m. In some instances, the slab settled due to peats and other com- Pressible soils beneath the fil. The main foundations suppor- ting the walls, root, etc. were founded below the soft soils on relatively incompressible soils. The relative settlement of the slab to the remainder to the building was in some instances considerable. In other cases the infill contained materials liable to decom: pose leaving voids, thereby causing settlement of the concrete oversite. Damage to non-suspended ground floors is not limited to set- tlement. Industrial waste such as slag, fly-ash and burnt col- liery shale may contain sulphates and/or acids. The sulphates, ‘or acids migrate from the fillor the ground water to attack the Portiand cement in the concrete or masonry, The ground floor consequently expands causing outward movement of the ex- ternal walls and upward movement of the oversite slab Severe damage was caused toa large number of houses in the ‘North of England following the expansion of naturally occurr- ing pyritic shales. The expansion was caused by the oxidation of the pyrite and the resulting crystallization of the gypsum. | | Seiiement and screed cracking at doorway Figure 12.1 1990 2¢ head of partition cvseks in parttions lL [LT eround consolidated under load Figure 12.2 {990 beneath kitchen units cracked partiions walls may crack ‘outward movement of foundations and ‘pward movement of sab caused by {expansion of infill material. Figure 12.3 Warmth and moisture migration beneath the floors accelerated the process. The expanding infill caused the lifting of floors and the internal walls, together with the outward movement of the external walls. Movements of up to 100mm were recorded, The spores trom dry rot in demolition timber and tree roots ‘buried in the infill can penetrate concrete floors and masonry and initiate dry rot decay in timbers used in the building superstructures.Costings made in 1973 by builders showed that where infil ex: ‘ceeds 600mm in depth, it would be cheaper to use a reinforc- ‘ed concrete slab suspended from the load-bearing walls. The infill would perform as formwork and would not be required ‘to be good quality hardcore compacted in layers. It was made mandatory by the NHBC to use suspended in situ reinforced ‘concrete, pre-case concrete, or timber floors, without sleeper walls, wherever the infil exceeded 600mm in depth. ‘At the same time it published a set of in situ slab design tables for the assistance of builders!®. The rationalised design in- evitably results in over-design in some cases, but it does offer an alternative to commissioning professional engineers to Prepare structural calculations and working drawings. Full details of the design tables are contained in the NHBC Registered House-Builders Handbok. Suspended floors sup: ported on ground beams are required when using pled or pier ‘and beam foundations. The sloping site, following regrading and terracing, will invariably result in a depth of infil exceeding, ‘600mm. Suspended ground floors are required. Clay, with its potential for swelling and shrinkage with changes in moisture content, can adversely affect a non-suspended over- site slab. It is essential to use suspended floors with a void or ‘compressible material beneath the floor to accommodate clay swelling, Sites treated with vibro-replacement soil improvement techni ‘ques are subject to compaction with a vibrating poker. The top 600mm or so of soil benefit from less vertical and lateral restraint than the soils at depth. The compacting process is less effective in this zone. Unless the soils are then rolled with a vibrating roller or the ‘general levels reduced by at least 600mm itis necessary to use ‘ground floors suspended from the load-bearing walls, {In cases where the depth of infill is less than 600mm itis per- missible, within NHBC requirements, to construct @ non- suspended ground floor. However, there are a series of criteria ‘set out in the Registered House-Builders Handbook which need to be complied with ifthe floor is to periorm satisfactorily. REFERENCES: 1 BARNBROOK, G. (1981). House foundations for the builder and building designer. Cement & Concrete Association 2 3. BRE (1980). Low rise buildings on shrinkable clays. Digest ‘No. 240. Part 1. HMSO. 4 SAMUELS, S.G. & d HENEY, J.E. (1974) Long term heave (of building on clay due to tree removal. Proceedings of a con- ference on settlement of structures. Pentech Press. 5 NATIONAL HOUSEBUILDING COUNCIL (1974) Registered housebuilders handbook. 6 BLYTH, P.G.H. & de FREITAS, MH. (1974), A geology for engineers. Edward Arnold. Sixth edition. 7 BRE. Digest No. 250. HMSO. 8 GUTT, WH. &H. ARRISON, W.H. (1977) Chemical resistance of concrete. BRE Current Paper 23/77. 9 CRONEY & JACOBS. (1967) The frost susceptibility of soils and road materials. Road Research Laboratory. 1ONATIONAL HOUSEBUILDING COUNCIL. op cit BIBLIOGRAPHY ‘The Department of the Environment Interdepartmental Com: mittee on the Redevelopment of Contaminated Land have pro- duced the following papers: 1 ICRCL 17/78 Notes on the redevelopment of landill sites ICRCL 18/79 Notes on the redevelopment of gaswork sites ICRCL 23/79 Notes on the redevelopment of sewage works and farms ICRCL 42/80 Notes on the redevelopment of scrap yards and similar sites ICRCL 19/79 Progress Report on the Interdepartmental Committee on the Redevelopment of Contaminated Land ICRCL 59/83 Guidance on the Assessment and Redevelop. ment of Contaminated Land, Copies of the above Papers and Reports may be obtained from:- Central Directorate on Environmental Pollution, Room 43.24, Department of the Environment, Romney House, 43 Marsham Street, London, SW1 3PY. 2. Problems Arising from the Redevelopment of Gas Works and, Similar Sites — AERE Harwell Report R — 10366 — D.C. Wilson and C. Stevens. A copy may be obtained from:- Environmental and Medical Sciences Division, AERA Harwell, Oxfordshire. 3. Material Durability in Agressive Ground ~ CIRIA Report 98. = DLL. Barry ‘A copy may be obtained from: CIRIA, 6 Storeys’ Gate, London SW1P 3AU. ‘ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ‘Thanks are due to a number of organisations for kindly giving Permission to reproduce the following: ‘Cement & Concrete Association for Figures 2.5, 2.6, 4.3 and 8.4 taken from House Foundations by G. Barnbrook Edward Arnold for Figures 2.1 and 11.2 taken from A Geology for Engineers by F.G.H. Blyth and MH. de Freitas itmans for Figures 6.2, 8.3 and 8.10 taken from Foundation Design and Construction 4th edition by M.J. Tomlinson. National House Building Council for many illustrations taken {rom the Foundations Manual. Preventing Foundation Failures in New Dwellings. Figures 4.1, 4.2 and 6.1 are Crown Copyright. They are ‘reproduced from Building Research Establishment Digests Nos 240 and 250 by permission of the Controller of HM Stationery Ottice.